21st European Seminar on Extension Education ...

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Sep 6, 2013 - language and taxonomy, agricultural practices, equipment, .... in one direction, with high body temperature, and loss of appetite. ...... a total of 6,5% of Tuscan vineyard, while a small percentage of the UTE ..... Country women have always been more land use professional orientated than Martta's or Martha's.
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21st ESEE European Seminar on Extension Education 02-06 SEPTEMBER 2013, ANTALYA

Extension Education Worldwide trends, challenges and cases

Coordinated by

Orhan Özçatalbaş with the collaboration of International Scientific and Organizing Committee

21st ESEE EUROPEAN SEMINAR ON EXTENSION EDUCATION, EXTENSION EDUCATION WORDWIDE, TRENDS, CHALENGES AND CASES. 02-06 SEPTEMBER 2013, ANTALYA, BAKA YAYIN: 2013/85

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CONTENTS CONTENTS ................................................................................................................................................................................................ III PREFACE ................................................................................................................................................................................................... XI ABOUT 21st ESEE ................................................................................................................................................................................ XIII THE COMMITTEES ................................................................................................................................................................................ XV HISTORY, 40TH YEARS ....................................................................................................................................................................XVII THE JOURNAL ....................................................................................................................................................................................... XIX

KEYNOTE PRESENTATION AND OFFERED PAPERS ................................................................................................................ 1 Status of Agricultural Extension and Rural Advisory Services Worldwide .................................................................... 3 Swanson Burton E. The Extension Educational Effect of Rural Development Projects ..................................................................................... 9 Abd-Ella M.M. El-Baaly E.M.

El-Gohary A.M.

Bedouins’ Indigenous Knowledge Utilized in Raising of Small Ruminants in Sinai Peninsula, Egypt ............. 11 Abdel Aal M. H.

Diab A. M.

Enhancing Extension Roles Through Mobile Phones in Nigeria: A Case Study ........................................................ 17 Abdullahi A. Garforth C.J.

Dorward P.T.

Access to Extension Services: A Tool for Livelihood Diversification Among Pastoralist Women of Northern Nigeria ..................................................................................................................................................21 Aderinoye-Abdulwahab S.

Adefalu L. Oladipo F.

Adisa R.

Dolapo T.

Perceptions of Rural People Regarding the Impacts of Development of Rural Tourism in Dena Region, Iran: Lesson Learned for Extension .........................................................................................23 Ahmadvand M. Mahdian M. An Evaluation of Agricultural Policy from Farmers’ Lens: Case Study of KPK Province-Pakistan ................... 25 Ali M.

Hanif K.

Siddiqui B.N.

Agricultural Associations in the Infulene Valley, Mozambique ........................................................................................ 29 Amilai C. M.

Cristóvão A.

Braço S. V.

Agricultural Innovation Systems Amongst small scale pineapple Farmers in the Akuapim South Municipal Assembly of Ghana .......................................................................................................................................................... 31 Ankrah D. A. Concerns of Citrus Growers Regarding Micronutrients Application: Implications for Agricultural Extension in Pakistan ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 37 Ashraf S.

Khan G. A.

Shoukat A.

Iftikhar M.

Luqman M.

Communication Networks for Organic Hazelnut Growers in Samsun .............................................................45 Aydoğan M.

Demiryürek K.

Information Sources used and Extension Methods Preferred by Dairy Farmers in Turkey..………………… 57 Boz I.

Bostan Budak D.

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Agricultural Extension Service Benefit Level of Rural Women with Active Duties in Agricultural Activity :Agri/Turkey Sample ........................................................................................................................................................................... 63 Buyukbay E.O.

Aslanboga N.

The Agricultural Knowledge System in the Urban Agriculture: Suggestions from the Pontecagnano EcoArcheological Park (Italy) .................................................................................................................................................................. 65 Caggiano M. Views of Public Extension Personnel and Private Extension Advisers on the Privatization of Extension Services ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 73 Celik Ates H. Farm Innovation Through Rural Development Programmes: Experiences and Pathways of Innovation in Italy ............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 79 Cristiano S.

Proietti P.

Where and How is Extension Today in Portugal? Revisiting AKIS in a Time of Crisis and Challenges .......... 87 Cristovao A.

Koehnen T.

Knierim A.

Baptista A.

Madureira L.

The Contribution of Extension Activities to Multifunctional Agriculture .................................................................... 93 Cukur T.

Atıs E.

Akyuz Y.

Integrating Climate Change Issues into Agricultural Education Programs at Razi University: A Delphi Approach .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 99 Dorani M.

Mahsasadvandi K.

Adoption of Short-Life Rice Among Egyptian Farmers, Delta of the River Nile. ..................................................... 101 El-Shafie E.

Hikel S.

El-Shennawy L.

Fahmy A.

Institutional Frameworks and Innovation by Men and Women Farmers in East Africa ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 107 Garforth C. Assessment of Extension and Educational Programs of Agricultural Extension Service on Improving the Rural Life Skill (Factor Analysis) ................................................................................................................................................ 109 Ghiasy F.Gh.

Dehyouri S.

Investigating Consumers Attitudes Toward Using Agricultural Genetically Modified (GM) Food Products ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 111 Ghiasy F.Gh.

Mirakzadeh A.A.

Shiri N.

Increasing Knowledge Flows Between Research and Advisory Systems: the Case of Communities of Practice in Italy ................................................................................................................................................................................... 113 Giare F.

Materia V. C.

Pluralist Extension Model Based Farmers’ Organizations for the Development of Gap Region .................. 121 Gurbuz I.H.

Kaya C.

Ozcan Z.

Gumus I.U.

Ozdurmus N.

Ozcatalbas O.

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A Model of Decision-Making and Information Flows for Sustainable Natural Resource Management :Application of SSM Method in Alborz Watershed in Iran ................................................................................................ 131 Hosseini S.M.

Rezaei A.

Role of Extension Services in Promoting Multifunctional Agriculture and Integrated Rural Development in Serbia ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 141 Jankovic S. Kuzevski J. Tolimir N. Berjan S.

El Bilali H.

Capone R.

Tomic V.

New Approach in Development of Extension Education on E-Extension Platform .............................................. 147 Kalna-Dubinyuk T. Impact of Farmer Field Schools on Vegetable Farmers’ Pest Management Knowledge in the Khuzestan Province of Iran .................................................................................................................................................................................. 151 Karamidehkordi E.

Shamshirgar F.

Identification of Tourism Financial and Capital Obstacles in Chehar-Mahal&Bakhtiari Province, Iran ..... 153 Karbasioun M.

Karamidehkordi M.

Learning to Match Demand and Supply of Innovation Support Service- Insights from a Smallholder Onion Commercialisation Project ............................................................................................................................................................ 157 Kilelu C. W.

Klerkx L.

Leeuwis C.

What are Appropriate Training Materials for New Entry Farmers? A Preliminary Study .......................................................................................................................................................................... 165 Koehnen T.

Baptista A.

Loureiro A.

What are the Possible Training Methods and Materials for New Entry Farmers and the Innovative Agricultural Activities and Management Themes? A Preliminary Study .................................................................. 167 Koehnen T.

Baptista A.

Loureiro A.

The Role of Advisors in the Implementation of Short Courses ..................................................................................... 173 Kozari J.

Toth K.

Decision Making in Agriculture - Farmers' Lifeworld in Theory and Practice ....................................................... 177 Lindblom J.

J Rambusch.

Ljung M.

Lundström C.

Does Climate Change Enhance Rural Food Insecurity: Experience from Mountainous Areas of Pakistan 183 Luqman M.

Shahbaz B.

Ali S.

Impact of Climate Change on Rural Livelihoods (A Case of Hazara Region of Pakistan) .................................. 185 Luqman M.

Shahbaz B.

Ali T.

Rural Development Policies and Measures for a Multifunctional Agricultural Sector ........................................ 187 Mahmoodi M.

Chizari M.

Kalantari K.

Eftekhari A. R.

Use of Communication Sources by the Women Beneficiaries of RDRS in Income Generating Activities .... 193 Mamun M.R.

Mondol A.S.

Competence Development in Cooperatives ............................................................................................................................ 195 Mulder M.

Orbons D.

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Sharing Knowledge with and from Farmers Through a Community Knowledge Broker Network and the TECA Platform in Uganda ................................................................................................................................................................ 205 Nichterlein K.

Nakajubi B.

Lima C.

Web 2.0 Social Media as an Extension Tool for Advocacy in Western Nigeria ....................................................... 207 Oyebola Adebola

E. Bifarin J.O.

The Role of Mass Media in Rural Development ..................................................................................................................... 209 Paksoy M.

Ikikat Tumer E.

Ex Post Evaluation of Research Activities Financed by the Tuscany Region in the Fields of Viticulture and Aquaculture ........................................................................................................................................................... 215 Proietti P.

Tudini L.

Institutional Role in Realizing the Transition of Extension to Entrepreneurship: The Key to Existence of Extension Science ............................................................................................................................................................................... 221 Ramkumar S.

Sethumadhavan T. P.

Sustainability Education Approaches in Agriculture Higher Education .................................................................... 223 Rezvanfar A.

Faham E.

Mohammadi H.M.

Extension Education and Home Economics: Women’s Role in Advisory Work in Finland. ............................. 225 Savisalo L. Cyber Extension in Pakistan: Challenges, Lessons Learnt and Ways Forward ..................................................... 229 Shahbaz B.

Iftikhar M.

Ata S.

Extension of Sustainable Agriculture Practices in Western Rajasthan: A Case Study from Pali District..... 231 Singh D.

Chaudhary M.

Meena M.L.

Roy M.M.

Agricultural Extension in the Czech Republic, in its International Context .............................................................. 233 Slavik M.

Husa J.

Public and Private Players on the Market of Agricultural Advice and Extension in Romania ......................... 239 Stefanescu S.L.

Steriu S.

Dumitraşcu M.

The "New Extensionist": Roles, Capacities, and Strategies to Strengthen Extension and Advisory Services ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 239 Sulaiman R.V.

Davis K.

Study of Extension Problems Related to Canola Growth Undevelopment in Semnan Province (Case Study:Rurals of Garmsar) ............................................................................................................................................................... 245 Tayouri M.

Khodayari F.

Agricultural Extension: The Case of Farm Advisors in Greece in the Framework of the Reg. (EC) 1782/2003 (FAS) ............................................................................................................................................................................... 259 Tiligadi V.

Koutsouris A.

The Role of Agricultural Extension on Entrepreneurship ................................................................................................ 265 Torun E. Patterns of Climate Change and Coping Strategies of Small Farmers in Mountainous Area of Kaghan Valley, Northwest Pakistan ........................................................................................................................................................................... 273 Umair S.

Babar S.

Tanvir A.

Shoukat A.

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Investigation of the Central European Agricultural Advisory Systems with special regard to the Austrian and Hungarian Systems ................................................................................................................................................................... 279 Ver A.

Milics G.

Kozari J.

Monitoring Creative Processes: the Timeline and the Learning History. ................................................................. 283 Wielinga E.

Herens M.

Impact of Large-Scale Irrigation Schemes in Iran: A Constructivist Approach ....................................................... 291 Zarafshani K.

Sharafi L.

Barani S.

Karami S.

Ramezani M.

Which organizational models stimulate higher access to agricultural extension services? Empirical evidence from Italy …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..293 Bartoli L.

Chiappini S.

De Rosa M.

La Rocca G.

POSTERS ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 299 Actual and Potential Utilization of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) as Sources of Information by Agricultural Extension Workers .................................................................................................................. 301 Abdulrazzaq A.H.

Elshafie E.M.

Magd Z.H.

The Perception of Egyptian Farmers About Distant Learning in Agricultural Extension Education ............ 303 El-Baaly E.M.

El-Gohary A.M.

Agricultural Extension System in Morocco: Problems, Resources, Governance and Reform........................... 307 El Bilali H. Driouech N. Berjan S. Capone R. Abouabdillah A. Ahouate L. Azim K. Najid A. Agricultural Extension Centers Enhanced Extension Educational Performance in Egypt................................. 311 El-Gohary A.M.

El-Baaly E.M.

Agricultural Advisory Services Between National and Donors’ Policy Frameworks in Benin ......................... 313 Moumouni I.

Mouzoun B.X.

De Romemont A.

Faure G.

Analysis of Functions of Rural ICT Offices in Sustainable Agricultural Development: The Case of Boirahmad County, Southwestern of Iran ............................................................................................................................... 321 Nooripoor M.

Davari M.R.

Impact of Climate Change Extension on Agriculture in Sub-Sahara Africa ............................................................... 323 Oyebola Adebola E.

Olatokunbo B.

Attitudes of Extension Experts of Ardabil Province Towards Mobil Communication in Extension Education ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 325 Shirdel A.

Ghafari O.

Bagheri A.

Credit Access and Livestock Productivity Among Rural Women Farmers in Nasarawa State, Nigeria. ..... 331 Silong A.K. Success Story of Small Farmer Through Capacity Building –A Case Study from Paderly (India) .................. 337 Singh D. Chaudhary M.

Meena M.L.

Roy M.M.

Approach of the Public Agricultural Extension Service to Rural Development in Montenegro ...................... 339 Stanisic V. Jugovic M.

Despotovic A.

El Bilali H.

Berjan S.

Milutinovic H.

Stojanovic A.

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Working Conditions of Women in Greenhouses and Importance of Extension in Antalya Province, Turkey ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 343 Turhanoğulları Z.

Özçatalbaş O.

The Ideal Profile of the Contemporary Extensionist and Its Relationship with the Qualities of the Millennial Generation Professionals ................................................................................................................................................................ 347 Varela H.G. Management Strategies for the Promotion of Territorial Development: The Case of INTA Delta Del Paraná, Argentine Republic............................................................................................................................................................................. 351 Varela H.G.

Monsutti M.V.

Mujica G.

The Educational Effect of Agricultural of Agricultural Extension Education Meetings in Egypt .................... 355 Abd-Ella M.M.

El-Gohary A.M.

El-Baaly E.M.

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PREFACE

Distinguished Colleagues, The ESEE is a biennial event that is organized in rotation by European countries for training and research in the purpose of communication for agricultural and rural extension. The first seminar was organized in Finland 40 years ago. This year, the 21st ESEE took place between September 2 to 6, 2013 in Antalya, Turkey. As it known the story of ESEE starts in Helsinki. ESEEs have also a substantial history and tradition which began in Helsinki, Finland, in 1973. The success of the first venture in 1973 led to a decision to meet again after two years in a different venue within Europe for broadly, the same purposes, and this practice has been continued. In a way, the use of European experience and expertise in other parts of the world has become an associated issue with implications for the ESEEs. The main purpose of this seminar traditionally is to share the ideas and practices of the participants on participatory approach to agricultural extension works. As usual this year, we will see and list to the best practice in extension between public and private extension services around the world starting from Europe. We have the possibilities to discuss and argue and to adopt them in other countries, and to meet good friends during years. During these passed years we are the Extension Educators, Scientists and have met all around. The issue, "train trainers to train" is the same but the world around has changed. As it known, we need food, and the farmers are still providing the material for safety foods as well as they are most responsible of security of food. We, the extension educators are finding the innovations for new and less time consuming and easier work for agriculture. The seminar programme is added to the end of this book, as it can be seen during the seminar has implemented plenary and working group session, and parallel sessions, are part of brain storming and help all participants, to share their knowledge and experiences on extension and relevant subjects, and to organize technical and cultural tour activities. We hope that the proceedings book will be very good reference for all participants and others who are involved in rural extension and education and 21st ESEE has been fruitful for each participant. I would like to express our special thanks to the founders of ESEE initiative as Dr. Harri Westermarck, Dr. Maurice Rolls, Dr. Anne Van den Ban, Dr. Niels Röling, Dr. Volker Hoffmann and European and all other colleagues of who contributed to the profession and Seminar’s organizers. Finally, my thanks go to members of the scientific and organizing committees, moderation and distinguished participants for valuable collaboration and contributions. Sincerely yours, Orhan Özçatalbaş, PhD. President of 21th ESEE Akdeniz University Faculty of Agriculture Dept.of Agricultural Economics Extension Science 07058 Antalya/Turkiye

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ABOUT 21st ESEE Purpose of the Seminar The main purpose of this seminar traditionally is to share the ideas and practices of the participants on Extension Worldwide to agricultural extension works. The practitioner of extension and advisory work in the rural sector, scientists and researchers participate to our seminar. As usual this year we'll see and listen the best practice in extension between public and private extension services around the world starting from Europe. We have the possibilities to discuss and argue and to adopt them in other countries. Theme These are seen the most accurate development of Extension for next decade. During October 2012, two months ago when the international committee had communicated via internet.The themes were proposed last days. The main heading: Extension education worldwide: trends, challenges and cases (including public and private, farmer organizations, etc.) Extension education for rural development (including multifunctionality, tourism, etc) Extension education and the future of food and farming (including global warming, food crises, energy crisis, sustainable agriculture, etc.) Extension education and commercialisation of agricultural products (including alternative or short circuits, marketing, etc) Extension education networks and cyber extension New approaches in planning, implementation and evaluation of extension education projects (including methods, facilitation, etc.) Target Groups    

Practitioner of extension Scientists , Researchers, Trainers Consultants in the rural sector Directly & indirectly related fields & sectors (Universities, Research Public&Private Institutes, Ministries..)

