20th ESEE 2011 20th EUROPEAN SEMINAR of

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20th ESEE 2011 20th EUROPEAN SEMINAR of EXTENSION EDUCATION Private - public partnerships for advisory services in Europe

Proceedings of the 20th ESEE Finland

Coordinated by Leena Savisalo With the collaboration of Staff of Espoo City Library Entresse and Kauklahti and International Scientific and Organizing Committee Artur Cristovao Alex Koutsouris Martin Mulder Fabio Maria Santucci Eelke Wielinga Pauli Juuti JTO School of Management, Kirkkonummi 2011 ISBN 978-951-9411-54-5

20thESEE Proceedings

I

Table of contents 1

What is ESEE? ........................................................................................................... 2

2

20th ESEE European Seminar on Extension Education .................................................... 3

3

Knowledge system driving multifunctionality: a challenge for the Italian agricultural sector Laura Aguglia, Ines Di Paolo, National Institute of Agricultural Economics (INEA), Italy ...... 7

4

Analyzing Socio-Cultural Causes Of Excessive Irrigation In Tribal Societies And Extension Needs: A Case Study Of Harran Plain, Şanliurfa Yasar Aktas, Aysen Olgun, Alper Demirdöğen, Fatma Öcal Kara ...................................... 13

5

Factors Affecting Rural Youths' Attitude Toward Agricultural Activities: The case of Kohgiluye and Boyerahmad Province, Iran Bagher Arayesh, Mohsen Mousaei, Mostafa Karbasioun .................................................. 19

6

A Good Practice Example to Participatory Approach: Case of Cattle Breeding Extension Project in Erzurum-Turkey Tecer ATSAN, Fahri YAVUZ, Adem AKSOY .................................................................... 24

7

New Extension Organizations for Rural Development: Nature, Missions and Challenges Alberto Baptista, Artur Cristóvão ................................................................................. 29

8

Language Volunteering in Information Environment Evgeny A. Barbashin, Tatiana P. Boldyreva ................................................................... 35

9

Facilitated networks and innovation: Relating structure to purpose PJ Beers, Jorieke Potters and Laurens Klerkx ................................................................ 38

10

Role of advisory services in promoting multifunctional agriculture and sustainable rural development in the Republika Srpska, Bosnia and Herzegovina Sinisa BERJAN, Hamid EL BILALI, Aleksandra DESPOTOVIC, Miomir JOVANOVIC ............... 50

11

Worldwide Status of Agricultural Extension and Advisory Services Andrea B. Bohn and Burton E. Swanson ....................................................................... 55

12

Strengthening University Curriculum in Extension Education in Turkey Dilek Bostan Budak, Robert Agunga, Ozlem O. Kacira .................................................... 56

13

Food the New and Not so New Politics of Food. - Policy battles and contradictions. Martin Caraher.......................................................................................................... 57

14

A new guide for evaluating extension from GFRAS Ian Christoplos, Sanne Chipeta and Peta Sandison ........................................................ 58

15

Implementation of the ―Top Fruit‖ project for producing highest quality fruits in South Korean farms Soyoung Choi ................................................................................................. 64

16

Knowledge delivery systems in agricultural education: School-based versus farm-based methods Chrysanthi Charatsari, Afroditi Papadaki-Klavdianou, Ilias G. Eleftherohorinos and Anastasios Michailidis ................................................................................................................ 66

17

Assessment Study on Effectiveness of Vocational Training and Extension Services in Antalya Region, Turkey Kürşat Demiryürek, Ayşegül Akın ................................................................................ 72

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18

Organizational models in the supply of agricultural extension services: the Italian case De Rosa M., G. La Rocca, S. Longordo ......................................................................... 79

19

Fostering Agricultural Innovation System (AIS) of Egypt Emad M. El-Shafie, Zenat H. El-Sharief, Ahmed M. Diab ................................................ 86

20

The Role of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) in Rationalizing Nile Delta Farmers‘ Irrigation Practices Emad M. El-Shafie, Hebat-Allah A. Hassan ................................................................... 91

21

Rural Women‘s Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices (KAP) pertaining to Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (H5N1 HPAI) in Qalubiya Governorate, Nile Delta, Egypt Emad M. El-Shafie, Radwa G. Elsayed......................................................................... 97

22

Participation of producers‘ organizations involved in Peruvians value chains to strengthen innovation systems and service provision. Erwin de Nys, Javier Ramirez-Gaston, Ricardo Wissar .................................................. 103

23

Challenges of Extension Transgenic plants in Sustainable Agriculture Fereshteh Ghiasvand Ghiasy, Ali Asghar Mirakzadeh .................................................... 105

24

Analysis the Barriers of Access to Sustainable Agricultural Development in Sugar Beet Implant in Kermanshah province Fereshteh Ghiasvand Ghiasy, Ali Asghar Mirakzadeh .................................................... 111

25

Extension and development agricultural engineering Vasili Gombosuren .................................................................................................. 118

26

Farmers Assessment of Social and Economic Benefits Derived from Cooperatives, Private Firms and other Agricultural Organizations in the Aegean Region of Turkey. Thomas C. Gunden.................................................................................................. 119

27

A Comparative Study of Agri-Business Ventures' Consultants‘ and Directors‘ capacity in Iran Seyyed Mahmoud Hashemi, Seyed Mahmood Hosseini, Yousef Hedjazi .......................... 120

28

Exploring preconditions for privatization of extension services for greenhouse owners in Tehran province, Iran Seyed Mahmood Hosseini, Ali Biglarifard, Seyyed Mahmoud Hashemi ............................ 126

29

An Analysis of the Time of Premium Payment by the Farmers and their Decision regarding the Kind of Agricultural Insurance by Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) Emine Ikikat Tumer, Bülent Miran, Avni Birinci ........................................................... 132

30

Consulting Management in Ukraine: Formation and Current Trends T. Kalna-Dubinyuk .................................................................................................. 138

31

The Role of Farm Advisory System in Implementation of Cross-compliance Requirements among Polish Farmers Jozef Kania, Barbara Kielbasa ................................................................................... 142

32

Qualitative Assessment of Tourism Difficulties in Targeted Villages of Zayandeh River Margin: Going towards Rural Development in CheharMahal VA Bakhtiary, Iran Mostafa Karbasioun, Mehdi Karamidehkordi................................................................ 149

33

Extension and Education Activities for Rural Youth in Turkey Buket Karaturhan, Tayfun Çukur, Dilek Bostan Budak .................................................. 155

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Missing link ‗extension‘? - Conceiving action for the Innovation Network for Climate Change Adaptation Brandenburg Berlin (INKA BB) Andrea Knierim ....................................................................................................... 156

35

Future Challenges of the Hungarian Agricultural Advisory Services in the Light of Producer Preparedness József Kozári, Erika Székely...................................................................................... 160

36

Village-based private extension system in Azerbaijan Dr. J. Lamers, Dr. P. Feil, N. Bayverdiyeva, Y.Guliyeva, F.Jafarov .................................. 165

37

What is this thing called farmer‘s black box? Viewing agricultural extension/education services through marketing lens Evagelos D. Lioutas, Chrysanthi Charatsari, Irini Tzimitra-Kalogianni and Panagiota Sergaki ............................................................................................................................ 167

38

The use of educational workshops in farm risk management tool development Jarkko Leppälä ........................................................................................................ 173

39

Social dynamics for sustainable food systems: Implications for extension Minna Mikkola ......................................................................................................... 178

40

Challenges of Extension Transgenic plants in Sustainable Agriculture Ali Asghar Mirakzadeh, Fereshteh Ghiasvand Ghiasy .................................................... 183

41

Codify and stratifying of rural women social sustainability indicators base on systematic approach Ali A. Mirakzadeh, Maryam Salemi, Mohammad R.(Fariborz) Hamzeh'ee ........................ 188

42

Rural Women´s Advisory Organisation in Finland - Women are the strength of the countryside Liisa Niilola ............................................................................................................. 196

43

Extension Services in Africa: Experiences from Tanzania. James Phelan ......................................................................................................... 198

44

Agricultural Training and Entrepreneurship: The case of ‗Young Farmers‘ in a Greek Prefecture A. Rigou, A. Koutsouris ............................................................................................ 204

45

Evaluation of the impacts of learning processes of a global extension approach in Benin: different potential impacts for different types of farmers Aurelle de Romemont, Guy Fauré, Catherine Macombe ................................................ 210

46

The Feasibility of Privatized Agricultural Extension Services in Garmsar town of the province of Tehran, Iran: Study of the Views of Farmers Mohammad Sadegh Sabouri, Mostafa Karbasioun ........................................................ 217

47

Innovative behaviour and the plurality of services for cattle breeders in Umbria – Italy Fabio Maria Santucci, Francesco Galioto ..................................................................... 222

48

Do public-private partnerships in agricultural extension help to integrate ethnic smallholder farmers into main value chains? Findings and lessons from Northern Vietnam Iven SCHAD, Andreas NEEF, Volker HOFFMANN .......................................................... 228

49

Agricultural extension of smallholder farmers and the evolving role of public-private partnerships in a transitional innovation system – findings and lessons from Northern Vietnam Iven SCHAD, Andreas NEEF, Volker HOFFMANN .......................................................... 230

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50

Farmers‘ Adoption of Soil Conservation Practices to Promote Farmers‘ Income and Food Security. Case study: Ethiopian Small-scale Farmers‘ Use of Rhizobia Mila Sell, John Sumelius .......................................................................................... 231

51

Lifelong education in the agricultural sector in the Czech Republic Milan Slavik ............................................................................................................ 235

52

Perception and Understanding of Humans in Extension Service Stakhnevych Valentyna ........................................................................................... 236

53

7.Lessons from scaling up the success of networks for innovation Eelke Wielinga ........................................................................................................ 239

54

Maaseutuyritysten ja maaseudun yhdistysten tulevaisuus Ylä-Pirkanmaalla 2015-hanke (The Future of the Rural Enterprises and the Associations in the Rural Area of the Upper Tampere Region 2015 -project) A.Ylä-Nojonen ........................................................................................................ 245

55

Uzundere Participatory Rural Development Project as a Good Practice in Advisory Work in Turkey Ziya Yurttas, Tecer Atsan ......................................................................................... 249

56

Advisory services and public extension for organic agriculture in Turkey Orhan ÖZÇATALBAŞ,İsmet BOZ ................................................................................ 255

57

Privatization of Agricultural Extension and Advisory System in Turkey Orhan ÖZÇATALBAŞ ................................................................................................ 256

58

Appendix ............................................................................................................... 257

59

Appendix 1: JAEE Books received

60

Appendix 2: Guidelines for the 5 page paper for the Proceedings

61

Appendix 3: Agenda of Seminar

62

Appendix 4: List of Participants

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FOREWORD The ESEE seminar this year is once again a specially important meeting. The world is continuously suffering the lack of food. Or is the media more informative according the ICT and mobile phones and Facebook and other facilities to distribute the news. There are floods, fire, storms, earthquakes, and as always wars. They make the food security more and more unstable. The extension education on agriculture and home economics is in key position to recover the disasters back to supply plants and further on feeding the animals and huanpeople. The forests are building material and necessary energy to prepare food and warming houses. The 20thESEE is concentrating to find best potential from public and private partnership in advisory services in Europe and elsewhere. The European extension research has diversified to East and South. The extensionists are back to their home countries after many years studies in European universities. The fruits are to present in many papers introduced. The new programs for the future and innovations for further development are presented. The European Seminar on Extension Education is very important forum to researchers, professors, students and decisionmakers to touch the issue of productive profession. The ICT is allvays good help to continue the development. On part of the pre seminar Study Tour to Estonia I will give cordial thanks to Ms Diana Laur. With the collaboration the Ministry of Agriculture, Estonia has sponsored the one day excursion to Extension of Agriculture in Estonia one day before the seminar starts This marvelous opportunity to organize the 20th ESEE specially in Finland has been a priveledge to collect so many new innovations and ideas for the future. That is to continue the tradition in two years time into the next XXI ESEE. That the present participants of 20th ESEE will decide on Saturday.

Thank you and see you tomorrow Espoo 28th August 2011

Leena Savisalo Coordinator of 20thESEE

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WHAT IS ESEE? The ESEE is a biennial event that is organized in rotation by European countries for training and research in the purpose of communication for agricultural and rural extension. During these passed years we, the Extension Educators have met all around Europe. The issue, "train trainers to train" is the same but the world around has changed. We need food, and the farmers are still providing the material for safety food as well as they are most responsible of security of food. We, the extension educators are finding the innovations for new and less time consuming and easier work for agriculture. The first seminar was organized 40 years ago. This jubileum seminar is hosting prof Pauli Juuti in cooperation with Institute JTO Management School in Nexthotel Aavaranta congress hotel. http://www.jto.fi/, and accomodation

1.1

Further information For more insight into the ESEE, kindly look at the articles of history and meaning of ESEE in proceedings of previous ESEE in Assisi Italy 2009 (ISBN 978-88-6254-035-3) and in addendum of 19ESEE http://www.agraria.unipg.it/ESEE2009PERUGIA/index.html The latest comment from Finland about the ESEE is by the godfather prof emeritus Harri Westermarck. That is published in Proceedings of 16th ESEE 2003 in Eger Hungary in page 45.

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20TH ESEE EUROPEAN SEMINAR ON EXTENSION EDUCATION "Private-public partnerships for advisory services in Europe" The main purpose of this seminar is to share the ideas and practices of the participants on participatory approach to agricultural extension works. The purpose is to present the new innovations which have emerged around Europe and the connecting countries to the farmers. As usual this year participants heard the best practice in extension between public and private extension services around the world starting from Europe.They had the possibility to discuss and argue and to adopt them in other countries. And to meet good friends from earlier years. Organizer: JTO School of Management and International committee of 20thESEE The dates The seminar was held between 30. August and 3. September 2011. The 30th April was the deadline for abstracts. The 20th June was the deadline for submission of the full papers to be published in the proceedings book. Location and Accomodation JTO is a campus for the courses of continuing education. It is located near to Helsinki Capital of Finland JTO is very well known as center for organising the management education for top leaders of management and business as well as education of diversified issues. In the JTO campus area is the hotel Next Hotel Aavaranta www.nexthotels.fi, www.jto.fi Address of the JTO in Aavaranta: Osterbyntie 617, Oitmaki Study Tours During the seminar program there was a study tour to following sites: Gardskulla Manor house: ;

agricultural

museum

and

multifunctional

farming

HSY Helsinki Region Environmental Services Authority: Ammassuo ecological waste management plant; TTS Work Efficiency Institute: Research institute ; Labby: an ecological farm. and the Labby gatering The accompanying persons participate the study tour

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Pro Seminar Study Tour Monday 29th August pro seminar study tour to Estonia has its own organizing committee by Estonian Ministry of Agriculture (contact person Ms Diana Laur [email protected]). 2.1

Introduction During the last decades, the rural scenario in Europe, as well as in other countries, has changed dramatically. Agricultural policies and market forces have guided the farmers and their organizations towards different directions. High tech, input intensive, sophisticated production systems coexist, often in conflict with low external input forms of farming. Agricultural incomes in EU are largely depending of subsidies, but the debate about post 2013 is already on. Farmers are required to change, diversify and to offer new goods and new services. Sometimes these latter are non-marketable. The next ESEE invites European and non-European extension educators, scientists and practitioners to share their experiences and knowledge on the following aspects: Agriculture and its multi-functionality, rural sustainability, Methods and psychology in advisory work. Good practices in advisory work: case studies, success stories and failure stories to tell how we have survived these recent years natural disasters, floods, fire storms, earthquakes for food production and food security.

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Themes for the 20th ESEE Main theme of the seminar was "Private-public partnerships for advisory services in Europe". The themes for the papers invited were 1) Extension beyond agriculture: e.g. multifunctionality, rural sustainability; 2) Science and pedagogy in advisory work, (research, innovation, communication and learning interactions in the science-pedagogy etc); 3) Evaluation of extension education, approaches, methods, use of results; 4) Good practices in advisory work, case studies and field accounts; 5) Private-public partnership in Extension services, theory and best practice; 6) Extension and rural networks, what is working in advisory innovations. Facilitators: Dr Alex Koutsouris, Greece; Prof Fabio Maria Santucci, Italy; Dr Ir Eelke Wielinga, NL; Dr Heini Wink, Finland. These were seen the most accurate development of Extension for next decade.during the summer 2010 when the international organizing committee had an intensive internet meeting. The themes were proposed last days in Perugia.

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All interested were invited to present a paper, video, poster, practical idea, or debate in the 20thESEE to submit an abstract of not more than 750 words 1.5 pages by 31st March. In the abstract Title, the names of the writer, and supervisor of the research article introduced, and contact email address, the name of institution (university etc). The seminar 2011 emphasized these specific themes above but papers on other topics were also welcome. For instance as the seminar will be in forestry Finland and the private forestry is close to Finnish agriculture and farmers, the extension experience, advisory work evaluation about farming and forestry together were welcomed. Suggestions on topics to be covered after this very demanding natural disaster time (floods, fire, drought) to the farming and extension were welcomed. During the seminar, some technical visits to institutions involved in training and teaching extension and some historical places were to be organized. The private demonstrations were cancelled because of lack of presenters interested. The Finnish forestry organisation ―Metsäkeskus‖ www.metsakeskus.fi and local private forest owners organisation www.pkmo.org either had no personel to introduce their advisoty work to the seminar. That is why the seminar participants lost the opportunity to plant trees. The heavy rain was the reason to avoid a walk in the nearby forest to pick the berries and mushrooms. The ladies of the Finnish advisory organisation Martta or Martha‘s www.martat.fi had no person to guide walk. Leena and Erkki Oikarinen told the everyman‘s right to the accompanied persons in a class room instead of walk in the wild forest during the rain. Special Thanks to Ing Aarno Pelkonen at University of Helsinki, Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry to his support in summer 2010 when I was preparing the seminar, inviting the abstracts from around the world, and sending the information about the 20thESEE to all previous ESEE participants and other involved into the Extension. On the 17th September 2010 the Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry at University of Helsinki cancelled the invitation and denied the 20thESEE. The whole machine had started and there were no possibility to cancel the seminar. Professor Pauli Juuti realised their oppotunyíty and invited to host the 20th ESEE in JTO School of Management in the middle of no where in Finnish Nature Kirkkonummi. With sauna bath beside the blue waves of Vittrask lake, white lake and blue sky, green forest, and lawn. Special thanks to the scientific committee for the intensive work during the winter 2010-2011. Prompt replies and comments to the abstracts sent and other discussion. During spring prof Martin Mulder had time to visit JTO for the comments. And the last thanks to the committee for the work during the seminar. The program needed final meeting and conclusion. That was fulfilled with the active committee and active participants of the Seminar. Thank you all !

Yours Leena Savisalo

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International Scientific and Organising Committee Prof Dr Artur Cristovao Universidade de Tras-os-Montes e Alto-Douro, Dep.of Economia, Sociologia e Gestao 5000 Vila Real, Portugal Prof Dr Alexandros Koutsouris Agricultural University of Athens, [email protected] Greece Prof Dr Martin Mulder Wageningen University The Netherlands Mobile: + 31 6 20 677 340 [email protected] The Netherlands Prof Fabio Maria Santucci c/o DSEEA, Sezione di Scienze Economiche ed Estimative Facoltà di Agraria Borgo XX Giugno 74, 06121 Perugia, ITALIA Tel. +39 075 585 6267, Fax +39 075 585 7146 Italy Dr Ir Eelke Wielinga Expert in network dynamics. LINK Consult [email protected] The Netherlands Prof Dr Pauli Juuti JTO johtamistaidon opisto, School of Management internet [email protected] Finland Coordinator of the 20th ESEE M.Sc. Leena Savisalo Nissinmäki 20 FIN-02780 ESPOO [email protected] Finland

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KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM DRIVING MULTIFUNCTIONALITY: A CHALLENGE FOR THE ITALIAN AGRICULTURAL SECTOR Laura Aguglia, Ines Di Paolo, National Institute of Agricultural Economics (INEA), Italy

Keywords: multifunctionality, diversification, knowledge system, extension services 3.1

Introduction

Theme 1

Changes that are involving the Italian agricultural sector in the last period are creating new expectations on the role of the agricultural entrepreneurs. Markets, agro-food industry, civil society are asking to farmers a new competitive approach, to enhance the environmental and social sustainability of the productive process and create a stronger relationship between local resources and actors. Therefore, main actors within the agricultural sector are trying to meet these requirements, focusing on diversification and multifunctional strategies, as, for example, organic and integrated farming, green energy trough biofuels, eco-agri-tourism, farming education, direct sale. In terms of motivation underneath entrepreneurial choices, multifunctionality and diversification represent, first of all, an opportunity to guarantee or increase the income derived from primary production, at the same time satisfying the demand of sustainability coming from consumers and institutions. To apply these strategies new skills and expertise are often required to farmers. Investments in research and innovation, training and extension services become more and more important in supporting farmers in taking into account economic, social, environmental aspects in their management. The aim of this paper is to analyze the role of the Agricultural Knowledge System (AKS) in providing Italian farmers instruments to manage the adjustment process towards a more multifunctional agriculture. First, the analysis will provide a description of the characteristics of the Italian agricultural sector in terms of multifunctionality, through the FADN survey in 2007. Then the work will analyze the resources of the AKS, using both financial and physical indicators, invested in supporting farmers in conciliating the productive function of agriculture with the others, the environmental, social, cultural ones. Finally, after evaluating the potential impact of AKS on the degree of multifunctionality of agriculture, some conclusions will be drawn with policy indications and suggestions to facilitate the transition towards a multifunctional agricultural system. 3.2

Multifunctionality and diversification in the Italian agriculture in 2007 A wide literature exists on diversification, multifunctionality, and pluriactivity in agriculture, and on the differences among the approaches, allowing us to construct a valuable theoretical frame. Among the main authors and aspects, the paradigm of broadening, deepening and regrounding by Van der Ploeg and Roep (2003) helped us in identifying the main trends of the process involving agriculture. A wider concept of agricultural function compared with the conventional one is suggested: deepening refers to enlarging productive activity within the supply chain (organic farming, short chain, quality and regional production); broadening relates to activation of new functions in the rural area in which farms are located (diversification, landscape management, new on-farm activities); regrounding means using some farm internal resources to activities outside the farm (off-farm incomes). Wilson (2007) suggested us that there are various level of multifunctionality, from weaker to stronger, depending on the ―consciousness‖ of the process of enlarging ag-

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ricultural function to other services and on different categories of farms. The OECD (2009) and European Commission (2008) provide some useful more practical instruments to classify diversification activities, respectively based on the type of farm (individual or other types), and on the combination of localization of the activities (onfarm and off-farm) and production factors. The different definitions and approaches create a very rich but conflicting frame, sometimes difficult to be applied to a specific context. With reference to the Italian agricultural sector, some authors describe it as characterized by complex multifunctional systems (Aguglia et al 2009, Henke et al, 2010), referring to the simultaneous activation of more diversification activities within the same farm and to the different motivations underneath diversification choices. In this work we focus on on-farm activities as indicators of multifunctionality in the Italian agricultural sector, referring to the use of production factors for activities inside the farm (so excluding ―regrounding‖), for which data is available in the FADN. At farm level we have information on organic and other sustainable productions, direct sale, agritourism, quality systems and certifications (ISO, Haccp, etc), traditional and typical products, on-farm processing, rentals. The FADN data for 2007 includes a sample of 8,207 farms, statistically representing 749,712 farms. Approximately 95% of the total farms are individual. As first results, 57% of total farms is involved in at least one of the several kind of multifunctional activities. The most representative are on-farm processing (39% on total), direct sale ( 23%) and origin and traditional certification (13%)(Tab. 1). The UAA in average per farm is higher for organic and agritourism activities; the same happens for the number of total work units per farm, but the range is however concentrated between 1,2 and 2,5 units. In terms of value added, the higher value is connected with agritourism, followed by certification and organic. The specialization is represented by permanent crops for all the farms of the sample and the economic size is the one from 8 to 16 esu for most of them. About the characteristics of farmers, they are mainly male, between 40 and 60 years for organic or sustainable production, agritourism and rentals and over 60 years for the other activities. Tab.1 Multifunctionality in Italy in 2007 (average values for UAA, TWU, value added) n° of farms

% of total

UAA

TWU

value added

crop specialization

ESU

farmer's age

organic environmental issues certifications (ISO, Haccp)

9,755 46,447 30,356

1.3 6.2 4.1

27.82 15.07 11.24

1.92 1.48 1.41

57,939 53,376 62,699

permanent permanent permanent

8 to 16 8 to 16 up to 8

40 to 60 40 to 60 over 60

traditional and typical products

97,439

13.0

10.45

1.49

38,320

permanent

16 to 40

over 60

diversification: direct sale agritourism processing rentals

171,336 9,847 289,290 25,203

22.9 1.3 38.6 3.4

11.73 26.69 11.82 15.00

1.26 2.49 1.22 1.33

24,901 79,978 23,875 30,269

permanent permanent permanent permanent

8 to 16 16 to 40 8 to 16 8 to 16

over 60 40 to 60 over 60 40 to 60

Source: INEA processing of FADN 2007 data. In farmers‘ choices, therefore, in terms of number of farms it seems to be a preference towards multifunctional practices allowing them to keep more value added in their hands, as for processing, direct sale and traditional and typical certified products, maybe because these activities require competences and resources that are already inside the farm. Direct sale often is organized using family work in period in which it is unemployed; traditional and typical products certification emphasize the sense of be-

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longing of a farm to its territory and rural culture, and the farmer play the role of the keeper of production process know-how. In terms of economic results the most profitable activities seems to be agritourism and certification systems. 3.3

How the Knowledge System encourages multifunctionality in agriculture The Italian AKS is characterized by three main segments: Higher Education, Research & Development (R&D) and Extension Services. Higher Education is under the State (national) responsibility and it is represented essentially by the University. R&D is under the responsibility of both the State and the Italian Regions. The national research bodies are grouped in three different structures: University, National Research Council (CNR) and Public Research Institutes funded by MIPAAF. The 20 Italian Regions and 2 autonomous Provinces fund agricultural research either directly or indirectly: some Regions have their own research structures (i.e. Piedmont, Emilia Romagna, Abruzzo, Sicily, Sardinia), others have their own research programs implemented through national structures (Universities and other public institutions) situated in their territory. The Extension system falls within the competence of the Regions and two actors play a key role: the private system (advisors of firms producing fertilizers, seeds, chemicals, animal feeds, human food) and the system of public services for farmers, connected with regional agricultural institutions. These two sections are very different one from each other in terms of objectives, methods and evolution and, seldom if ever, work together. In addition, farmers‘ professional associations (i.e. trade unions or agricultural products associations) are supplying services to the farms. They are private bodies, but often cooperate with public institutions or receive public funding. In this work the two components of AKS, R&D and Extension are taken into account. The analysis is developed at regional level because regions are the most significant actor in charge. For R&D, data comes from the Regional Agricultural Research Data Bank, managed by Inea, collecting regional research projects, of which we take the period 1999-2004. For Extension, data is available from a survey developed by Inea and Regions on all the activities from 2001 to 2004. The period we take into account for research is wider compared to the one for extension assuming that research takes time to obtain results and to transfer them; for the same reason the potential impact on the agricultural sector is analyzed some years later, on 2007 data. Not all regions are represented, but the ones for which data on both components, R&D and extension, has been collected.

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Tab. 2 Multifunctionality by regions: farms, investments in R&D and in Extension

multifunctional farms (2007) n. of farms

% on tot agric. farms

R&D (1999-2004) n. of projects

Extension (2001-2004)

euro

% of tot

n. of activities

% of tot

euro

Basilicata

13,129

3.07

8

547,472

14.00

5

1,011,127

60.86

Campania

28,280

6.61

10

870,324

14.95

53

26,664,146

65.02

Friuli V.G.

6,535

1.53

8

1,914,460

34.33

15

16,668,205

3.40

Lombardy

18,044

4.22

21

3,643,967

23.70

275

9,871,277

59.71

Piedmont

22,820

5.34

24

492,940

8.55

28

41,485,588

9.30

Puglia

91,116

21.31

10

2,465,959

18.39

44

28,053,598

51.32

Sicily

34,436

8.05

37

5,786,361

14.21

6

9,642,022

77.61

Tuscany

29,514

6.9

18

3,460,204

26.91

54

29,365,873

77.58

Veneto

20,164

4.72

5

1,351,232

20.72

5

782,900

3.35

Source: INEA (for extension data processing we thank Alessandro Possagno) Besides resuming the weight of multifunctional farms by region, in Table 2 are described the investments in R&D and Extension devoted to enhance the degree of multifunctionality of agriculture. In several regions, both in the North as in the South of Italy, a percentage between 14 and 27 of total research funds in agriculture are dedicated to multifunctionality, along with a relevant percentage, between 60 and 80%, of total extension investments; despite that, in 2007 farms engaged in these activities are still less than 10% of total. Friuli and Veneto, being equal the low share of multifunctional farms, show an high investment in research, but very limited in services. Puglia shows the more sane relationship between research and services and a more advanced step in the process of multifunctionality. Analyzing the subjects within multifunctionality on which research and extension investments focus on, for both of them resources are concentrated on the environmental function (Tab. 3), in which measures for sustainable production processes are mainly included, along with landscape, biodiversity, animal health, traceability and environmental certifications. For extension, another important share of investments refers to territorial resource, dealing with the safeguard of rural habits and communities, the valorization of local heritage and resources. Tab. 3 Investments in R&D and in Extension by typology R&D investment (euro)

n. organic sector

Extension % of total

n.

investment (euro)

% of total

work units

50

5,542,502

5.04

72

5,344,128

0.48

105

205

28,213,030

25.66

207

70,535,129

6.28

881

certifcation

20

3,726,498

3.39

89

23,334,681

2.08

442

traditional and typical products

68

5,871,546

5.34

48

15,165,337

1.35

110

9

402,838

0.37

24

44,332,047

3.95

47

15

1,979,949

1.80

46

4,833,415

0.43

162

environmental issues

territorial resources diversification (agritourism, educational farms, short chain)

Source: INEA, Regional agricultural research databank and Interregional Project.

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Going more in deep with the analysis of these projects and activities, comes out that research resources are mostly devoted to provide to farmers innovative instruments and methods to make the agricultural system more sustainable, for the reason that farmers with their activity play a key role in protecting the natural resources, biodiversity and the landscape, and this is also what institutions and policies are trying to achieve. Extension services, supporting farmers with a more practical approach, are mainly devoted to help farmers to comply with regulations and to apply to public payment scheme. 3.4

Conclusions This work represents an attempt of evaluating the impact of research and extension services in the adjustment process towards a more multifunctional agriculture. The Italian agricultural sector in 2007 seems not to have faced a deep and complete change towards a multifunctional concept of agriculture yet. Despite of more than 50% of farms being involved in some multifunctional aspects, the analysis suggests us that some more work is still to be made. Farmers have carried out more diversification activities (direct sale, agritourism, processing) rather than proper multifunctional activities, showing a preference towards practices that directly contribute to increase their income or to assure a market to their production. A less interest covers activities in which agriculture is linked to wider objectives, as environmental protection, rural communities‘ survival, and more in general connected with public goods. Except for the organic sector, that simultaneously allow an income to farmers and sustainability of productions, the other environmental issues are still considered more as a constraint than as an opportunity. Environmental care activities are probably driven by the law binds and the public payments rules, that is however integration to farm income, rather than by a long term farm strategy. On the opposite, the higher share of research and extension initiatives and investments focus on the environmental issues. Few considerations to help managing the process towards a more multifunctional sector can be proposed: the agricultural sector and the AKS are still perceiving different objectives and trends, emphasizing the distance between private and public interest. There is a wide debate on the role of public goods in agriculture, on how it is possible assessing them from the economic point of view, on who is in charge of them. A stronger effort is needed by public actors to communicate multifunctionality as a strategic instrument to increase income, to reduce management risks, to gain consumers trust, to benefit from the rural context; to answer to a longer development strategy and to produce a positive impact on rural areas as well, the AKS actors should support farmers in the adoption of more than one multifunctional action in the same farm (especially for big farms, with a more competitive and industrial scale production) and plan multifunctional strategies at territorial level (especially for small, marginal, individual farms, more sustainable, but with limited multifunctional possibilities); multifunctionality therefore represents a complex process and an ambitious target, requiring a multidisciplinary approach in the AKS, with specific different expertise and professionals working together (economists, agronomists, technicians, engineers, landscapers); the distance between agricultural sector and AKS trends suggest us to widen the analysis of methods and instruments employed by extension services to verify their coherence with multifunctional objectives.

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REFERENCES Aguglia L., Henke R. e Salvioni C. (2008) (a cura di), Multifunctional agriculture . Entrepreneurial behaviours and strategies in the search for diversification., Studi & Ricerche INEA, Edizioni Scientifiche Italiane, Napoli. European Commission (2008), Other gainful activities: pluriactivity and farm diversification in EU 27, Brussels. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (2009), The role of agriculture and farm household diversification in the rural economy, Paris. VAN DER PLOEG J.D. and ROEP D. (2003), Multifunctionality and rural development: the actual situation in Europe, in Van Huylenbroeck G., Durand G. (eds.), Multifunctional.

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ANALYZING SOCIO-CULTURAL CAUSES OF EXCESSIVE IRRIGATION IN TRIBAL SOCIETIES AND EXTENSION NEEDS: A CASE STUDY OF HARRAN PLAIN, ŞANLIURFA Yasar Aktas, Aysen Olgun, Alper Demirdöğen, Fatma Öcal Kara Prof. Dr. Yasar AKTAS, Kastamonu University Prof. Dr. Aysen OLGUN, Dokuz Eylul University Alper Demirdöğen, Cukurova University Fatma ÖCAL KARA, Harran University

SUMMARY

THEME 3

Besides, natural and technical factors effecting excessive irrigation, training activities of some governmental offices also have some influences on excessive irrigation tendencies of farmers, but they do not have a distinctive role. The main hypothesis of this research is that, in Harran Plain more than natural factors and extension activities and training, socio-cultural system affects irrigation behaviour of farmers. In other words, the main cause of excessive irrigation is socio cultural system. The main aim of this study is to analyze tribal system, to explain the excessive irrigation tendencies of farmers, and to develop and discuss a model which will help further studies. In this survey, 86 farmers, heads and secretaries of 12 irrigation unions, directors and agriculturalists working for 5 chamber of farmers, 26 agricultural chemical dealers, and 34 agricultural extension workers working at government agricultural province and county offices, in total 163 people, have been interviewed. In the survey the ―situation-specific approach‖ has been used as the theoretical basis. Keywords: Excessive irrigation, Tribal socio-cultural characteristics, attitude, Harran Plain 4.1

Introduction Establishing irrigation facilities is a time consuming and expensive investment. Proper usage of available water for irrigation is also very important. However, farmers in Harran Plain have been using this scarce input excessively as if it will never cease, causing salinity and environmental pollution problems. Moreover, irrigation and irrigation water resources are not only a local problem of Harran Plain but also has national and global importance. Harran plain, is in the upper Mesopotamia where many civilisations have risen in ancient times. Currently, Southeast Anatolia Rural Development Project (SAP) is being carried out in this region. Harran Plain covers 250 000 hectares of land of which118 000 hectares is being irrigated since 1995. The Plain is in the south of Sanlıurfa province, located at Turkish-Syrian border. Turkish citizens with Arabic roots form the majority of the population. Cotton is the main crop grown in the plain. Since the formation of Water Users Associations in the Southeast Turkey, why farmers tend to irrigate excessively is frequently asked. Socio-cultural characteristics and tribalism in the region are considered to be the main factor causing this problem. In the previous literature distinctive life stile of the tribal system, the problems and causes of excessive irrigation have not seen studied in the Harran Plain before. The objective of

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this study is to find out relationships between tribal system and irrigation tendencies of farmers and in addition to give some proposals to help further studies. 4.2

Materials and methods At face to face interviews questionnaire forms have been used. The survey is done with 5 different groups being farmers, extension agents, agricultural chemicals dealers, Water Users Associations, and directors of the Provincial Farmers Agricultural Chambers. Three counties in Sanlıurfa Merkez Ilçe, Harran and Akcakale and partner villages of Water Users Associations within these districts were determined. Eight villages having salinity problem have been included in the survey, two villages being in Merkez Ilce, two in Harran and four in Akcakale counties. At least 10 farmers in each village have been interviewed. In this survey, 86 farmers, heads and secretaries of 12 Water Users Associations, directors or agriculturalists working for 5 Farmers Chambers, 26 extension agents working for chemical dealers, and 34 agricultural extension workers working in the Provincial government and county agricultural offices, in total 163 informants, have been interviewed.

4.3

Theoretical research structure As it is known every scientific survey should have a theoretical basis. In this survey, the Situation–Specific Approach (SSA) which is developed by Albrecht (1969, 1989) has been used as the theoretical bases. The SSA has been briefly summarized below. Lewin (1963) have used field–theoretical hypothesis method to find out behaviour and instincts of individuals and to give some proposals. According to Lewin (1963, p 272) behaviour of an individual, is an end result of his interaction with its environment. These two elements form a dynamic system. The effective factor is not determined before the survey; instead, it is determined by analysing the specific status of individuals. Not only the socio-cultural and economic factors in the research area but also perceptions that affect the behaviours of individuals, experience, expectations, and the indigenous knowledge of producers have been considered. Perceptions emerge as a result of individuals own standard of values. Considering the above approach, factors affecting excessive irrigation are not predetermined but analysed through their specific status. Thus, meaningful factors affecting attitudes of individuals living in the survey area have been analysed.

4.4

Research findings 2. In this section ―tribal systems‖ and their general characteristics are defined. Secondly, characteristics such as religion, political structure, education level, communication, social status, and family as a production unit and management and roles in a tribe are reviewed. These in a way will define socio-cultural structure of a society. While some of these are influencing characters, others could be identifying characters. Which are influencing and which are identifying characters are determined according to the existing and pre-collected data. 3. Before the SAP because of dry farming and poor technology usage and low production level, economy in tribal societies was very different than other regions. Due to their specific poor circumstances they were socio-economically introvert and had a closed economy. In 1995 agricultural producers started using public irrigation facilities almost with no charge.

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Tribal leaders who own the majority of lands and thus have a social power benefit most from these irrigation facilities without any labour or financial payment. In Sanlıurfa Province, there are villages that do not belong to any tribe but also many small and large villages are connected to 60 tribes. A tribe is made up of clans and families. Size of a tribe depends on the number of clans it has. A village may have one or more clans or depending on its size or a clan may cover more than one village. Clans and tribes may have different leaders. This can be seen in Arabic tribes living in Harran Plain. In some tribes some families traditionally hold the management. These families are called as ―dynastic families‖ (Republic of Turkey, Prime Ministry, SAP 1993, S. 606; Beşikçi, 1970). The presidency is under their monopoly. The tribe presidency is inherited from father to son. In tribal system every tribe has its own common land. But the group leaders have registered most of the lands as their own property during the land registry process. This has caused big land ownerships. As a consequence, for social and economic reasons, small land owners have to obey tribe leaders. One of the reasons why tribe system still survives is its law concept as a super structure. Every tribe has its own unwritten rules about tolerance and on superiority of law. For example, when a tribal member faces injustice he seeks his rights and equity in tribe leader‘s justice. Both sides obey what ever decision the leader takes. Tribe members are convinced to believe that, under current life style, he has no control on good and evil, and believe in faith. Thus, personal initiative of farmers is limited and minimized. Obligations and sanctions of religious beliefs are very powerful and distinctive. Although every village has one mosque or a mescit some do not have a school. Religious rules are accepted and practiced without any judgement. Religion, as a socio-cultural institution is consciously used by tribe leaders to reinforce tribal relations and to regenerate tribe members‘ faith in tribal system and to leaders. Another very important characteristic of tribe members is having very low education level. This helps the tribal system to run in the way it has been for years. In fact, the tribe leaders do not want the tribe members to have connections with people living in other towns, to learn how to read and write, and to increase their income level because they do not want to lose their control over them. So they try every way to stop them. For example, to ensure their dependency on tribe leaders, they even burn cereal stubble on purpose, not to let them use it as animal feedstuff and earn more money. In tribal system the main communication mean in general is not written material but face to face dialogue. Every member in a tribe knows each other from childhood. This face to face direct communication habit is also closely related with the form of socialisation gained in family and poor literacy level, which limits their written communication. Messages and information from the outside world are transferred to tribal communities after being revised and filtered by tribe leaders and leader families so that they do not get any information to make them wish to have a change in their lives. Tribal leaders always have the control of key positions in management, politics, and trade organisations (agricultural chemical dealers, gas stations etc.) For example, chamber of farmers, agricultural sales credit cooperatives, irrigation unions, local transportation cooperatives, and county or town mayors, head of all political parties are in the hold or under the control of tribal leaders. Tribe leaders do not wish to be a village headman because of two reasons. First of all, they do not want to go under the rule of mayors, governor of provincial districts, gendarme, and managers of similar public offices because being a tribe leader they at least have an equal statue with them. Secondly, being a tribe leader they do not wish to be too close to tribe members and loose their prestige.

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In tribal villages tribe members do not vote in elections. Depending on tribe-clan unity, clan leaders, heads of big families or village headmen vote for all the tribe members or the clan. In tribal villages they only vote for one political party. Tribe leaders reinforce the existing unity and interdependency in tribes by using political organisations and parties as well. Decision making and implementation within a family or a tribe is slow because of tribes‘ special functioning order. Due to agricultural production structure and importance of kinship, large family structure is dominant. The oldest man in the family takes all the decisions and other family members can never protest or disobey. The key and sore point in tribal system is family bonds. Tribal system determines formation, relations, and logic in the family. Family is the basic unit in a tribe and has a distinctive role in saving and reinforcing tribe unity. First step in socialisation is taken in families where values, measures, symbols, and forms are taught and identified. Tribe members get similar personality characteristics, collective attitudes and behaviours that they inherent from their families and accept them as if they are their own and practice them in life. Family members are in reconciliation with each other in a family and riveted together within the tribe as a whole, in socialisation process. As the last step existing values, measures, and symbols are reinforced to produce unity. This is conditioning them in the way they think and behave in agricultural practices, in social life, and in religion. Because of low technology, mainly labour-force is used in agricultural production and it is organised within families and head of the family undebatefully is the only authority. There is no concept as ‖individual‖ within the tribe. The holistic tribe and tribe members are the only concepts. Having the above mentioned structure tribe has an unorganized harsh control and punishment mechanism for the ones who are in harmony and who have conflicts with the tribe rules. No one can think in a different way in a tribe. In this homogeneous structure no one other than tribe leaders, can ever have organized relations with other societies. Tribe leaders direct and control the tribe members as they want. The mechanism of the tribe members controlling each other is also very strong and accepted as a merit. For the ones who act against the tribe rules sanctions are put into action (for example, to leave the village, where they use to live). On the other hand, tribe leaders protect the members against dangers coming from outside world and keep them under security. Under this socialization mechanism members have similar personalities. This holistic concept which is a result of tribal socialisation also causes similar effects on behaviours towards agricultural innovations. In other words collective behaviour of tribe members is a traditional character and condition. This homogeneous and monotonous characteristic of tribes and families stop them from seeking new information and skills. As a result, this causes tribes to close themselves down to innovations. All tribe members are conditioned to act identically as a whole. Tribe leaders do not directly interfere to agricultural production style, but this covered sanctions form a secret force on members to act collectively. 4.5

A model to change the excessive irrigation tendency of the farmers Below, the factors effecting perception and attitude of individuals in excessive irrigation have been explained under the light of above mentioned basic characteristics of tribe members. As a tradition, tribe leaders practice excessive irrigation in cotton production. They repeat irrigation 10 times in one vegetation period. They do not irrigate according to

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water needs of plants or the soil. In other words irrigation is not done according to water needs. Tribe members imitate tribal leaders. They think ―If the tribe leader is irrigating for 10 times in one vegetation period it is because he has a good reason for it. Because farmers do not want to take risks they think they should irrigate more than they do to produce more‖. This attitude causes a race between tribe members. When province and county extension agents explain the problems caused by excessive irrigation they tend to think ―they do not want us to over come our poverty and thus they want us to reduce the irrigation number. They are not our friends but our enemies‖. Due to the above mentioned characteristics the main reason of excessive irrigation appears to be the socio-cultural characteristics caused by the interactions between tribe leaders and tribe members. Description of the problem in this way reveals a simple and easy 2 step solution. As the first step tribal leaders in the region should be convinced about effective irrigation in cotton production by using face to face extension methods. This should be done at least once in every vegetation period. This new irrigation scheme selected according to soil and crop needs should be demonstrated in one of the tribe leaders‘ farm. After tribal leaders are convinced about the irrigation scheme than it should be disseminated to tribal members by using printed, audio, and visual mass media materials. This could be done by using radio and television programmes. In these programmes beside information on effective irrigation, pictures of these extension activities with tribal leaders should also be given. Further demonstrations should be done on effective irrigation. For sure this system has some socio-cultural handicaps. First of all, the socio-cultural structure will be reinforced. Taking information to tribal leaders, extension service will deal less with small farms. The above mentioned proposals could only be effective on rational usage of irrigation water and on environmental protection by changing the irrigation tendencies of the farmers, and it will be an enough measure of success for extension system. Since the current Turkish government has no project for changing the social structure the extension system does not have the power to change it by itself. 4.6

Results The term ―tribe‖ could be defined as a cultural and geographic regional organization style and social group connected with religious, beliefs, ancestors and blood bonds; having specific laws and justice system; having a political view; and is man dominant feudalism left over structure. The characteristic which gives tribes a feudal characteristic is the style of land ownership and its effects on agricultural production being mainly on unpaid labor force. In tribes, they have a simple logic. Everything is black or white. There is no acceptance to a different thought. Having no water and dry farming for decades and the life style and poverty it brings has affected everything and predetermined the structure. It is not wise to wish and possible to overcome this structure which has formed in years passing from one generation to another. In fact, it is easier to understand the attitude of tribe member farmers since no strategy has been developed nor encouraged to change this structure, in a systematic way. The tribe members do not seek new information about irrigation technologies because they believe their indigenous knowledge is enough, but their indigenous knowledge is not enough for new technologies like irrigation. They tend to ask other members of the tribe or observe and imitate what tribe leaders do. Thus, importance should be given to extension activities on irrigation.