The Important Dates The seminar will be held between 02-06 September 2013. -Deadline for Abstract Submission - Notification of Acceptance 10th May 2013 - Deadline for Full Paper Submission & Early Registration May 2013 - Deadline for Registration of Other Participants - 6th September, 2013- Seminar Dates

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THE COMMITTEES International Scientific Committee                    

Dr. Artur Cristovao, Portugal Dr. Alexandros Koutsouris, Greece Dr. Fabio Maria Santucci, Italy Dr. Eelke Wielinga, Netherlands Dr. Harri Westermarck, Finland Dr. Jozef Kozari, Hungary Dr. Burton E. Swanson, USA Dr. Volker Hoffmann, Germany Dr. Tetyana Kalna-Dubinyuk, Ukraine Dr. William Rivera, USA Dr. Martin Mulder, The Netherlands Dr. Ehud Gelb, Israel Dr. John Richardson, USA Dr. Pauli Juuti, Finland Dr. Milan Slavik, Czech Republic Dr. Erdoğan Oktay, Türkiye Dr. Ziya Yurttaş, Türkiye Dr. Yaşar Gürgen, Türkiye Dr. Orhan Özçatalbaş, Türkiye Dr. İsmet Boz, Kahramanmaraş, Türkiye

Organising Committee         

Dr. Orhan Özçatalbaş (Chair of the Organizing Committee) Leena Savisalo, Helsinki, Finland (20thESEE Coordinator) Dr. Mithat Direk, Konya, Türkiye Dr. Handan Akçaöz, Antalya, Türkiye Dr. İlkay Kutlar, Antalya, Türkiye Dr. Zuhal Turhanoğulları, Türkiye Dr. Buket Karaturhan, Izmir, Türkiye Dr. Ehlinaz Torun, Kocaeli, Türkiye Ass. Hatice Kızılay, Antalya, Türkiye

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HISTORY, 40TH YEARS As is obvious, the ESEEs have a substantial history and tradition which began in Helsinki, Finland, in 1973. During the late 1960s a number of countries in N. W. Europe began to establish Extension as an area of teaching an research in Universities, with the generous financial asistance of the W. K. Kellogg Foundation; such studies were already taking place in Germany and the Netherlands. European agriculture, that time, was transforming from a a mainly traditional practical activity to an industry of managed busiinesses, and Extension Services were changing from practice based on experience to professional consultation based on communication and other social science theories. Early in the 1970s it was considered to be useful fort he academic staff of the developing university institutions to meet together, in seminar format, to Exchange experience, review progress, and identify future directions of policy and programmes. The success of the first venture in 1973 led to a decision to meet again after two years in a different venue within Europe for, broadly, the same purposes, and this practice has been continued. The tasks facing the Universities with Extension Education programmes have been to achieve progress with academic curricula and teaching and learning practices, supported by strong research programmes. These could then be related to the ways in which the national Extension Services were responding to new needs and challenges in agricultural development and farming. This complex of academic considerations, user needs, and challenges in agriculture has been the basis of the organisation of the seminar. The use of European experience and expertise in other parts of the word, notably in the newly indepentent countries in Asia and Africa, (for most of whom agriculture and its development were key components in national economies and social systems) became an associated issue with implications for the ESEEs. Previous Seminars : During the 34 years preceding the 21st ESEE the number of participants, participating countries and papaers contributed increased steadily.

This presumably indicates that the seminars have been fulfilling a need, and dealing with issues of relevance to an increasing number of professionals and countries within Europe and beyond. The ESEEs have also addressed an expanding number and diversity of issues; the broadening of Extension from agricultural to rural development, and an expansion from farming interests to matters of conservation affecting land and wildlife, and issues of public concern for food and health, are examples. The theme in 2003 (Hungary) was “Rural Extension and Training/Education as the missing elements in Rural Development projects “; in 2005 (Turkey) it was “Towards a Participatory and Multi-Actors Extension system”.

During the 19th ESEE in Perugia, Fabio and Leena performed a small act of symbolic ‘handing over’, in order to practice our visual thinking. Below that,you see the “family picture”. The first European Seminar was held in 1973 in Finland, when European agriculture was transforming from a traditional practical activity to an industry of managed businesses, and Extension Services were changing from practice based on experience to professional consultation based on communication theories. The seminar gave an opportunity to exchange ideas and experience among university staff and private and professional personnel concerned with Extension Education. During the 40 years of the Seminar history, the seminars have continued each other year, in different host countries. The last ESEE was also organized in Helsinki in 2011.

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Pictures from different ESEE’s 20th ESEE, 30Agust-3 September 2001 FINLAND

19th ESEE, 15-19 September 2009 ITALY

17th ESEE, 30 August-3Sept,2005, TURKIYE

15th ESEE, 27-31 August,2001, THE NETHERLANDS

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THE JOURNAL The Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension (JAEE) Selected papers will be published in the Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension (JAEE) - For JAEE see: http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/raee20/current - http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/raee20/current - About 21st ESEE-ANTALYA in the Web Page of the Journal : http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/pdf/ESEE-announcement-2013.pdf

Publication history - Currently known as The Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension (1998 – current) - Formerly known as European Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension (1994 – 1998) Abstracting & indexing The Journal of Agricultural Education & Extension is currently abstracted/indexed in: SCOPUS, CABI, Agricultural Online Index (AGRICOLA), Education Resources Information Center (ERIC). Aims & scope JAEE is published to inform experts who do or use research on agricultural education and extension about research conducted in this field worldwide. Information about this research is needed to improve policies, strategies, methods and practices for agricultural education and extension. The Journal of Agricultural Education & Extension accepts authorative and well-referenced scientific articles within the field of agricultural education and extension after a double-blind peer review process. Agricultural education and extension faces profound change, and therefore its core area of attention is moving towards communication, competence development and performance improvement for a wide variety of fields and audiences, most of which can be studied from a multi-disciplinary perspective, including:

- Corporate Social Responsibility and Human Resource Development - Design and Implementation of Competence– based Education - Environmental and Natural Resource Management - Entrepreneurship and Learning - Facilitating Multiple-Stakeholder Processes - Health and Society - Innovation of Agricultural-Technical Education - Innovation Systems and Learning - Integrated Rural Development - Interdisciplinary and Social Learning - Learning, Conflict and Decision Making - Poverty Reduction - Performance Improvement - Sustainable Agricultural Production The Journal of Agricultural Education & Extension sees as the purposes of agricultural education and extension to prepare students for leadership, management, and technical support roles, to further develop the public, independent workers, volunteers and professionals, and to improve practices in the fields mentioned. This should be achieved whilst balancing people, profit and planet interests. Subject Classifications Agriculture & Environmental Sciences; Development Studies; Environment & Agriculture; Rural Development

- Communication for Development - Competence Management and Development

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21st European Seminar on Extension Education / Extension education worldwide, September 2-6, 2013, ANTALYA

Keynote Presentation and OFFERED PAPERS

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21st European Seminar on Extension Education / Extension education worldwide, September 2-6, 2013, ANTALYA

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21st European Seminar on Extension Education / Extension education worldwide, September 2-6, 2013, ANTALYA

> Keynote Presentation 0.05). In other words, it can be said that age is not effective on the identifying production system. Age variable was similar with results of previous studies

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21st European Seminar on Extension Education / Extension education worldwide, September 2-6, 2013, ANTALYA

in the same area (Demiryürek, 2000 and 2010) and studies in other regions (Olhan, 1997; Rahman and Yamao, 2007). Although the education level of organic hazelnut producers is expected higher than education level of conventional hazelnut producers (Demiryürek, 2000 and 2010; Padel, 1994 and 2001; Jacobson et al., 2003), there was no statistical difference between their education levels (p > 0.05). Due to the demographic structure of the region, only people over a certain age have been living in the villages. Therefore, education levels of both organic and conventional hazelnut producers were similar. Tablo 1: Comparison of socio-economic characteristics Variables Age (years) Education time (years) The presence of land (da) The presence of leased land (da) Hazelnut production area (da) Need for foreign labor force (people) Hazelnut selling price (TL/kg) The share of agricultural income in total income (%) Agricultural insurance coverage status (%)

Organic producers Mean Stddev. 56 13,3 6,7 2,9 49,1 44,5 3,3 12,3 47,5 44,3 79,3 77,5 4 0,3 53,9 9,1 -

Conventionalproducers Mean Std dev. 53 11,5 6,3 2,5 33 23,5 0,4 3,3 30,9 19,7 52,1 46,2 3,8 0,2 42,4 1,8 -

T test p * * * * * * *

When organic and conventional hazelnut producers compared in terms of land size, leased land size, and hazelnut production land size, organic hazelnut producers had more farm land (p>0,05). Organic hazelnut producers increased their current land size with leasing. The organic hazelnut producers allocated the most of their land size for organic hazelnut production more than conventional hazelnut producers (p>0.05). Organic hazelnut producers had bigger land size than conventional hazelnut producers. It could be explained that the organic marketing company wanted to be the object of less organic hazelnut producers. Therefore, the organic marketing companies contract with the organic hazelnut producers who have bigger hazelnut production area (Demiryürek, 2010). Organically produced hazelnut sale price was higher than conventionally produced hazelnut sale price (p 2/50), but expressed their views as “uncertain” on the two statements(Mean of 14 items< 2/50). A number of 22persons out 0f 25 members returned questionnaires in round threewith a response rate of 88%. Table 3 exhibits the results of this round.

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21st European Seminar on Extension Education / Extension education worldwide, September 2-6, 2013, ANTALYA

Table3: Delphi Round Three. Level of Agreement with obstacles Indicator Lack of a clear diplomacy and plan to attract national or international capitals Lack of private capitals (internal or external) allocated to tourism in Ch& Ba province Enterprisers hesitate to spend money in Ch& Ba tourism due to long term return of their capital Shortage of funds and financial supports Lack of enough knowledge in fund allocation to run the tourism projects Scattered and insufficient private capitals in the region Lack of appropriate financial security in the region Lack of enough fund in region to be spent in tourism projects Lack of a proper and sound national fund allocation policy to distribute funds among the provinces based on their needs and potentials No financial supports to underpin international standards (for example: ISO standards) Emphasis on governmental financial resources with low benefit Lack of diplomacy to attract the micro local fund Lack of supports of private enterprises, particularly bank loans' allocations and other banking facilities for private sector Lack of deposited fund for development purposes in the province Insufficient income generation level in the province as a demoralizing factor for external investors Lack of a strong and efficient management to spend tourism budget appropriately in the province

Agree (%) 88 88 88

Disagree(%) 12 12 12

88 84 84 84 80 80

12 16 16 16 20 20

80 80 76 76

20 20 24 24

72 42

28 58

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The main goal of Delphi technique is to reach the saturation pointamong theexperts; therefore,when after running 4th round finally we found exactly the same results (consensus), it was assured that there is no need to continue the study any more. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS As described before, after three rounds of Delphi technique, finally 14 real obstacles in tourism development in Ch& Ba province were extractedthat were perceived by the panel of experts as most crucial obstacles. Taking these barriers into consideration could help tourism policy makers and practitioners to pave the way towards tourism development more effectively. 5. References Bontron, Jean-Claude, and Nadine Lasnier. (1997). Tourism: A Potential Source of Rural Employment, in Rural Employment: An International Perspective, Ray D. Bollman and John M. Bryden, eds. New York: CAB International, 427446. Brawn, Dennis M. (2003). Rural Tourism: An Annotated Bibliography. Chang, Wen-Huei. 2000. Bibliography of Economic Impacts of Parks, Recreation and Tourism, Retrived on 20, 04, 2011 from: http://www.msu.edu/user/changwe4/bibli.htm. Delp, P., Thesen, A., Motiwalla, J., &Seshadri, N. (1977). Delphi: System tools for project planning, Columbus,OH: National Center for Research in Vocational Education, Ohio State University. Frederick, Martha. (1992). Tourism as a Rural Economic Development Tool: An Exploration ofthe Literature: Bibliographies and Literature of Agriculture. Number 122. U.S. Department ofAgriculture, Economic Research Service. Johnson, Peter, Barry Thomas. (1990). Employment in Tourism: A Review, Industrial Relations Journal, 21 (1), 36-48. Jurowski, C. (1996). Tourism Means More than Money to the Host Community, Parksand Recreation, 31(9), 110-118. Helmer, O. (19660. Social Technology, New York: Basic Books. Stynes, Daniel J. 2000. Economic Impacts of from:http://www.msu.edu/course/prr/840/econimpact/pp: 1-19

Tourism,Retrived

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04,

2011

Stufflebeam, D.L., McCormick, C.H., Binkerhoff, R.O., & Nelson, C.O. (1985). Conducting educational needsassessments. Boston: Kluwer Nijhoff Publishing. Goldman, George, and Anthony Nakazawa. 91994). Impact of Visitor Expenditures on LocalRevenues. Corvallis, Oregon: Western Rural Development Center, Oregon State University. Report No. 145. Retrieved on 25, 04, 2011 from: http://extension.usu.edu/WRDC/resources/tourism/wrep145.pdf(pdf) Weaver, Glenn. (1986). Tourism Development: A Potential for Economic Growth, in New Dimensions in Rural Policy: Building Upon our Heritage, Subcommittee on Agriculture andTransportation of the Joint Economic Committee, U.S. Congress, 440-444.

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Learning to Match Demand and Supply of Innovation Support ServiceInsights from a Smallholder Onion Commercialisation Project Kilelu C. W.1

Klerkx L.2

Leeuwis C.3

Abstract The important role of learning is noted in the literature on demand –driven approaches to supporting agricultural innovation. Most of this literature has mainly focused on macro-level structural perspectives on the organization of pluralistic innovation support systems. This has provided little insight at the micro-level, on the dynamics of demand articulation, and the related interplay of matching demand with supply of innovation support services. This paper contributes to understanding this interplay using the concept of dynamic learning agenda. We present a case study of a project supporting innovation in smallholder commercialization ofonions in Kenya. Data were collected over 7 months using key-informant interviews, focus group discussions with farmers and traders, participant observation and project documents. The results show that because learning in agricultural innovation processes is dynamic, static notions of demand articulation and the related matching of support are inadequate. Supporting learning and innovation requires an understanding of how demand evolves, and thus there should be a flexible matching process with various innovation support services to achieve ‘a best-fit’ that incorporatessupporting both technical and entrepreneurial aspects of innovation.Our findings confirm that an indicator driven monitoring system is limited in its ability to systematically capture feedback and enable evolving demand (re)articulation. To optimally match demand and supply of innovation support services requires learning oriented monitoring systems. The current policy prescription that seeks to optimize the match between demand and supply of innovation support has been to stimulate pluralistic innovation support systems. However, as the findings show, thefocus should shift to paying more attention to assisting farmers in navigating these innovation support systems to enable better targeted and context specific support. This means incorporating flexibility in project funding, design, and implementation to better support dynamic demand-driven innovation processes.

INTRODUCTION In the changing agricultural context in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), with a renewed focus on increased market orientationof smallholder farmers, there is recognition for the need to enhance innovation capacity . There is the increasing recognition that supporting innovation entails providing both technical and generic business (entrepreneurial) support services(Hounkonnou et al., 2012 ; Poulton et al., 2010 ; World Bank, 2007). To provide the most appropriate support requires an understanding of the farmers demands related to their goals for their enterprises. It has become recognised that if agricultural innovation is to be adequately supported, it is necessary to re-conceptualise advisory services as a broad range of innovation support services (Christoplos, 2010 ; Leeuwis & van den Ban, 2004). In response to growing demands from farmers and other stakeholders (i.e. demand-driven) and a varied range of support services. Establishing an adequate match between demand and supply of these various innovation support services is important. This process is of matching demand and supply of the innovation support services is dynamic, and needs to be accompanied by learning. The imperative for learning in innovation is linked to recent insights on innovation processes as knowledgeintensive, non-linear, interactive and inherently unpredictable, and accompanied by risk conflict and uncertainty (Hall & Clark, 2010 ; Leeuwis & Aarts, 2011 ; Smits, 2002).The literature on demand-driven approaches to supporting agricultural innovation has so far mainly focused on analysing, from a macro level structural perspective, the challenges of optimally matching the needs of farmers (demand side) to innovation support services (supply side) in increasingly pluralistic innovation support service systems (Birner et al., 2009 ; Christoplos, 2010 ; Klerkx & Leeuwis, 2008 ; Parkinson, 2009 ; Swanson & Rajalahti, 2010). While some work has indicated that needs and demands most probably require continuous rearticulation(Chowa et al., 2013 ; Kibwika et al., 2009 ; Klerkx & Leeuwis, 2009)fall short of analysing this evolving process in relation to matching demand for innovation support services to their supply. This paper presents a case study of an agricultural development project on smallholder commercialization of bulb onions in Kenya that zooms into the dynamics of this process.The aim of the study was to analyse CA: Knowledge Technology and Innovation group Wageningen University, The Netherlands, E-mail: [email protected] Knowledge Technology and Innovation group Wageningen University, The Netherlands 3 Knowledge Technology and Innovation group Wageningen University, The Netherlands 1 2

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how the project supported the matching of innovation support demands to innovation support service provisioning within an evolving learning process. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK Generally, the articulation of demands in innovation processes has been looked at as a rather static process, with demand articulation taking place at the start of an innovation process through exercises such as diagnostic studies or needs assessments (Hall et al., 2006 ; Parkinson, 2009 ; Röling et al., 2004). However, understandingthat innovation is a continuous process of planning, acting, reflecting and readjustmentimplies that the learning agenda should be dynamic and needs to continuously adjust in response to opportunities and problems that emerge over time and are context specific (Regeer, 2009 ; van Mierlo et al., 2010).As studies have shown, this process is often facilitated by various types of intermediary actors(Boon et al., 2011 ; Kilelu et al., 2011 ; Klerkx & Leeuwis, 2008). We therefore conceptualize this process accompanied by a dynamic learning agenda (Figure 1). We apply this framework to the case study. Figure 1: Conceptualization of a dynamic learning agenda

Monitoring and evaluation (a continuous process)

(Mis)match

Action supported by various innovation support services

Feedback andreflection

(Mis)match

Monitoring and evaluation (a continuous process)

Feedbackand reflection

(Mis)match Action supported by various innovation support services

Needs diagnosis/demand articulation

Needs diagnosis/demand articulation

Needs diagnosis/demand articulation

Action supported by various innovation support services

Monitoring and evaluation (a continuous process)

Dynamic learning process facilitated by an innovation intermediary CASE STUDY DESCRIPTION We apply the conceptual framework outlined in the previous section to analyse an on-going project implemented by Farm Concern International (FCI), a non-governmental organization that is supporting the commercialization of onions by smallholders in Kieni east and west districts, in central Kenya (Farm Concern International, 2010). This was a scaling-up project that started in 2010 following an initial pilot implemented in 2005 in the same region. The project areas (Kieni districts) are located in the drier part of the central region in Kenya but are noted to have potential for intensive onion production with high market returns. The farmers in Kieni operate in diverse, complex, agro-ecological and socio-economic conditions and grow varied staple and horticultural crops. The project goal was to facilitate improved production and post-harvest management practices and to strengthen linkages to credit and output market channels, all aimed at boosting productivity and profitability of onion farming for the smallholder households. The project uses the Commercial Village (CV) model developed by FCI to support farmers to organise as

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enterprises at a village level focusing on enhancing commercialization of onions(Farm Concern International, 2010 ; 2011 ; Roothaert & Muhanji, 2009). METHODS Data were gathered between August 2011 and February 2012 to coincide with the main onion production season in the project areas. We used various data collection methods and sources to enable triangulation and enhance the validity of the study (Yin, 2003). Data from farmers were collected from four CV sites to enable us to get a broader view of this process. Two sites were part of the pilot project (Embaringo and Kinyaite CVs) and two were new areas (Kiaragana and Tanyai CVs). Table 1 below provides a summary of the methods and data collected. FINDINGS The project’s goal to enhance onion commercialization in Kieni district was guided by a diagnostic and market opportunity analysis conducted by FCI prior to the pilot project. Below is a list of the innovation needs identified at the outset of the project that relate to challenges in the technical and socio-institutional domains(Farm Concern International, 2010). 1. Technical domain:Improved production of quality bulb onions;Improved agronomic practices and use of other production technologies;and,Improved post-harvest handling and storage of onions. 2. Social-institutional domain:Collective action through the commercial village;Conducting farming as a business; Improving farmer savings and credit access; and,streamlining the value chain and distribution system (linking farmers, input suppliers, extension and traders). a. Learning to matching demand and supply of innovation support services in the technical domain The main technical issues pertained to improving yield and quality of onions grown in the project area. From the interviews we found that, farmers used mainly open pollinated variety seeds(OPVs) before the project interventions and had an average yield of between 0.5-1 tonne per acre1, whereas the expected yield from hybrid varieties in optimal local conditions was estimated to be about 10-14 tonnes per acre. The project started with mobilizing farmers to adopt hybrid onion seed varieties (e.g., Tropicana F1, Red Pinoy F1, Red Passion F1, and Rouge FI).We found that most farmer the older sites -Embaringo and Kinyaite CVs about 80% (n=31) had planted hybrid varieties and a minority still grew OPVs. In the two newer CVs. i.e. Kiaragana and Tanyai, only 28% (n=28) of farmers grew hybrid varieties while about 62% indicated growing OPVs while another 12% mixed both hybrid and OPVs. Thus in the older sites there was a higher adoption of hybrid varieties. Farmer express the need for additional support in selecting appropriate varieitesstemming from concerns about suitability of onion varieties in their various agro-ecological localities. In response, the project field manager liaised with two seed companies to set up demonstration plots of their seeds in collaboration with selected lead farmers. The seed companies were to provide seeds, the various agro-chemicals and technical support to the farmers. But as one of the CV facilitators noted in discussions, only one of the companies followed up on the progress of their demonstrations. While this demonstration plot provided an opportunity for collaborative learning between farmers, the seed companies and othe project collaborators (e.g public extension), however this did not occur.This finding shows that while the articulated demand was matched to a support service, the service was not optimally utilised and hence this can be viewed as a mismatch Table 2 (in Annex) provides a summary of the needs and demands in the technical domain and how these were supported and monitored based on a review of the monitoring process. b. Learning to matching demand and supply ofinnovation support services in the socio-institutional domain Thesupport for innovation in the socio-institutional domain focused on two broad areas: 1) enhancing collective action of farmers in the value chain 2) and strengthening entrepreneurial capacity of individual farmers. Table 3 (in Annex) provides a summary of how the innovation demands in this domain were matched to innovation support services. c. The role of monitoring and feedback processes in a dynamic learning agenda

1

The project used acre as unit for measuring farm size (1 acre= 0.4 hectare)

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As indicated in the conceptual framework, monitoring and feedback are important components for guiding the matching of demand for and supply of innovation support as part of dynamic learning processes. The project monitoring system comprised mainly a series of forms that were used to systematically collect data for tracking project progress. As shown in tables 2 and 3, this formal monitoring system was used to capture pre-defined outcomes of the project (e.g. using indicators such as number of farmers that were growing hybrid varieties, yields attained, amount of inputs purchased collectively etc.). These indicators were linked to the demands identified at the onset of the project through the diagnostic study. However the data was not systematically analysed and reflected upon, particularly not in relation to whether the innovation support provided adequately met farmers’ demands. Thus, the formal monitoring system did not adequately guide learning and the re-orienting of innovation support based on (re)emerging demands. In addition, we observed some informal feedback processes within the project, as shown in table 4. Farmers mainly expressed this feedback during various meetings.Such informal feedback provided avenues for demand (re)articulation. While in some instances the feedback was used to re-orient activities to match the demands, most of the demands were not addressed (see table 4). DISCUSSION AND CONCLUEION Our results show that supporting learning in agricultural innovation processes is tied to linking the needs of actors, particularly farmers, to various resources and services that contribute to dynamic innovation processes. Importantly, the study showed that in the context of demand-driven pluralistic innovation support, the requisite for learning that underlies innovation processes trigger the mobilization of a network of different innovation support service providers who bring in different complementary knowledge, skills and resources necessary for innovation. This confirms recent findings of Chowa et al. (2012) that pluralistic advisorysupport systems are better tailoredto support learning, and using the words of Birner et al. (2009) they hence do provide a menu of options. What our study adds to earlier work on demand-driven innovation support services (Birner et al., 2009 ; Christoplos, 2010 ; Klerkx et al., 2006 ; Parkinson, 2009) is to show that there are continually emerging demands in innovation processes, triggered by new problems, uncertainties and challenges or new opportunities. Because of the many interacting socio-technical factors that determine the outcome of agricultural innovation processes (cf. Hall and Clark, 2010), these emerging problems, uncertainties, challenges and opportunities are not fully predictable. Therefore supporting learning requires a finegrained understanding of the various service demands that emerge in the process and which require a combined supply of services (Crawford et al., 2007 ; Klerkx & Proctor, 2013). It also requires an adequate monitoring system for capturing these demands, as in the conceptual framework (Figure 1) Furthermore, our study indicates that matching demand and supply of innovation support services in pluralistic and privatised systems is a complex process, given that there are competing interests While input suppliers played an important role in training farmers, these service providers typically gear their advice to support sales of their products (Glover, 2007 ; Poulton et al., 2010), but did not fully engage in learning processes in which also the potential negative consequences of their products are discussed. There is also an interplay of power relations in such support systems, which has been noted to disadvantaged smallholder farmers (Parkinson, 2009 ; Poulton et al., 2010). Therefore intermediaries sometimes need to take an advocacy role to empower certain groups such as farmers. From the foregoing, two policy implications can be derived: 1) more attention needs to be given to building adequate brokering capacities and embed the brokering role more centrally in agricultural development projects (see alsoKlerkx et al., 2009) and 2) as demand for and supply of innovation support cannot be fully determined ex-ante, policy makers and funders of agricultural development projects should incorporate a degree of flexibility in project funding, design and implementation supported by learning oriented monitoring , to stay in tune with the dynamics of demand-driven innovation processes that also considers the heterogeneity of farmers.

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References Birner, R., Davis, K., Pender, J., Nkonya, E., Anandajayasekeram, P., Ekboir, J., Mbabu, A., Spielman, D. J., Horna, D., Benin, S. & Cohen, M. (2009). From Best Practice to Best Fit: A Framework for Designing and Analyzing Pluralistic Agricultural Advisory Services Worldwide. The Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension 15(4): 341-355. Boon, W. P. C., Moors, E. H. M., Kuhlmann, S. & Smits, R. E. H. M. (2011). Demand articulation in emerging technologies: Intermediary user organisations as co-producers? Research Policy 40(2). Chowa, C., Garforth, C. & Cardey, S. (2013). Farmer Experience of Pluralistic Agricultural Extension, Malawi. The Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension 19(2): 1-20. Christoplos, I. (2010). Mobilizing the potential of rural and agricultural extension. Rome, FAO. Crawford, A., Nettle, R., Paine, M. & Kabore, C. (2007). Farms and Learning Partnerships in Farming Systems Projects: A Response to the Challenges of Complexity in Agricultural Innovation. The Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension 13(3): 191-207. Farm Concern International (2010). Enhancing regional trade alliance for bulb onions exit report. Nairobi, Farm Concern International. Farm Concern International (2011). Smallholder commercialization through the Commercial Villages model: learning from experience. A draft report. Nairobi, FCI. Glover, D. (2007). Farmer participation in private sector agricultural extension. IDS Bulletin 38(5): 61-73. Hall, A. & Clark, N. (2010). What do complex adaptive systems look like and what are the implications for innovation policy? Journal of International Development 22(3): 308-324. Hall, A., Mytelka, L. & Oyeyinka, B. (2006). Concepts and guidlines for diagnostic assesments of agricultural innovation capacity. Maastricht, United Nations University-Merit. Hounkonnou, D., Kossou, D., Kuyper, T. W., Leeuwis, C., Nederlof, E. S., Röling, N., Sakyi-Dawson, O., Traoré, M. & van Huis, A. (2012). An innovation systems approach to institutional change: Smallholder development in West Africa. Agricultural Systems 108: 74-83. Kibwika, P., Wals, A. E. J. & Nassuna-Musoke, M. G. (2009). Competence Challenges of Demand-Led Agricultural Research and Extension in Uganda. The Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension 15(1): 5-19. Kilelu, C. W., Klerkx, L., Leeuwis, C. & Hall, A. (2011). Beyond knowledge brokering: an exploratory study on innovation intermediaries in an evolving smallholder agricultural system in Kenya. Knowledge Management for Development Journal 7(1): 84-108. Klerkx, L., de Grip, K. & Leeuwis, C. (2006). Hands off but Strings Attached: The Contradictions of Policy-induced Demand-driven Agricultural Extension. Agriculture and Human Values 23(2): 189-204. Klerkx, L., Hall, A. & Leeuwis, C. (2009). Strengthening Agricultural innovation capacity: Are Innovation brokers the answer? United Nations University-Merit. Klerkx, L. & Leeuwis, C. (2008). Matching demand and supply in the agricultural knowledge infrastructure: Experiences with innovation intermediaries. Food Policy 33(3): 260–276. Klerkx, L. & Leeuwis, C. (2009). Operationalizing Demand-Driven Agricultural Research: Institutional Influences in a Public and Private System of Research Planning in The Netherlands. The Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension 15(2): 161-175. Klerkx, L. & Proctor, A. (2013). Beyond fragmentation and disconnect: Networks for knowledge exchange in the English land management advisory system. Land Use Policy 30(1): 13-24. Leeuwis, C. & Aarts, N. (2011). Rethinking Communication in Innovation Processes: Creating Space for Change in Complex Systems. The Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension 17(1): 21-36. Leeuwis, C. & van den Ban, A. (2004). Communication For Rural Innovation: Rethinking Agricultural Extension. Oxford, Blackwell Science. Parkinson, S. (2009). When Farmers Don't Want Ownership: Reflections on Demand-driven Extension in Sub-Saharan Africa. The Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension 15(4): 417-429. Poulton, C., Dorward, A. & Kydd, J. (2010). The Future of Small Farms: New Directions for Services, Institutions, and Intermediation. World Development 38(10): 1413-1428. Regeer, B. (2009). Making the invisible visible : analysing the development of strategies and changes in knowledge production to deal with persistent problems in sustainable development. Oisterwijk, Boxpress, Röling, N. G., Hounkonnou, D., Offei, S. K., Tossou, R. & Van Huis, A. (2004). Linking science and farmers' innovative capacity: diagnostic studies from Ghana and Benin. NJAS - Wageningen Journal of Life Sciences 52(3-4): 211-235.

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Roothaert, R. & Muhanji, G., Eds. (2009). Profit Making for Smallholder Farmers. Proceedings of the 5th MATF Experience Sharing Workshop, 25th - 29th May 2009, Entebbe, Uganda. Nairobi, FARM-Africa. Smits, R. (2002). Innovation studies in the 21st century: Question from a user's perspective. Technological Forecasting and Social Change 69: 861-883. Swanson, B. E. & Rajalahti, R. (2010). Strengthening agricultural extension and advisory aystems: Procedures for assessing, transforming, and evaluating extension systems. Washington DC, World Bank. van Mierlo, B., Arkesteijn, M. & Leeuwis, C. (2010). Enhancing the Reflexivity of System Innovation Projects With System Analyses. American Journal of Evaluation 31(2): 143-161. World Bank (2007). Agriculture for Development: World Development Report 2008. Washington DC, World Bank. Yin, R. K. (2003). Case Study Research: Design and Methods. Thousand Oaks, Sage.

Table 2: Summary of demands in the technical domain identified at the onset of the project and the matched innovation support service Demands in the Matched innovation support services How the support was technical domain monitored Production of quality Organize farmer mobilization forums involving Types of varieties and onions seed and agro-input companies’ representatives to quantities grown by the promote and market hybrid seeds. farmers in the project Production volumes (yields estimated in kilos) Improved agronomic Facilitated training forums that brought various The number of farmers that practices including proper representatives of Agro-chemical suppliers to train used agro-chemical inputs nursery management and farmers on various onion production aspects (fertilizer including organic , crop management. including proper nursery management and crop pesticides) management (fertilizer application and pest and weed control using various agro-chemicals and The number of farmers that bio-fertilizer). Ministry of agriculture (MOA) attended the training. extension staff were also involved in some of the training. The number of farmers that Organized new farmer groups to visit lead /farmer attended the training trainers)to learn from their experiences of onion production. One of the lead farmers participated in a weekly radio programme where he discussed various topics related to onion production. Post-harvest management.

Facilitated construction of a storage unit in one of the CV by providing part of the financing. Organize farmer-trader forums where traders discuss quality issues that affect onion marketing. Dissemination of flyers on pre-harvest management procedures (curing) to enhance quality.

(Source: Authors' data)

The number of stores built in the CVs Number of participants in the forums Number of flyers distributed.

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Table 3: Summary of demands in the socio-institutional domain identified at the onset of the project and the matched innovation support service Demands in the socio- Matched innovation support services How the support was institutional domain monitored Organizing farmers as collectives using the commercial village model

Project field manager and CV facilitators provided guidance on the establishment and structuring of commercial villages (CV).

Number of established.

CPGs

and

CV

Increasing farmer savings through group and personal saving schemes and enhancing credit access

Projectfield manager coached the groups on setting up and management of group savings schemes. Facilitated linkages between the groups and a local MFI to enhance access to credit and improve on savings

Total amount of savings per CV. The total amount of credit accessed by farmers (through internal savings and external loans through MFI)

Improving business skills of farmers

General training and awareness creation records and financial management provided by partnering organizations i.e. MFI agents and MOA extension officers.

Number of trainings organized and number of participants

Streamlining value chain by improving access to quality and affordable agro-inputs, advisory services and output markets.

The project organized exposure visits to markets for farmers to understand the dynamics of onion trade through discussions with traders (e.g. market quality demands, sourcing for onions, pricing etc.)

Number of market visited and number of farmers that participated.

Linking the CVs directly to various agro-input suppliers (seed, fertilizers, pesticides) through various forums to facilitate collective and bulk discounted purchasing.

Total value of collective inputs purchased

Facilitate farmer- trader forums towards the harvest period to initiate marketing transactions (negotiations on expected volumes and prices) and link farmers directly to different markets. Field manager visited different markets in different cities to scout for potential market opportunities

The number of forums organized and markets visited. Volumes of onions sold and selling price.

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Table 4: Summary of the emerging demands in the two domains and how these were matched to innovation support services Emerging needs/demands from farmers feedback Matched innovation support services Technical domain More guidance in selecting suitable seeds for specific Project liaised with some seed agro-ecological areas companies in collaboration with selected lead farmers to establish demonstration plots to test several varieties. Poor seed germination of some of the varieties; general challenge of drought. Poor efficacy of some of the agro-chemicals (pesticides and herbicides) purchased. The need for more on farm experimentsonthe constraints related to pests and weeds management.

Farmers linked directly to selected agro-chemical suppliers. But many farmers bought from local agroinput dealers. Facilitated more farmer to farmer visits to some of the lead farmers.

Request for on-farm research to understand the effects of intensive agro-chemical application in onion production on the soils.

X

Concerns with effects of applying agro-chemicals on human health.

Awareness raising by agrochemicals company representatives during training sessions on the use of protective gear X

Increasing labour costs Socioinstitutional domain

X

Some organizational limitations of the CVs including low involvement of members in committees in some CVs and CPGs

Some support from CV facilitators

Limited cooperation and conflict within some CVs

X

Inconsistency with farmers keeping records related to their onion enterprise (e.g. inputs, labour costs, farm management tasks such as fertilizer application etc.)

X

High cost and shortage of some seeds in the market

The project signed partnerships with one seed companies to make seeds readily available and at a discount in subsequent seasons.

Some farmers had difficulties with accessing timely credit through the MFI due to procedural issues *x- Indicates no action was undertaken to address the emerging demand. (Source: Authors' data)

X

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What are Appropriate Training Materials for New Entry Farmers? A Preliminary Study Koehnen T.1

Baptista A.2

Loureiro A.3

Abstract: In Portugal, there has been an increase in the number of work places and employment in the agricultural sector. The revitalization of the agricultural sector is related to an increase in exports and new entrants to agriculture. These new entrants are the result of the difficulty in the general economy, economic austerity policies and high unemployment in other working sectors. The new entrants are involved in managing strawberry plants in vertical greenhouse production or mushroom reproduction activities and distribution. The preliminary study procures information about training needs and innovative activities from researchers, university professors, advisory services and trainers. The methodology for the study is a survey design that uses a questionnaire with primarily closed questions. The paper will discuss the results from the questionnaire directed at third parties to determine the type of training and educational tools to be used for preparing farmers to diversify farm activities. The educational needs assessment is a part of a European project i.e, RURAL/ITER: Lifelong Learning Programme. The paper will also identify the priority training areas or interests to diversify the farm activities and provide a brief historical review about farmer training in Portugal.

Centre for Transdisciplinary Development Studies (CETRAD), University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD), Portugal Centre for Transdisciplinary Development Studies (CETRAD), University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD), Portugal 3 Centre for Transdisciplinary Development Studies (CETRAD), University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD), Portugal 1 2

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What are the Possible Training Methods and Materials for New Entry Farmers and the Innovative Agricultural Activities and Management Themes? A Preliminary Study Koehnen T.1

Baptista A.2

Loureiro A.3

Abstract In Portugal, there has been an increase in the number of work places and employment in the agricultural sector. The revitalization of the agricultural sector is related to an increase in exports and new entrants to agriculture. These new entrants are the result of the difficulty in the general economy, economic austerity policies and high unemployment in other economic sectors. The new entrants are growing strawberries in vertical greenhouse production or mushroom reproduction activities and distribution. The preliminary study procures information about training needs and innovative activities from researchers, university professors, advisory services and trainers. The methodology for the study is a survey design that uses a questionnaire with primarily closed questions. The paper will discuss the results from the questionnaire directed at third parties to determine the type of training and educational tools to be used for preparing farmers to diversify farm activities. The educational needs assessment is a part of a European project: RURAL/ITER: Lifelong Learning Programme (project 2012 1- GR1-LEO05-10058. The paper will also identify the priority training areas or interests to diversify the farm activities and provide a brief historical review about farmer training in Portugal. Keywords: needs assessment, training,Portugal, revitalization.