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Introduction of irrigation channels has caused an economic and social stratification. While a decrease is observed in economic dependency of medium farm owners who have a lower level in tribal hierarchy, no change has been recorded in their dependency and obligations to higher tribal institutions. REFERENCES Aktaş, Y., Öcal, F., Yılmaz, G., Kubaş, A. 2004. Şanlıurfa‘da Buğday Tarımının Tarımsal Yayım Açısından Çözümlenmesi.Türkiye IV. Tarım Ekonomisi Kongresi, Tokat, S.649653 Aktaş Y.,Hoffmann,V., Yılmaz, G., Öcal Kara, F. 2005a. Beratung zum umweltschonenden Weizenanbau in Südostanatolien. Berichte über Landwirtschaft. Band 83 (2), S. 294-317 Aktaş Y., Işgın,T., Öcal Kara, F., Karaduman, T. 2005b. An Analysis of the Adoption and Diffusion of Cumin growing in Sanliurfa and its Contributions to the Theory and Practice. 17.th European Seminar on Extension Education. İzmir, S. 343-349 Albrecht, H. 1969. Innovationsprozesse in der Landwirtschaft. Verlag der ssipSchriften Saarbrücken, 362s. Albrecht, H., at all. 1989. Agricultural Extension. Volume 1: Basic Concepts and Methods Rural Development Series. GTZ, Eschborn. S. 233-249 Beşikçi, I.1970. Doğu Anadolu‘nun Düzeni. Sosyo-Ekonomik ve Etnik Temeller.E Yayınları, Istanbul, 519s. Lewin, K. 1963. Feldtheorie in den Sozialwissenschaften. Bern und Stuttgart Öcal Kara, F. 2005.Şanlıurfa İli‘nde Kadınların Tarımsal Yayım Hizmetlerinden Yararlanma Durumu ve Buna Etki Eden Etmenler Üzerine Bir Araştırma. HR.Ü. Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Şanlıurfa Republic of Turkey, Prime Ministry, SAP 1993, S. 606; T.C. Başbakanlık GAP BKİ. 1993. GAP Bölgesinde Toplumsal Değişme Eğilimleri Araştırması. Türkiye Z.M.O. C: I ve II, Ankara

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FACTORS AFFECTING RURAL YOUTHS' ATTITUDE TOWARD AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES: THE CASE OF KOHGILUYE AND BOYERAHMAD PROVINCE, IRAN Bagher Arayesh, Mohsen Mousaei, Mostafa Karbasioun BAGHER ARAYESH: Assistant professor, Department of Agriculture, Agricultural extension and education group, Islamic Azad University- Ilam branch, Ilam, Iran, [email protected] MOHSEN MOUSAEI: Assistant professor of agricultural extension, Department of agriculture, Islamic Azad University- Gachsaran branch, Gachsaran, Iran. MOSTAFA KARBASIOUN: Assistant Professor, Agricultural development and economics group, Faculty of agriculture, University of Shahrekord, Shahrekord, Iran.

ABSTRACT

THEME 3

The main objective of this causal-correlation research was to identify factors influencing rural youths' attitude toward agricultural occupation in Kohgiluye and Boyerahmad province of Iran. Rural young people aged between 15-25 years old in Kohgiluye and Boyerahmad province were selected as the target group. The method of data collection was cluster sampling and questionnaire was used as research instrument; then a panel of experts checked the validity of the questionnaire. Corenbach Alpha was calculated and supported the reliability of the questionnaire (α=0/79). In addition to descriptive statistics (such as Mean, median, variance and standard deviation), inferential statistics such as Spearman's coefficient, Mann-Whitney test, Kruskal Wallis test, Multivariate Regression and Factor Analysis technique were used for data analysis. The results of Multivariate Regression, indicated that independent variables which consisted of: type of farming system, familiarity with correspondent organizations, participation in extension and education courses, insurance, age and income, described 51% of variance of dependent variable (Attitude towards agricultural occupation). Results of Factor Analysis also revealed that five following factors: improvement of physical and financial sub-construction, improvement of information and communications sub-construction, improvement of new technologies, extension and economic activities, and lands' status enhancement, describe major (68.8%) variance of dependent variable. Keywords: rural youth, activities, attitude, agriculture, occupation, Iran 5.1

Introduction Today, in many countries, especially in industrial developed part of the world, unemployment is considered as a fundamental and challenging issue. Existence of some governments is very much related to the ways they address unemployment crisis. This problem is subsequently crucial in Iran as a developing country. Statistics show that formal rate of unemployment has been increased from 9.1% in 1375 to 14.2% in 2002. (Ommani, 2006). This rate has unluckily been rising during last few years with all efforts of the government to handle the problem using numerous ways! Today rural youth comprise a large portion of population labour in general and play a very important role in economic and social conditions of rural families. Hence, there is no doubt that paying attention to the needs of rural societies and then their guidance to increase their technical and social abilities and skills is vital (Shahbazi, 1996). Swanson et alt (1991), pointed out several factors for the role of extension and education programs in order to motivate people to stay in agricultural sector, to control rural youth' immigration and to move toward rural sustainable development. Most important factors they noted are: enhancing required competency of the people to be able to find proper jobs, improving creative thinking in villagers, and strengthening civil-

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ians' belonging identity. According to Ommani (2006) suggestion, following tasks should be done to prevent rural youth demoralization and their immigration to cities: exploring rural employment possibilities, emphasizing on various rural youth groups, presenting technical and professional trainings for rural youth. Similarly, Swanson et al. (1991) debate that major objectives of influential plans for rural youth are improving needed competencies for agricultural profession, supporting local leadership, Strengthening civilians' belonging identity, developing youth's attitude concerning employment in rural areas. Accordingly, Sinha (1994) believes that the provision of beneficial non-agricultural activities in rural areas significantly influence rural youth's positive attitudes toward employment in their villages. Ferry (2006) reveals that dependence on family, school and community play critical roles in youth's occupation tendency. Vissaria (1998), adds the facts that non-formal education, extension and social activities are also influential in professional development of rural youth. Considering abovementioned research, this study aims at exploring effective factors which influence rural youth‘s attitude toward agricultural occupation, in Kohgiluye and boyerahmad province of Iran. 5.2

Material and Methods A correlative-descriptive and causal-correlation research method was employed. The population consisted of rural youth in Kohgiluye and boyerahmad province of Iran. A random sample of rural youth (330) was selected. Research questionnaire was developed for data collection and consisted of five parts: personal, social, occupational, and economic characteristics, and finally youth's attitude toward employment in agricultural field. A panel of experts selected from faculty members at Shooshtar University measured content and face validity of the questionnaire. A pilot test was then conducted with 30 rural youth of Kohgiluye & Boyerahmad province. The reliability of the questionnaire was checked using Coronaches alpha. Reliability of the overall instrument was calculated 0.79, which is statistically high enough. A number of 310 questionnaires were answered and returned to researchers out of 330 total questionnaires. Data were analyzed using statistical package for social science (SPSS).

5.3

Results Correlation Studies: To describe relations between independent and dependent variables (rural youth's attitude toward employment in agricultural sector), Spearman's coefficient correlation was used, which is presented in table 1.

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Table1. Spearman's coefficient correlation between independent and dependent variables and significant levels

Independent variable

Dependent variable

r

p

1

Age

Rural youth's attitude

0.025 0.665

2

Education

Rural youth's attitude

-0.276 0.183

3

Agricultural background

Rural youth's attitude

0.017 0.767

4

Arable land

Rural youth's attitude

0.130 0.023

5

Income level

Rural youth's attitude

0.270 0.000

6

Social participation

Rural youth's attitude

0.158 0.005

7

Rate of Acquaintance with

Rural youth's attitude

-0.199 0.000

correspondent organizations

Thereafter, Mann –Whitney test were used and the results indicated that there was not any significant deference between rural youth's attitude of the ones who participated or not participated in extension courses. Multiple Regressions: To describe the role of dependent variable in multivariate regression, the method of Enter, was used. According to findings, type of farming system, extend of familiarity with correspondent organizations, participation in extension and education courses, insurance, age and income level chiefly describe 51 % of the variations of dependent variable (Attitude toward agricultural occupation). Table2. Multivariate regression analysis

Independent Variables

B

SEB

Beta

T

Sig

Income level

.153

. 028

. 294

5.452

.000

Age

.023

. 010

. 128

2.325

.021

Education

-.007

. 020

-.019

-.330

.074

Insurance

.173

. 056

. 161

3.061

.002

Type of Farming System

.070

. 037

. 103

1.923

.055

Harvesting system

.109

. 027

. 227

4.063

.000

Familiarity with Correspondent organizations

-.236

. 061

-.216

-3.851

.000

Participation in Extension and education courses

.106

. 050

-.116

-2.142

.033

Social participation

.028

. 019

. 077

1.450

.148

Interception

2.660

. 292

------

9.119

.000

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Discussion The findings reveal that there is a significant relationship between income level and rural youth's attitude toward agricultural occupation. Other research also supports this finding (Bajema, Miller and Williams, 2002). Furthermore, results show significant correlations between participation of rural youth in extension courses and their attitude toward agricultural occupation. Again a number of studies are in favour of this result (Visaria, 1998), and (Shafiezadeh, 1996), (Sedighi, 2006), and (Eskandari, 1999) verify the findings about the relationship between type of farming system and dependent variable of the study. Finally, Sinha (1994) also supports the significant correlation of harvesting system and the dependent variable of this study.

5.5

Recommendations Considering the findings of this research, following recommendations are offered: Presenting training programs aimed at improvement of social and cultural capabilities of youth and their communication skills. Supportive land allocation policies to help youth received arable lands with reasonable price. Implementation of extension and education courses addressing villegers' situation, difficulties and needs. Supporting economic condition of the rural youth by applying various effective strategies. And finally, addressing influential factors on rural youth' attitudes toward agricultural occupation.

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REFERENCES Bajema, D, Miller HW, Williams D L. (2002). Aspirations of Rural Youths. Journal of Agricultural Education, 43 (3): 61-71. Eskandari, J. (1999). Effective factors motivating employment in agricultural sector in Esfahan province. Agricultural Organization of Isfahan Province. Ferry, NM. (2006). Factors Influencing Career Choices of Adolescents and Young Adults in Rural Pennsylvania. Journal of Extension, 44 (3): 36-40 Ommani A R. (2006). Job creation for rural youth. Dahati magazine, 2 (8): 22-28. Sedighi, H. (2006). Perceptions of Rural Youth of Agricultural Profession: Implication for Extension Programming. Proceeding of the 22nd Annual Conference Association for International Agricultural and Extension Education, Aug, 22-27, 2006, Tehran University, Tehran, Iran. Shafiezadeh, N. (1996). Rural youth, the future hopes of Agricultural sector. Journal of Extension Worker, 2(2): 12-18. Shahbazi. E. (1996). Rural extension and development. Tehran University Press. Third Edition, Tehtan, Iran. Sinha. R. (1994). Landless problem. What is remedy? (Translated by Naser ouktaei), Rural and Development quarterly, 5(2): 24-32. Visaria, P. (1998). Unemployment among youth in India: Level, nature and policy implications. Institute of Economic Growth University of Delhi, P. 59.

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A GOOD PRACTICE EXAMPLE TO PARTICIPATORY APPROACH: CASE OF CATTLE BREEDING EXTENSION PROJECT IN ERZURUMTURKEY Tecer ATSAN, Fahri YAVUZ, Adem AKSOY Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Agriculture, Atatürk University 25240 Erzurum -Turkey [email protected]

ABSTRACT

THEME 4

Cattle growing is major economic activity in Erzurum. It is the leading province in terms of the number of cattle. This activity was profitable 3 decades ago, but it lost its competitiveness since 1980‘s. In order to overcome this problem Cattle Breeding Extension Project in Erzurum Province was started in 2005 and lasted 6 years until 2010. This project was led by Erzurum Governorship coordinated by Ataturk University and facilitated by Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs. Financial contributions for the project had been provided by European Aid Program, private companies related to animal husbandry, UNDP Program. BTC (Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan Pipeline) Program, public institutions and non-governmental organizations. The major goal of the project was to train farmers for good practices of cattle growing activities and expand and increase artificial insemination to breed the animals by providing training and technical aid. In 6 years with regard to this objective, the project organized 173 training programs with 12.500 farmers, published 28.500 farmers‘ handbooks in four versions, 6 technical trips with 120 farmers and 30 technical persons, provided artificial insemination equipment in 18 towns of Erzurum Province, participated in Animalia Fair 4 times with a stand to introduce the project as a good practice example, organized a calf competition in 2006 with the participation of 18 towns, 145.000 artificial insemination was done to local cows in Erzurum Province, was introduces in two international and one national symposium, created a web page www.ebhip.org to communicate with farmers and hold a closing ceremony to announce the accomplishment of the project and to give certificate to the farmers who participated in training programs of the project. This six years project indicated that activating the potential of the sector by all means could be done with a certain afford, good coordination, continuous organization and a small financial means to reach the objectives. The project also showed that the support of the local governmental authority is very important to succeed in this types of the projects. The participation of shareholders is very important in the project by whatever means they have. Finally, project also showed that training activities must be continuous, have correct timing, use proper material and various and proper methods, feedback from animal growers, have dynamic structure, include technical support and be sustainable. Keywords: Cattle Breeding, Participatory Approach, Extension Project, Erzurum

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Introduction Erzurum is among the leading provinces of intense animal production activities. The province harbors 5.0% of total cattle in Turkey, while it accounts for 1.8% of total bovine meat production (Anonymous 2011a). Climate conditions of the region and wide meadow areas make animal production more advantageous over other production fields (Yavuz 2006). The region has an important potential for meadow areas and production of good quality fodder plants; however, it is also one of the regions with common structural problems (Aksoy 2008). The most important structural problems are the high rate of unproductive domestic animal species among the total animal existence in enterprises, low education level of producers, migration of young people to big cities, poor conditions of animal shelters etc. Animal production sector has made no progress and even regressed in Erzurum compared to western provinces of Turkey. Animal production in western provinces has been transformed into more productive animal species and animal production technologies have been rapidly become widespread; however, this transition was not experienced in the animal production sector in Erzurum (Yavuz 2007). Though the animal production culture dates back to early times in Erzurum, producers engaged in animal production have made significant mistakes. Some of these mistakes are the use of straw hay as feeding material, inadequate amount and frequency of water given to animals, and not keeping barns clean and airy. Cattle Breeding Project in Erzurum Province, an intense and widespread education program, was performed to make artificial insemination more common for animal breeding purpose, and to reduce the mistakes in animal production. The aim of this study is to present the results of this project that brought about many innovations in Erzurum, and to make suggestions for similar future activities.

6.2

Cattle breeding project in Erzurum The target group of the project was animal production enterprises in Erzurum. The project was planned for 6 years between 2005 and 2010 to solve the fundamental problems of cattle production in Erzurum (Yavuz, 2009). The target group included public, technical staff, and cattle owners in Erzurum. Participatory approach was adopted as the implementation method. ―Participatory Rural Appraisal‖ started to be implemented in different developing countries at the beginning of 1990s, and it gained a wide application area. This method enables people to avoid bureaucracy and believe in the project and thus become a part of event (Özkaya et al. 2003). Erzurum Governorship, Lecturer Members of Faculty of Agriculture and Veterinary Faculty of Atatürk University, general secretariat of special provincial administration, provincial directorate of agriculture and other agricultural institutions as well as non-governmental organizations participated in the project to procure the success of the efforts. Project has three main components. The leadership of the project was assumed by Erzurum Governorship, and Ataturk University provided coordination and technical assistance. Erzurum Provincial Directorate of Agriculture affiliated to Ministry of Agriculture participated in as the responsible institution. Cooperation was made with many institutions and organizations active in animal production. Group and mass dissemination means and methods were intensely used in the project. The group dissemination means and methods were farmer visits, farmers and technical staff trainings, village meetings, promotion contests, as well as fair and congress; on the other hand, printed, visual and audio broadcasting, circular letters, brochures, posters and internet were intensely used as mass dissemination means and methods in the project.

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The project was financed each year by different sources (Special Provincial Administration, Ataturk University/UNDP East Anatolia Development Program, Fodder Factories, Turkish Is Bank, Veterinary Firms like TAREKS and EGEVET, TEMA Foundation, Erzurum Commercial Exchange, and Grant Program of European Union). 6.3

Project outputs Within the scope of training studies of the project, 173 training workshop for 12.000 farmers, 28.500 farmers handbooks, 6 technical trips, training of 2 technical staff, promotions (hat, key holder etc.) and 8 training programs for students and farmers were realized in 2010. Within the scope of artificial insemination studies of the project, certification courses, sperm and material provision as well as 50.000 artificial insemination calves were obtained. In terms of capacity building, belief in the project from all shareholders, more conscious farmers and higher number and more equipped technical staff and 1000 leader farmer registrations were achieved. In terms of creating a favorable public opinion, 5 publicity meetings, 1 project discussion board and exhibition, calf contests, 5 times opening stand in national animal fair and presentations in national media were performed. Considering the numerical outputs of the project, cultivation area of fodder plants increased from 66.926 ha in 2004 to 82.673 ha in 2010 (Figure 1). Fodder plant cultivation area increased by 23.5% during 6-year period. Figure 1. Cultivation Areas of Fodder Crops in Erzurum by Years (000 ha)

Source: (Anonymous 2011b). Figure 2 demonstrates that there was a parallelism in the numbers of species between 2001- and 2005, but a change was noted to the detriment of domestic species after 2005 and especially in 2007. The rate of culture and crossbred species to domestic species was 60s% in 2005, but it increased up to 247% in 2009. Project had a significant effect in this rapid change.

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Figure 2. Animal Species and Percentages in Erzurum by Years (000 head)

Source: (Anonymous 2011a) An evaluation questionnaire was performed with producers who participated in closing meeting of the project and trainings or joined technical trips during the project and the results are given in Table1. The table indicates that producers adequately benefited from training programs. Especially the producers showed an important improvement in correcting mistakes that they thought to be true and could be corrected through training. 96% of producers stated to keep barns airy, 84% started to give feeds with respect to productivity of cow, 71% learned not to use straw hay as feeding material and 76% started to store roughage materials in better conditions. In addition, 82% of producers started to make vaccinations on regular basis. Table 1. The Effects of the Project on Animal Production Activities of Farmers

Expected Behavioral Change I learned to keep barn airy I started give feeds with respect to cow productivity I started to make vaccinations regularly I started to use water bowl in barn I started to use milking machine I started to make artificial insemination I learner no to use hay as feeding material I started to make silage I started to use certificated seeds I started to store roughage in better conditions I started to benefit more from aids I started to sell raw milk Mean Source: (Original Calculations)

Scoring (%) 0.96 0.84 0.82 0.38 0.34 0.62 0.71 0.32 0.46 0.76 0.45 0.53 0.60

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Conclusions and recommendations Trainings were performed based on the principle of Participatory Approach in the project. In addition to trainings, technical and small scaled investment supports were provided in the project and the principle of addressing both to eyes and wallet of farmers were well used in the project. However, environment and local conditions are also important criteria for the efficiency of training. For this reason, experience that could be obtained in this kind of projects was quite effective on the efficiency of training. Important results of the project are summarized below. Supports given by the Ministry of Agriculture for animal production had important roles in the success of this project. Participation of local administrations increased the efficiency of project. Training studies were performed in the right time using right methods and directly giving required information in a plain and understandable manner. The numeral results prove the success of the project. Important increases were observed in meat and milk productions following the projects, considerable improvements occurred in animal species. Such local projects should obtain the supports of local institutions and corporations. The supports of relevant institutions and corporations should be obtained during planning, preparation, application and evaluation of projects, and projects could even be carried out in cooperation. Training studies necessitate the technical support for pilot or sample application of the innovation or technology used in the project. Only in this way, it could appeal to ears, eyes and also wallets of the farmers. Thus the innovations can gain acceptance. In this project, significant improvements were achieved in making artificial insemination more widespread in Erzurum and more conscious animal production of farmers. These activities even triggered a more modern animal production in Erzurum.

REFERENCES Aksoy, A., 2008, Adaptation of Animal Production in East Anatolia to European Union and Analysis of Competitiveness. Institute of Sciences, Ataturk University, (Doctorate Thesis). Erzurum. Anonymous, 2011a, Turkish Statistical Institute, Web Page, http://www.tuik.gov.tr (Date accessed: 09.06.2011). Anonymous, 2011b, Annual Reports. Erzurum Provincial Directorate of Agriculture, Erzurum. Özkaya, T., Karaturhan, B., Boyacı, M., 2003, Participatory Rural Appraisal Method, Application of Menemen Project. Application and Research Center, Ege University, Publication No: 239, Izmir. Yavuz. F., 2006, Project Coordinator. Cattle Breeding Project in Erzurum Province. 2005–2010, Erzurum. Yavuz, F., 2007, Cattle Breeding Project in Erzurum – Farmers Handbook. Mega Offset, Erzurum. Yavuz, F., 2009, Cattle Breeding Project in Erzurum: Evaluation and Conclusions. 6th Animal Husbandry Science Congress. 24-26 June, Erzurum.

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NEW EXTENSION ORGANIZATIONS FOR RURAL DEVELOPMENT: NATURE, MISSIONS AND CHALLENGES Alberto Baptista, Artur Cristóvão UTAD, Centre for Transdisciplinary Development Studies, Vila Real, Portugal

Keywords: Local Development Associations, Partnerships, Rural Development, Extension 7.1

Introduction

Theme 6

In the past, in Portugal as well as in most (or all) European countries, Extension work was mostly a function of public administration institutions, such as the Ministries of Agriculture and Rural Development, and focused on a variety of information and knowledge activities related to agricultural production. Today, pluralistic Extension and Advisory Services tend to be dominant worldwide (Garforth, 2011; Swanson and Rajalahti, 2010) and Extension tasks are performed by a constellation of organizations, public, commercial and nonprofit ones. The public services, in the case of Portugal, are particularly dedicated to administrative and regulatory functions, and Extension activities were transferred to a variety of (old and new) Associations, Cooperatives and other kinds of organizations, spread throughout the country, some of which belong to national confederations or alliances. Besides, in the early 90‘s, with the new EU promoted LEADER Initiative, new Local Development Associations (LDAs) were created in all rural areas. In the first phase (1991/92), in the case of Portugal, 19 LEADER regions were established, each one being managed by one of such Associations and animated by a Local Action Group (LAG). Presently, there are 53 regions and Associations (LDAs-LAGs), organized in a national Federation, called ―Minha Terra‖ (My Land).These Associations are, in most cases, local alliances or partnerships, involving local institutions from various sectors (agriculture, forestry, SMEs, tourism, education, etc.). The activities of these organizations are quite diverse, being the major aim to ―animate‖ rural territories and diversify the economy, promoting revitalization initiatives in many different domains (quality agrifood products, environment and natural resources, cultural heritage, leisure and tourism, gastronomy, arts and crafts, NICT, etc.). They represent one of the new faces of Rural Extension work in Europe, more decentralized, with a wider focus, based on multidisciplinary teams and participatory methods. In this paper we present the results of a study of 17 Portuguese LDAs-LAGs (out of the existing 53), part of a broader national project to qualify nonprofit (or 3rd sector) organizations in general (Project Q3). The study addressed two major questions: what is the nature, missions, objectives and activities of these organizations? And, what are the major problems and obstacles they face, particularly in respect to its management and sustainability? For this study we gathered information produced under the Project Q3 on each of the LDAs: (a) initial Reports of Organizational Assessment and Development Plans; (b) final Reports of Planning and Organizational Development; (c) qualitative interviews conducted by the evaluation team to Project consultants and directors of a sample of 4 LDAs-LAGs; and (d) final evaluation surveys completed by consultants, technicians and directors of the 17 LDAs-LAGs. This information was further complemented through document analysis. 7.2

Theoretical Background Rural development is a disputed notion, but some authors argue that today it is ―about the construction of new networks, the revalorization and recombination of resources, the coordination and (re)moulding of the social and the material, and the (renewed) use of social, cultural and ecological capital (van der Ploeg et al., 2000:40). A growing