INTRODUCTION In Portugal, since 2008, the economy has been under an economic crisis and the only sector where there has been growth is within agriculture (Journal of Noticias, 2013). The rest of the economy is suffering from an unemployment rate nearing 19%. As the agricultural sector has new entrants, activities and an employment increase; training, educationand raising the level of human capitalcan play an important role to strengthen agricultural production and exports (de Mello, Luis and S. Guichard, 2013). Unfortunately, the level of instruction for Portuguese farmers is low with at least 22% of farmers with no education, while the majority completed only the first cycle. It has been documented that 8% of the farmers have completed secondary education or post secondary and only about 50% of these have completed higher education. The agricultural producers with less than 35 years of age are literate and more than 30% have completed secondary education or higher education. Illiteracy is a strong reality for those farmers with more than 65 years of age and a rare case if in this age bracket one finds someone with an undergraduate degree. The farm income for one-third of the farmers is dependent upon an additional source of income outside of their farm, as a worker for someone else or as a business-person working in another activity. In Northern Portugal and the interior, where there is a scarce possibility to find additional work, there is less chance to find another source of income. In the analysis of farm families, INE has determined that only 6% of the farms have income exclusively from agricultural activities. In fact, 84% are dependent on outside sources of income such as pensions and salaries from outside of agriculture in such areas as the service sector (INE, 2011). In this context, some general agricultural aspects identified by the Portuguese 2009 census are the following:  “Women account for one third of the farmers;  The utilized area for agriculture has increased from 9.3 hectares to 12 hectares as a result of absorption of small farms to larger farms;  The small-sized farms continue to prevail, but 2/3 of the Utilized Agricultural Area is now managed by farms with more than 50 hectares;

Centre for Transdisciplinary Development Studies (CETRAD), University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD), Portugal Centre for Transdisciplinary Development Studies (CETRAD), University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD), Portugal 3 Centre for Transdisciplinary Development Studies (CETRAD), University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD), Portugal 1 2

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 The size of farms in Portugal is on average 5 hectares smaller than in the EU  The average farmer is a male, aged 63, completed the 1st cycle of basic education has only practical agricultural training and works exclusively in activities on the farm about 22 hours per week” (INE, 2011 pp 3-4). As the social media has communicated, the agricultural sector is attracting new entrants into agriculturalwhich could change the trend inthe snapshot for the average farmer. This is important for a sector that has as the average age 63 for a male farmer. New entrants into farming in Portugal have been innovative and come with experience in other areas as noted by the social media in Portugal. One example is a graduate from an undergraduate degree in International Relations who is now raising beef cows instead of risking unemployment in other economic sectors. In the Journal de Noticias, 2012, they documented the success of a young farmer who graduated in Marketing Management and now is producing vertical strawberries in greenhouses. He recently was awarded a prize for most innovative farm activity in Europe. BRIEF AGRICULTURAL TRAINING HISTORY The idea of training is associated to the agricultural knowledge system considering the component made up of farmers and next the institutions involved in this educational process. The information and educational system requires diverse methods, methodologiesand policies for learning to attract farmers. This section will discuss the secondary vocational agricultural education system and farmer training programs in Portugal without addressing the higher agricultural educational systems or rural extension. The secondary agricultural educational system continues, but with a reduced number of schools. An earlier evaluation of the performance of these schools by Koehnen (1994) suggested at the time greater supervision of students in a work experience program or on their family farm. Also, the necessity to increase recruitment of female students, greater investment in instructional materials (this links well to e-learning packages for example), more record keeping and planning activities and the need to increase in-service training of the teachers at these educational institutions. The study emphasized the importance of instructional materials and the development of a regional or national unit to prepare these instructional materials. The RURAL/ITER project will develop instructional materials (off-line courses via internet) for new entrants and women farmers at a higher agricultural education institution. This suggests the relevance of a mixed form of methodologies in the teaching-learning processfor farmers that include self long distance learning courses such as off-line training. The instructional packages will be developed targeting new entrants and women farmers. An additional needs assessment will also include the perceptions of farmers. In this paper, the team focuses only on the perceptions of 3rd party specialists. The farmer training courses such as residential or non-residential are still a part of the training system in Portugal, today. Koehnen and Alves (1993), Koehnen, Baptista and Portela (2004) and Koehnen and Baptista (2012) document the strengths and weaknesses of these programs. In these studies, the problems and weaknesses identified were access to and distances to training centres, the need to recognise and involve rural women in educational activities and poor public transport in the rural areas. Innovative learning materials and instruction for the young farmers and women will need to be considered and developed to overcome some of these challenges. METHODOLOGY This research involves a survey research methodology of 3rd party specialist concerning innovative trends and training needs in Portugal.Isaac and Michael (1981) have recognised the survey design to collect quantitative and qualitative data by questionnaire. The research team made contacts to 3rd party specialist in the northern Regional Directorate of Agriculture, vocational schools, higher educational institutions and private consultant agencies working in agriculture. The number of respondents to the questionnaire was 24 and the questionnaire was translated from English to Portuguese in February, 2013 and administered from March to May 2013. The Italian research partners constructed the questionnaire for the RURAL/ITER project. The Lifelong Learning Project involves other European partners as well. The questionnaire is an instrument to assist in the identification of agricultural knowledge and skill needs for new entrants and women farmers. In the next section, the paper willdiscuss the preliminary results from a survey by 3 rd party specialists in Portugal related to the RURAL/ITER: Lifelong Learning Program, Reintroduction upon Rural Agricultural Lands of Innovative Training for Entrepreneurs on Return, project number 2012 1-GR1-LEO05-10058. The paper will use data from the Survey Report on the Analysis of Agricultural Innovative Trends and Training needs for Portugal. This will be a brief summary of the research data gathered and analysed at this time from Portugal. The overall purpose of the RURAL/ITER project is to develop training materials for new

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entry and women farmers. The training materials will be developed in an off-line format as decided by the project partners. PRESENTATION OF RESULTS The results presented in this section have a preliminary nature, as this research is still in progress. It also only analyses the opinions of the 3rd party specialists. Table 1 describes the specialists as predominately female with an average work experience of 16 years. They work at the Regional Directorate, Higher Educational Institutions, Vocational Agricultural Secondary Schools, Training Centres and Private Consultancies. The respondents are basically from northern Portugal, where the farm size is about 12 hectares and where you can find new entrants into the agricultural sector. These respondents have experience as professors, vocational agricultural teachers, administrators and trainers in the residential and non-residential courses. Table 1 - Data about respondents Variable Total - Women - Men Agencies - Regional Directorate - Higher Educational Institutions (agrarian) - Vocational Agricultural High Schools - Training Centres Positions: - Professors - Trainers - Administrators Experience (average of no. of years )

no. 24 15 9

% 63 37

16

Table 2 expresses the necessity for innovative trends, more specifically, why farmers are introducing change to their farm businesses. The respondents did select more than one item with this question.The 3 rd party specialists believe that the changes and trends that farmers are making on their farms relate to the earning of extra income and profitability as well as linked to European funds that assist them to make farm changes. One important trend has to do with escaping from unemployment in other sectors. This indicates the importance for the revitalization in the agricultural sector in Portugal. The economic crisis has been severe and thepolitical result is structural changes in the agricultural sector in order to promote exports. It appears that the 3rd party specialist believe the farmers also want to make their business sustainable in the long term which relates to diversification of income to make it more stable. Table 2: In the area where you work, for which reason do you think that farmers are introducing some changes? Motivation for change no. % a. To make their farm more profitable and to earn extra income 19 32 b. To diversify their sources of income, to make it more stable 6 10 c. To make their business more sustainable in the long term. 6 10 d. To give their relatives better employment opportunities. 3 5 e. To receive a grant in form of a project under European funds. 15 25 f. To search for a better way of life. 4 7 g. To escape from unemployment in other sectors. 7 12 h. Others Total 60 100

Table 3 relates to training needs for farmers. The table addresses the innovative activities required for training of farmers selected by the 3rd party specialists. The respondents could select more than one item. The four highest activities selected by the respondents were organic farming, on-farm processing of traditional and quality foods, biodiversity protection and medicinal plants and health/nutraceutical products. The two lowest activities were non-food on farm activities and nursery, gardening and landscaping. The activity involving social farms to create a didactic learning environment for young children seems to be a means to bridge urban populations with rural areas. In Portugal, other innovative

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activities are mushroom cultivation and fish and oyster farming along the coasts and estuaries.Covas and Covas (2011) have suggested using renewable energy resources as well which was selected by 3 rd party specialists in a lesser extent. Table 3 - For which innovative activities is training required? Activities a. Organic farming (cultivations and livestock breeding) b. Biodiversity protection (seed and/or breed saving) c. Medicinal plants and health/nutraceutical products d. On farm processing of traditional and quality foods° e. Alternative animal production f. Non food on farm activities (silk, wool and their products) g. Nursery, gardening and landscaping h. Direct selling of products (various modalities) i. Agro-tourism j. Outdoor, environmental and didactic tourism k. Didactic and social farms linked to social issues of civil society l. Biomass for renewable energy or composting m. Photovoltaic or solar energy production n. Wind energy o. Others Total

no.* 19 13 10 16 6 3 1 6 7 9 7 8 8 5

% 16 11 8 14 5 3 1 5 6 8 6 7 7 4

118

Table 4 is showing the most important themes for improving the managerial attitudes of farmers. The respondents selected at least three of the most important themes. The three dominant themes selected were group marketing strategies, strategic planning and business plan and administration and bookkeeping. These themes should be considered in the development of the learning materials. Table 4 - Most important themes for improving the managerial attitudes of farmers Subject a. Administration and bookkeeping b. Use of the European structural funds (EAFRD, ERDF, ESF) c. Use of the Common Agriculture Policy measures d. Strategic planning and business plan e. Relationships with banks f. Relationships with insurance companies g. Safety at work h. Individual marketing strategies i. Group marketing strategies j. Other Total

no.* 16 2 5 17 1 0 2 7 18

% 24 3 7 25 2 0 3 10 26

68

100

Table 5 shows the preferred learning methods selected by 3 rd party specialists. The respondents could choose more than one of these methods. Learning by doing, with meetings at, and visits to pilot farm (s) was selected 19 times with a weight of 40%. The blended methodology was selected 11 times and self long distance learning once. These innovative methods could be the instructional forms for the new entrant farmers and young farmers who have difficulty with transport or distances to training centres. Table 5 - Preferred learning method Method a. Residential courses, lasting one week b. Non residential courses, with lectures spread over several weeks or months c. Self long distance learning (offline courses via internet) d. Video-conference organized by the training centre e. Learning by doing, with meetings at, and visits to pilot farm(s) f. Blended methodology (front classroom, online and offline training) g. Others Total

no. 6 9 1 1 19 11 47

% 13 19 2 2 40 23

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CONCLUSIONS In general, in Portugal, there is a need to strengthen the learning programs for farmers. The preliminary findings suggest the use of traditional training and learning methods such as residential and non-residential courses. The interest in visits to pilot farm (s) has been discussed. Nevertheless, the preliminary study has recognised the importance of a blended methodology for learning such as on-line and off-line training. The identification of innovative farm activities indicates the topics and areas for learning such as organic farming, on-farm processing of traditional foods, biodiversity protection (seed and or breed protection) and the production of medicinal plants can be relevant for women and new entry farmers. The important management themes selected by the 3rd party specialists were administration and bookkeeping, strategic planning and group marketing strategies of their agricultural products. The new entrants and women farmers will be consulted in order to clarify the offerings and learning methods. The strengths for self long distance learning would diversify the learning methods and permit greater access and reduce problems associated to travel to and from training centres, meetings and pilot farm visits. The scheduling of the learning process would also reduce the problem of fitting the course schedule to a number of users. The future teaching-learning activities and policies must represent a continuous non-formal educational process with as many alternatives in the learning endeavour for the new users in the agricultural sector. REFERENCES Covas, A. e M.Covas. (2011). A Grande Transição Pluralidade e Diversidade no Mundo Rural. Edições Coibri, Lisboa. de Mello, Luis and S. Guichard (Co-ord.) (2013). “Better Policies” Portugal Reforming the State to Promote Growth May 2013. DownloadedJanuary 2013 fromwww.oecd.org/portugal. INE. (2011). Recenseamento Agrícola Análise dos Principais Resultados.INE, Lisboa Koehnen, T. and Alves, AmilcarPatrício V. (1993). "Endogenous Development: Can it be Duplicated?" In Jan Douwe Van der Ploeg (ed.), Strengthening Endogenous Development Patterns in European Agriculture. Creta: Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Chania. pp. 153-165. Jounal de Noticias (2012). Morangos Suspenso da Premio Europeu. 27-12-2012. Jounal de Noticias (2013) Só a Agricultura Criou Novos Postos de Trabalho 21-01-2013 Isaac, S. and W. Michael. (1981) HandbookinResearchandEvaluation: A CollectionofPrinciples, Methods, andStrategiesUsefulinthePlanning, Design, andEvaluationofStudiesinEducationandtheBehaviouralSciences 2nd Edition. EdITSPublishers: San Diego. Koehnen, T. and A. Baptista (2012). Training Programs for Rural People in Portugal: Some Clues to Improve Non-Formal Education. Journal of Extension Systems.28(2), pp.17-33.-.ISSN 0970-2989. Koehnen, T., Baptista, A. and J. Portela (2004). Non-Formal Educational Activities for Rural Women: A Case Study Evaluation in Portugal. Journal of Extension Systems.20(2) 72-88. ISSN 0970-2989. Koehnen. T. (1997) O Trabalho de Extensão Florestal com Pequenos Proprietários: Contributo para a Definição do Perfil de Competências dos Técnicos. Economia e Sociologia. 63. 119-131. Koehnen, T. (1994). Portuguese Secondary Agricultural Schools in Transition. European Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension.1 (1) 5-22.

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The Role of Advisors in the Implementation of Short Courses Kozari J.1

Toth K.2

Abstract Our research was made at the Regional Extensional Centre of Szent István University, which coordinates the extensional tasks of the Central-Hungarian Region and takes part in the New Hungarian Rural Development Programme (ÚMVP), as a training location. To make programmes successful registered advisors are involved, who also represent themselves as trainers in the training programmes. In this research we have rated 28 training programmes and the work of 13 registered trainers who took part in these programmes. Keywords: consultancy, extension centres, training programmes

INTRODUCTION Nowadays agricultural professional training, research and the system of agricultural extensionhave the task to explore, analyse and select the latestagricultural knowledge that are worth disseminating. Our research work was carried out in the Regional Extension Centre of Szent István University, which has been coordinating the extensional tasks in the Central Hungarian Region since1999. 2009 it was awarded the title „Training Centre” announced by the New-Hungarian Rural Development Programme (Új Magyarország Vidékfejlesztési Program/ÚMVP). Since then the list of tasks was compoleted by the organisation of compulsory and recommended trainings for agricultural producers.Our research work aims to investigate the role of the advisors in the organisation and implementation of farmer training programmes. The research work shows the institutional structure of the Hungarian extension system, the conditions of getting rolled in the Hungarian Register of Advisors, professional requirements for the advisors, the implementation process of trainings and the relevant advisors’ tasks. The investigated trainings were organised in the first quarter of 2013.During the period of investigation 28 compulsory trainings were conducted with the remarkable contribution of the advisors in organisation and training. 646farmers completed the compulsory trainings with the assistance of 13 registered advisors. METHODS The research work was carried out in the Regional Extension Centre of Szent István University (further as: SZIE RSZK). The following research methods were applied:  We reviewed the relevant Hungarian literature, the existing legislation on ÚMVPtrainings as well as the registry conditions for advisors.  We interviewed the registered advisors involved into the investigation and surveyed the methods of knowledge transfer they used in their extension work.  We participated in the compulsory trainings and collected first hand experience about the relation of the farmers to the compulsory trainings.  2012.

We processed the data base of the AKG-trainings included into the SZIE RSZK Training Project of

Results The structure of the Hungarian Extension System The present structure of the Hungarian Extension System is governed by the FVM (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development) regulation of 73/2007 (VII. 27.). Figure 1 shows the structure of the system.

1 2

Szent István University, Regional Extension Centre, H-2100 Gödöllő, Páter K. u. 1.Hungary [email protected] Szent István University, Regional Extension Centre, H-2100 Gödöllő, Páter K. u. 1.Hungary [email protected]

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Ministry of Rural Development(VM)

National Advisory Committee(OSZB)

National Extension Centre (OSZK)

RegionalExtensionCentres (RSZK)

Local Extension Centre (TSZK)

AgriculturalProducers Figure 1.Structure of the Hungarian Extension Own Source2013 Conditions of being enrolled and staying in the Registry of Advisors Enrolment in the Registration of the advisors follows after application. The registry includes the main data of advisors who have had the required degree in higher education as well as the practice and have not been involved in agricultural broking at all. Last year the National Extension Committee elaborated a recommendation about the modification of the yearly compulsory training for the registered advisors. This compulsory training happens in a credit system. Table 1.Credit points, 2013 Type of the event Conferences Technical and technological demonstrations

national

6

regional

4

national

6

regional

4

Variety shows

4

Forums

3

Introduction of innovations

5

Trainings related to actual tasks (e.g.filling in GN, e-application)

5

Software shows

4

Vocational and special engineer training Agricultural journal subscription

10

Special exhibitions and fairs Farmer days Source:VKSZI, 2013

Credits

3/pcs national

6

regional

3

national

6

regional

3

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Trainings founded by the European Agricultural and Rural Development Funds and related to the NewHungarian Rural Development Programme There are two types of financially supported trainings: optional andcompulsory. Among the optional trainings we can find trainings offering vocational knowledge (so called recommended trainings) and those offering an OKJ certificated or official trainings. In our research work we show the experiences gained of the compulsory trainings belonging to the 2nd target area. Eligible for financial support are agricultural producers and forest managers who have a registry number at Agricultural Rural Development Office (further on NVH) and have a farmers’ card at least. NVH handed over the list of farmers obliged to trainings to SZIE ÚMVP Centre. Experiences gained of the AKG compulsory trainings organised by SZIE ÚMVP Centre The ÚMVP Centre of Szent István University received the names and availability of 535 clients from MVH in order to organise compulsory trainings of AKG 2. As a result of informative letters about 50% of the clients applied for the trainings. In order to raise the rate of the participation registered advisors were involved into the organisation and they also informed their own clients about the trainings. As a result the numbers of participants increased up to 646. Figure 2 shows the numbers of new clients in new counties included by SZIE ÚMVP Centre. Thanking to the work of the registered advisors SZIE ÚMVP Centre was able to increase the number of clients up to 120%.

Jász-NagykunSzolnok Megye Hajdú Bihar Megye

18

County

123

Fejér Megye

53

Pest Megye

305

M FM

0

100

200 Person

300

400

Figure 2. AKG trainings according to gender Source: SZIE ÚMVP Training Centre, 2013. When choosing the locations for the trainings we aimed to reduce the distance of clients’ travelling to a minimum but also to offer the best suitable technical conditions of education that ensure the highest level of training.The training courses were organised in educational institutions, community centres or in lecture rooms of self-governments in general. Experiences of interviewing advisors Advisors considered important that their clients get to know them in the role of the trainer as well, and trainings also enlarged the number of their own clients in many of the cases. Advisors can participate as trainers in financially supported trainings after they had applied at a ÚMVP Training Organisation and successfully passed the examination on the teaching material of the relevant compulsory training course. 13 out of the trainers registered by SZIE ÚMVP Centre passed the examination by AKG II compulsory training in the system of NAKVI successfully. They generally notified their existing clients by phone and at a lower rate in e-mail about the available training courses. 100% of the clients informed by the advisors appeared at the trainings.This shows that there is a high level of professional confidence between the clients and the advisors. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 646 farmers attended the 28 compulsory training courses that were organised by SZIE ÚMVP Centre. The high numbers of participants were due to the fact that we involved registered advisors that also brought new and their own clients to the trainings.

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As a result of involving the advisors Szent István University, as a Training Centre,couldgain area in further two counties (Hajdú-Bihar- and Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok)and could increase their awareness and professional credit as well. We will be able to rate this latter one by the increase of the number of optional training courses. Advisors are pleased to act as trainers before their clients, especially if they are entitled by a higher educational institution. A further advantage is that they can enlarge the number of their clients through the trainings. Involving the registered advisors into the organisation and implementation of the training courses greatly increased the numbers of clients of SZIE ÚMVP Training Centre. Therefore we recommend relying on the active participation of the registered advisors in the compulsory trainings of 2 nd target area in future as well. Citacions and References: Kozári J. (Szerk.) (2000/a): A mezőgazdasági szaktanácsadás fogalma. Szaktanácsadás a mezőgazdaságban. Budapest: Dinasztia Kiadó., 13-14 p. Nagy F. (2001): Lépni kell, ha nyerni akarunk! Gondolatok az EU élelmiszergazdaságáról. Gazdálkodás XLVI. Évfolyam 2001. 1. szám 8-15 p. Tóth K. (2005):Az Agrár-szaktanácsadás helye a mezőgazdasági ismereti rendszerben, fejlesztési lehetőségeinek megalapozása Magyarországon doktori disszertáció 100-101. p. Vér A. (2013): Az Agrár-szaktanácsadási rendszerek vizsgálata és értékelése47-51p vkszi.hu: Letöltés dátuma: 2013. 05 08, forrás: http://www.vkszi.hu/umvpkepzes 2013.05.08 mvh.gov.hu: Letöltés dátuma: 2013. 05 http://www.mvh.gov.hu/.../1033836_139_2008_FVM_rendelet_20111003 2013. 05.09 umvp.eu.. Letöltés dátuma: 2013. 05. 08, forrás: http://www.umvp.eu

09.,

forrás:

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Decision Making in Agriculture - Farmers' Lifeworld in Theory and Practice Lindblom J.1 Ljung M.3

J Rambusch.2 Lundström C.4

Abstract The challenges facing the agriculture sector are immense and a wide range of factors and demands influence it on both local and global level. Making decisions under such circumstances is a complex and delicate task in which goal conflicts cannot easily be resolved. This puts farmers in a rather difficult position as it is impossible for a single individual to make informed and appropriate decisions, which strongly emphasizes the need for an increased collaboration between farmers and other actors in the agricultural sector. This paper aims to explore in more detail farmers' lifeworld which refers to their social environment and working life. Particular focus will be on the socially situated organization of collaborative activities in farmers' lifeworld and the ways in which technologies and artifacts can be present in practical action. For instance, agricultural advisory situations can be considered complex social systems where people with different backgrounds, experiences, and expectations collaborate by means of a wide range of artifacts to develop some common understanding and shared knowledge. We suggest that theories of distributed and situated cognition and the methodologies that come with them are well suited to capture farmers' lifeworld and their daily working practices. Material from an ongoing workplace study will be used for illustration purposes to provide concrete examples. Keywords: advisory situations, workplace study, distributed cognition, crop rotation plan, socio-technical system

INTRODUCTION The challenges facing the agriculture sector are immense and a wide range of factors, demands and conditions influence it on both local and global level (Future Agriculture 2013). Some of those challenges are: demographic changes, sustainable supply of ecosystem services, the conservation of biodiversity, a changing climate, the shortage of energy and other resources, conflicting policies and politics, market volatility, changes in consumer preferences, and continuous technical development. By the end of the day, the agricultural sector is expected to address all those challenges – and more; it is also expected to produce food, meet environmental goals, preserve and protect cultural heritage for future generations, and meet the recreational needs of local, regional, and global communities, all the while keeping it economically viable. It is fairly obvious that making decisions under such national and international scrutiny is a complex and delicate task in which goal conflicts cannot easily be resolved. This puts farmers in a rather difficult position as it is impossible for a single, isolated individual to make informed and appropriate decisions, which strongly emphasizes the need for an increased collaboration between farmers and other actors in the agricultural sector (Myrdal 2001). However, there are a few obstacles that they would have to overcome first. Research in the agricultural sector has come a long way and, theoretically, farmers and other key players have access to the latest and best knowledge about what is needed to move toward a more sustainable, yet economically viable, agriculture. However, they often seem to lack competence and understanding of the requirements it imposes, and researchers, practitioners, and policy makers are trying to understand why and what can be done about it. This paper aims to investigate and analyze in more detail farmers’ lifeworld as described in Nitsch (2009) from a distributed cognitive perspective, which refers to their technical and social environment as well as working life. In the sections to follow, we will discuss in more detail what affects farmers’ decision making processes in practice, and which theories are most useful in capturing and understanding them. Furthermore, some preliminary results of an ongoing workplace study are presented. The paper ends with a summary and discussion.

Interaction Lab, Informatics Research Centre, University of Skövde, Skövde, Sweden Interaction Lab, Informatics Research Centre, University of Skövde, Skövde, Sweden 3 Principal Extension Officer, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Skara, Sweden 4 Department of Soil and Environment, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Skara, Sweden 1 2

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DECISION MAKING IN AGRICULTURE Historically, the underlying theoretical framework in farm management has taken an economic perspective which led to an absence of relevant theories about how decisions are made in practice (Gray et al.2009). Decision making theories most commonly used in farm management are, however, normative, i.e., focus has mainly been on the decision event and not on decision making processes in general (Öhlmér et al. 1998). As a result, normative decision theories failed to explain how decisions are made by farmers. Normative perspectives are very similar to more traditional views on cognition in the area of cognitive science according to which cognition is considered the product of internal, individual processes, comparable to the symbol-manipulating processes in a computer (e.g. Card et al. 1983; Pylyshyn 1990). Decision making, from this point of view, is nothing more than a series of options from which the individual decision maker chooses objectively and transparently. However, considering the complexity of farmers’ situation, one cannot expect them to make informed and objective decisions in a stepwise linear sequence. As a result, researchers such as Öhlmér et al. (1998) stressed the need to revise studies of farmers’ decision making practices toward more naturalistic decision making models. Adding complexity to the decision making process Naturalistic decision making theories (NDM) were among the first to challenge normative (and prescriptive) decision making theories (e.g. Orasanuand Connolly 1995; Zsambokand Klein 1997). NDM refers to a range of theoretical and methodological approaches for understanding and studying how people make decisions in dynamic and complex domains involving time pressure, high stakes, and a high degree of uncertainty, and where people’s previous experiences and knowledge are taken into account. NDM has found its way into a number of fields of research and has been an important step towards understanding decision making processes in practice. However, its focus has mainly been on the individual decision maker with little or no attention paid to social factors, different kinds of tools, and technology used in the decision process (Shattuck and Miller 2006). Hence, Shattuck and Miller suggested to broaden the focus and scope in NDM by integrating theories of situated cognition; the general assumption was that it would offer a broader unit of analysis stretching from the individual, across people, material and technical artifacts to culture, as much of everyday cognition is embedded in social practices. As mentioned earlier, farmers’ daily work activities in today’s and tomorrow’s society are very complex in so far as they require knowledge and consideration of a wide range of biological, technological, political, legal, economical, ethical, and social factors and circumstances (Nitsch 1994). An important aspect here is the sociocultural context in which those activities take place, that is, the activities in which farmers engage are guided by sociocultural norms and practices (cf. Lave and Wenger 1991; Suchman 2007). Another aspect is the context of a situation; in order to understand farmers’ decision making processes; we need to consider what is taking place around them and the interactions in which they are involved. Focus should lie on the distribution of cognition between farmer and other individuals, and their material surroundings (cf. Hutchins 1995). The view on decision making processes as being distributed across people and their social and material environment is particularly interesting here. Considering the challenges and responsibilities farmers have to face each day, scientists must study the situation and the situated cognizer together as a unified system. This way of thinking has, for instance, found its way into the fields of shipnavigation (Hutchins 1995), critical care environments (Patel et al. 2008), heart surgery teams (Hazlehurst et al. 2007), human-computer interaction (e.g. Hollan et al. 2000; Rogers and Ellis 1994), information fusion (Nilssonet al. 2012), and information visualization (Liu et al. 2008). Thus, it is reasonable to assume that this way of thinking is equally applicable to the agricultural domain, and although the approach of distributed cognition does not explicitly describe farmers’ being-in-the-world in terms of the Nitsch’s lifeworld concept, the thoughts are aligned with the kind of processes and activities that Habermas (1987) refers to as lifeworld. Distributed Cognition: Shifting the boundaries of the unit of analysis The theoretical framework of distributed cognition (DC) was introduced by Hutchins (1995) in response to more individual models and theories of human cognition. From a DC perspective, human cognition is fundamentally distributed in the socio-technical environment that we inhabit. DC takes a system perspective, and discards the idea that human mind and environment can be separated and cognition should instead be considered as a process, rather than as something that is contained inside the mind of the individual. Hence, DC views cognition as distributed in a complex socio-technical environment and cognition, including decision making processes, is seen as creation, transformation, and propagation of representational states within a socio-technical system (Hutchins 1995). The system level view makes DC a fruitful approach for studies of complex socio-technical domains. An important aspect of the system view is that cognition is seen as a culturally situated activity, and should be studied where it naturally occurs, i.e.,

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“in the wild”. The framework differs from other cognitive approaches, by its commitment to two theoretical principles (Hollan et al. 2000). The first principle concerns the boundaries of the unit of analysis for cognition, which is defined by the functional relationship between the different entities of the cognitive system. The second principle concerns the range of processes that is considered to be cognitive in nature. In the DC view, cognitive processes are seen as coordination and interaction between internal processes, as well as manipulation of external objects and the propagation of representations across the system’s entities (Figure 1).

Figure 1. From a traditional cognitive science perspective (a) the unit of analysis is narrowed to the inside of the individual’s head, while from a distributed cognition perspective (b) the unit of analysis is expanded to be distributed across people and artifacts where cognitive processes are the result of the functional relationships of the entities of the cognitive system.

When these principles are applied to the observation of human activity in situ, three kinds of distributed cognitive processes becomes observable (Hollan et al. 2000): (1) across the members of a group, (2) between human internal mechanism (e.g., decision making, memory, attention) and external structures (e.g., material artifacts, computer systems and social environment), and (3) distributed over time. Different kinds of representations are central to the unit of analysis in DC, as cognition is seen as coordination, transformation, and propagation of representational states within a system. Hollan et al. (2000) argue for the stance that representations should not only be seen as tokens that refer to something other than themselves but that they also are manipulated by humans as being physical properties. Humans shift from attending to the representation to attending to the thing represented, which produce cognitive outcomes that could not have been achieved if representations were always seen as representing something else. An example in Hutchins (1995) is the navigational chart. The chart is used for offloading cognitive effort (e.g., memory, decision making) to the environment and to present information that has been accumulated over time. Furthermore, Hutchins (1995) describes the navigational chart as an analog computer where all the problems solved on charts can be represented as equations and solved by symbolprocessing techniques. An important insight in this example is the relationship between the external structure (the chart as a representation) and the internal structure (the computation). The relationship between the external and the internal constructs cultural meaning, and are a part of the same cognitive ecology. Hence, to study external, material and social structures reveals properties about the internal, mental structures, which become observable. In other words, the study of external, material and social structures reveals properties about an individual's internal, mental structures. Hence, by studying cognition with this larger scope in mind, it is clear that the functional cognitive system has cognitive properties that cannot be limited to the cognitive abilities of the individuals. METHOD AND PERFORMANCE To study farmers’ complex decision making processes from a DC perspective, a workplace study (Luff et al. 2000) was performed. According to Luff et al. (2000) there are a number of approaches to practical action in the workplace, and one of the developments is found within cognitive science with the emergence of DC. Workplace studies allow us to gain a deeper and detailed understanding of farmers’ lifeworld and the many factors affecting their daily work routines and strategic decisions, thereby ensuring a more holistic view of the process. The chosen approach was purely qualitative and was based on ethnographical fieldwork as a mean for data collection (Luff et al. 2000). The focus has been on farmers located in South Western Sweden, an area known for its rich agricultural heritage, and who use various agricultural advice services. The emphasis has been placed on capturing decision making processes in advisory situations. Due to the limited

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length of this paper, it is not possible to provide a detailed account of the collected data, and hence only selected examples are chosen for closer analysis. TAKING A CLOSER LOOK AT ADVISORY SITUATIONS To illustrate these concepts better and to explain how DC can be used as a theoretical framework of farmers’ lifeworld, we present and analyze real life scenarios here. Once a year, farmers and advisors meet during a couple of hours to discuss and summarize the past harvest season and to plan and roughly decide on the upcoming harvest season, and do an economic evaluation. This is usually done in late fall when the field work is completed and it is time to plan for the next season. An important aspect is to decide which crops should be sown at the different lots, to get a good crop rotation and demanded harvest, such as enough feed for the animals. Another important aspect is the documentation of any changes to the agreed-upon crop rotation plan. The decision process involves both short- and longterm strategies in order to manage the farm properly in regard to social, economical, and environmental factors as well as national and European Union (EU) regulations and policies. Different representational formats of farmers’ arable land Farmers’ arable land is divided in different lots in accordance with the EU supporting system. Farmers often prefer to have a printed map of their farm land (Figure 2), showing the different parts and the crop grown on them. Each lot has a unique ID number and different colors show the kind of crops grown and fields left fallow. The map contains also information about the size of each lot.

Figure 2. Different external representation formats of farmers’ arable land. To the left, a printed map; and to the right, various digital formats in the advisor’s computer software.

One of the first things advisor and farmer do when they meet is to check to what extent the farmer’s printed map differs from the datasheet the advisor has stored in the computer software (see Figure 2). It should be noted, in this example, there are different designations of the same lot in the different media. A certain lot is represented in various formats: digitally; graphically, in writing and twice numerically (due to EU and local standards). The graphical map of the crop rotation plan appears to be a central artifact when the farmer and advisor discuss the past season and plan the upcoming one, in a similar manner as the navigational chart example discussed by Hutchins (1995). The (graphical) map is an abstract representation of the real world and is sometimes used more actively by farmers during the season; for instance, different actions taken are sometimes marked in pencil on the map (Figure 3). By doing so, farmers offload their internal memory andmove parts of the decision making process onto another, more observable medium outside the “skull”, which makes it possible to trace certain actions over time. For instance, the map shown in Figure 3 has written notes about particular lots, such as the dates when catch crops have been sown (and by whom) and when nematode samples were taken. Moreover, decisions about how to cultivate set-aside land and information about fields left in farrow are included on the map as well. These examples serve as illustrations of how information is represented in different ways (via internal and external structures), but also how information is propagated and transformed within the sociotechnical system. That is, as information about taken actions propagates through the system’s entities (humans and artifacts), both the representations and their representational states are transformed. By making these internal processes observable in another medium (on the map and in the notes section), these external structures are used as scaffolds, in form of decision supporting artifacts, during conversation and

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various decision making processes. The re-representation of internal cognitive processes in external media enables farmers to transform the space of higher-level cognition, which allows human cognition to be distributed while offering a concrete place to coordinate internal and external representations. Many farmers' strategy of off-loading the act of remembering into visual and external representational formats through written notes becomes quite apparent in the below examples.

Figure 3. The map functions as both a central artifact in farmers' daily decision-making activities and as a tool for offloading (internal) memory processes.