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number of initiatives tend to favor cross-sectoral cooperation, place-base or local development approaches, valuing rural amenities, rural businesses development, colective action, citizen participation and social learning (Cristóvão et al., 2006; OECD, 2006). In 1991, after a major CAP reform, the European Comission launched the LEADER Initiative, as a method or approach with ―the aim of improving the development potential of rural areas by drawing on local initiative and skils, promoting the acquisition of know-how on local integrated development, and dissemination of this know-how to other rural areas‖ (EC, 2006: 6). One of the key features of the approach is the implementation through public-private partnerships, the so called Local Action Groups, often taking the form of Local Development Associations or Development Cooperatives, which have ―the task of identifying and implementing a local development strategy, making decisions about the allocation of its financial resources and managing them‖ (EC, 2006:10). In the last edition of LEADER there were about 900 of such LAG‘s troughout the EU, of which there were 53 in Portugal. The implementation of local development through partnerships is not a new idea. The OECD stresses its importance since the early 80‘s and underlines the role of the EU (OECD, 2001). In essence, partnerships correspond to a new model of coordination betwen organizations, promoting the articulation and cooperation betwen actors of different types of sectors (public, private, voluntary). Esparcia et al. (2000, 22) defined them as ―An alliance of organisations from at least two different societal sectors (eg. local councils, cooperatives, etc.) with a clear organisation structure, with on-going and long-term activities that include more than one project and which show an integrated approach towards the promotion of the development of local rural areas‖. Derkzen et al. (2003, 458) related the emergence of partnerships with the shift from governement to governance and the ―discourse of citizen and community engagement and enhanced public participation‖. The LEADER partnerships have been subject to research, as exemplified by the works of Cavazzani and Moseley (2001) on the practice of rural development partnerships in Europe, studying 24 cases, Esparcia et al. (2000) on the same topic, analyzing 330 local partnerships, Westholm et al. (1999), reviewing theory and practice of rural partnerships across Europe and the USA, or the set of articles published in volume 40, number 2, of Sociologia Ruralis, about rural development and the LEADER Initiative, analyzing the experiences in France, Germany, Italy, Spain, the UK, and other countries. Most of these works analyze the emergence of the partnerships, the objectives, the organization model, the practices and the impacts, as well as the different types of arrangements and its limitations, power and social capital issues, and contributions to capacity building and social inclusion. An important issue concerns the sustainability of the LDAs-LAGs that promote the LEADER approach and projects, as well as other community services and development actions. In order to strengthen their capacity and prospects of continued activity a Project has been promoted in Portugal – Qualifying the 3rd sector or Q3 -, aimed at developing the skills of people and organizations, improving the quality of their services, the effectiveness of management and contributing to competitiveness and sustainability through participatory processes of consulting and action-training, in areas like: organization and management, services‘ value chain, use of NICT, process improvement, quality assurance and management, and models of inter-institutional cooperation and networking (Baptista and Cristóvão, 2011:16). 7.3

Major Study Results The LDAs are private non-profit organizations that emerged, particularly in the years between 1991 and 1997, in response to the LEADER program. The most recent LDA

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analyzed was established in 2005. The creation of many LDAs resulted from the union of a group of people and organizations linked to rural areas. They decided to mobilize efforts to boost and integrate local resources thereby creating wealth and promoting social, cultural and economic development. The LDAs have as members, in general, a wide range of public and private entities based in their territories of action, including local governments, agricultural cooperatives, tourism associations, producers‘ associations, social welfare institutions, business associations, individual persons, among others. In many of these associations local authorities have a key role, occupying, for example, the boards of directors. Each LDA has its own origin and setting, however there are some peculiar cases, like the LDA ―MONTE‖, which resulted from a partnership between four LDAs, specifically created in order to apply to the Leader Program. It is, in practice, a collaboration platform, which poses specific challenges in the field of management and qualification. The primary mission of these Associations is the promotion of rural local development, to improve the living conditions of the population, including the social, cultural and economic circumstances of the concerned territories. With the actions implemented they expect to enhance the capabilities of the territory (human, natural, heritage), to diversify and revitalize the economic activity, to promote job creation and contribute to the strengthening of the cultural identity, at local and regional levels. The area of coverage of each LDA varies, generally, between four and eight municipalities. However, there are some exceptions, such as ―MONTE‖, whose area of intervention is a District, or the association ―PENSAR‖, which focuses its work primarily at the level of a single municipality. To achieve this broad mission they have a wide range of specific objectives, such as: diversification and promotion of the local economic activity, notably by promoting the production systems (agriculture, forestry, agro-industry, handicrafts, etc.) as well as tourism and recreation; use and valorization of endogenous resources; protection of cultural, historical, architectural and environmental heritage; promotion of innovation; organization of events with the purpose of spreading the traditions and products of their region; promotion of education and vocational training according to local needs and resources, targeting in particular the questions of employability and job creation; promotion of employment by supporting SMEs, entrepreneurship and business development; and provision of social services to the elderly and fight against poverty. The response to national and EU programs and fund seeking have led the LDAs to the diversification of missions and objectives over time, and of territories and populations to be involved. So, many Associations began its work with a specific focus on the LEADER Initiative and, over time, have been challenged and felt the need to engage in other areas and programs, diversifying its sources of financing and building up their teams. The number of employees of these LDAs is relatively low, with an average of 16, ranging from 5 to 49 (―SOL DO AVE‖). Up to 10 workers we found seven LDAs, between 10 and 20 we have four, between 21 and 30 also 4, and above 30 employees there is only one association. The number of employees is generally related to the number and diversity of activities. In the case of ―SOL DO AVE‖, for example, the activities are many and diverse, especially in the area of training and adult education. Regarding gender, there is a clear predominance of women (76%), which correspond, in general, to three in four employees. The education level of the employees of these LDAs is generally quite high, representing those who have a college degree, 81%. Of the remainder, only about 11% had schooling at or below the 9th grade. The qualification of human resources is not, of course, a problem or obstacle to the development and proper management of the LDA. Compared with other nonprofits, they are those that have, prominently, the

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greater number of employees with higher education level, often in different areas of social sciences, humanities, natural sciences and engineering. The analysis of the age of employees of LDA shows that they are relatively young. The age group most represented is the one between 31 and 40 years, with 41%, then the group immediately below, between 19 and 30, with 35% of employees. Only 24% have over 41 years, without any employee over the age of 65. These results are consistent with the age of these organizations. The LDA presented a diverse set of problems that are here organized in five major areas: lack or failure in setting a strategy; poor leadership; lack of financial sustainability; gaps in human resources training; organizational weaknesses, poor communication and others. The lack of a clear strategy is identified as a recurrent problem. The fact that public policies, particularly the EU programs, are continually changing, certainly contributes to the generation of uncertainty about funding and a lack of direction. The lack of leadership is, in many cases, a major problem of the LDAs. The fact that the directorates are composed of people who work in other organizations, with limited time (for instance, the case of mayors), often absent, is pointed out, in some Associations, as a major problem. In this context, the technical teams assume, in many cases, the formal representation of the Association, and the technical coordinator assumes, in practice, the leadership. The low participation of the elected boards is also seen as a factor hindering the future sustainability of the LDAs. The lack of financial sustainability of these organizations is a common and recurrent problem. For many Associations this problem corresponded to the major motivation to join Q3. To the unsustainability of the various organizations contribute factors such as the lack of strategy, the high dependency on EU programs and public support, the internal inefficiencies, and the poor (or absence of) provision of community services. In terms of human resources, several weaknesses are referred, leading to the to demotivation of staff members, including the high dispersion of tasks, the assumption of various functions and the mismatch between the tasks performed and the training of people. A critical area concerns the lack of skills for teamwork. The problems related to organizational weaknesses are common to many LDAs, namely: lack of authority of leadership; ill-defined hierarchical model; blurring of the roles of collaborators; ineffective communication channels; and heterogeneity of internal procedures. Another problem identified with much emphasis is related to communication failures, both within the organization, with the community, or with the partners. Internally, informal processes of communication remain, often not adequate to the current requirements. In relation to external communication, the leaders and employees of the LDAs report that their work is often not recognized and valued by the community and/or the institutional actors. Apart from the issues mentioned, others are also pointed out, such as the weak involvement of the partners, the malfunction of the organizational structure and the high bureaucracy of the projects. 7.4

Conclusions The LDAs are private nonprofit associations, created mainly in the early 90‘s to implement the LEADER Initiative in Portugal. The primary mission of these associations is to promote local development in rural areas, based on endogenous resources and participatory processes, to improve the living conditions and retain the population in their territories. These organizations have an average of 16 employees (with a range between 5 and 49), with a high level of education (higher education), relatively young (30-50 years) and predominantly female (76%). Their activities aim at the promotion and management of economic, social and cultural development projects and initiatives, and the qualification of people through training and adult education. Worth not-

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ing is that the LDAs, even if a relatively homogeneous group in terms of mission, goals and values, present quite diverse dimensions, dynamics, external recognition, activities and problems. The diagnosis of the LDA revealed some major weaknesses, especially: lack or failure in setting a strategy; poor leadership; lack of financial sustainability; gaps in human resources; organizational weaknesses, poor communication and others. The actiontraining measures applied in the ADL in the frame of the Q3 aimed, above all, at the increase of sustainability by introducing improvements in the following areas: strategic planning and management; organizational models, with the definition of roles, responsibilities and hierarchical dependencies; organizational planning, improving the performance, efficiency, operation and internal communication; employee performance, through the development of technical skills (project management, NICT, foreign languages), better time management and teamwork; leadership and management of internal conflicts. External communications and social marketing also received significant attention. Theoretically, these Associations represent a renewed use of territorial social capital and are examples of the shift from government to governance in the field of rural local development. In practice, the LDAs are confronted with a large number of diverse problems and challenges that hinder their capacity and threaten their sustainability. These problems and challenges of LDAs require attention and intervention in order to sustain their mission and role, empower them and make them real assets in terms of Rural Extension work.

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REFERENCES Baptista, A. and Cristóvão, A. (2011). Implementação do Q3 nas ADL. Vila Real: UTAD-CETRAD. Cavazzani, A. and Moseley, M. (2001). The Practice of Rural Development Partnerships in Europe. 24 Case Studies in Six European Countries. Viali dei Pini: Rubbettino Editore. Cristóvão, A., V. C. Diéguez and A. Baptista (2006). Dinâmicas Organizacionais e Desenvolvimento Local no Douro-Duero. Vila Real: UTAD. Derkzen, P, Franklin, A. and Bock, B. (2003). Examining Power Struggles as Signifier of Successful Partnership Working: A Case Study of Partnership Dynamics, Journal of Rural Studies, 24, 458-466. EC (2006). The LEADER Approach (Fact Sheet). Luxembourg: Office of Publications. Esparcia, J., Moseley, M. and Noguera, J. (2000). Exploring Rural Development Partnerships in Europe. An Analysis of 330 Local Partnerships Across Eight EU Countries. Valencia: UDERVAL. Garforth, C. (2011). Education, Training and Extension for Food Producers. London: Global Office for Science, Foresight Project on Global Food and Farming Futures (www.bis.gov.uk/Foresight). OECD (2001). Local Partnerships for Better Governance. Paris: Author. OECD (2006). The New Rural Development Paradigm. Policies and Governance. Paris: Author. Swanson, B. E. and Rajalahti, R. (2010). Strenghtening Agricultural Extension and Advisory Systems. Washington DC: The World Bank. van der Ploeg, J. D., Renting, H., Brunori, G., Knickel, K., Mannion, J., Marsden, T., de Roest, K, Sevilla-Guzman, E. and Ventura, F. (2000). Rural Development: From Practice and Policies Towards Theory, Sociologia Ruralis, 40(4), 391-408. Westholm, E., Moseley, M. and Stenlas, N. (1999). Local Partnerships and Rural Development in Europe. A Literature Review of Practice and Theory. Falun: Dalarna Research Institute.

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LANGUAGE VOLUNTEERING IN INFORMATION ENVIRONMENT Evgeny A. Barbashin, Tatiana P. Boldyreva Prof EVGENY A. BARBASHIN: Kursk State Agricultural I. I. Ivanov Academy, Russian Federation [email protected] Prof TATIANA P. BOLDYREVA: Vice-Rector on International Relations and Supervisor of the Center of International Programs and Projects [email protected] Evgeny Barbashin is Doctor of Economy, Head of the Department ―Economy and Law‖ at Kursk State Agricultural I. I. Ivanov Academy. He carries out scientific research in Economy, Law and Polythology. His research focuses upon the problems of AgroIndustrial Complex in Russia, state executive power and democratic changes in the development of information society in Russia. Tatiana Boldyreva is an Assistant Professor, Head of Foreign and Russian Languages Department of Kursk State Agricultural I. I. Ivanov Academy, Vice-Rector of International affairs. She provides supervision over cooperation with leading scientists from different countries and students‘ participation in different world competitions and international conferences. She is interested in new methods of teaching and applies at her lessons new teaching technologies.

ABSTRACT

THEME 1, 4

Digital technologies, information systems made it possible to destroy administrativeterritorial and social barriers, to give equal rights for millions of people. However, one of the obstacle in the world is a language barrier; educational possesses are not efficient enough to substitute a teacher completely, as work with a teacher and native speakers is considered to be the best way to master a foreign language. The authors suggest that America‘s volunteer traditions should be combined with new technologies of communication (e.g.; Skype), that will individualize studies and communication. Keywords: digital technologies, language volunteering, education 8.1

Language Volunteering in Information Environment The contemporary world is facing a very urgent public problem. Every public problem is the problem of communication, of interaction among people, as society means people communicating with each other. The basis of a public problem is the conflict of interests caused by the deficit resources (e.g., the deficit of means, abilities, etc.). Therefore, the solution of any public problem is a change in people‘s interaction, that settles the conflict. A language is a means of communication. A language is a phenomenon that lies between biological and social sphere. On the one hand, a man is born with the ability to speak, on the other hand - the language can be mastered as any other public skill. Deficit resources determine the welfare of people; their sufficiency and availability influence their life.

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Deficit resources may be of two kinds: alienable and inalienable. Alienable resources may be changed, presented, taken away (e.g., money or bread). Inalienable resources are inseparable from a man (e.g., skills or health). Postindustrial information society where information is the criterion of all values has become a reality. The most important productive force in a society is a man, a thinking man, his skills, creative abilities, higher nervous activity. Knowledge and information are the means of work, the subject of work and the result of work. A man gets his main income in information sphere processing – by manipulation of information (e.g., stock exchange, consultation activity, advertising and media business), as well as by its creative processing – forming a new information sphere (i.e., research and innovating business). Higher nervous activity as the basis of intellectual labor is under the influence of two sources: natural biological inborn abilities and social ability (e.g., system of upbringing, education, etc). The authors will not describe in detail either of biological source, what is first and what is second; they will dwell on the social aspect. Not long ago did the world deal with restriction, territorial-social discrimination in access of information and knowledge. Being born and living in scientific-cultural centers, getting education in good schools, universities, working under best economic conditions, man, from the very beginning, got different advantages for a start, competition, territorial-social income, which is not connected with his labor, chance income which is like the winnings in casino – it means that the man was lucky to be born in the best country, in the best social group, in the best economy. The Declaration of Human and Civil Rights, issued in 1798, in France said that …all people are born free, and the Creator gives them equal, inalienable rights, which include life, freedom and aspiration for happiness. The Creator has made all of us equal with equal resources. Nevertheless, as has been mentioned before, man does not get equal conditions for a start. This inequality has existed for many years alongside with administrative-social restrictions (e.g., borders, rights), there also existed natural, territorial restrictions, such as information sources on some particular territories. But even if a talented person overcame obstacles on the way to information, if he got profound knowledge, it was often impossible for him to implement it and get adequate reward. A man formed and implemented intellectual activity as an inseparable part of himself only in places of his biological residence where more profitable markets were unavailable. Digital technologies, information systems made it possible to eliminate administrativeterritorial, social obstacles, to equalize millions of people in their rights, to realize their biological source to a full extent. Digital technologies formed equal conditions for competition. Actually, the world has lost all borders, it has become flat, equal; its information environment and economy are global. Not moving in space man gets access to any information in any place of the earth. Information technologies made it possible to bring man‘s intellectual labor nearer to more favorable markets, to create an opportunity for many people to increase their income.

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Modern technologies have destroyed borders and have made distances short and time unimportant. Therefore, they have made the world open, accessible and infinite. Language has become the only barrier. English-speaking part of the world accumulated great intellectual riches, the most profitable markets communicate in English, and language barrier often becomes an invisible obstacle on the way to success and profit. Screen devices contribute to unprecedented diversification and multiplication of education sources, especially under democratic changes in society. Therefore, new information technologies become rather important, alongside with a teacher. Education in information society should be not only a means of mastering common knowledge, but also a way of information exchange of a man with surrounding people; the exchange, that takes place in every act of human activity during the whole life; the exchange that means not only assimilation, but also transfer, repay, processing of information. It should be noted, that in spite of advances in teaching methods, language education processes are not efficient enough to replace a teacher completely, a teacher can work individually with students. Work with a teacher is the most efficient form of language education. Moreover, we should mention direct communication with native speakers as the best way to master a foreign language. Furthermore, the cost of such resources is expensive and beyond financial means of many people. However, modern communication systems which have appeared recently enable teachers to make lessons and communication individualized. America is rich in volunteer language traditions. Having combined these traditions with modern technologies everybody will get a personal teacher and a global language environment, the environment of language communication will become available for many people. Millions of people will be able to study and master the language efficiently, millions of people will get an opportunity to implement their biological potential, their labor will help people to increase their income and make life richer, more independent and free. The authors suggest a new concept of Internet project: ―Language InternetVolunteering‖. In order to push this project it is necessary to create Internet port where anyone can study, communicate online. Depending on the aim, the level of knowledge, time, and individual capacity people can form groups or pairs in order to communicate with the help of Skype. This kind of communication will enable millions of people to join language environment, will give new possibilities for effective study of foreign languages, a new type of communication, will open new prospects, will give a start for a new better life, will open the doors to overcome the crisis, as the crisis is a problem of communication.

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FACILITATED NETWORKS AND INNOVATION: RELATING STRUCTURE TO PURPOSE PJ Beers, Jorieke Potters and Laurens Klerkx Wageningen University and Research Centre PJ BEERS: Education and Competence Studies Group JORIEKE POTTERS: Arable Farming, Multifunctional Agriculture and Field Production of Vegetables LAURENS KLERKX: Communication and Innovation Studies Group

Keywords: Innovation, networks, knowledge co-creation, knowledge diffusion Recent developments have led to widespread changes in the role of the public sector for agricultural extension (Rivera, 2011). Many extension organisations that used to be publically funded have been privatised. Furthermore, our awareness of the complex relation between agriculture and sustainability (Veldkamp et al., 2009) has changed the nature of the innovation processes that extension used to foster (Leeuwis and Aarts, 2011), and also the professional situation as change agents encounter it (Cerf, Guillot & Olry, 2011). As a consequence, governments in many countries need to revisit the ways in which they support agricultural innovation. Facilitated networks for innovation policy are seeing increasing public interest as a new instrument for governments. Such networks offer opportunities to combine financial and technical resources, and they offer the infrastructure that is necessary for spreading and sharing knowledge and information. They can play an important role in agricultural and rural innovation processes (Klerkx & Leeuwis, 2009). However, little is known about the relation between these networks and the process of innovation. Does it matter whether sustainability challenges require gradual or abrupt change (e.g., Cerf, Guillot & Olry, 2011; Loorbach & Rotmans, 2006)? Should support networks be specific for phase of innovation (cf. Regeer, Mager & Van Oorsouw, 2011)? Do value differences (Hisschemöller & Hoppe, 1995-96) change the requirements for network composition? Facilitated networks can take many different forms such as innovation platforms, farmer field schools and peer learning structures. Extension/advisory services can acts as network facilitators. In this contribution, we explore how various networks, in terms of their composition and activities, are related to the composition and activities of facilitated networks. In the introduction, we first introduce the concept of network, after which conceptualise the innovation process and the related goals that networks might have. We then introduce the 5 cases that we explored in this study, and discuss how their characteristics fit with their goals. In the conclusion, we address some criteria for using facilitated networks as a policy instrument. 9.1

Networks Both policy makers and scientists often use the term ―network‖ in the context of public policy (e.g., Caniëls & Romijn, 2008; Hustad, 2007; Smart, Bessant & Gupta, 2007). However, rarely do such publications define the concept of network. Furthermore, in the area of policy practice many similar and related terms co-exist, which might confuse the reader. Especially the terms ―project‖ and ―community of practice‖ (Brown & Duguid, 1991; Lave & Wenger, 1991) are very similar to network, and yet different in imporant ways.

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A community of practice (Lave en Wenger, 1991) consists of people that share a profession, craft, art or interest, and a shared repertoire of tools, concepts, styles and stories about its practice (cf. Wenger, 1998). Furthermore, membership of the community is based on engaging is this practice (to distinguish it from different kinds of communities). A community of practice cannot be organised or established (although the term is sometimes used in this way), but rather emerges from the actions of its constituents. However, the emergence of a community of practice can be fostered or facilitated. Communities of practice have joint enterprise, their members are mutually engaged in the practice (Wenger, 1998). This suggests that communities of practice will be quite homogeneous with regard to goals and values. Value diversity would exist between rather than within communities of practice. A project also concerns a grouping of people, but is it different in the sense that most project groups are carefully composed of the ―right‖ people. Furthermore, projects often have specific goals, with preset deadlines. The project ceases to exist when its done, or when the money has run out. Projects are organised, specific and demarcated. Project membership presumes that the project members are committed to the project goal, either because they are themselves committed, or they work for someone else (their organisation, a constituency) with commitment to the project goal. The specific characteristics of a project do not fit well with complex societal issues, because they are fraught with uncertainty and value diversity. The uncertainties severely limit the extent to which project deadlines can be set, or even project goals. The value diversity can be at odds with setting up a project, because it is hard to define a shared project goal when the values and interests of the project members are very diverse. Of the terms dealt with here, network has the least specific connotations. Going on the literature (Caniëls & Romijn, 2008; Klerkx & Leeuwis, 2009), it appears that any network with societal and policy relevance has at least the following characteristcs: It consists of individuals that potentially can act in each other‘s benefit, they can act in each other‘s interests. Network members know who‘s who, to a certain extent; they know some of opinions, abilities and goals of the other network members. Networks are, in principe, ‗self-organising‘; they emerge when people meet, share, and then become aware of keeping in contact. Networks do not organise activities. Rather, they are a resource for finding partners to initiate new activities. A network as a policy instrument often has a project-like character, because the policy makers cannot give goal-free, unlimited-time support. Nonetheless, networks do have in important potential for the public sector in their role for knowledge creation and information dispersal. In the case of the Dutch ministry of Economic Affairs, Agriculture and Innovation, the ―network support‖ often concerns supporting a project that strengthens networks because it requires the project partners to meet more often, and it requires them to get to know other relevant parties as well. In other words, the project is worded so, that existing networks are strengthened and that new networks might emerge. The network-as-policy instrument temporarily facilitates a network to help it grow and become independent. 9.2

Optimisation versus Transition Many researchers in the sustainability sciences distinguish between two different types of innovation . On the one hand we have ―system optimisation.‖ This type of innovation as based on acceptance of the status quo and focussed on improving a certain sector. In such cases, innovation processes often focus on efficiency improvements,

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automatisation, decreasing labour, improving raw materials, etcetera. On the other hand we have ―transition‖ (Rotmans, Kemp & Van Asselt, 2001) or ―system transformation.‖ In this case, innovation goes against the grain of the status quo. The associated innovation processes are often focused on niche developments (Schot, Hoogma & Elzen, 1994) that harbour the potential for radical change in a societal sector (although even radical changes sometimes occur at ―glacial‖ speeds; Geels & Kemp, 2007). These two different innovation goals—optimisation versus transition—can be traced to specific characteristics of underlying problems. In the case of optimisation, acceptance of the status quo is implied. The innovation goal does not challenge hegemonic values, nor does it put forward new agendas based on alternative values. The contrary holds for transition. For transitions, the unsustainability of the status quo often acts as a starting point. The resulting innovation processes are oriented at alternatives to the status quo, and these alternatives often engender different values. Indeed, some would say that value differences are an important resource in transition processes (Regeer et al., 2011). In sum, optimisation processes can generally be said to harbour low value diversity, whereas transition processes appear to have high value diversity. Facilitated networks may be applicable to both optimisation and transition. 9.3

Innovation processes As regards phases in innovation processes, it is important to note that a purely linear model of innovation—a research-extension-farmer continuum—has been found inadequate. Innovation is mostly seen as a multi-actor collaboration process with coevolution of technological and socio-organizational arrangements (Leeuwis & Aarts, 2011). Still, appealing new technologies and practices do spread across agricultural and rural communities and this can thus be regarded as a diffusion process. Innovation processes start with inventions (i.e., a working prototype), which form the basis for the development of implementable business cases (i.e., a first implementation of the prototype in a profitable business). The third phase concerns the spread of the business case to the wider community of first movers, finally resulting in widespread adoption (generally with continuous adaptations; see Douthwaite et al., 2000).

9.4

A framework Innovation phase

Invention

Business case development Diffusion to first movers Mass adoption

System transformation /

System optimisation /

high value diversity

low value diversity

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We hypothesise that facilitated networks have different goals in different phases of an innovation process and that network composition and network activities should be specific for each phase. Also we hypothesise that system transformation and system optimisation involve specific networks. Our research questions: What is the relation between network composition and the phases of innovation processes? What is the relation between network composition, system transformation and system optimisation? How do network activities relate to the impacts of networks on innovation success? 9.5

Methods We studied five facilitated networks for agricultural innovation in the Netherlands, concerning multifunctional agriculture, pig husbandry, diary farming, organic agriculture and economic opportunity building for agriculture. Each of these networks was supported by the Dutch ministry of Economic Affairs, Agriculture and Innovation.

9.5.1

Participants Semi-structured interviews were held with a total 21 members of these networks. For each network, the network leader was interviewed. Furthermore, s/he provided contact details for additional interviewees. To enable a broad, balanced view, interviewees were selected from diverse societal groupings: entrepreneurs, education, research, policy makers and NGO‘s. We selected at least one interviewee for each of these groups, provided that this group was represented in the network in question.

9.5.2

Procedure The interviews were conducted by three interviewers, who all used the same semistructured interview guideline. Because of the limited availability of some of the interviews, some interviews were conducted by phone. Others were conducted face-toface. All interviews were summarised by the interviewer. The summaries were then submitted for correction to the interviewees. The corrected interviews were then used in the analysis.

9.5.3

Analysis The interview data were analysed by two analysts. Every interview was analysed in full by one of the analyst. The resulting analysis was reviewed by the other analyst. Disagreements between the analysts were then discussed and solved. Five coding categories were used for the interview analysis: Goals and activities; What is the goal of the network, and how does it work toward that goal? Funding (public/government vs. private/participant funding); Who are the funding partners? How else do parties contribute to the network? Network composition (heterogeneity vs. homogeneity); How diverse are the networks? What is the role of value diversity? Facilitation modality; Does the network use specific facilitation to support its goals?

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5. Cases

9.6.1

The Dairy Academy

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Goals and activities The Dairy Academy (in Dutch: Melkvee Academie) is a network of dairy farmers with the aim to support innovation and making knowledge widely available. Farmer needs and questions form the basis for all of the activities of the Dairy Academy. The main goal of the Dairy Academy is a market-oriented, sustainable daire sector. To reach that goal, the Dairy Academy aims to support entrepreneurship amongst its members by helping them meet each other to share knowledge, and by attracting new knowledge towards the sector. Furthermore, the Dairy Academy wants to foster a dialogue about societal concerns regarding agriculture in general and dairy farming in particular, to raise awareness about sustainability and the future. The Dairy Academy has a small repertoire of regular activities. In ―Farmer on Tour‖, a group of farmers visits a specific company, for instance because of its innovative character. The ―Dairy Café‖ is a regional evening of debate about current issues for dairy farmers. Furthermore, the Dairy Academy has a number of knowledge brokers with the explicit purpose of supporting smaller sub-networks to concentrate on a specific theme or topic. Finally, the Dairy Academy hosts a website with Web-2.0 capabilities such as public and private meeting rooms and work spaces, in which the members can collaborate and share. Actors and public-private partnerships Individual dairy farmers are the most important category of Dairy Academy members. The Dairy Academy has 1200 contributing members who partake in the academy‘s activities, who play an important role in agenda setting, and who act as a resource for knowledge and information. Other entrepreneurial actors that are in close contact with the Dairy Academy are producers of animal foodstuffs and advisory companies. Researchers are important for the Dairy Academy as a source of knowledge. Researchers get invited to speak at Dairy Café events and within sub-networks by knowledge brokers. The agenda setting is done as much as possible by the members themselves. To that end, they are consulted at Dairy Academy meetings, and sometimes also contacted by phone. The Dutch Federation of Agriculture and Horticulture and the Dutch ministry of Economic Affairs, Agriculture and Innovation act as partners of the Dairy Academy for agenda setting for the longer term. Agenda setting is mainly oriented at the sector itself. Until 2011, the government was an important source of funding for the Dairy Academy. However, even in that role, the government did not involve itself very much with the activities of the Dairy Academy, preferring a role in the background. There has been sporadic collaboration with educational institutes. NGO‘s play a marginal role in the Dairy Academy. However, the Dairy Academy does support the discussion about societal issues such as animal welfare, climate change and intensive animal husbandry. Facilitation modality Facilitation with the Dairy Academy is mainly done by the knowledge brokers. The Dairy Academy does not work on creating new knowledge. Instead, the knowledge brokers concentrating on linking people to share knowledge. Furthermore, the Dairy

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Café‘s can be seen as a facilitative support for discussing values that can be at odds with the interests of the sector. In other words, there is some facilitation of value diversity and value exchange, but it is rarely, if ever, done by inviting the NGO‘s that champion those values. 9.6.2

PigNET Goals and activities PigNET (in Dutch: VarkensNET) aims to make the Dutch pig husbandry sector more future proof by raising the innovative capacity of pig farmers. In doing so, PigNET tries to fill an increasing gap in the sector: as the number of pig farmers has steadily decreased it has become harder for the pig farmers to meet and share experiences. Furthermore, with the increasing rates of innovation, it has become more important than ever to share. PigNET therefore stimulates entrepreneurs to work together on their professional development, in the spirit of life-long learning. PigNET hosts an online forum where pig farmers can meet, where they can collaborate online, and where they can share knowledge in the online information database. Also, the PigNET NET-mentors facilitate sub-networks of pig farmers to work on one topic or theme for a prolonged time. These sub-networks use an online room to collaborate. Furthermore, PigNET organises several face-to-face activities, such as visits to innovative farms and companies to help pig farmers get inspiration for innovation (―On the road with PigNET‖) and meetings, named ―Rooting with...‖, in which the network members take an afternoon or an evening to share knowledge and information about a predefined theme or topic. The Rooting with...-meetings focus on the translation of knowledge towards implementation. PigNET is very similar in its set-up to the Dairy Academy: ―On the road with PigNET‖ is like ―Farmer on Tour‖, and ―Rooting with...‖ is like the ―Dairy Café‖. And indeed, PigNET is modeled after the Dairy Academy. The main difference appears to be that PigNET has more focus on its online activities. Actors and public-private partnerships Entrepreneurs are the most important partners of PigNET. They are both the participants and the experts, and they have a dearth of experience. Chain companies act mostly as funding organisations, but they do not appear to be a very structural partner in the regular PigNET activities. The government is the other main financing party of PigNET. Researchers act as scientific expert in PigNET. They sometimes use PigNET as a dissemination platform for their research results. Also, they put up calls for participants in research projects. As of this writing, the role of education has been rather small. Efforts are under way to increase the interaction between students and entrepreneurs. The agenda of PigNET is predominantly set by the pig farmers themselves. The NETmentors have in important role with regard to agenda-setting, because they survey the pig farmers‘ needs. Furthermore, PigNET has steering board with representatives from the ministry of Economic Affairs, Agriculture and Innovation, the Northern branch of the The Dutch Federation of Agriculture and Horticulture and Wageningen University and Research Centre. Facilitation modality PigNET‘s facilitation functions are mainly focused on connecting people. Additionally, the NET-mentor facilitate knowledge sharing and building in sub-networks, both in

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terms of connecting people and facilitating the process. Real collaboration, however, is rather rare, and depends on the NET-mentor in question. 9.6.3

Bioconnect Goals and activities Bioconnect is a network of farmers and other entrepreneurs, research institutes and advisory organisation for innovation of organic food and farming. The main challenge for the Dutch organic farming sector is to facilitate a rather young sector to better prepare organic farming and its projects for the consumer market. This requires working on matters of efficiency and innovative, cost-effective production. In other words, Bioconnect aims at development of professionalisation of the organic farming sector. Bioconnect is predominantly busy with articulating the research demands of organic famers and programming research projects that can meet these demands. The sector gives voice to its needs and ambitions and Bioconnect translates these to knowledge developmentand innovation. Bioconnect is in the position to programme existing research funds this way, which are not part of the network funding per se, but they are under close control of the network. The main difference with traditional research funding is that demand articulation plays a much more important role. Bioconnect works with theme working groups that meet for four to five times a year. Each working group plays a role in the programming of part of the research funds. The theme groups consist of at least entrepreneurs and researchers. The final decision about the full programme resides in a task force with representatives of government, education, entrepreneur and research. Additionally, Bioconnect organises company networks that enable entrepreneurs to share their knowledge and experience. These networks contribute to the use and application of scientific knowledge. Finally, Bioconnect organises several nation-wide meetings for the organic agriculture sector. Actors and public-private partnerships Within Bioconnect, various parties in the organic food and farming chain are involved in company networks, including the primary producers. Furthermore, various governments (e.g., national and provincial) act as funding partners in Bioconnect. Education is an active partner, and acts as a knowledge dissemination channel. Researchers contribute in their capacity to judge to what extent and how questions from practice can be addressed by research. Finally, NGO‘s are also part of Bioconnect. Facilitation modality Bioconnect acts as a facilitation organisation on various fronts. First, Bioconnect facilitates the dialogue between researchers and entrepreneurs by bringing them together for research programming. Second, by facilitating company networks they facilitate entrepreneurs to connect with each other and apply research knowledge in practice.

9.6.4

Knowledge Network Multifunctional Agriculture Goals and activities The funded part of the Knowledge Network Multifunctional Agriculture (KNMA) is a small task force consisting of two leaders, three to four knowledge brokers and a secretariate. This appears to be very similar to the set-up of Bioconnect. The network in

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its entirety is composed mainly of researchers, entrepreneurs and people from education. Government is involved in the task force itself. The Knowledge Network Multifunctional Agriculture aims to connect entrepreneurs, governments and researchers. Together, they can share knowledge and apply it in practice to strengthen the Dutch multifunctional agriculture sector and contribute to its development and growth. A sustainable growth of multifunctional agriculturel, in turn, contributes to the satisfaction of societal needs such as space, peace, nature, recreation, and a thriving countryside. KNMA‘s main focus is on research programming, based on the questions and needs from the sector itself. The knowledge brokers gather the questions and needs, and the task force decides on the priorities. Some questions are addressed in specific projects, financed by the ministry of Economic Affairs, Agriculture and Innovation, whereas other questions are forwarded to other research networks, in the hope that they will find a receptive research audience there. Furtjermore, KNMA actively engages in knowledge dissemination by organising workshops with innovators and national meetings for entrepreneurs. The KNMA has a website that it uses to spread knowledge about entrepreneurship and competence development. Actors and public-private partnerships The KNMA is a quite complex network because Dutch multifunctional agriculture is divided into six different sectors, which each have their own ties with the Dutch Federation of Agriculture and Horticulture. While entrepreneurs are the main ‗clients‘ of knowledge in the KNMA, the actual agenda is directly the decided by researchers and policy makers. Entrepreneurs only act in the role of demand articulation, the same as NGO‘s, without direct influence on the agenda. This may be a side-effect of the many sub-sectors in multifunctional agridulture. The ministry of Economic Affairs, Agriculture and Innovation is closely involved in the task force, acts as the main funding party, and also has an internal policy agenda focussed on multifunctional agriculture. Education institutes are a party in the dissemination of knowledge, and is actively working on anchoring this knowledge in existing curricula. Facilitation modality As in Bioconnect, the KNMA uses knowledge brokers to facilitate the translation of questions form practice to a research programma. However, it is different in the sense that it relies on survey methods and individual networks instead of dialogues. Furthermore, the actual agenda setting is decided in the end by researchers and policy makers, without facilitation. Other goals of facilitation concern the translation of science to practice, but it is not very clear to what extent the KNMA has an active policy toward this goal. 9.6.5

Syntens Goals and activities The main goal of Syntens, which, in fact, is a private advisory company, is to boost the innovative power of Dutch small and medium enterprise. This study was limited to a specific part of Syntens‘ activities, which was focussed on agriculture and funded by the ministry of Economic Affairs, Agriculture and Innovation. For this particular group, sustainability is an additional goal. Syntens‘ main acitivity consist of giving one-on-one advise to entrepreneurs. Additionally, Syntes facilitates the formation of innovating clusters of companies. Part of this activity is the organisation of small-scale meetings of several days, at which Syntens facilitates the ―discovery‖ of innovations.

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Actors and public-private partnerships Entrepreneurs and companies are the main participant, as target group, in Syntens. Researchers sometimes act in the role of expert, to complement or complete the advise given by Syntens itself. The ministry of Economic Affairs, Agriculture and Innovation is the main funding organisation for Syntens‘ activities in the field of agriculture. In this capacity, the ministry also has a say in Syntens‘ agenda. Up until now, the ministry has only used its influence to target Syntens towards specific sectors, and not to put specific policy topics on the agenda. Education does not have a structural role in Syntens. Facilitation modality One might say that facilitation is Syntens‘ main activity, although one might not speak of networks in the case of one-on-one advise. However, all workshops and clustering activities are foremost facilitation-driven, and Syntens does not push a topical agenda. Syntens als actively produces tools that can be used to support facilitation. 9.7

Discussion

9.7.1

Striking similarities Each network that was studies appears to hold to the conviction that the translation of scientific knowledge to practice is a problem. Bare knowledge transfer will not contribute to innovation, because knowledge can only be applied when it is translated to something that is meaningful to an entrepreneur. Distributing research reports does not help, visiting an innovative company to learn from it as an example does. The key concept here seems to be interaction: interaction among entrepreneurs, and interaction between entrepreneurs, researchers, and other societal actors. This is also apparent in the activities from each of the networks, because all networks organise activities that require or stimulate interaction. A second striking similarity is the relative absence of NGO‘s. NGO‘s are hardly at all (Dairy Academy, PigNET) or only marginally (Bioconnect, KNMA) involved, even though many Dutch NGO‘s have agendas that concern the agricultural activities of the networks in this study. This does not mean that these networks are deaf to this agenda. Indeed topics like envirnonmental health and animal welfare do get discussed in the Dairy Academy and PigNET, and Bioconnect and the KNMA can even be seen as representatives of NGO agendas. All networks involved have a specific aim to engage societal debate. Nonetheless, the associated discussion appear to be held within the own ranks, and not with the societal opposition.

9.7.2

Striking differences The networks studied here can be divided in three groupings. The Dairy Academy and PigNET both concern mature sectors. Value diversity appears to play at most a small role in these networks. In terms of innovation goals, they appear to be mainly involved in system optimisation. Furthermore, they seem to be mostly concerned with the last to phases of the innovation process, adoption by first movers and widespread adoption.

Bioconnect and KNMA both concern growing sectors that are still young and developing. Some say that bothe these networks put a structurally different perspective on Dutch agriculture, championing sectors that have a potential to lead to a transition. In that sense, these networks are aimed at system transformation. Value diversity is more important in these networks, possible due to varying opinions about the way

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Dutch agriculture should develop. Bioconnect and KNMA appear to be mainly oriented at business development, and, to a smaller extent, adoption of innovation by first movers. Syntens is specific in the sense that it does not have a specific sectoral approach. Furthermore, Syntens‘ approach appears to be most specifically oriented at the invention and business case developmet phases of the innovation process. This holds especially for the innovative clusters that Syntes facilitates. Syntens does not appear to concentrate on either system transformation or system optimisation. Another difference between the networks is the type of entrepreneurs involved. The Dairy Academy and PigNET are dominated by primary producers. This means that the differences between the entrepreneurs involved are rather small. In the case of Bioconnect and KNMA, these differences are larger, because these networks both cover larger sets of subsectors; the involve primary producers from various branches of either organic or multifunctional agrictulture. In Syntens, the entrepreneurs are still more different, als involving parties from the chain other than the primary producers. In various cases, multiple links in the chain are involved in one innovative cluster. This is important from the perspective of innovation, because inventions often necessitate changes in the chain before they can capture value (Jacobsen, Beers & Fischer, 2011). It appears that Syntens, of all networks discussed here, focusses on the least mature networks. The composition of the networks involved seems to be quite heterogeneous. Especially the literature on transitions stresses the importance of diversity for innovation (e.g., Regeer, Mager & Van Oorsouw, 2011). Heterogeneous parties can contribute specific resources, values and interests, and combining these to give shape to an innovation would be the best option for change. Given the relatively small role of value diversity in the various networks, the conclusion appears to be warranted that they are not particularly fit to the goal of system transformation. The conclusion appears to be warranted that the networks involved will be especially fit for system optimisation, albeit sometimes in emerging markets. 9.8

Conclusion Different networks could be related to different innovation phases. The pig husbandry and dairy farming networks concerned mature agricultural sectors under increasing societal pressure. They focussed on knowledge sharing among entrepreneurs to increase the sector‘s adaptive capacity for change. These networks were predominantly homogeneous (many entrepreneurs with an occasional researcher, no chain actors). The organic agriculture and multifunctional agriculture networks appeared to be somewhere in-between the business case and diffusion phases. The sectors involved were relatively immature (not being established, or ―mainstream‖). Their activities focussed on making research and entrepreneurs co-create new knowledge and innovations. Furthermore, these networks were especially heterogeneous, with researchers, entrepreneurs, NGO-representatives and policy makers all adding to a dynamic mix.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This research has been carried out in the context of the Dutch Ministry of Economic Affairs, Innovation and Agriculture policy-support research cluster ―Knowledge‖ (BO-09). REFERENCES Brown, J. S., & Duguid, P. (1991). Organizational learning and communities-ofpractice: Toward a unified theory of working, learning, and innovation. Organization Science, 2(1), 40-57. Caniëls, M. C. J., & Romijn, H. A. (2008). Actor networks in Stategic Niche Management: Insights from social network theory. Futures, 40, 613-629. Cerf, M., Guillot, M. N., & Olry, P. (2011). Acting as a change agent in supporting sustainable agriculture: How to cope with new professional situations. Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension, 17(1), 7-19. Douthwaite, B., Keatinge, J. D. H., & Park, J. R. (2001). Why promising technologies fail: the neglected role of user innovation during adoption. Research Policy, 30, 819836. Geels, F. W., & Kemp, R. (2007). Dynamics in socio-technical systems: Typology of change processes and contrasting case studies. Technology in Society, 29, 441-455. Hisschemöller, M., & Hoppe, R. (1995-96). Coping with intractable controversies: the case for problem structuring in policy design and analysis. Knowledge and Policy: The International Journal of Knowledge Transfer and Utilization, 8(4), 40-60. Hustad, E. (2007, January). A conceptual framework for knowledge integration in distributed networks of practice. Paper presented at the 40th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, Waikoloa, HI. Jacobsen, E., Beers, P. J., & Fischer, A. R. H. (2011). Inventions for future sustainable development in agriculture. In K. Andeweg & H. Van Latesteijn (Eds.), The TransForum model: Transforming agro-innovation toward sustainable development (pp. 2139). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer. Klerkx, L., & Leeuwis, C. (2009). Shaping Collective Functions in Privatized Agricultural Knowledge and Information Systems: The Positioning and Embedding of a Network Broker in the Dutch Dairy Sector. Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension, 15(1), 23-47. Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral practice. New York: Cambridge University Press. Leeuwis, C., & Aarts, N. (2011). Rethinking in innovation processes: Creating space for change in complex systems. Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension, 17(1), 21-36. Loorbach, D., & Rotmans, J. (2006). Managing transitions for sustainable development. In X. Olsthoorn & A. J. Wieczorek (Eds.), Understanding industrial transformation: Views from different disciplines (Vol. 44, pp. 187-206). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer. Regeer, B., Mager, S., & Van Oorsouw, Y. (2011). Licence to grow. Innovating sustainable development by connecting values. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: VU University Press.

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ROLE OF ADVISORY SERVICES IN PROMOTING MULTIFUNCTIONAL AGRICULTURE AND SUSTAINABLE RURAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE REPUBLIKA SRPSKA, BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA Sinisa BERJAN, Hamid EL BILALI, Aleksandra DESPOTOVIC, Miomir JOVANOVIC SINISA BERJAN: Faculty of Agriculture, University of East Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina; e-mail: [email protected] HAMID EL BILALI: Department of Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development, Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Bari (CIHEAM-IAMB), Italy. ALEKSANDRA DESPOTOVIC, MIOMIR JOVANOVIC: Biotechnical Faculty, University of Podgorica, Montenegro.

ABSTRACT

THEME 1

Rural economy in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) and Republika Srpska (RS) is getting more diversified but agriculture is still important. Therefore, advisors should continue providing good services to fulltime agricultural producers and at the same time deal with new services requested by rural people whose main income source is the nonagricultural sector. The aim of this paper is to analyse the role of the public advisory services in promoting multifunctional agriculture and sustainable rural development in RS. The paper is based mainly on a literature review and a field survey carried out in November 2009 with rural households‘ heads in seven municipalities of SarajevoRomanija region (eastern BiH and RS). Additional information have been collected in March 2011 through phone interviews and meetings with advisors in RS. Semistructured interviews dealing with access of rural people to agro-rural knowledge have been carried out. SWOT of advisory services have been analysed and some recommendations have been made. Keywords: Advisory services; Republika Srpska; Bosnia. 10.1

Introduction During the post-war period, the rural scenario in Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) and the Republika Srpska (RS) has changed dramatically. Rural economy in BiH is getting more diversified but agriculture still plays an important socio-economic role. Therefore, advisors should provide good services to agricultural producers as well as rural people dealing with the non-agricultural sector. Rural people are diversifying their income-generating activities and livelihoods by offering different agricultural and nonagricultural goods (e.g. food, fibre, fuel, feed) and services. Rural entrepreneurs have specific needs which represents a challenge for advisory services that have a new role to play and should adopt new advisory approaches and communication media and methods. Agricultural extension and advisory services, as known in practice world-wide (cf. Swanson & Rajalahti, 2010: 193) started to exist in BiH in 2002. They are organised on entity level: Agency for providing services in agriculture in RS, cantonal agricultural extension services in the Federation of BiH (FBiH) and Department of Extension Services in Brcko District. As a matter of fact, responsibility for the activities of extension services in the FBiH is in the hands of cantonal governments and their relevant ministries in charge of agriculture. In Brcko District, the Office of the agricultural extension

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service operates within the Department of Agriculture and Forestry in the Government of Brcko District. The aim of this paper is to analyse the role of the public advisory services in promoting multifunctional agriculture and sustainable agro-rural development in RS by analysing services performance and rural households‘ access to agro-rural information. 10.2

Materials and methods The paper is based mainly on a literature review and a field survey carried out in November 2009 with rural households‘ heads in seven municipalities of Sarajevo Romanija region (eastern BiH and RS): Trnovo, Istocna Ilidza, Istocno Novo Sarajevo, Istocni Stari Grad, Pale, Sokolac and Rogatica. A checklist dealing with access of rural people to agro-rural knowledge has been prepared for semi-structured interviews. Households‘ heads were asked if they use services provided by advisory services; if they need advisors‘ assistance; which kind of information they require; main sources of information they use; and if they have an easy access to information about agrorural development programs. Additional information have been collected in March 2011 through phone interviews and meetings with advisors in RS. Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) of advisory services have been analysed and some recommendations have been made. Advisory approaches and methods used and services provided have been analysed as well. The main problem faced during the preparation of this paper is the lack of adequate, reliable and updated data.