Artifacts and humans as coordinating devices Another central issue in DC is the coordination function of different representational formats and the interaction between people. Coordination devices function through their capacity to control the propagation of representational states through the system. The map and the conversation between farmer and advisor function as scaffolds for coordination as they express, reflect and make explicit some of the motivations and rationale behind farmers’ decisions. In other words, the coordination of different representations (maps, verbal utterance, notes and so on) is an emergent property of the system as a whole, not easily reduced to an evident property of a certain entity (human or artifact). For instance, during the economical evaluation, the various amounts of seed, fertilizers, and pesticides bought and used are put into the advisor’s computer software. Some farmers use the bills and documentation stored in a binder whereas they sometimes simply do estimations of certain figures based on previous experience without having documentation. The updated modifications in the past crop production plan, together with the inputs from the bills and other data, result in an economical evaluation of the past harvest season. It should be pointed out, that both advisor and farmers take the result of the economical evaluation of the harvest represented in the computer software as being an explicit point of reference for the following planning and decision making process of the upcoming harvest season. The roles of the advisor in the decision making process vary between being a discussion partner, a source of inspiration, and a way of confirming already planned actions. Sometimes farmers seem to decide on their own in conjunction with the advisor. The map is often used in the conversation in order to explicitly show a particular lot that might need certain action, such as ditching, liming or changing of crop. Thus, the relationship between internal and external structures constructs the meaning in the dialogue between farmer and advisor. Consequently, the work activities and practices around the coordination, transformation, propagation, distribution, and interpretation of the different representational media that are involved in the described examples illustrate agriculture as a functional system “in the wild”. Fundamental to the distributed sociotechnical system of advisory situations is the ability to focus their attention on the external and internal structures which the functional system of the farmers’ work is organized around, in order to identify relevant features such as farmers’ arable land represented in different media. SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION This paper has applied the theoretical framework of DC in the domain of agriculture, resulting in an understanding of the complexity of advisory conversations where farmers, advisors, technology, and artifacts together form a functional system. This has also been analyzed in short examples of agricultural advisory situations where conversations about crop rotation plans are described as distribution, propagation and coordination of different representational media between humans and artifacts. As pointed out earlier, not many studies have been conducted to investigate and analyze the complexity of decision-making in agriculture from naturalistic and holistic perspectives, and this work is a promising step in that direction. Further research is necessary to understand more thoroughly how farmers make decisions and what motivates their decisions within a socio-technical system. Our study shows that DC can be an

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appropriate approach to provide detailed descriptions of work practices and serve, in the long run, as a foundation for future work in describing and understanding farmers’ lifeworld. Acknowledgments We would like to thank all farmers and advisors participating in the workplace study. The research is performed within the DEMIPROF project (Decision Making In ProfessionalAgriculture), funded by thematic research program BioSoM(Biological Soil Mapping) at the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences. References Card S K, Moran T P, Newell A (1983) The psychology of human-computer interaction. L ErlbaumInc Hillsdale, NJ (US) Future Agriculture (2013) http://www.slu.se/en/collaborative-centres-and-projects/future-agriculture Gray D I, Parker W J, Kemp E (2009) Farm management research: A discussion of some of the important issues. Journal of International Farm Management5:1 1-24 Habermas, J (1987) The theory of communicative action. Volume 2: Lifeworld and system, a critique of functionalist reason. Beacon Press, Boston (US) Hazlehurst B, McMullen C K, Gorman P N,(2007) Distributed cognition in the heart room: How situation awareness arises from coordinated communications during cardiac surgery. Journal of Biomedical Informatics 40:539-551 Hollan J, Hutchins E, Kirsh D (2000) Distributed Cognition: Toward a New Foundation for Human-Computer Interaction Research. ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction7:2 174–196 Hutchins E (1995) Cognition in the Wild.MA:MIT Press,Cambridge (US) Lave J, Wenger E (1991) Situated Learning - Legitimate Peripheral Participation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (GB) Liu Z, Nersessian N J, Stasko J T (2008) Distributed Cognition as a Theoretical Framework for Information Visualization. IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics 14:6 1173-1180 Luff P, Hindmarsh J, Heath C (2000) Workplace Studies: Recovering work practice and informing system design. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (GB) Myrdal J (2001) Den nya produktionen – det nya uppdraget. Jordbrukets framtid i ett historiskt perspektiv. Tech Rep Ds 2001:68 Jordbruksdepartementet, Stockholm (S) Nilsson M, van Laere J, Susi T, Ziemke T (2012) Information fusion in practice: A distributed cognition perspective on the active role of users. Information fusion 13:60-78 Nitsch U (1994) The Farming Family and Sustainable Rural Development.InWorking Party on Women and the Agricultural Family in Rural Development.Report,Seventh Session of the European Commission on Agriculture (ECA), Athens (G) Nitsch U (2009) Bönder, myndigheter och naturbetesmarker, Vol 23. CMB, Uppsala (S) Orasanu J, Connolly T (1995) The reinvention of decision making. In Decision making in action: Models and methods, (KleinG, Orasanu J, Calderwood R, ZsambokC eds) Norwood, New Jersey (US), pp 3–20 Patel V L, ZhangJ, Yoskowitz N A, Green R, Sayan O R (2008) Translational Cognition for Decision Support in Critical Care Environments: A review. Journal of Biomedical Informatics41:3 413–431 Rogers Y, Ellis J (1994) Distributed cognition: an alternative framework for analyzing and explaining collaborative working. Journal of information technology 9: 119-128 Pylyshyn Z W (1990) Computation and Cognition.In Foundations of Cognitive Science, (Garfield J L, ed), Paragon House,New York (US) Shattuck L, Miller N (2006) Extending naturalistic decision making to complex organizations: A dynamic model of situated cognition. Organization Studies 27:7 989-1009 Suchman L (2007) Human–Machine Reconfigurations: Plans and Situated Actions. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (GB) Zsambok C E, Klein G (1997)Naturalistic decision making. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NJ(GB) Öhlmér B, Olson K, Brehmer B (1998) Understanding farmers’ decision making processes and improving managerial assistance. Agricultural Economics 18:3 273–290

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Does Climate Change Enhance Rural Food Insecurity: Experience from Mountainous Areas of Pakistan Luqman M.1

Shahbaz B.2

Ali S.3

Abstract: Rural economy mostly depends on agriculture sector. The people residing in rural areas largely rely on farming for their livelihoods. In Pakistan the agriculture sector is the most vulnerable to climate change as majority of the poor people reside in rural areas and depends on agriculture especially in mountainous areas. These areas are highly food insecure as compared to the other areas of the country. The present study was designed to determine that climate change play any role in enhancing food insecurity with special reference to mountainous areas. District Mansehra, which is the most populous district among Hazara division. The whole district comprises of three tehsiles. From each tehsile 40 respondents from different rural localities were selected randomly as the study respondents. Data were collected through qualitative as well as quantitative methods and were analyses by using SPSS. The results showed that majority (38.33%) of the respondents depend on agriculture profession for their livelihoods. Climate change enhanced food insecurity through different ways and means. Out of these means through decrease in production of crops, fruits and vegetables was at the top with highest mean value (M=2.78) followed by water shortage, changes in rainfall intensity, increase intensity of floods, soil erosion and degradation and loss of different physical and human assets having mean value 2.73, 2.64, 2.59, 2.47 and 2.43, respectively. It was concluded that agriculture extension wing should play his role in increasing awareness among rural farming community about different adaptation strategies regarding rapid climate change in the region.

University college of Agriculture, University of Sargodha, Pakistan University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan 3 University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan 1 2

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Impact of Climate Change on Rural Livelihoods (A Case of Hazara Region of Pakistan) Luqman M.1

Shahbaz B.2

Ali T.3

Abstract: In mountainous rural areas of Pakistan, livelihoods are highly dependent on natural resources which in turn depend upon climatic conditions. As agriculture is the main source of rural livelihoods, and due to climate change the livelihoods of rural dwellers become more vulnerable due to the adverse effects of climate change on agriculture. Keeping in view the notion of impact of climate change on livelihoods of rural people the present research study was planned as a case of Hazara region. The region comprises of six districts (Haripur, Abbotabd, Mansehra, Kohistan, Bttagram and Tor Ghur) and full with natural resources. District Mansehra was purposefully selected as the study area. Sixty (60) respondents were selected randomly from rural areas three tehsiles of district Mansehra. The results indicated that majority of respondents (48.3%) in the study area were illiterate. Both farming and non-farming was the main source of income for majority (45.0%) of the respondents. It was also found that 100.0% of the respondents were of the view that there exists a rise in temperature which is a major cause of global warming. Regarding the impacts of climate change on livelihoods of rural people it was found that “increase intensity of natural disaster” was at the top with highest mean value (M=4.42). Among different variables of rural livelihoods “increase in human mortality rate” was found at the lowest level with lowest mean value (M= 3.40). From the results it was concluded that climate change has adverse impacts on the livelihoods of rural communities in the region and different state departments (agri. extension and forest) should launch awareness campaigns regarding adoption of different adaptation strategies of climate change so that small farmers can easily secure their livelihoods.

University College of Agriculture, University of Sargodha, Pakistan Institute of Agri. Extension and Rural Development, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan 3 Institute of Agri. Extension and Rural Development, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan 1 2

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Rural Development Policies and Measures for a Multifunctional Agricultural Sector Mahmoodi M.1 Kalantari K.3

Chizari M.2 Eftekhari A. R.4

Abstract The contour of a new sustainable development trajectory is revealed from a careful study of the scale and depth of recent changes in rural areas. The new emerging paradigm, which redefines nature by reemphasizing food production and agro-ecology, asserts the socio-environmental role of agriculture as a major agent in sustaining rural economies. One of the key features of this route is “multifunctionality” which refers to the fact that in addition to the provision of commodities like food and fibre, agriculture -as a multi-output activity- also provides a set of non-commodity outputs (NCOs), including; ecological and environmental benefits, amenity value of the landscape, biodiversity conservation, agro-tourism and provision of recreational environment, and contribution to the socio-economic viability of rural areas. Generally, the term “multifunctionality” refers to the relations between commodity and NCO outputs production in agriculture. However, NCOs show public good characteristics and because of these characteristics, their provision is not remunerated in the absence of special arrangements. Accordingly the use of appropriate policies is required to treat incomplete markets. So, this paper aimed at evaluating the main rural development policies in Iran on the basis of whether or not they attempt to meet the conditions of multifunctional agriculture and to use multifunctionality as an integrated development mechanism that potentially reconsider agriculture to promote rural sustainability. As well, it intended to clarify appropriate policy measures needed to obtain the desired level of various public goods. Results showed that the Iran government has been unable to turn multifunctional activities into a real rural development option. The results also indicated that to multifunctionalise the agricultural sector, a tax should be widely accepted as the optimum policy measures on negative externalities and subsidies or payment on amenities or positive externalities that are produced jointly with or complementary to agricultural production. Key words: Multifunctional agriculture, agricultural policy, rural development, commodity output, noncommodity outputs.

INTRODUCTION The contour of a new sustainable development trajectory is revealed from a careful study of the scale and depth of recent changes in rural areas (Knickle and Renting, 2000). The new emerging paradigm, which redefines nature by re-emphasizing food production and agro-ecology, asserts the socio-environmental role of agriculture as a major agent in sustaining rural economies and cultures (Marsden and Sonnino, 2008). One of the key features of this route is “multifunctionality” (Van der Ploeg et al. 2000) which refers to the fact that in addition to the provision of commodities like food and fibre, agriculture -as a multi-output activity- also provides a set of non-commodity outputs (NCOs) (Blandford and Boisvert, 2002). In the broadest definition, these non-commodity outputs of multifunctional agriculture include; environmental benefits, amenity value of the landscape, biodiversity on and close to farm lands, agro-tourism and provision of recreational environment, contribution to the socio-economic viability of rural areas, and the cultural and historical heritage of agriculture itself (OECD, 2001; Yrjölä and Kola, 2004; Vatn et al. 2002; Blandford and Boisvert, 2002; Lankoski and Ollikainen, 2003). According to this concept, agriculture produces two types of output including commodity outputs and noncommodity outputs. Generally, the term “multifunctional agriculture” is increasingly applied to describe these additional functions and the relations between commodity and non-commodity outputs production in agriculture (OECD, 2008). In this paradigm, commodity production is no longer a central element in agricultural development. Besides food security, it also makes a significant contribution to environmental conservation and social and cultural benefits (Suh, 2002). These issues have made “multifunctionality” a proactive development tool to promote more sustainable economies of scope and synergy (Marsden, 2003). 1 PhD. Student of Agricultural Education and Extension, Tarbiat Modares University Email: [email protected] 2 Professor of Agricultural Education and Extension, Tarbiat Modares University Email:[email protected] 3 Professor of Agricultural Management and Development, Tehran University [email protected] 4 Associate Professor of Geography and Rural Planning, Tarbiat Modares University [email protected]

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However, NCOs show public good or externality characteristics and often go unrewarded in the markets, because one’s consumption of these outputs does not reduce the amount available to others (non-rivalry characteristic), and it is also not possible to avoid someone’s consumption once the output is available (nonexcludability characteristic) (Lankoski, 2003). Because of these characteristics they are not traded in organised markets and will not necessarily be produced in socially desirable quantities without particular treatment (OECD, 2006), their provision is not remunerated in the absence of special arrangements (OECD, 2005) and hence market failure occur in their provision. Accordingly the use of appropriate policies is required to treat incomplete markets. However, current support policies in agricultural sector have mainly focused on the increase of production. Agricultural policy in Iran place ever greater emphasis on the importance of some commodity outputs of agriculture and it emphasizes on maintaining high level of self-sufficiency in order to provide food security. Although during the recent decade following negative effects of modern agriculture, some NCOs of agriculture such as environmental conservation and sustainable natural resource management have been considered in policy making issues, finding policies designed especially for multifunctionality of agriculture specifically is difficult. So, the main purpose of this study was to clarify appropriate instruments that need to be considered when formulating agricultural policy to obtain the desired level of various public goods. METHODOLOGY The qualitative study reported here used focus group discussions. The focus group process was selected as the preferred data collection tool because it involved an appropriate approach to obtaining information directly from respondents based on an open-ended, semi-structured interview constructed by the researchers in a way where respondents are free to give views from any aspect (Krueger and Casey, 2000). The population of the study included all agricultural support policies experts employed by Ministry of Agriculture, and Agricultural Economic & Rural Development Research Centre of Iran (N=87) to gather information. Snowball sampling was used to choose the experts to maximise participation in the focus groups, and primarily for their knowledge and abilities to provide information regarding appropriate policies to obtain the desired level of various public goods. Three 90 minutes focus group interviews, were conducted consisting of 26 participents aged 34-61 ranging in size from 6 to 12 participants in the fall 2011- two at Agricultural Economic & Rural Development Research Centre and one at the Ministry of Agriculture, where the experts worked. The questions were mailed to the participants one week prior to the discussion to allow them to formulate their comments. A moderator (who was a member of the research team) and a co-moderator led discussions. At the end of each discussion, the moderator verified the data collected by summarizing arguments that had been identified during the discussion and asking participants if any key points had been ignored. All focus group discussions were audio recorded and were transcribed after the discussion by the researchers using the additional written notes being made during each session to supplement the tape recordings, especially when more than one person spoke simultaneously. Krueger and Casey (2000) believe that analysing the data gathered by focus group discussions follows a prearranged, sequential process that is verifiable and that allows researchers to derive similar conclusions. Generally, analysis of the data should be begun with considering the original intent of the study (Nordstrom et al. 2000). According to Nordstrom et al. (2000); Although there is a consensus that focus group methods are widely known, used and discussed, the analysis of the subsequent data is less well described (Collier and Scott, 2010). A frequently used method for focus group analysis is to scrutinize the data using different perspectives. In this study both qualitative and quantitative content analysis was used. RESULTS Preferred instruments to improve multifunctional agriculture As governments seek to make better use of their agricultural resources to provide commodity and noncommodity outputs, and develop policies which are appropriate for multifunctional agriculture and sustainable development, it is increasingly important to understand the policies facilitating decisionmaking in multifunctional agriculture (Sutherland et al. 2011).

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Content analysis Krippendorff (1980) believed that content analysis, as a research technique involves specialised procedures for processing scientific data with the purpose of providing new insights, knowledge, and a presentation of facts. This technique converts qualitative data to numbers and percentages to be more accurate and descriptive. The analysis of focus group content in this study follows Morgan (1997) who suggests three ways to analyse and code content: • To note if each focus group contains a given code, • To note if the code appears across all focus groups, • To note how many participants use the code. Then raw data were organized into codes through careful revise of the focus group transcripts. These were used as an indicator of how often keywords or phrases and their meanings recurred in the focus group sessions, and the level of group consensus. This method allows for deep engagement of researcher with the data (Birkett et al. 2004). Catterall and Maclaran (1997) believed that classifying the data in a way that assists further analysis and interpretation is the main purpose of coding. Afterward, separate documents were produced for each group by including the comments of the experts regarding the themes argued during the discussions. Then, the similar codes have been grouped under the same subject into four focal themes to present the findings. It is notable that manual analysis was carried out by creating discursive maps (see Burgess, 1996; Burgess et al., 2007). Table 1 shows the key word or phrase codes derived from each of the three focus groups and the level of consensus among the participants when the code in question was discussed. Table 1: Coding of all three focus group data, the number and frequency of instances these codes arose and the level of consensus among participants. Focus group 1 Focus group 2 Focus group 3 (6 participants) (12 participants) (8 participants) Code n. f. Consensus n. f. Consensus n. f. Consensus Investment 5 83% H. 9 75% H. 5 62.5% M. Credit facilities 6 100% H. 10 83% H. 7 87.5% H. Subsides 3 50% M. 10 83% H. 7 87.5% H. Subsides for NCOs 4 67% H. 8 67% M. 3 37.5% L. Pricing NCOs 4 67% H. 7 58% M. 7 87.5% H. Pricing the products 4 67% H. 6 50% M. 5 62.5% M. Entrepreneurship 6 100% H. 8 67% M. 4 50% M. Guaranteed price 4 67% H. 6 50% M. 5 62.5% M. Applied researches 5 83% H. 7 58% M. 6 75% H. Insurance 5 83% H. 11 92% H. 6 75% H. Income 3 50% M. 6 50% M. 5 62.5% M. Decentralization 5 83% H. 7 58% M. 6 75% H. Ecological conditions 3 50% M. 7 58% M. 3 37.5% L. Internalize 4 67% H. 8 67% M. 4 50% M. Reward 6 100% H. 9 75% H. 6 75% H. Tax 4 67% H. 7 58% M. 5 62.5% M. Devolution 4 67% H. 6 50% M. 7 87.5% H. Bottom-up 3 50% M. 9 75% H. 6 75% H. approaches NGOs 3 50% M. 8 67% M. 5 62.5% M. Private sector 6 100% H. 10 83% H. 7 87.5% H. Research institutions 2 33% L. 6 50% M. 5 62.5% M. Tariff 3 50% M. 6 50% M. 3 37.5% L. Imports 5 83% H. 8 67% M. 6 75% H. Region-specific 3 50% M. 6 50% M. 7 87.5% H. Domestic product 4 67% H. 7 58% M. 3 37.5% L. support Local level 5 83% H. 7 58% M. 6 75% H. Innovative ways 6 100% H. 8 67% M. 6 75% H. Code = a word or the combination of words used and meanings intended for those words.

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n. = the number of times the code specifically was discussed. f. = frequency Consensus=the consensus agreement levels, verbally or non-verbally indicated among the group as a whole. H=‘High’ consensus (most participants (75%) indicated agreement or there were no detractors), M= ‘Medium’ consensus (some participants (50%) indicated agreement), L= ‘Low’ consensus (most (75%) indicated disagreement or there were multiple opinions with few or no agreements).

The codes grouped together into four key or focal themes, shown in Table 2. These themes are ranked in descending order of importance as ascribed by a combination of the number of instances the theme arose; the time spent discussing the theme, and the level of consensus or enthusiastic engagement among participants. Broadly speaking, issues relating to price-based support are foremost in the analysis of content. Table 2: Four themes generated by combining codes of similar meaning or intention. Level of interest among Theme number Theme participants 1 Price-based support Very High 2 Devolution and bottom-up approaches High 3 Cooperative measures Medium

Analysis and some quotes from the interviews illustrate the content in each theme. Price-based support Three groups indicated that a mechanism is required to internalise non-commodity outputs and externalities. This requires incentive-based approaches providing a level of flexibility with the purpose of rewarding environment protection behaviour and resulting in the efficient resource allocation. Financial incentive arrangements that enable the trading of NCOs serve to mitigate the problems of non-excludability or the absence of valuation of NCO transactions. The appropriate approach to finance a payment for noncommodity outputs could be compensation the providers for their costs of production through a local tax paid by the beneficiaries. 