10.3

Results and discussion In RS, the EU pilot project "PHARE-PFAP" (Co-ordination, Institutional Development and Advisory Services to Support Private Farmers; 1998-2000) financed the establishment of 7 advisory services in Banja Luka region with a central office in Banja Luka. In the second phase (2000-2002), five regional centers have been established covering the entire territory of RS and funds were provided also through EU-ESP project (National Extension Services for Bosnia and Herzegovina) (MAFWM-RS, 2010). The EU-ESP project helped, in terms of financing, the establishment of Cantonal (in FB&H) and Regional (in RS) offices of agricultural extension and advisory services. After the end of the EU-ESP project, the following phase of the development of extension services understood their institutionalization and spreading on lower levels - particularly some agricultural municipalities - together with exploring possibilities for their self-sustainability. Other projects, such as the USAID-LAMP project, IFAD‘s ‗Livestock and Rural Finance Development‘ project, FFAM (Farmers Facilities Access to Market) project - financed by the Italian Government and implemented by IFAD, a DEZA (Swiss Agency for International Development)–GTZ project, etc. also contributed to the transfer of modern agricultural technologies and development of some agricultural advice providing services. In May 2002, the Government and the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Water Management of RS (MAFWM-RS) established the Agricultural Extension Service of RS (AES-RS) (Official Gazette of RS, No 36, June 21, 2002) as the specialised service for providing professional services for farmers. The AES-RS is within the organisational framework of the Ministry, financed by it and responsible to it. Two years later, the Government of RS established The Agency for providing services in agriculture, as a separate professional and legal organisation, with a wide range of activities including providing agricultural producers with advice and information. The Advisory Services Agency in RS is financed by the State budget but can also apply for funds from development projects. Its headquarter (coordination office) is located in Banja Luka and there are five regional offices (units) i.e. Banja Luka, Doboj, Bijeljina, Sokolac, and Trebinje (Tab. 1); where work 21 advisors and administrative staff (about 48% female) for 221,000 rural households in RS. All regional offices are financed by the gov-

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ernment of RS and each encompasses a number of municipalities. Apart from 17 advisors that work in regional centres there are also 4 employees in coordination office in Banja Luka; director and administrative staff. Seven municipal offices in Banja Luka area (i.e. Kozarska Dubica, Gradiska, Prijedor, Novi Grad, Laktasi, Prnjavor and Kotor Varos), are financed by municipalities. Advisors use many group extension and communication methods and media (e.g. lectures, seminars, demonstrations, field days, events, etc.) and individual methods (e.g. farm visits, contacts in extension offices, phone calls). The main media used are the internet, leaflets, posters, brochures, and mass media. Moreover, most municipalities have an officer for agriculture (advisor) within the Department for Economic and Social Affairs (MAFWM-RS, 2010). Accreditation of potential advisors (e.g. private) can be done by the Advisory services agency of RS (MAFWM-RS, 2006). Table 1. Distribution of advisers in regional centres and officers dealing with agriculture in municipalities of RS. Regional centres

Banja Luka Doboj Bijeljina Sokolac Trebinje Total

Nr. of advisors in regional centres Male Female 5 2 1 1 1 10

1 1 2 2 1 7

Nr. of municipalities covered by the regional centre

Nr. of officers for agriculture in municipalities

21 10 10 12 9 62

28 12 16 12 9 77

Sourc e: Adapted from MAFWM-RS, 2010. In the period January-June 2010, advisors were involved in 138 theoretical trainings, such as seminars and lectures, to 4095 agricultural producers and organized 37 practical training sessions. In the same period, 721 agricultural producers visited advisory service offices while advisors visited 558 farms and provided by phone 727 advices for producers. They also distributed 2298 copies of promotional material. Meanwhile, they developed 5 new brochures and sat up 3 macro and 40 demo experiments. Furthermore, advisors organized 2 events, were partners in organization of 3 others and were present on 16 different manifestations. Advisors‘ salaries are higher (around 1200 Convertible Marks, KM) than average salaries in BiH. According to the Agency for Statistics of BiH (2011), in 2010 average salary was 798 KM in BiH while according to the Institute for Statistics of RS (2011) in May 2011 it was 816 KM in RS. Advisors provide services dealing mainly with agriculture production, processing and marketing (i.e. vegetables and fruit growing, animal husbandry, processing and quality of agro-food products, agro-economy). They also assist agricultural producers to gather in cooperatives and associations, help them to prepare business plans and to apply for credits. However, such an ambitious plan for the spectrum of activities is far from matched by personnel sufficiency, technical equipment and financial support. As a matter of fact, advisory services are limited in scope and have only limited capacity to convey multifunctionality and sustainability messages due mainly to lack of trained personnel. Moreover, advisory services face many finance, management, technical support problems, and those related to mentality, low motivation and enthusiasm, overload with non-advisory activities, low number of advisors, low budget for extension aids production, etc. (Tab. 2). Moreover, there is still a strong legacy of the former Yugoslav socialist system and the traditional top-down approach is widely used while the ―advisory ring‖ concept diffusion is limited mainly due to the advisors‘ resistance to change.

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Table 2. SWOT analysis of advisory services in RS.

Opportunities

Weaknesses o Low number of extension agents/ advisors o Lack of funding (e.g. offices, promotional material, professional journals, labs, etc.) o Lack of information flows between the Advisory Services and the Ministry of Agriculture of RS o Weak participation in projects financed by donors Threats

o Starting a professional journal o Improvement of advisors’ skills o Better coordination with the Ministry of Agriculture of RS and other relevant institutions o Participation in the design and implementation of rural development projects

o Confusion about the role and functions of the Agency o Low interest of farmers for training o Poor media coverage of the agricultural sector o Lack of long-term agricultural policy o Lack of specialized research institutions

o o o o o o

Strengths Different kinds of assistance for farmers Timely distribution of information Data collection and processing Transfer of new knowledge and technologies Training of farmers regarding environment issues Support to farmers gathering

Sourc e: Adapted from MAFWM-RS,, 2010. Survey results show that the demand for advisory services is very high among the surveyed rural households. Most of the surveyed households (62.8%) need advisors‘ assistance that is mainly related to fruit growing, animal care, mechanization, marketing, etc. More than a half (51.4%) of the interviewees have access to advisors‘ services. However, most of them rely also on multiple alternative information sources such as electronic media (22.9%), magazines (31.4%) and dialogue with neighbours (25.7%). Beside agricultural extension services, many institutions can act as providers of professional and advisory services such as experts and professionals in cooperatives, agricultural and processing enterprises; professionals in veterinary institutes and stations; research and scientific institutes, agricultural institutes and stations, etc. Demand for advices is higher from agricultural households than mixed and non-agricultural ones. Since advisors are not actively involved in the dissemination of information about agro-rural development initiatives, 63.8% of the interviewees do not know anything about them. Advisors provide services dealing mainly with agriculture (i.e. vegetables, fruit, livestock, processing and quality, agro-economy) and are limited in scope. Their limited capacity to convey multifunctionality and sustainability messages is mainly due to lack of trained personnel and finance, management and technical support problems. If the number of farmers and the number of advisors is taken into account, it clearly indicates very problematic situation. The number of small-size, undeveloped farms and rural households that depend on agricultural production is high. These farms and households particularly depend on public extension and advisory services. Moreover, advisors spend most of their working hours doing administrative tasks, first of all those related to incentive measures. That means that they spend insignificant time providing advisory services. The target group for extension services are mainly farmers that are eligible for incentive measures. In the Agency for providing agricultural extension services (RS), the most numerous group among extension service providers are diploma engineers of agriculture. Most of them have general educational orientation (e.g. crop production, livestock production, fruit growing) while the number of specialists – e.g. plant protection, irrigation, agricultural machinery, is modest. It is obvious that dissemination of needed information should be improved with regards to advisory services. Participatory technology development and farmer field schools can help to fill up this gap. More than a third of respondents would like to know more about agro-rural development programmes especially those that allow them to get some financial support (e.g. subsidies) and/or an easier access to convenient loans. Although support measures were widely advertised there is still a lack of information. That‘s due also to the fact that advisors are not actively and efficiently involved in the dissemination of these information. It goes without saying that linkages between advisory services and public stakeholders as well as research and

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education institutions dealing with agricultural and rural development should be strengthened. Agricultural extension should be included in the curricula of all Bosnian agricultural faculties. 10.4

Conclusions Easy and timely access to reliable and updated agriculture and rural information and knowledge is crucial for increasing agricultural holdings multifunctionality and diversifying rural livelihoods. Therefore, a higher attention should be paid to supporting advisory services and providing them with necessary means and resources as well as technical, managerial, relational and soft skills in order to allow them to assume fully their role as a main bridging actor in the dissemination of knowledge and the promotion of rural innovation, diversification, multifunctionality and sustainability. The biggest challenge in coming years will be the equitable rural development allowing all rural villages residents to have equal opportunities regarding the use of pre-accession assistance funds. Good use of funds, that are intended as a grant to support agriculture and non-agricultural activities in rural areas, can strongly influence the improvement of production and livelihoods of rural population thus slowing down rural areas depopulation. Therefore, it is necessary to develop a well performing pluralistic, participatory, bottom-up, decentralized, farmer-led and market-driven advisory system working as a training and learning tool via advice, non-formal education and facilitation paradigms and aiming not only at transferring agricultural technologies to achieve food security but also farmers‘ training on natural resource management; increasing farm income to improve rural livelihoods; and organizing and empowering rural people by building rural social capital in short sustainable integrated rural development. Welltrained agricultural advisers and good advisory services are a prerequisite for a successful participation in the overall European agricultural policy and efficient, effective and sustainable use of cohesion funds.

REFERENCES Agency for Statistics of BiH (2011). Prosječne mjesečne isplaćene neto plaće zaposlenih za mart 2011 (Average monthly paid off net earnings of persons in employmen March 2011). . Institute for Statistic of RS (2011). Просјечне плате запослених (The average wages of employees). . MAFWM-RS (2006). Strategija razvoja poljoprivrede Republike Srpske do 2015 (Strategy for agricultural development of RS until 2015). Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Water Management of Republika Srpska (MAFWM-RS), Banja Luka. MAFWM-RS (2010). Strategija savjetovanih aktivnosti u poljoprivredi (Strategy for development of Agricultural Advisory Service in RS). Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Water Management of Republika Srpska (MAFWM-RS), Banja Luka. Swanson B. E. & Rajalahti R. (2010). Strengthening agricultural extension and advisory systems: procedures for assessing, transforming, and evaluating extension systems. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank, Agriculture and Rural Development Discussion Paper 45, Washington D.C.

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WORLDWIDE STATUS OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION AND ADVISORY SERVICES Andrea B. Bohn and Burton E. Swanson University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign IFPRI/FAO/IICA Worldwide Extension Study

SUMMARY The Worldwide Extension Study (WWES) was initiated by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), with funding by the United State Agency for International Development (USAID), in close collaboration with the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations and the Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture (IICA). The objectives of this study were to assess and provide empirical data on the current status of pluralistic extension systems in each country, worldwide, and for use in planning future efforts to modernize and strengthen these rural extension and advisory services. The primary source of information on these agricultural extension and advisory service providers in different countries worldwide was from responses received from survey questionnaires sent directly to the heads of these organizations in each country. This was a global institutional partnership, involving the FAO Missions, especially in the African countries; the IICA Missions in most Latin American countries and then IFPRI handled data collection in all of the remaining countries, worldwide. Only selected data is being publically shared on the internet (see: www.worldwide–extension.org) in the form of International Directory pages created for each institution (public, private, NGOs and farmer-based organizations) in each country with 15 or more extension staff members. It should be noted that the financial data submitted by each institution will not be shared publicly. However, this confidential data will be analyzed at the aggregated level (i.e. sub-regional, regional and worldwide) and made available after data collection has been completed. This proposed presentation at the 2011 ESEE Conference will outline key findings from this study, including: (1) the primary extension service providers in each country (e.g. public, private and/or non-governmental); (2) which types and groups of farmers are the primary target groups (e.g. large, medium, and/or small-scale farmers, including rural women) for each extension organization; (3) the number and types of human resources (e.g. admin., subject matter specialists, and field extension workers) , including gender, of each extension and advisory service organization; (4) each organization‘s information and communication technology (ICT) resources and capacity; and (5) what role, if any, do the different categories of farmers play in setting extension‘s priorities and/or assessing performance. Keywords: Worldwide, Extension, Advisory Services, Pluralistic

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STRENGTHENING UNIVERSITY CURRICULUM IN EXTENSION EDUCATION IN TURKEY Dilek Bostan Budak, Robert Agunga, Ozlem O. Kacira DILEK BOSTAN BUDAK: Cukurova University, Adana, Turkey, ROBERT AGUNGA: The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH USA, OZLEM O. KACIRA: The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ USA Agricultural extension occupies a central role in agricultural and rural development in Turkey. Extension services are provided through public and private sectors, such as the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs (MARA), farmer organizations, agricultural universities, agricultural cooperatives, private organizations and Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs). Turkey, like many developing countries, faces many problems, which limit extension effectiveness. These extension problems include: limited availability of farm inputs; a low extension worker-to-farmers ratio; a predominantly state controlled extension system; and limited access to extension services by female farmers. Perhaps, the most limiting extension problem is poor training of extension workers. Although the Extension system in Turkey requires practitioners with college degrees graduates take only one course in agricultural extension in college. This one extension course is often offered in agricultural economics departments as there is no degree program in extension education. To effectively help farmers extension workers need more training in the extension, education and communication areas covering leadership, facilitation, integration, people participation, advocacy, and teambuilding. Effective communication skills are also needed to promote coordination and linkages among development partners leading to attainment of common development objectives, efficient use of limited resources, and avoidance of duplication of effort. This paper focuses on strengthening university curriculum in extension education in Turkey by examining the capacity building needs of extension workers. The Government of Turkey undertakes major agricultural development and poverty reduction activities, such as Integrated Rural Development Programs (IRDPs) and Poverty Reduction Strategy Programs (PRSPs) the success of which depends on having competent extension workers. The ultimate goal of this study is creation of Agricultural and Extension Education degree programs at agricultural universities in Turkey.

Keywords: Turkey, extension, agricultural extension

Theme 1

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FOOD THE NEW AND NOT SO NEW POLITICS OF FOOD. - POLICY BATTLES AND CONTRADICTIONS. Martin Caraher

Keynote speaker

MARTIN CARAHER: Professor of Food and Health Policy, Centre for Food Policy, City University, London ABSTRACT The social, ecological and economic costs of the current system of food production will be outlined. These are often called the hidden externalities of food and are sometimes picked up in the direct cost of food itself, but more often through other indirect costs such as transport, environmental and health. The current food system is overly reliant on oil; oil to grow, process and transport food. There is currently sufficient food in the world to feed the world‘s population but the inefficient and iniquitous food system means that many go hungry (currently nearly 1 billion of the global population). There has never been so much policy talk about food security, but this is not matched by action and we are as a consequence drifting into an over-reliance on food being transported across the globe. Examples from the developed world and the global south will be provided to illustrate this. This is not an anti-trade position but the development of a view on both global and national levels of food security. The key underpinning arguments are threefold: Firstly that we need to view food within a wider public health framework and not simply pursue food across the globe on the basis of ‗cheapest‘ options. Secondly that we need to introduce the principles of equity and citizenship to the food system to counter act the current domination of the consumer model. Lastly the focus on ‗cheapest‘ means that someone somewhere in the food chain loses, often the farmer and family and more so in the global south. There is no such thing as ‗cheap‘ food. Global and national trade needs to be regulated to ensure human and environmental health. The term ‗ecological public health‘ is used as an organising term to reformulate what is meant by health, with food seen as an intersection point for human, societal and environmental relations. The environment is the infrastructure and context within which humans live and eat. Some implications will be drawn for Finland and the Nordic countries who have led the way in these developments. The North Karelia project originated in Finland and became a global model for heart disease prevention. More recently ―Food for Tomorrow‘ a consultation document on Finland‘s national food strategy was launched. In Denmark there has been much controversy over the introduction of a ‗fat tax‘. Yet despite these histories and lessons learnt we are not learning from them and health and dietary status continues to get worse. Why is this? The implications of the above for those teaching food studies – and for politicians - are related to the role they play in helping develop and promote food advocacy and a food literate consumer. This moves beyond teaching about the food system ‗as-it-is‘, to education concerning the background to the food system and how we, as both consumers and citizens, can act and exercise power. Such an approach can be used to both inform teaching practice about sustainability and to frame a response at a school/community level to wider influences in the food system. Education on its own is judged not to be sufficient.

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A NEW GUIDE FOR EVALUATING EXTENSION FROM GFRAS Ian Christoplos, Sanne Chipeta and Peta Sandison Link to the Guide: http://www.g-fras.org/en/knowledge/gfras-publications/file/20-guide-to-extensionevaluation Global Forum for Rural Advisory Services (GFRAS) Switzerland www.gfras.org

14.1

Introduction

Theme 3

The Global Forum for Rural Advisory Services (GFRAS) has produced a guide to support those evaluating extension interventions in choosing ways to conduct more comprehensive, more rigorous, more credible and more useful evaluations. The guide is intended to assist stakeholders in evaluation to understand different types of evaluation and to make decisions on what is most appropriate for their circumstances. The guide provides a menu of concepts, evaluation questions and approaches that evaluators and evaluation managers can choose from when planning and carrying out evaluations of extension interventions. At the time of the ESEE, the guide will be in the process of being field tested and, based on the lessons from this testing process, it will be finalised by the end of 2011. GFRAS has identified five areas to be keys for mobilizing the potential of rural advisory services (GFRAS, 2010). These are: (1) focussing on best-fit approaches (2) embracing pluralism (3) increasing accountability to rural clients (4) human resource development and (5) sustainability. The guide is structured in such a way that it can assist evaluations of extension interventions focus on results in these areas. 14.2

Why is a guide needed? There is a growing realisation that many of the urgently needed reforms in addressing food security, market development and climate change will only be effective if strong advisory institutions are in place to provide support to rural populations. For this reason, international, national and private investments in extension systems and institutions are growing fast . This increased will to invest is good, but it should be noted that some of the extension plans and packages have been quickly assembled have involved approaches that have proven ineffective and unsustainable in the past. This underscores the need for efforts to learn from past and current extension experiences to avoid repeating past mistakes in the rush to ―do something‖. High quality monitoring and evaluation based on reliable information about the outcomes and impacts are a foundation for structured learning from the experiences. Moreover, prevailing ―myths‖ about what extension can actually accomplish often lead to un-realistic expectations about the contribution of the intervention to alleviate poverty or other national goals. It is an important role for evaluation to bring these to light and facilitate critical reflection on these aims by different users of the evaluation. It is assumed that better documentation of the value of extension will lead to greater and more appropriate investments. The Guide aims to provide guidance in ways to assess the value of extension and particularly reflect the values that are meaningful for farmers as users of the extension services. This involves also assessing value in rela-

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tion to broader public interest such as national food security, biodiversity and environmental sustainability. 14.3

Main challenges in evaluating extension There are many challenges related to evaluating extension, since extension deals with a large complexity of roles as well as stakeholders, however, there are four main challenges: Viewing extension as part of the complex innovation system Attributing impacts of extension within complex systems Evaluating extension while keeping in mind broader systemic issues Evaluating extension in a volatile world

14.4

Viewing extension as part of the innovation system In the past, extension was viewed merely as part of a linear transfer of technologies from research generating the technologies and extension taking the technologies to farmers, who are then expected to adopt it in their practices. In this paradigm of extension, effectiveness would easily be measured based on the adoption rate of the new technologies by farmers Today, evaluation of extension is much more challenging. Evaluations are important opportunities for learning about the functioning of the innovation system. It is important to acknowledge the broader roles of extension and analyse it as part of the innovation system. Extension should be held responsible for how it contributes to a range of innovations that may be ignored if it is assumed that extension just transfers technologies. Innovation requires advisory services that also facilitate access to markets and which include advice on diverse issues that rural people need to deal with in order to improve their production methods, natural resource management and livelihoods. Evaluation therefore needs to look beyond technology transfer to explicitly assess a range of roles. The value of extension in stimulating the adoption and diffusion of new technologies is related to if and how extension has operated in the complex relationship with research, the private sector and farmer organisations to analyse and adapt new technologies to farmer needs and market demands. This may involve roles to facilitate, coordinate and advocate so that the challenges of smallholders and poor farmers in taking part in the new innovation systems are not overlooked.

14.5

Attributing impacts of extension within complex systems Caution is required in jumping to conclusions about what impacts could or should be attributed to a relatively narrow extension project. It may be more important to look for evidence of modest contributions rather than overall attribution of a given result to extension interventions. Extension impacts are very difficult to prove, especially in terms of dealing with attribution issues and linking cause and effect quantitatively (Purcell & Anderson, 1997). Many infrastructural variables and other factors affect agricultural performance in complex and contradictory ways and benefits are difficult to quantify (Anderson, 2007; Birkhaeuser, Evenson, & Feder, 1991). Measurement challenges of several types contribute to the difficulty, and questions of representativeness occur in any attempt at grouping (Davis, 2008).

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Evaluating extension while keeping in mind broader systemic issues Extension will only be effective if other services are in place, if research is participatory and demand driven, if markets and land are accessible and if there is sufficient social, political and economic security in place to create an enabling environment for rural development. This implies that extension deserves neither the credit nor the blame for the shortcomings of these other systems. Extension systems need to be held to account for whether or not they provide optimal and appropriate support within broader rural development efforts. Evaluations can help extension actors to reconsider their roles within these systems and understand the implications of different policies.

14.5.2

Evaluating extension in a volatile world Extension actors today must operate in rapidly changing contexts that are constantly generating new demands, opportunities and challenges. Fixed service provision packages are therefore being replaced by working with complex and flexible innovation systems. The challenges are characterised by uncertainty, unpredictability and uncontrollability. Evaluation therefore needs to ask whether the intervention is contributing to the development of capacities to manage uncertainties in rural development and if it supports strengthened provision of information, facilitation of discussions and advice regarding probabilities and trends in the light of uncertainty regarding markets, climate and technological change.

14.6

Designing extension evaluation according to purpose Evaluations should naturally be designed according to the purpose or the reasons for evaluating. Accountability and learning are the most common reasons for evaluating extension. Though sometimes combined in the same evaluation, one or the other will usually be given priority and this should affect the design of the evaluation. Accountability focus: To establish how well a programme performed. In extension this can be at different levels, from impact on nutritional status to financial sustainability. The findings may be used to inform decisions about future funding. Learning focus: To improve the approach. Stakeholders learn from the strengths and weaknesses of the programme. Changes in practice are expected in terms of programme design, approach, individual behaviour and knowledge. There can be tensions between these objectives. The accountability focus often requires an objective and therefore independent evaluation whereas a learning focus requires that the evaluation process becomes a more subjective process, where participants create a common understanding a meaning around their practice. Learning approaches therefore require an atmosphere of partnership rather than independence. Apart from the purpose, it needs also to be clarified who will use the evaluation and how it will be used. Any evaluation should start with the identification of key stakeholders and their different expectations and requirements of the evaluation. This should ensure that the evaluation questions respond to the needs of the stakeholders within the extension system, especially the issue of who needs to act on the findings. Those who are responsible for acting on the evaluation‘s findings are central participants in the design of the evaluation. The process of their participation is itself a key outcome of the evaluation, generating greater ownership of the findings and relevance of the recommendations.