“It seems preferable to pay the farmers directly for providing the desired level of public goods, rather than indirectly through commodity programs” (Focus group 3). It was argued that price or production-based supports could be partly considered as one of the best policy instruments to jointness between commodity and non-commodity outputs especially in developing countries and this will alter the relative mix of commodity and non-commodity outputs within the region. It is notable that, some experts believed that price-based policies are not so useful an instrument to address NCO issues such as landscape and biodiversity preservation, which are often region-specific or even sitespecific because these kinds of supports can encourage intensive agricultural production techniques which cause commodity outputs to compete with NCOs. So, the price-based support instruments should be renegotiated with environmental preservation and landscape conservation policies in mind. All focus group clientele agreed that reorienting current support policies away from income supports toward payments for environmental protection can achieve significant improvements in environmental quality with fertilizer reductions. Since the NCOs, especially environmental services have clear public good aspects, different measures of valuation and pricing in NCOs transactions was recommended by focus group discussions. Determining optimal quantities in providing the NCOs is also important and it needs some mechanisms to identify the levels of demand. 

Devolution and bottom-up approaches The focus groups believed that although some NCOs may require action at the national level, this level is not necessarily the most appropriate level of government for dealing with all aspects of agricultural activities and addressing NCOs in an era of multilateral collaboration. One of the experts stated that; 

“A bottom-up approach starting at the local level could be an effective instrument to develop policy” (Focus group 3). Three focus groups strongly recommended that a new policy approach would also require devolution in policy implementation from the centre to the local level;

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“Provinces should have more rights than states in implementing the policies” (Focus group 2). This process will give regions an increasingly wider autonomy in making a decision on improvement of multifunctional agriculture policies and will be resulted in the development of policies specific to regions. Furthermore, it will also lead to the development of entrepreneurship and innovative ways of providing support to multifunctional agriculture. Focus group participants indicated that, it also should be considered that there is a wide range of regional heterogeneity within different districts of Iran that makes a one-size-fits-all approach to regional development inappropriate, so the appropriate level of government at which policy decisions are taken should communicate as closely as possible to the geographical incidence of the demand for NCOs. Cooperative measures In every focus group, participants emphasised that appropriate institutional settings are necessary to build in mechanisms in which all stakeholders are motivated to participate actively to achieve shared goals, in addition, it was mentioned that more cooperation between different sector policies as well as, different operators in the whole supply chain, is needed to the implementation of these measures. Further they felt that in designing the new approach, collaboration between government regulatory intervention, private initiatives and research institutes could also be helpful and will enable researchers to modelling innovative ways to facilitate NCO transactions. 

CONCLUSION Multifunctional agriculture represents a transform from a rather traditional agri-centric view of rural areas to one that includes NCOs. Since multifunctionality puts emphasis on the importance of non-commodity production, it challenges current agricultural policy that is based upon supporting commodity outputs of agriculture and because of this it has gained significant importance in agricultural policy. This requires policies beyond the scope of traditional commodity-based agricultural policy that go further than typical price and income support. The new framework should also include the effects of policy redirections that recognise the multifunctionality of agriculture. The results of this research showed that there should be a mix of price and non-price instruments to support the implementation of multifunctional agriculture. The use of subsidies or payments was suggested as an appropriate policy for positive public goods and taxes was generally accepted as the optimum policy for negative externalities which are produced jointly with or complementary to production. The new policy approach would also require devolution in policymaking from higher to lower levels of government. The new policy actions should be geographically targeted and the site-specific of various noncommodity externalities have to be considered. Because of the spatial diversity of some non commodity outputs of agriculture, this concept has been developed that many policies aimed at addressing the multifunctional agriculture must be managed at regional or local levels. REFERENCES Beiglou, M. (2005). An investigation on the effects of public support policies in relative profits: case study: horticulture and farming sector of Qazvin province. Journal of Agricultural Economics and Development. 50 (13). 51-80. Birkett, D., D. Johnson, J.R. Thompson, and D. Oberg (2004) Reaching low-income families: focus group results provide direction for a behavioral approach to WIC services. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 104 (8) pp. 12771280. Blandford, D. and R.N. Boisvert (2002) Multifunctional agriculture and domestic/international policy choice. Journal of International Law and Trade Policy 3(1) pp. 106-118. Burgess, J., 1996. Focusing on fear: the use of focus groups in a project for the Community Forest Unit. Countryside Commission. Area 28, 130–135. Burgess, J., Stirling, A., Clark, J., Davies, G., Eames, M., Staley, K., Williamson, S., (2007). Deliberative mapping: a novel analytic-deliberative methodology to support contested science-policy decisions. Public Understanding of Science 16, 299–322. Catterall, M. and P. Maclaran. (1997). Focus group data and qualitative analysis programs: coding the moving picture as well as the snapshots. Journal of Sociological Research Online 2(1) pp. 1-11. Available online at: http://www.socresonline.org.uk/2/1/6.html. Accessed 6 September 2011. Collier, M.J. and Scott, M. (2010). Focus group discourses in a mined landscape. Journal of Land Use Policy, 27 (2010), 304–312.

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Deese, W. and Reeder, J. (2008). Export Taxes on Agricultural Products: Recent History and Economic Modeling of Soybean Export Taxes in Argentina. Journal of International Commerce and Economics. Vol.1. 185-213. Hosseini, S., Pakravan, M., Gilanpour, O. and Etghaie, M. (2012). An investigation on the support policies on productivity changers of agricultural sector in Iran. Journal of Economics and Agricultural Development. 25 (4). 507-517. Knickle, K. and H. Renting. (2000). Methodological and conceptual issues in the study of multifunctionality and rural development. Sociologia Ruralis 40(4) pp. 512-528. Krippendorff K. (1980) Content Analysis: An Introduction to its Methodology. Sage Publications, Newbury Park. Krueger, R.A. and M.A. Casey. (2000). Focus groups: a practical guide for applied research. 3rd Edition (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications). Lankoski, J. (2003). The environmental dimension of multifunctionality: economic analysis and implications for policy design. Faculty of agriculture and forestry of the University of Helsinki. Retrieved at 3 June 2012. http://orgprints.org/15749/1/met20.pdf Lankoski, J. and M. Ollikainen. (2003). Agri-environmental externalities: a framework for designing targeted policies. European Review of Agricultural Economics 30(1) pp/ 51-75. Marsden, T. (2003). The condition of rural sustainability. (Assen (NL): Van Gorcum) Marsden, T.K and R. Sonnino. (2008). Rural development and the regional state: denying multifunctional agriculture in the UK. Journal of Rural Studies 24(4) pp: 24-431. Morgan, D.L. (1997). Focus Groups as Qualitative Research. Sage Publications, London. Moths, J. (2012). Subsidies. Available at: http://foodglossary.pbworks.com/w/page-revisions/49092656/Subsidies. Nordstrom. P.A., L.L. Wilson, T.W. Kelsey, A.N. Maretzki, and C.W. Pitts. (2000). The use of focus group interviews to evaluate agriculture educational materials for students, teachers, and consumers. Journal of Extension 38(5). Available online at: http://www/joe.org/joe/2000october/rb2.php. Accessed 17 October 2011. OECD. (2001) Multifunctionality: towards an analytical framework (Paris: OECD publishing) OECD. (2005) Multifunctionality in agriculture what role for private initiatives? (Paris: OECD publishing) OECD. (2006) Financing agricultural policies with particular reference to public good provision and multifunctionality: which level of government? (Paris: OECD publishing) OECD. (2008) Multifunctionality in agriculture: evaluating the degree of jointness, policy implications (Paris: OECD publishing) Suh, D.K. (2002) Social and economic evaluation of the multifunctional roles of paddy farming. Available online at: http://www.fftc.agnet.org/library/abstract/eb511.html. Accessed 11 November 2011. Sumner, D.A., Vincent, H. S. and Rosson. C. P. (2002). Tariff and Non Tariff Barriers to Trade. Available at http://www.farmfoundation.org/news/articlefiles/816-sumner.pdf [Last Accessed 06 June 2012]. Sutherland, L.A., A. Barnes, G. McCrum, K. Blackstock, and L. Toma (2011). Towards a cross-sectoral analysis of land use decision-making in Scotland. Journal of Landscape and Urban Planning 100 (2011). pp. 1-10. Van der Ploeg, J.D., H. Renting, G. Brunori, K. Knickel, J. Mannion, T. Marsden, K. de Roost, E. Sevilla-Guzman, and F. Ventura (2000) Rural development: from practices and policies towards theory. Sociologia Ruralis 4 (4) pp. 391-408. Vatn, A., V. Kvakkestad, and P.K. Rorstad (2002) Policies for a multifunctional agriculture-the trade-off between transaction costs and precision. Report 23. Aas: Department of Economics and Social Sciences, Agricultural University of Norway. Wilson, G.A., (2007) Multifunctional agriculture: a transition theory perspective (UK, Cromwell Press) Wrachien, D. (2003) Paddy and water environment: facilitation information exchange and identifying future R & D needs. Paddy and Water Environment 1(1) pp. 3-5. Yrjölä, T., and J. Kola (2004) Consumer preferences regarding multifunctional agriculture. International Food and Agribusiness Management Review 7(1) pp. 78-90.

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Use of Communication Sources by the Women Beneficiaries of RDRS in Income Generating Activities Mamun M.R.1

Mondol A.S.2

Abstract: The main purpose of this study was to describe the profile characteristics of the women beneficiaries, to determine the use of communication sources by the women beneficiaries, and to explore the relationship between the profile characteristics of the women beneficiaries of RDRS with their use of communication sources. Data were collected using interview schedule from a sample of 112 women beneficiaries selected by multistage random sampling procedure from five villages of Rajendrapur union under sadar upazila of Rangpur district during 15 February to 16 March 2012. Use of communication sources by the RDRS women beneficiaries was determined initially on three dimensions viz. attitude, contact and application, and finally the use of communication sources index (UCSI) was computed. The UCSI ranged from 45.24 to 277.68 with a possible range of 0 to 300. Based on UCSI, among the 10 communication sources the first five communication sources were husband (277.68), neighbours (219.05), RDRS- worker (205.95), RDRS group meeting (193.45) and relatives (160.42). The findings revealed that the highest proportion (38.39 percent) of the women beneficiaries had medium use of communication sources compared to 33.93 percent low use and 27.68 percent high use. However, the last five communication sources were RDRS officer (134.82), mobile phone (112.80), television (68.75), inputs dealer (63.99) and SAAOs (45.24). Among the 10 characteristics of the women beneficiaries education, farm size, annual income, daily time use, credit received and participation in IGAs showed positive relationship with their use of communication sources; fatalism of the women beneficiaries showed negative correlation while their age, family size and dependency had no relationships.

1 2

RDRS Bangladesh Hajee Mohammad Danesh Science and Technology University, Bangladesh

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Competence Development in Cooperatives Mulder M.1

Orbons D.

INTRODUCTION Cooperatives are enjoying a renaissance. Cooperatives are regarded as being a good socio-economic model of work organization (Majee and Hoyt, 2011). Bijman, Iliopoulos, Poppe, et al (2012) recently completed a study for the European Commission on the support of farmer’s cooperatives, in which the level of development of cooperatives and legal and regulatory enablers and constraints in the European Union is described. The study also paid attention to support measures and initiatives for the development of agricultural cooperatives. One of these measures is human capital development, which is studied by Gijselinckx (2012) in Belgium and Canada. This paper is about producer cooperatives. It may be expected that they offer competence development arrangements such as training and development to their members with the intention to make the cooperative a better organisation. The purpose of this paper is to explore whether this indeed happens, and if so, how, and in which way it differs from learning in non-cooperative organisations. It follows earlier research on workplace learning or entrepreneurs in the greenhouse sector (Mulder, et al, 2007). Theoretical framework Cooperatives exist all over the world in many sectors, for instance in the financial, housing, education, and especially in the agro-food sector. Examples of this are the wine and olive oil cooperatives in Southern Europe, coffee and alpaca cooperatives in Latin-America or rice and silk cooperatives in Asia. In the Netherlands, there are cooperatives in various chains such as for flowers, vegetables, dairy, potatoes, beets, and others. Within the cooperatives, products are being produced, processed and/or traded. Lately, the number of cooperatives is increasing (Bojorge, 2012) and they have a major economic and social significance (NCR, 2012). Cooperatives seem to have an advantage in times of crisis. According to Lamberink, Helmer and Brouwer (2012) cooperatives have so far withstood the crisis better than regular companies. Although the basic principles of cooperatives have remained unchanged over the years, various innovations can be observed. Cooperatives started as local companies, but now they often operate internationally. This means that members do not live and work in the local community anymore, but also that the benefits of the economic activities do not always directly benefit the local community. Internationalization of the cooperatives also means that they increasingly need managers who are operating at international level. Therefore, they need professional executives, who, next to the elected members of the executive boards, act as appointed corporate executive officers. These board members have a major impact on the vision and the direction in which a cooperative develops. Modern cooperatives (or ‘New Generation Cooperatives’ as referred to by Harris et al, 1996; see also Stofferahn, 2009) use shares that may be traded between members. The general trend is that cooperatives shift from mainly producing raw materials to providing added value. This especially applies to agro-food cooperatives. The agro-food cooperative sector, in which on-going innovations are needed in order to grow, depends not only on the development of the industry as a whole, but also on the competence development of the individual members-entrepreneurs. This was shown for instance by the research of Lans in the field of competence development of entrepreneurs in greenhouse horticulture (Lans et al, 2004). Therefore, the learning and education of a member of a cooperative is becoming increasingly important for the success of the cooperative. But does it differ from non-cooperative organisations? We think there are several differences between a cooperative and a private company, such as in legal and financial matters. The most important differences that may affect learning of members are the following. 1. The autonomy of the members in a cooperative, which may affect motivation for learning (Janz, Colquitt and Noe, 1997; Lauwere et al., 2006; Fox, 1999) loyalty (Jussila and Tuominen, 2010). Research of 1

Wageningen University, the Netherlands, E-mail: [email protected]

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Janz, Colquitt and Noe (1997) has shown that in a Community of Practice people-related autonomy is important for individual learning within a group, because it increases self-responsibility for learning. 2. The very essence of cooperation. Because of this, many affordances emerge for mutual learning. Socio-constructivist learning theory contends that learning especially takes place when people together solve problems in a given context. 3. Learning from peers as social learning. The structural relationships between autonomous members, provides a natural structure for social learning (Illeris, 2003; Wals@@@). Learning from peers, which is essential in cooperatives, is often more effective than learning via teachers (Sligo et.al., 2005). 4. The involvement in parallel work-related networks, multiple cooperatives or associations and relationships with other actors in their supply-chain(s), such as suppliers and regulating bodies (Lans, Wesselink, Biemans and Mulder, 2004), which enhances the chances for learning (Armson and Whiteley, 2010). 5. The availability of relevant examples of successful practice, which stimulates entrepreneurial learning (Mulder et al., 2007). 6. Different types of expertise of multiple stakeholders which are brought together, which stimulates learning (Sol, Beers and Wals, in press). Obviously, getting information of many different types, does not necessarily lead to learning. Information exchange is important, but it is being processed differently, depending for instance on the education of the person receiving the information, the type of information, the context, or the relationship between communicating parties (Sligo et al., 2005; Werr et al., 2009). When we look at the characteristics of cooperatives in this way, it seems as if the conditions for learning are favourable. Several studies have specified skills needed for agro-food entrepreneurs (Bergevoet and Van Woerkum, 2006; Mulder et al., 2007; Nuthall, 2006). However, studies which explicitly focus on learning of members of cooperatives seem to be missing; at least, we found no publications with special attention for the competence and the development thereof of members (entrepreneurs) in cooperatives. On the other hand, in the agro-food entrepreneurial setting, it has been shown (Mulder et al., 2007) that the context of an entrepreneur is a rich, authentic and powerful learning environment (Verstegen and Lans, 2006; Ondersteijn et al, 2003). Regarding the different competence requirements of regular members and board members of the cooperative, the latter may not only need managerial capabilities, but also on social skills and pedagogical competence (Österberg et al., 2007). Research question Starting with the unique situation of cooperatives, the question seems to be justified whether competence development of entrepreneurs who a members of cooperatives differs from that of co-workers in noncooperative organizations. Goals and objectives regarding economic and social development of members of cooperatives may have an added value for the competence development of the entrepreneur. Especially when members are being elected to a position in the board, competence development seems to take a radical turn. Therefore, the question of this study was: to what extent do cooperatives have distinct features with respect to the facilitation of competence development of their members? METHOD Regarding the stakeholders in cooperatives organizations, three categories have to be distinguished: 1. Owner-members; 2. Board members; 3. Employees. To give a simplified example (the regulation of cooperative organizations varies considerably and is in certain cases quite complex), in a cooperative owner-members are farmers who deliver their produce to the processing company (e.g. milk). These farmers collectively own the (e.g. dairy) factory, which is directed by an executive board. The farmers are regionally and nationally organized, and elected boards take care of the defence of the interests of the members and the cooperative at those levels. There are appointed and elected board members of the cooperative. The appointed board members mostly come from outside the cooperative, the elected board members by definition from inside the cooperative. The (dairy) factory (or factories) have employees. The three stakeholder groups obviously play significantly different roles. Five cooperatives in the Netherlands were selected which belong to the seven agricultural cooperatives with the largest turnover in the country. They were selected by purposeful sampling on the basis of size, reputation, variety and accessibility. These cooperatives acted in the sectors of dairy, fruit and vegetables,