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The focus on use and users significantly changes the design and approach of the evaluation, as well as the role of the evaluator. The evaluator acts more as a facilitator and less as a judge. The choice of approach and methodology of evaluation of extension should suit the purpose, primary users and uses of the evaluation. The pluralistic nature of extension favours the use of more than one approach and a selection of tools, both qualitative and quantitative. A number of methods have been developed that are particularly useful for extension evaluation as they explore changes in relationships within networks and multiple stakeholder perspectives. Examples of these are Outcome Mapping and Most Significant Change. Appreciative Inquiry is a related set of methods which is well suited for organisational learning purposes as it focuses on what worked and why and how to take the best practises forward. Rapid Appraisal of Agricultural Knowledge Systems (RAAKS) is a methodology designed to explore the networks and relationships between stakeholders in the innovation system and to facilitate participants to examine problems from multiple and alternative perspectives. Several other tools and methods are available and relevant and links to these are found in the guide. Evaluation costs are a very important factor influencing the choice of methods. Cost considerations relate to the generation of credible evaluation data. There are a number of ways to make evaluations cost effective – for example by building on existing baseline data and monitoring where this is feasible. For long term cost effectiveness it may also be important to use the evaluation process to train local staff and consultants in evaluation concepts and methods as this will contribute to the possibility for the extension programme to monitor their work in the future. 14.7

Evaluating best fit of extension interventions Different types of extension services may serve different extension clients more or less well. An evaluation needs to assess this in an objective and rigorous manner, and avoid preconceived notions. It should assess if and how the extension agencies actually serve their chosen target group according to gender, wealth, market orientation, and other factors. Extension evaluation should also pragmatically assess how the models, goals and objectives of the intervention fit with the day to day practises of extension organisations and staff in relation to their intended clientele. The guide mentions and provides links to a number of common extension methodologies and makes suggestions for how these can be evaluated. At the same time it is recognised that there is no single extension method that works as a ―magic bullet‖ for all farmers in all contexts. It is therefore important for evaluations to assess whether a range of methodologies are available, which in combination suit the different purposes and objectives of the services and also if the choice of methods fits the prevailing human resources and financial capacities of the service providers. In order to draw conclusions regarding financial sustainability of the services, evaluations need to judge the relevance of the mechanism by which extension services are financed during and, especially after the intervention. Moreover, financing is extremely important for the effectiveness of the services in reaching and stimulating demands from different groups of clients. The mechanism will determine whether funds can flow adequately and according to the needs of the clients and has strong influence on the quality and timeliness of the services. Evaluation of this area therefore needs to analyse all the elements making up the financing mechanism.

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Evaluating pluralism Innovation systems thinking and the new definition of extension presented in the guide imply that the emphasis of evaluation needs to broaden in order to reflect ―pluralism‖, assessing the range of actors that might be, should be or could be providing quality extension services for different target groups. Evaluating pluralism involves recognition that the innovation system includes many different actors and also includes actors with varied and frequently even conflicting goals. Pluralistic extension systems are by definition highly complex, which makes evaluation difficult. In recognition of this, new methods are being developed that help in looking beyond institutional and organisational boundaries to understand how an intervention is influencing wider systems. Evaluating the effectiveness of the intervention in the innovation system involves assessing how it contributes to strengthening knowledge sharing and development of new ideas in the network of organisations, enterprises and individuals that focus on innovation of new production methods, processes, and/or market activities as well as of achieving greater sustainability in natural resource use and managing risks.

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Evaluating accountability to clients For extension services to be effective in responding to demands of their clients in the long run, it is essential that the service providers are accountable to the users of the services. The extent to which this is the case is therefore an important factor for evaluation of the system. A central challenge to demand orientation and accountability of services is to match the demand with the supply of services. Many service providers are well qualified in their areas of specialisation, which is often technical, whereas the demands from clients may be more focused on obtaining marketing advice and information, enterprise development and legal support. Evaluation can assess if and how this challenge is addressed. Another challenge concerns quality assurance. An evaluation should look at quality through the perspective of the farmer and use their criteria for quality in the assessment.

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Assessing human resource challenges The expectations from farmers for what they should receive from their advisors have changed dramatically in recent years. The transition of extension services to become more demand and market oriented advisory services requires building new competencies of extension institutions, managers and staff. In assessing the sustainability of any extension intervention, it is crucial that development and maintenance of human resource capacity that correspond the changing demands is appropriately considered.

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Evaluating sustainability of extension Extension interventions are carried out in a volatile world. This creates challenges in defining what sustainability means. New sustainability indicators are required that take uncertainty and changes in weather, structures, security, land ownership, etc. into account. Ownership is always a key component of sustainable extension reform and ownership of extension interventions should therefore be evaluated at all levels.

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Extension services that are embedded in contractual farming arrangements are currently perhaps the most important avenue for commercialisation of the small-scale sector in many countries. This system has sustainability inbuilt as part of the concept. But despite the high importance and potential for sustainability, there is so far little evidence-based knowledge about the potential and consequences of these service systems for the farmers. Evaluations should take these arrangements into consideration and assess their results in order to increase knowledge and evidence in this regard. Finally, it should be recognised that sustainability cannot be verifiably assessed while a project is underway and when significant external resource flows are available. Real evidence regarding the long term sustainability of an extension intervention requires ex post evaluations. 14.12

Conclusion Extension is a critical institution within agricultural innovation systems. Evaluation of extension has been quite weak to date and there is limited evidence on its impact. More evidence is needed and we hope that this guide will help Evaluating extension is a complex task as extension consists of a wide array of activities, and it is driven by a mix of goals of farmers, governments, private firms, researchers and others in the innovation system and within broader rural development interventions. For these reasons, evaluating extension is inevitably a messy business. Orientation is needed to ensure that evaluation approaches reflect pluralistic systems and increase understanding of how extension fits into rural development today and how it can perform better in an increasingly volatile world with rapidly changing markets, climate and political priorities. The most fundamental challenge in evaluating extension is to maintain this broad and dynamic perspective on how farmers and other rural actors are accessing the information and advice they need.

REFERENCES Anderson, J. R. (2007). Agricultural advisory services. Background paper for World Development Report 2008, Agriculture for Development. Washington, DC: The World Bank. Birkhaeuser, D., Evenson, R. E., & Feder, G. (1991). The economic impact of agricultural extension: A Review. Economic Development and Cultural Change 39(3): 607640. Davis, K. 2008. Extension in Sub-Saharan Africa: Overview and Assessment of Past and Current Models and Future Prospects. Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education 15(3): 15—28. GFRAS. 2010. Five Key Areas for Mobilising the Potential of Rural Advisory Services. GFRAS Brief No. 1. Lindau: Global Forum for Rural Advisory Services (GFRAS). Purcell, D. L., & Anderson, J. R. (1997). Agricultural extension and research: Achievements and problems in national systems. Washington, DC: The World Bank.

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IMPLEMENTATION OF THE “TOP FRUIT” PROJECT FOR PRODUCING HIGHEST QUALITY FRUITS IN SOUTH KOREAN FARMS Soyoung Choi Rural Development Administration, South Korea [email protected]

Keywords: Top fruit, high quality, RDA, quality standard, South Korean farms 15.1

Background

Theme 4

―Top Fruit‖ is a project run by Rural Development Administration (RDA) to implement technologies for producing highest quality fruits in South Korean farms. RDA is a governmental body that leads agricultural business promotion in Korea. ―Top Fruit‖ is a pilot project initiated in 2006, which aims to standardize highest quality fruits for the major fruits produced in Korea and spread the technologies to farmers. This is an effort to benefit both farmers and consumers by guaranteeing proper price for farmers and consistent quality for consumers. 15.2

Procedure For the first phase of this project (2006-2008), model farms were successfully established following the below described procedures. First, quality standards were set for four major fruits (apples, pears, grapes, and citruses) based on research data. Model farms for each fruit type were then selected after a series of examination and were provided with customized technical support through visits of research and training specialists. Major technologies used in this project focus on enhancement of sweetness and color, facilitation of artificial pollination, pruning, and sod planting, as well as promotion of eco-friendly farming. Application of a strict selection process was also managed for the resulting fruits to achieve uniform quality. A certification sticker was employed to be attached to fruit boxes meeting the highest quality standards set by RDA. Year-end evaluation and competition events were held for harvested fruits to boost farmers‘ motivation and improve the technologies. Annual sales promotion events were also held in collaboration with major wholesalers to raise consumer awareness of the top quality fruits.

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Results One of the successful cases of this project is a model complex in Yeongju city of north Gyeongsang Province. Thirteen farmers in a total of 24 hectare apple production complex participated in this project. Through the technical guidance of RDA experts, 60 tons of apples yielded the top quality marks among 294 tons of total apple harvest in 2006. The numbers increased in the following years yielding 168 top quality marks out of 518 tons in 2007, and 240 out of 600 tons in 2008. The top quality apple production rates increased annually from 20% (2006) to 32% (2007) and 40% (2008). Management of consistent quality using the top quality standards also enabled the farmers to sell their top quality apples to department stores and major wholesalers on a regular basis. This is a drastic improvement considering that some farmers used to sell their fruits in non-standard boxes on the road sides, and did not receive a fair market price because of fruit quality differences based on the skill level differences among the farmers.

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Conclusion The successful experiences instilled confidence in participating farmers that they can produce top quality fruits. The success of the central government (RDA) also propelled local governments to bench mark and implement the Top Fruit project in local farms, which contributed to nationwide increase in high quality fruit-producing farms.

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KNOWLEDGE DELIVERY SYSTEMS IN AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION: SCHOOL-BASED VERSUS FARM-BASED METHODS Chrysanthi Charatsari, Afroditi Papadaki-Klavdianou, Ilias G. Eleftherohorinos and Anastasios Michailidis Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, School of Agriculture

Keywords: agricultural education, knowledge delivery methods, effectiveness of educational methods, farmer field schools, learning by acting 16.1

1. Introduction

Theme 2

The public Organization of Agricultural Vocational Education, Training and Employment (―DEMETRA‖) is the major provider of continuing agricultural education in Greece (Papadaki-Klavdianou, 2009: p. 30). Training programs are also provided by local cooperatives or private agencies, such as farm equipment/supply companies and certification bodies which certify quality systems in agricultural production (Charatsari et al, 2011). Although, globally, several new methods have been introduced in the context of agricultural education, its use by DEMETRA and other institutions offering agricultural education in Greece remain poor. DEMETRA offers usually short courses, by using methods such as lectures and theoretical lessons. Methods used by DEMETRA are similar to those of the typical Greek system of formal education, which, according to Kanakis (1991), include lectures, presentations, questions to educators, as well as practical and theoretical lessons. The objective of this study is to investigate the farmers‘ perceived effectiveness of education delivery methods, including those used by DEMETRA. 16.2

Conceptual framework Selecting appropriate knowledge delivery methods is a pivotal element in the creation of an effective learning environment. This is confirmed in the field of agricultural extension education by several previous researches which have found a significant linkage between methods used and the - factual or perceived - education effectiveness (Mancini et al, 2008; Adovor et al, 2009; De Zoysa, 2005; DeCamp et al, 2001). However, taking into account that the majority of the published studies have focused in the examination of each method separately, the aim of this research is to compare the farmers‘ perceived effectiveness of education delivery methods. Regarding adult education, the results published indicate that a variety of methods can be implemented by education designers to achieve desired learning outcomes (Jarvis, 1995: p.142; Knowles et al, 1977: p. 57). Although some modern methods of knowledge transfer such as those incorporating information and communication technologies or farmer field schools have attracted the interest of researchers, surveys have shown that the preferred ways of learning and consequently the achievement of learning can be largely affected by the learning models applied in formal education (Wang and Moore, 2007; Sanders et al, 2006; Chan, 1999). Based on these conflicting results, this paper attempts to compare traditional extension/education techniques with some recently entered methods, and to segment farmers based on their perceived effectiveness of these methods.

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Research design and procedure The study focused on farmers in Northern Greece. After a random sampling procedure, a total of 385 producers participated in the study. A deductive approach was used in

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order to generate an initial pool of 21 items referred to knowledge delivery methods, based on previous studies. A five-point Likert-type scale was used to measure the perceived effectiveness of all 21 methods. Since a single teaching method typically cannot create all the conditions necessary for a given learning objective, items were separated according to their relevance into four groups: traditional methods, media schools, group activities and farmer field schools. Traditional methods include techniques used routinely by the Greek agricultural extension/education services, such as lectures, visits of agronomists to the farm, farmers‘ visits to the agriculturists, distribution of brochures, practical and theoretical lessons. Media schools refer to the use of information and communication technologies in the knowledge delivery process. Group activities include methods based on creation of farmers‘ groups, in order to achieve knowledge exchange between participants, with or without the presence of a specialist. Although farmer field schools also require the creation of farmers groups, differ from the methods mentioned as group activities, as are based on the diffusion of knowledge through demonstration of procedures to achieve goals. In this study, under the term ―farmer field schools‖ are included demonstrations in physical conditions of the agroecosystem or in pilot farms, and study trips. For each group of items, the reliability was confirmed by employing analysis of unidimensionality (Gerbing and Anderson, 1988) in order to determine if the group can be considered homogeneous. Descriptive statistics, bivariate analysis (Analysis of variance, Mann-Whitney test, t-test, Pearson‘s χ2) and k-means cluster analysis were used in order to meet research‘s objectives. 16.4

Results Approximately 29% of the 385 respondent farmers were between 41-50 years old, 22.6% were 31-40, and 17.4% were 51-60. The respondents appeared to be poorly educated as only 5.7% of the total sample had post-secondary education. However, 174 farmers (45.2%) had participated in one or more agricultural education programs. Males constituted 75.3% of the sample, and females constituted the rest 24.7%. The results indicate that farmer field schools are considered as the most effective system for knowledge transfer (Mean Score=4.27; S.D.=0.737). It is noteworthy that the media schools are considered as less effective compared with the other methods proposed (Table 1). The comparison of the mean scores of the four methods examined indicated significant differences among the effectiveness of media schools and that of the other three methods at a probability level of 0.001 (Average difference―media schools‖ – ―traditional methods‖=-0.28; t=-5.107; df=384; p=0.000). Table 1. Evaluation of the effectiveness of the four examined methods Method

Mean Score*

Standard Deviation

Farmer field schools Group activities Traditional methods Media schools * Ranged from a low of 1 to a high of 5

4.27 3.70 3.39 3.12

0.737 0.737 0.664 0.665

Based on the variables referred to the evaluation of the four methods, the k-Means Cluster Analysis procedure employed revealed two clusters of farmers who are homogenous in their perception on the efficiency of the methods examined. The two cluster solution was found to fit well the data and to offer more interpretable results compared to other solutions of three or more clusters. The greatest separation between clusters was provided by the variable ―farmer field schools‖ (F=412.464;

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p=0.000). The clusters are named based on the predominant characteristics of their members. The two clusters‘ characteristics are as follows: ―Old style learners‖: This cluster consists of 104 producers (27.01% of the total sample), who assign high effectiveness to traditional knowledge delivery methods (Mean Score=4.02; S.D.=0.54). Old style learners are older, wealthier and have an insufficient level in terms of both formal and agricultural education, as only one farmer (0.96%) has post-secondary education, whereas approximately three quarters of the cluster (74.04%) have not participated in agricultural education programs. ―Learning-by-acting fans‖: The 281 farmers of this cluster (72.99% of the total sample) judge as more effective the farmer field schools (Mean Score=4.59; S.D.=0.43) and group activities (Mean Score=3.97; S.D.=0.61). By contrast, the effectiveness of traditional methods is in doubt for this group of farmers. Learning-by-acting fans are well educated, incorporate sustainable practices in their farming systems (72.24%), and more than half of them (52.31%) have attended at least one agricultural education program. Table 2 highlights the significant differences between the two clusters.

Table 2. Differences between ―Old style learners‖ and ―Learning-by-acting fans‖

Variable

Test

Educational delivery methods Farmer field schools ANOVA Group activities ANOVA Traditional methods ANOVA Media schools ANOVA Selected variables Age M-W test Educational level M-W test Income M-W test Participation in agricultural education programs Pearson’s χ2 * O.S.L.: Old style learners; L.B.A.F.: Learning by acting fans

16.5

Significance (p-value)

Comparison of the two clusters*

0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

L.B.A.F. > O.S.L. L.B.A.F. > O.S.L. O.S.L. > L.B.A.F. L.B.A.F. > O.S.L.

0.000 0.000 0.028 0.000

O.S.L. > L.B.A.F. L.B.A.F. > O.S.L. O.S.L. > L.B.A.F. L.B.A.F. > O.S.L.

Discussion and conclusion The findings of this research indicate that farmers prefer new and more participatory models for the delivery of knowledge, such as farmer field schools. Onduru et al (2008) attribute the high efficiency of the method in its ability to encourage interaction between farmers, researchers and practitioners. Based on the experimental learning (Mancini et al, 2007), field schools offer higher levels of knowledge (Cirilo et al, 2009), while promote collective action and foster the development of design and organizational capacities of farmers (van den Berg and Jiggins, 2007). Practical ways to reach educational goals seem to be considered suitable by the farmers already participated in agricultural education programs. Learning through action seems to be more attractive to younger farmers, who have already participated in agricultural education activities. Active engagement, seen as an essential ingredient to the developing of lifelong learning skills in the literature of formal education (Adler and Milne, 1997), can be easily applied in agriculture. However, traditional methods remain valuable for a significant proportion of rural people, especially for those farmers showing low involvement with education. Although the majority of participants felt that these methods, routinely used by the official public body of agricultural education in Greece (DEMETRA), are of low efficiency, the utilization of such methods from extension/education providers is critical to serve a substantial part of the rural population. As the case of ―Old style learners‖ imply, agricultural education

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programs based on traditional ways of knowledge transfer are more likely to be successful for those farmers who have little familiarity with education. This remark confirms that participatory and conventional methods are complementary (Mancini and Jiggins, 2008). Instead, an important finding of this study is the limited usefulness attributed by participants to methods centered on information and communication technologies. This might be due to the low acquaintance of Greek farmers with the major tool of information and communication technology, the Internet (Michailidis et al, 2011), derived from the traditionally problematic technology adoption in the country (Buhalis and Deimezi, 2003). This result supports the reported by Koutsouris (2010) need for more cautious approaches of such technologies. From a managerial perspective, this research provides evidence that the implementation of any activity of agricultural education should be based on the approach ―targeting-before-applying‖. This is because farmers showed to have different perceptions about the effectiveness of educational methods, while these perceptions have been found that can influence their willingness to participate in agricultural education programs (Lioutas et al, 2010). In addition to the conclusions of this research, a few limitations which could stimulate further research need to be mentioned. First, the effectiveness of the methods is perceived, since a large portion of the sample does not experienced some or all of these methods. Although this paper was motivated by a desire to depict the perceptions of farmers regardless of their previous experience, the examination of the validity of results to farmers who have received education through some of these methods is an interesting new research direction. Second, the effectiveness of the methods was examined independently of the educational subject. Also, the role of educators can positively or negatively affect the effectiveness of each method. One natural next step for research in this field is to integrate these concepts in order to create a more comprehensive framework of understanding the efficiency of the methods used for knowledge transfer to the rural population.

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REFERENCES Adler, R.W. & Milne M.J. (1997) Improving the quality of accounting students‘ learning through action-oriented learning tasks. Accounting Education: An International Journal, 6(3), pp. 191-215. Adovor, D., Estrada-Velle, J. & Runsheng, Y. (2009) Knowledge Gaps and Training Needs of Afghanistan‘s Agricultural Extension Agents. AIAEE, Proceedings of the 25th Annual Meeting, Puerto Rico, pp. 1-12. Buhalis, D. & Deimezi, O. (2003) Information Technology Penetration and E-commerce Developments in Greece, With a Focus on Small to Medium-sized Enterprises. Electronic Markets, 13(4), pp. 309-324. Chan, S. (1999) The Chinese Learner - A Question of Style. Education + Training, 41(6/7), pp. 294-305. Charatsari, C., Papadaki-Klavdianou, A. & Michailidis, A. (2011) Farmers as Consumers of Agricultural Education Services: Willingness to Pay and Spend Time. The Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension, 17(3), pp. 253-266. Cirilo, S.O., Valverde, B.R., Flores, R.A., Sanchez, L.J., Chulim, N.E., Olvera, B.V.P., Sanchez, A.R. & Guerra, M.M. (2009) Impacto of Technological Knowledge on the Adoption of Agricultural Technology by Indigenous Peasants of Mexico. Interciencia, 34(8), pp. 551-555. De Zoysa, M. (2005) Midigama Model Fruit Village in Sri Lanka: Assessing and Meeting of Technology and Training Needs. IVth International Symposium on Horticultural Education, Extension and Training - Proceedings Book Series: Acta Horticulturae, 672, pp. 129-135. DeCamp, S., Richet, B., Singleton, W., Vives, N. & Slipher, G. (2001) Evaluating Pork Producers‘ Acceptance of Distance Education Media. Journal of Extension, 39(3), retrieved September 25, 2005 from http://www.joe.org/joe/2001june/rb4.php Gerbing, D.W. & Anderson, J.C. (1988) An Updated Paradigm for Scale Development Iincorporating Unidimensionality and its Assessment. Journal of Marketing Research. 25(2), pp. 186-192. Jarvis, P. (1995) Adult and Continuing Education: Theory and Practice, 2nd Edition. London: Routledge. Kanakis, I. (1991) The Approach of Daily Instruction in Elementary School. Educational Review, 14-15, pp. 5-30. Knowles, M.S., Holton, E.F. & Swanson, R.A. (2005) The Adult Learner: The Definitive Classic in Adult Education and Human Resource Development, 6th Edition. New York: Elsevier, Butterworth-Heinemann. Koutsouris, A. (2010) The Emergence of the Intra-rural Digital Divide: A Critical Review of the Adoption of ICTs in Rural Areas and the Farming Community. Proccedings of 9th European IFSA Symposium, 4‐ 7 July 2010, Vienna (Austria), pp. 23-32. Lioutas, E.D., Tzimitra-Kalogianni, I. & Charatsari, C. (2010) Small Ruminant Producers‘ Training Needs and Factors Discouraging Participation in Agricultural Education/Training Programs. Livestock Research for Rural Development, 22(7), retrieved 26 July, 2010 from: http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd22/7/liou22126.htm

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Lopez Ariza, B. & Suvedi, M. (2009) Understanding Hispanic Farmers and Their Educational Needs: A Case of Southwestern Michigan. AIAEE, Proceedings of the 25th Annual Meeting, Puerto Rico, pp. 67-77. Mancini, F. & Jiggins, J. (2008) Appraisal of Methods to Evaluate Farmer Field Schools. Development in Practice, 18(4&5), pp. 539-550. Mancini, F., Termorshuizen, A.J., Jiggins, J.L.S. & van Bruggen, A.H.C. (2008) Increasing the Environmental and Social Sustainability of Cotton Farming through Farmer Education in Andhra Pradesh, India. Agricultural Systems, 96(1-3), pp. 16-25. Mancini, F., van Bruggen, A.H.C. & Jiggins, J. (2007) Evaluating Cotton Integrated Pest Management (ipm) Farmer Field School Outcomes Using the Sustainable Livelihoods Approach in India. Experimental Agriculture. 43(1), pp. 97-112. Michailidis, A., Partalidou, M., Nastis, S.A., Papadaki-Klavdianou, A. & Charatsari, C. (2011) Who Goes Online? Evidence of Internet Use Patterns from Rural Greece. Telecommunications Policy, 35(4), pp. 333-343. Onduru, D.D., du Preez, C.C., Muchena, F.N., Gachimbi, L.N., de Jager, A., & Gachini, G.N. (2008) Exploring Options for Integrated Nutrient Management in Semi-arid Tropics Using Farmer Field Schools: A Case Study in Mbeere District, Eastern Kenya. International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability, 6(3), pp. 208-288. Papadaki-Klavdianou, A. (2009) Agricultural Education. Grafima Publications, Thessaloniki. Sanders, F.E., Huang, Y.P. & Jian, H.L. (2006) Experiences of Teaching Engineering Students in Taiwan from a Western Perspective. International Journal of Engineering Education, 22(5), pp. 1013-1022. Van der Berg, H. & Jiggins, J. (2007) Investing in Farmers - The Impacts of Farmer Field Schools in Relation to Integrated Pest Management. World Development, 35(4), pp. 663-686. Wang, T., & Moore, L. (2007) Exploring Learning Style Preferences of Chinese Postgraduate Students in Australian Transnational Programs. International Journal of Pedagogies and Learning, 3(2), pp. 31-41.

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ASSESSMENT STUDY ON EFFECTIVENESS OF VOCATIONAL TRAINING AND EXTENSION SERVICES IN ANTALYA REGION, TURKEY Kürşat Demiryürek, Ayşegül Akın KÜRŞAT DEMIRYÜREK: Ondokuz Mayıs University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Agricultural Economics, Samsun, Turkey, [email protected] AYŞEGÜL AKIN: United Nations Food and Agricultural Organizations Subregional Office for Central Asia, Ankara, Turkey, [email protected]

ABSTRACT This paper summarizes the report of ―Assessment Study on Effectiveness of Vocational Training and Extension Services in Antalya Region, Turkey‖. It was prepared under the project of United Nations Joint Programme, named Growth with Decent Work for All: A Youth Employment Program in Antalya. Antalya largely contributes important parts of agricultural exports of Turkey. 33% of total agricultural exports of Turkey are made from Antalya. Recent figures showed that 324,4 million cut flowers are exported in 2009 and obtained about 24,4 million US$. The majority (95%) of Turkish cut flower production is exported from Antalya. The mostly produced and exported cut flower is carnation. Cut flower sector is not only restricted with production and export. It creates employment for labor; especially people emigrate from south and eastern part of Turkey. It also contributes employment, production and marketing in other sectors. Although the cut flower sector is booming and required qualified labors, limited number of courses previously implemented and the graduates generally had difficulty in finding a job in the sector. The shortcomings of the courses are due to lack of coordination and collaboration among stakeholders. The general objective of this study is to analyze the social and economic conditions impacting the youth employment in Antalya region, Turkey. The study indicates the gaps and recommendations for improved provision of vocational training and extension services geared towards increased opportunities for employment of young migrant workers in cut flower production. Thus, it will contribute to improvement of competitiveness of cut flower production and the overall welfare in the region. The study had been presented to the stakeholders in Antalya and their feedbacks were received and the report had been developed based on these feedbacks. Specifically, the study presents the interviews conducted with both selected employers and labors in the cut flowers sector. In addition, the results of the study also include several visits to the organizations, meetings and fieldwork with the stakeholders defined by the previous field visits. Based on the study and feedbacks from the stakeholders, the recommendations for designing better vocational training programme are presented in this paper. In order to develop effective vocational training programme for female, young and migrant labors in Antalya‘s cut flower sector under the frame of UN Joint Project, pilot vocational training activities will be organized and implemented with the cooperation of stakeholders. However, model cut flower enterprises should be used in practical applications and their qualified technicians and experts should be largely benefited. These model enterprises should be selected with the cooperation from cut flower sector representatives and public employment agency should make a specific service agreement and possibly the vocational courses should be organized with employment guaranteed depending on the agreement. Keywords: vocational training, training programme, youth employment, cut flower, Antalya

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Introduction Assessment Study on Effectiveness of Vocational Training and Extension Services in Antalya Region was prepared under the general supervision of FAO Representative for Turkey and technical supervision of UN FAO‘s officers and other UN project partners. The purpose of the study is to serve as a part of the input for design of vocational training programmes targeted at agricultural enterprises in Antalya, Turkey. This will be then developed within the framework of UN Joint Program. The general objective of the study is to analyze the social and economic conditions affecting the youth employment in Antalya region. The study indicates the gaps and recommendations for improved provision of vocational training and advisory services geared towards increased opportunities for employment of young migrant workers in cut flower production. Thus, it will contribute to improvement of competitiveness of cut flower production and the overall welfare in Antalya region. The draft study was presented to the stakeholders in Antalya and their feedbacks were received and the report was developed based on these feedbacks.

17.2

Material and Methods This assessment study contains the background information about the agriculture, employment market and cut flowers sector in Antalya region. Specifically, the study presents the interviews conducted with both selected employers and labors in the cut flowers sector. In addition, the results of the study were based on the terms of reference made between FAO and the authors, and also include several visits to the organizations, meetings and fieldwork with the stakeholders defined by the previous fieldworks. Apart from the main source of data (i.e. the interviews); meetings, visits of organizations, observations, fieldworks and some printed materials were the sources collected during the study. Together with the fieldworks, and the related reports provided background information for the study, especially the Agricultural Master Plans of Antalya. Based on this report, the needs analysis of the labors profile and market, and the capacity analysis of the possible stakeholders in terms of conducting vocational training are defined. The draft report was initially reviewed by the FAO officers and other UN partners then distributed to the stakeholders and presented in Antalya to receive their criticism, comments and contributions. These feedbacks were considered and required changes were made and final draft was prepared. Based on the study and feedbacks, the detailed vocational training programs (i.e. place, participants, logistics, roles of organizers, implementers, practical applications and so on) will be specifically defined. This sample size reflects about 10% of the companies/exporters currently registered to Antalya Cut Flower Exporters Unions. Since the assessment study focused on the sector and analyzed general characteristics, the quantitative research design and concerns on representativeness of the whole area were replaced with originality and specifically of the sector. Thus, the data were gathered from limited numbers of enterprises, but detailed information from different sizes of enterprisers and prohibitions of labors was collected. Thus, the results reflect the general characteristics of the sector. In addition, the data sources of the study were also supported with the interviews with experts and advisors (the Unions, Commodity Markets, lectures, researchers and head of agricultural directorate) and previous reports and field studies conducted in the same area. Most of the questions in the interviews were closed ended and multiple selection questions to make interviewees easily answer them. In addition, to facilitate the responses and to compare the answers, various Likert Scales were used to measure the

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degree of importance, agreement and impacts. Some open ended questions were also asked to receive the comments of respondents. The interview schedules for the owners/managers contains the profiles of the enterprises, personal characteristics, farm characteristics, production, cost, price, selling, labor requirements, socio-economic characteristics of labors, labors distributions to production and post harvest activities, definition of labor training, the subjects, duration, mediums, organizers, suitable numbers of participants and so on. Thus, these interviews do not only reflect the personal and farm characteristics of the owners, but also their perceptions and information about labors. The interviews schedules for labors also covers the socio-economic characteristics of the labors, their background of experience, migration status, their responsibilities and tasks in the enterprises, conditions of accommodation, working and social security, definition of training needs, importance of subjects, the possible place, organizes, duration, season of training programmes. The surveys were conducted face to face with the owners and labors of the enterprises. The selection of the respondents was made with the help of experts in the Exporters Unions and some enterprises. The purposeful selection was based on covering the different sizes of enterprises (large, medium and small) and different tasks of labors varying from ordinary workers to qualified technicians and even agricultural engineers. Rapid Rural Appraisal approach was adopted during fieldwork to collect suitable data with the limitations of this applied study and action research design. Thus, the scientific and fundamental research design and sampling procedures were replaced with the purpose of this study. The data collected with the interview schedules for the owners and labors were transferred into different databases of statistical analysis program (SPSS 17.0) and descriptive statistics (i.e. frequency and percentage) were calculated. To make the comparisons and to define the rank orders between the variables, the weights were given based on the degree of importance and the percentages of the variables were multiplied with them to calculate the total scores. These scores were then put into rank orders. 17.3

Results As far as the general agricultural situation of Antalya is concerned, majority (72,7%) of the agricultural holdings in Antalya grow both crop and animal production. Agricultural land is mainly (65%) allocated for field crops. The areas allocated for fruit, vegetables and ornamental flowers (especially cut flowers) are more than in Turkey‘s average. Tomato is the major vegetable product grown in greenhouses, followed by cucumber and pepper. In terms of fruits, orange and apple productions are also important in Antalya. Carnation is one of the most important cut flowers. Wheat, barley and cotton are also important field crops grown in Antalya. Antalya largely contributes important parts of agricultural exports of Turkey. 33% of total agricultural exports of Turkey are made from Antalya. 37% of total Turkish fresh fruits and vegetables are exported from Antalya. Although agriculture sector contributed most of the labors in Antalya for a long time, its share was gradually decreased between 1980 and 2000.Agriculture sector employed nearly 80% in 1970s where the share was decreasing and reached about 50% in 2000. However, the share of agricultural employment in Antalya was still more than in average (about 40% in Turkey) in 2000‘s. The majority (95%) of Turkish cut flower production is exported from Antalya and only about 5% of them are sold in national markets. The flowers are generally sold in cooperative auctions in local flower markets throughout Turkey. The export of cut flow-

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ers is generally done by medium and large sizes producer-exporter companies. Small size family farms are contracted with exporter companies and they are controlled by the experts (i.e. agricultural engineers) of these companies during the production process. In 2004, 65% of the cut flowers grown in Antalya were carnation, followed by 23% Gerbera, 3.5% Gypsophilla and %1.5 Solidago. In 2005 there were nearly 50 companies dealing with production, export and import of cut flowers. Recent figure shows that there are around 100 companies currently member of Antalya Cut Flower Exporters Union. Cut flower sector is not only restricted with production and export. It creates employment for labor; especially people emigrate from south and eastern part of Turkey. It also contributes employment, production and marketing sectors of greenhouse construction, seedlings and nursery, agricultural inputs, packaging, transportation and so on. Recent figures from Antalya Cut Flowers Exporters Union showed that 324,4 million cut flowers are exported in 2009 and obtained about 24,4 million US$. The main importers of Antalya cut flowers are England, Greece, Russia, Romania, Holland, Japan and Ukraine. The mostly produced and exported cut flower is carnation. With regards to organization, the sector is well organized and cooperated. One of the most important organizations is Antalya Cut Flowers Exporters Union which is connected to the Prime Ministry Treasure and Foreign Trade Directorate. There are also producers cooperatives mainly concentrate on national market. In order to define the training needs of labors in cut flower sector, face to face interviews were conducted with 10 selected owners and/or managers of cut flowers companies/exporters. The owners/managers of the cut flower companies had higher levels of formal education. Altınova region of Antalya is the place for the cut flowers production and most of the holdings were placed there. The location is very close to the airport and city centre. On the other hand, the sub-sectors and related industries of cut flowers sector were developed in this area. Thus, the land is valuable; the enterpises prefer to rent the land rather than purchase. However, the rent and of course the cost of production are gradually increasing. Apart from the small size family farms the large and medium size holdings contract with labor families, meet all the production costs and control the production processes until harvest and pay 3 Turkish kuruş (approximately 1.2 cent; 1Euro = 2.5 Turkish Lira) per stem-flowers. These labors were generally come from south-east and east part of Turkey and some of them come from Anatolia. Post-harvest processes such as packaging, storage and transportation were generally done by more specified packaging labors and storage technicians. Thus, the labors in the medium and large size producers/exporters can be broadly classified into two parts, one is ordinary labors work with their families in the cut flower production until harvest and the second type is more qualified labors or technicians work in packaging and storage. With regards to social security, permanent labors (technicians, packaging workers, administrative staff and engineers) currently working in the enterprises have social security. This is compulsory and otherwise both the labor and employer have to pay fine. However, none of the immigrant labor families had social security. Some of them have only so called green card, and are benefited from hospitals free of charge. Few of the male heads in these families have social security. This means that none of them registered to Social Security Institution (SGK) and not paid any security contribution (premium). They work without security and the enterprises do not pay the security

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contribution or premium for their labor families either. This is a dilemma and both sides are not uncomfortable. Both the employers and employees find the security premiums are high and reluctant to pay so. Since the income of family labors depends on the number of stems per season and it is relatively low, they do not want to pay the premiums. On the other hand, the employers do not want to pay the premiums, because this increases the cost of production. The enterprises had informal contract with family labors. In reality, these families produce cut flowers on behalf of the enterprises. However, in practice, labor families are responsible for production and since there is a tax exemption for small family farms and no other land or agricultural production taxes, they do not have to keep any records, pay any tax or social security premiums. So, the larger enterprises can avoid these compulsory security premiums and taxes. As far as the vocational educational background of the labor families are concerned, they had no previous experience about cut flower production and none of them had formal vocational training in their hometowns. Some of them had some previous experience in field crops. They met cut flowers when they arrived to Antalya. They are generally trained and manipulated by agricultural engineers in the enterprises during different stages productions and some critical and specific applications are also made by these qualified permanent labors and advisors. The analysis for the possible subjects of labor training revealed the perceptions of the owners/managers that family labors should be trained on production techniques, starting from preparation of nursing plants and soil to input use (fertilizers and pesticides) and maintenance (i.e. plant care). Cutting carnation stems is of course, one of the important activities and directly affects the quality of flower and export possibilities and during the production, the cutting of carnation plant is done by several times. The trainings of storage should be directed to the qualified permanent labors in the enterprises. Similarly, packaging subjects should be focused on permanent female labors. On the other hand, the specified subjects such as business management, marketing, information and communication technologies (ICT), regulations, quality control and government supports should be targeted to owners, managers and administrative staff. It is clear that the labor training should be both theoretic and applied. Another important issue is that, the organizers for this training for labors. The owners/managers (respondents) indicated their preferences and the analysis showed that the training should be initially made by a private enterprise that has an application unit (fields, facilities, machines, inputs, flowers, plants, storage, packaging and so on) and should be a model enterprise and presents real conditions. Apart from the suitability of place, these kinds of model enterprises have also qualified and experienced engineers and technicians who will be a suitable instructors. Of course, some specific subjects and techniques such as plant protection, tissue culture, fumigation, storage and so on should be trained by University lecturers and/or researchers. Researchers and experts from BATEM (Western Mediterranean Agricultural Research Institute) and Agricultural Directorate should also be involved in this training. The interviews with the labors in the enterprises revealed that nearly all of them had participated at least one training activity, but majority of the trainings for labors were organized by agricultural engineers of the enterprises (i.e. in-service training). Only 8% of the labors participated vocational training with certification. This was organized by Antalya Commodity Markets in TÜMEM (Agricultural Applied Vocational Training Centre). 12% of the labors also participated courses in Antalya Agricultural Directorate. This certification courses were organized for agricultural engineers on specific subjects such as solarization, fumigation, methyl bromide application and so on. The engineers had to complete these courses to use these methods and inputs.

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The labor interviewees claimed that the courses were very usefull in finding, doing and sustaining their jobs. This shows that all kinds of vocational courses are very important in terms of finding a job, improving skills and experiences, completing the tasks with properly and most importantly sustaining the position, even finding better jobs. The analysis about the perceptions of labors was parallel with the perceptions of the owners/managers. According to the orders of importance, pest control and input use were important subjects and these subjects need more qualifications and should be targeted to agricultural engineers. Post harvest operations such as packaging and storage were also important subjects and should be taught to technicians. Production processes such as cutting flowers-harvesting, plant care-maintenance, preparation of nursery plants and plantations should be targeted to migrant family labors and young female labors. The specified subjects such as business management, marketing, ICT, regulations, quality control and government supports should be targeted to owners, managers and administrative staff. The specified subjects such as new production techniques, and ICT use should be targeted to owners, managers and administrative staff. Like to the owners/managers, the labors preferred that the training should be organized in a selected private/model enterprise. The qualified agricultural engineers and experienced technicians of these kinds of enterprises should be instructors. The facilities, tools, machines, greenhouses, packaging and storage units of these enterprises should be used in applied vocational training. Few participants indicated that BATEM and Agricultural Directorate should be involved in these trainings with their experts. The meetings with the stakeholder institutions (i.e. research institutes, university, agricultural directorate, exporters union, commodity markets and municipality and) revealed that all of them were willing to design and implement vocational training programs to enhance the knowledge and skill levels of the young, and unskilled female migrants. However, the role and capacity of the stakeholders need to be critically assessed together with the needs analysis of the labor market and profiles. There is not much difference about previous and current experience among institutions, because all of them had similar experience on general agricultural training. However, none of them has experience especially vocational training on cut flowers. Except, Antalya Commodity Markets and Exporters Union organized applied vocational training of cut flowers in Agricultural Applied Vocational Training Centers (TUMEM) in 2009. In addition, the private enterpises (producers/exporters) have been continuously organized pre and in-service training for their ordinary labors and thus, they are experienced in applied training. 17.4

Conclusion and Recommendations The previous experiences in vocational training activities on cut flower and greenhouse production organized by different public and private institutions in Antalya showed that there was a lack of coordination among stakeholders. Although cut flower sector is booming and required qualified labors, limited number of courses previously implemented and the graduates generally had difficulty in finding a job in the sector. The shortcomings of the courses are due to lack of coordination and collaboration among stakeholders. In order to develop effective vocational training programme for female, young and migrant labors in Antalya in cut flower sector under the frame of UN Joint Project, İŞKUR (Turkish Employment Organization) will organize and implement pilot vocational training activities with the cooperation of stakeholders. This vocational training will be made with service agreement between İŞKUR and a public and/or private training or-

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ganization accredited by Ministry of Education (MoE). Courses can be organized and implemented according to the modular system of MoE on cut flower production. However, model cut flower enterprises and their qualified technicians and experts should be largely benefited. These model enterprises should be selected with the cooperation from cut flower sector representatives and İŞKUR should make a specific service agreement and possibly the vocational courses can be organized with employment guaranteed depending on the agreement. One of the important advantages of these enterprises to be used in the courses is that they reflect the real production and processing conditions and have all the facilities such as nursery, seedlings, greenhouses, and packaging and storage units, inputs, machines, tools, production materials, flowers and green plants. More importantly, with the cooperations among İŞKUR, Agricultural Directorate, University, Research Institute (BATEM), Export Unions, Commodity Markets and Municipality, the enterprises can easily find possible candidates for vocational training activities. These candidates can be unemployed migrants, unqualified labors who are looking for a job or under risk to losing their jobs, and ordinary labors temporarily work in the enterprises. These people can be trained and built skills and experience to find a proper job, sustain their positions or even become qualified labors. They can easily find jobs whether in the cut flower enterprises or other related jobs. Model enterprises can be selected with the cooperation of these institutions especially with the organizations of enterprises (the Union, CMs, Chambers of Trade and so on), a protocol can be made to organize practical application. Various experts from the university, research institute, agricultural directorate and private advisors can be involved in future vocational training. The local organization and implementation of the training program can be made by İŞKUR with the expert supports form FAO and other UN partners in the program. REFERENCES Antalya Agricultural Directorate Master Plan Antalya İl Tarım Müdürlüğü Master Planı (2002 and 2004) Available: http://www.antalya-tarim.gov.tr/index_tr.asp?mn=15&bn=0&in=127&syf=1 Demiryürek, K. The Inception Mission of The UN Joint Programme, Growth with Decent Work for All: A Youth Employment Program in Antalya, 22-25 November 2009 The UN FAO Mission Antalya, An Unpublished Mission Report, Ankara, 2009. Demiryürek, K. Youth Employment Program UN Fact Finding-Formulation Mission Report (Unpublished), 15 – 16 September 2008, Ankara, 2008. Records of Antalya Agricultural Directorate (2010) Available:

http://www.antalya-tarim.gov.tr/index_tr.asp?mn=9

Records of Antalya Exporters Unions and Antalya Cut Flowers Exporters Union (2010) Available:

http://www.aib.gov.tr/html/

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ORGANIZATIONAL MODELS IN THE SUPPLY OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICES: THE ITALIAN CASE De Rosa M., G. La Rocca, S. Longordo University of Cassino – Faculty of Economics

Keywords: governance, agricultural extension services, Italy 18.1

Introduction

Theme 2

Evolution of farming activity and its transition towards a sustainable and multifunctional model have both redefined the role of agricultural extension services and increased the scientific interest on the topic. On the other hand, the growing privatization and contractualization and the new roles of the extension services generate higher complexity (Rivera, Alex, 2005). To cope with a more complex ―consumer‖ of extension services, the supply of services has changed: from the simple linear technological transfer, through approaches of facilitation extension, a recent holistic view is emerging, where interconnections among agents, farmers and socioeconomic and territorial characteristics are prevalent (Swanson, Rajalahti, 2010). Finally, the evolution of extension is sustained by a parallel development of the agricultural policy (Anderson, 2008). The necessity to adapt the system of agricultural services to the new scenario has fostered pluralistic views of extension supply, as underlined in the recent Best Fit approaches (Birner et al., 2009). Best Fit approach reveals particular utility in the analysis of governance of agricultural extension. Our work fits in this context and aims at analyzing organizational models of agricultural extension services (AES) in Italy. This will be done through two phases: a) the first one aims at building finalized indicators of governance; b) the second one has the objective to clustering Italian regions on the basis of AES governance. By proposing a new method of analysis and by applying it to the Italian regions we intend to emphasize eventual differences among Italian regions and highlighting critical point of each region. 18.2

What are the basic elements of governance? Our methodological proposal is based on Alex and Rivera‘s suggestions, by making it more rigorous thanks to the calculus of quantitative indicators. Three key aspects of governance are identified: organization of functions, actors involved and type of extension service.

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Organization of functions The considered functions make reference to concept of firm organization, by using in particular the POSDCORB classification, adapted as follows: planning of policies, objectives, results and strategies to reach them; management (organization+staffing), through identify structures and systems to organize and coordinate activities; specify personnel‘s functions and its selection and formation; realization (directing), by taking decisions, establishing tasks and working on field; coordinating different parts of the system; monitoring performance and impact of the actions; budgeting, by palling financial plans and monitoring financial sources and costs. For each of these functions a set of actors has been individuated through the analysis of the regional legislation of agricultural extension services in Italy. The key elements of regional governance are consequently classified: decentralization privatization contractualization

18.2.2

Actors involved Agricultural extension services have recently known an evolution towards a pluralistic dimension: then, different institutional combination and different models of governance emerge (Brunori et al., 2009). Three categories of actors operating in the field of agricultural extension are possible: public, private and non governmental organizations. Public sectors includes all public administrations, central and peripheral, regional agencies of agricultural development and other advisory bodies. Non governmental organizations include farm trade unions and producers‘ associations; finally, private sector comprises free professionals, suppliers of farm inputs and buyers of agricultural products. Different type of agricultural extension services follows from different actors offering and financing services; as a consequence, a mixed system of supply of extension is very frequent in the reality (Anderson, Feder, 2004).

18.2.3

Type of extension service As agricultural extension services we consider all activities included in the innovation agricultural system (AIS), Vagnozzi (2007) categorizes as follows in the triangle of knowledge: knowledge and extension, formation and research.

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Materials and methods Regional legislation on AES is the basic source of information: it permits to build a matrix of functions/activities, according to the actor involved; each detected function/activity is registered in the matrix, then a set of indicators in built aimed at analyzing: 1.

decentralization;

2.

privatization;

3.

pluralism

4.

participation;

5.

completeness;

6.

diversification;

7.

specialization.

8.

contractualization.

1. Decentralization (dece) has different administrative situations that different authors (Cohen, Peterson 1999; Parker, 1995; Smith, 2001) have classified in the following way: The index of privatization takes into account different deconcentration, when functions are assigned to a peripheral structure of the same central administration; starting from our matrix, the relative indicator is obtained by subtracting from the total share of the central administration‘s functions, the local-provincial or regional share. As a consequence, an index = 1 means maximum centralization, while -1 means maximum decentralization; delegation, when functions are delegated to semi-autonomous organisms; from our matrix the relative indicator is obtained by subtracting from the central administration‘s share of function, the semi-autonomous organisms‘ share (-1