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floriculture, and agriculture. In 2011, the biggest cooperation had a turnover of almost 10 billion Euros and more than 14,000 members, the smallest cooperative had a turnover of more than 500 million euros and almost 3,000 members (NCR, 2012). Qualitative semi-structured in-depth interviews were held with representatives of these cooperatives. The main thread during the interviews was the difference between competencies needed within and outside a cooperative. A questionnaire was used, which was divided into sections about members, directors and employees. In the section of the questionnaire about members, questions were asked about the vision on learning, the task of the cooperative regarding competence development for craftsmanship, management and entrepreneurship, the channels of information provision, the preference of the members regarding training and development, the emergence of working groups, and the specific reasons for stimulating learning. In the part about cooperative governance, questions were asked about the specific competencies for elected board members and external, appointed, board members, the external and internal training opportunities, the internal culture of the cooperative and the future expectations for elected board members. Questions were included as well on the different training possibilities for employees within and outside the cooperative. In two cooperatives additional interviews were held with elected members of the board. In these interviews the emphasis was on development opportunities as member and elected board member, on the necessity and wishes regarding competence development and future plans. Furthermore, an interview was held with an external training institute which is specialised in the training of elected board members of cooperatives, which was focused on the difference between elected and external board members. Finally, an interview was held with a representative of the National Cooperative Council (NCR), which is the expert organization for the agricultural and horticultural cooperatives, serves as a platform for the directors of the associated cooperatives, and provides financial and insurance services for the cooperatives. The questions here were focused on the differences between the cooperatives and the possible effects this could have on training programs for directors. A desk study on the cooperatives selected was also included. Hermeneutic interpretation of the data was performed to grasp the essence of the organisation of cooperation, the roles of the different actors in it, and the learning which was supported by the cooperative organisation. RESULTS Surprisingly, learning in cooperatives is not a clear theme within cooperatives themselves. On the websites of the cooperatives, their magazines, annual reports or other reports, learning for and of members is not a special issue.. What happens in the field of learning has to be sought between the lines, in various sections, and in different places. Words like learning, training, and education, give only a few or no hits at all on most websites of cooperatives (although there are exceptions for training provisions for employees of the cooperatives). Even in a study to measure the value of a cooperative bank, education is no indicator (Klinkenberg and Stuivenwold, 2008). However, although learning is not mentioned, that does not mean that learning does not take place. Workplace learning is present in practically all organizations (Malloch, Cairns, Evans and O'Connor, 2010) especially in learning organisations (Tjepkema, Stewart, Sambrook, Mulder, Ter Horst and Scheerens, 2002). Nevertheless, it was striking that none of the cooperatives which were studied had an elaborate vision on learning or on competence development. From the reactions of the representatives of the cooperatives, it was noticed that they were not used to speak about training and competence development of members, but the importance of it was certainly recognised and underlined. The results of this study will further be described on basis of the three groups of stakeholders which are distinguished in a cooperative until now, namely producers-members, board members, and employees. Development opportunities for producers-members of cooperatives Spreading and sharing knowledge and information is at the forefront of all cooperatives, when it comes to learning of its members. All cooperatives have different ways to disseminate information to meet the variety of content, wishes and learning styles of members. Next to magazines (paper or online), e-mails and websites, all cooperatives have developed their own intranet. Certain cooperatives are further ahead with the development of this than others, but all see the added value of this interactive medium. Storing and retrieving of the own data of a member is the first step; next the sharing of best practices follows. By connecting yields of growing techniques or other technical data, this can result in relevant information for members. Real interactive working groups were not active anywhere yet, but realising knowledge networks via study groups, is the ultimate ambition of most of the cooperatives.

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It is important to notice that the cooperatives become increasingly international and that as a consequence, their members not only work more at a distance of one another, but that a bigger diversity emerges between the members. Some cooperatives know different regulations for members who want to sell all or part of their products via the cooperative. Because of this, not all members have the same relationship with the cooperative. Intranet is a very effective channel for the information flows, which, as an effect, becomes more and more individual and complex. Another frequently used way of disseminating knowledge and information are the meetings and workshops, which in most cases are being held at locations of producers. From the interviews with the elected board members appeared that this is very much appreciated. Reasons for giving workshops can be: new measures of the government, spreading a renewed vision of the cooperative, societal trends, or needs of members. Next to that, there is the individual coaching. This happens mostly at restricted scale and in reaction to individual request, for specific problems, for instance when the results and yields lag behind expectations. Individual help with buying and selling of quota also occurs. Intensive forms of knowledge exchange are working groups. Only one cooperative had structural working groups organised around the production of a specific crop. In many cases, these groups fall apart as soon as the coaching of the cooperative falls out. Especially the time investment seems to be a problem for the members, as a result of which they disengage. The working group members seem to achieve good results, by which there may be learning effects. This however could be a case of the chicken or the egg; do members have better results because they participate in a working group, or do members who perform already well especially participate in these groups? The impression that a member who only contributes, and who gets little in return, may be a reason the decrease or end participation in working groups. Another direct form of learning is the provision of courses by or via the cooperative. There are standard courses for newcomers, but in most cases courses are being organised at a request, or as a result of a problem, both internally or externally. No special competencies were found for members of a cooperative compared to other entrepreneurs. Important competencies which were mentioned to become a member are: communication and social competence, reflection, analysing, experimenting and innovation competence. Respondents also indicated that the emphasis on certain competence domains may differ: a member of a cooperative may have to be a bit more social, but may have to be less proficient in various tasks which the cooperative conducts, such as in marketing competence. About the development of competence of members, all cooperatives had the same philosophy: competence development which can be done by other organisations does not belong to the tasks of the cooperative. One cooperative has offered courses to bind members more strongly to the cooperative, but the intended effect appeared not to happen. Also in the interviews with the board members, it was stated that they appreciate their freedom and own responsibility as member, and that they dislike interference of the cooperative regarding their own business administration. Focusing on the roles of craftsman, manager, and entrepreneur, all interviewees stated that management competence development is not seen as the responsibility of the cooperative; this is left to the integrity of the members themselves. Looking after entrepreneurial competence was seen as task by two cooperatives. One of these is a marketing cooperative and is especially aimed at sales competence, for which it offers ‘supplementary service’, such as training. The other has much to do with (European) regulation which can have influence on business decisions; this cooperative sees it as its tasks to inform its members about that and if needed offer consultancy. The most important task cooperatives conduct for themselves, is taking care of sufficient craftsmanship; that is, to support the members to perform qualitatively and quantitatively as good as possible. This is seen as the core business of the cooperatives. Practically all information and knowledge, which are distributed via the way described above, were aimed at competence improvement for the role of craftsman. Competence development of board members Characteristic for cooperatives are the voting rights and the participation of members in the management of the cooperative. Four of the five cooperatives have developed a members’ council; only one has a general membership meeting. There is a great legal freedom in how cooperatives can regulate participation, but members’ councils elect the Supervisory Board and the Executive Board. Three cooperatives also have a Youth Council were young members can gain administrative experience. In addition to the elected members,

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most governing bodies also have external board members, although the elected members always have the majority of votes. Although a governance career is only reserved for a few members, this is an important feature of a cooperative. All cooperatives have therefore a profile of directors. These profiles have very many different items. Some are very general, as being a member, to invest time, to have intellectual ability, but others include more specific skills. This means good communication and social skills, and in particular networking. Furthermore, this implies business skills, knowledge of the market, but also personal characteristics such as integrity, independence, and task-orientation. Furthermore, a vision and understanding is required. All cooperatives offer board members competence development in these areas; the cooperative in most cases starts with the needs of the individual board member to function well. The training is thus more or less tailor-made. The structure of the training between the cooperatives is different, but the importance of it is recognised by all respondents. Training happens internally, as well as externally, by specialised training providers. The emphasis of internal training is mainly on knowledge of the own cooperative in the legal or financial area, but also about the culture within the cooperative, which is differently experienced by the board members than by the regular members. With regard to external training, this can either be provided by a specialized or a general training organisation. The importance of a good training for elected board members is especially determined by their producer background, and their lack of experience with cooperative governance. In the interviews it became clear that board members have to be especially strong communicators, because they have to communicate with the membership, to which they are attached to a great extent, and their external colleague-board members, who have a career as director, and are often specialists in for instance the financial domain. Specific competencies/skills which these board members need are therefore: 1. adaptation capacity to be able to work in both worlds, 2. persuasive power to reconcile different interests and create a platform for the vision they have to convey, 3. authority amongst the members, which can be gained by distinguishing individual and the collective interests well, and by good organising capabilities (the latter is also essential for combining the own business and the (part-time) position as board member), and 4. recognising and acknowledgement of the expertise of the appointed board members. Other, more general, competencies which were mentioned are: 1. being analytic and critical, 2. being able to handle complexity, diversity and new developments, and 3. being able to reflect, discuss, convince, meet, cooperate and network. According to some respondents, cooperatives that invest more in training of members have fewer problems with finding board members. Young members currently often have higher education levels than in the past, and have more often done an internship or had a job outside the cooperative, which means that, in most cases, they have more general competencies than used to be the case with older generations in the agrofood sector. According to the respondents, this also has a positive influence on the motivation to learn; they are used to be trained and perceive this as enrichment and not as a duty (or even as a failure). The chosen board members indicated that they were very studious and wanted to develop themselves. They see the investment they make for the cooperative also as an investment in their own development and indicate that the competences which they developed as board member also had an influence on the work in their own farm and in their private life. Competencies board members indicated they developed were: 1. analysing, 2. social skills, 3. networking, 4. reflecting, 5. communication and meeting skills, 6. presentation techniques, 7. insight in strategy, 8. legal competence, 9. financial competence and 10. general knowledge. They indicated they learned this by participating in courses, but mainly by doing and experiencing, and by talking with fellow course participants outside course sessions. Elected board members stated that as a result of the development they experience in the field of cooperative administration, legal and financial issues as well as in the personal effectiveness, they establish a different relationship with the members. It was suggested that the influence of the members’ council has to stay important so that the contact with the members remains optimal. The importance of competence development of the elected board members was widely recognised, but the respondents thought differently about the consequences of this for further career opportunities of these board members. Some thought that it would give them opportunities to get appointed in other boards, others felt that only few can make this cross-over. This could be true because their position in a noncooperative board would be quite different; they would have no authority by being elected, they would not be widely enough trained and may not be able to verbally compete with professional directors from other disciplines.

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Competence development of employees All five cooperatives highly value the quality of their employees. They offer them both internal and external training opportunities. Two cooperatives have an online academy for employees and four cooperatives have developed an HR policy to develop the competencies of employees. One cooperative has received an award for Best Practice of their HR policy. One cooperative has no structured training plan for employees; it provides what a particular employee needs. From the interviews it appeared that much is done internally for the inception phase of new employees to get to know the work and culture of the cooperative. Despite no real differences could be found in the training of the staff with regular companies, some details emerged. First, higher educated employees get a short, internal course on what a cooperative is, and what that means, so that they are informed about the organisational context of their job. Sometimes courses are specially designed for employees who have contacts with members or elected officials. The emphasis regarding competence development for these employees is on the legal aspects of the cooperative. Furthermore, new employees in the field of quality control, who first worked at a non-cooperative organisation, had to learn (though working with colleagues) a different attitude towards members with a small turnover, because they had to learn that they are just as well members of the cooperative. Also, staff members may provide courses for different target groups within the cooperative. These employees then act as practical trainers, and have to learn to design and teach a course. This, however, is not different from any other company which employ cascading models of learning, although the content of the course is specifically focused on the cooperative. Asked about a culture-specific feature of a cooperative, one interviewee mentioned the positive atmosphere (‘You are not trying to out-perform colleagues, but are trying to collaborate’) and a good social policy; this pro-social policy of a cooperative is also applied to employees. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION As stated above, entrepreneurship is a rich learning, meaningful, authentic learning environment. This holds for entrepreneurship within and outside a cooperative. The question was to what extent cooperatives have distinct features with respect to the facilitation of competence development. We have seen in the sections above that the answer to this question is nuanced. The uniqueness and value of competence development within cooperatives differs for the three stakeholder groups we have distinguished: members, elected board members and employees. Members This study shows that the cooperative is a rich learning environment for its members. They can get relevant and specific information in many different ways, for which the cooperative intranet is becoming increasingly important. Opportunities to learn via networks or in groups are abundantly available in all cooperatives, although collegial contacts via working groups are not equally intensive within all cooperatives; in some cooperatives these seem more prevalent than in others. It also looks like that help with searching and choosing the appropriate information and the way of learning is widely present in the cooperatives, not only via the intranet, but also by individual consultancy. According to Koper and Tattersall (2004) support is important when it comes to learning. The freedom of choice and own influence members have is important because this stimulates learning (Armson and Whiteley, 2010) and enables learning via own learning preferences. From diverse responses from the interviews it appeared that the own choice of the members is also very important. An on-going study of a cooperative to offer more courses from the periphery, so members would feel more connected with the cooperative (Jussila and Tuominen, 2010), seems to be negatively received. Members seem to want the relationship with the cooperative limited to the core business, because they have other networks for learning. Both the NCR and Troberg (2000) called this independent attitude as being typical for a cooperative. Also, the high educational level of the Dutch agricultural entrepreneur and the previous work and internship experiences were mentioned as possible reasons for the cautious attitude towards training by the cooperative. However, Verstegen et al. (2006) advocate courses for entrepreneurs. They indicate that it is meaningful to not put focus on the enterprise, but on the entrepreneur him/herself. By developing entrepreneurial competence, the enterprise is being developed. It looks as if members of a cooperative prefer to learn via excursions and one-time-only meetings.

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Although the environment of the cooperative seems to be very suitable for learning of members, there appear to be very little differences in the required competencies compared to non-cooperative agro-food businesses. The competencies which were mentioned by the respondents all fall under the competence domains opportunity, relationship, and conceptual competence which were found by Verstegen and Lans (2006). Organising, strategic and commitment competence was not mentioned. The reason for that is not completely clear; maybe the cooperatives carry out the tasks for which these competencies are more relevant. It is clear, however, that all respondents think that the cooperative does not have to cover everything regarding the members. Things which have to do with business management fall within the integrity of the members themselves. Also entrepreneurship is for the greatest part the own responsibility of the entrepreneur, although this differs by cooperative; the sales cooperative is more heavily focused on this than the other cooperatives. Regarding members of the cooperatives, the emphasis is on the core process of the cooperative: craftsmanship. Competence development of members is mainly focused on this. The conclusion is that for members of a cooperative, the added value of the cooperative is not in the skills being taught, but in the environment in which can be learned. Members of the board When members are elected to the board, they have to develop many new skills. These members choose for board membership, and their motivation to learn new competencies is therefore high; they see it as an opportunity for personal development. The high motivation and the coaching from the cooperative seem to be particularly favourable for effective learning. This seems to be the most important difference regarding competence development compared with other companies. The difference focuses especially on: 1. social and communication skills for the interaction with both members, external board members and other stakeholders, 2. being able to work with people with other educational backgrounds and careers, 3. being able to network, 4. being able to bind people in a democratic way when there are different views, 5. being able to convince others, and 6. having organisational and cultural sensitivity within the cooperative. Opportunities to develop these competencies are available in all cooperatives; board members can follow courses or get internal coaching by colleagues. Although some cooperatives seem to be more structured in this respect than others, all appreciate the importance of competent board members. What did not become quite clear is the importance of competence development after the expiry of the maximum board terms. For the elected board members, the way back to the regular occupation of member-entrepreneur does not always seem very logical, although examples of this do exist. Many however try to stay active in board circles, but it is not clear whether candidates always succeed in this. The return on investment of facilitating cooperative competence development for the cooperative is also not clear. Employees The results showed that all cooperatives realise the importance of proper training for their employees, and therefore they have structured training plans. Wadsworth (2012) indicates that good education and training for senior staff in a cooperative, is important for the economy. However, when looking at the results of this study, we conclude that a cooperative is not a unique learning environment for employees of the cooperative. Their learning environment is highly comparable to that of employees in non-cooperative settings. However, most employees get an induction programme about how the cooperative works. This obviously is specific for the cooperative. Final conclusion Regarding the main question of this study, whether cooperatives have distinct features with respect to the facilitation of competence development, and the three groups we have distinguished (members, elected board members and employees), we conclude that cooperatives are quite unique when it comes to the competence development of elected board members. This corresponds with research done by Wadsworth (2012), who showed that most courses were followed by board, management and employees, and only a few by the members and the public. For members of a cooperative the economic benefits of the membership are decisive, and not the competence development opportunities of the cooperative. There are even counter-intuitive indications for undesired interference of cooperatives with the learning of members. As mentioned, courses for establishing stronger relationships between the cooperative and its members are sometimes even not desired by the members(Jussila et al, op cit). Nevertheless, they seem to take advantage of the rich informal learning environment which exists within the cooperative. The results of this study should be interpreted with caution, because only a small number of cooperatives have been studied. It is striking however, that the study of Gijselinckx (2012) in Belgium and Canada came

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to the same conclusion that cooperatives are not very active in supporting human capital. Because of the small scale of our study, we did not differentiate between different types of cooperatives. Furthermore, only board members of cooperatives were interviewed and not regular members. This was done because we felt that board members (who have been and still are producer-members of the cooperative themselves) have a broad view on the competence development within the cooperative. It is possible that the opinions of the board members are biased towards the policy of the cooperative, although this is not very likely, given their simultaneous membership of the cooperative. Finally, no distinction was made between the different forms of boards, like board of directors and supervisory boards. There may be differences in required competences between these boards. Despite the fact that cooperatives are an important factor in the economy, some cooperatives had to deal with declining membership. Loyalty and commitment play a role, but also vision, understanding of economic developments and the courage to take financial risks. The continued development of competencies could play a role in maintaining members. Therefore, future research should look at a larger number of cooperatives, where the differences between the various cooperatives in objective and form of governance are be included. Also, members who are lower in the hierarchy of cooperative governance should be asked what benefits they think they have of the cooperative regarding competence development. The emphasis in that respect could be on the extent to which there are promising development priorities in the competence profiles of members, and whether competence development can best be facilitated by the cooperative or by other innovation intermediaries, or that independent self-regulated and self-organised entrepreneurial learning in multiple networks (and not necessarily facilitated by the individual cooperative) has most potential. References Armson, G., and Whiteley, A. (2010). Employees' and managers' accounts of interactive workplace learning: A grounded theory of "complex integrative learning" The Journal of Workplace Learning, 22 (7), 409-427. Bergevoet, R. H. M. and Woerkum, C. van (2006). Improving the Entrepreneurial Competencies of Dutch Dairy Farmers through the Use of Study Groups. Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension, 12 (1), 25-39. Bijman, J., C. Iliopoulos, K.J. Poppe, C. Gijselinckx, K. Hagedorn, M. Hanisch, G.W.J. Hendrikse, R. Kühl, P. Ollila, P. Pyykkönen and G. van der Sangen (2012). Support for Farmers' Cooperatives. Final Report. Brussels: European Commission, DG Agriculture and Rural Development. Bojorge, K. (2012). Piet Moerland and Cees 't Hart tellen zegeningen coöperatie. Retrieved from http://www.vnoncw.nl/publicaties/Forum/Pages/Piet_Moerland_en_Cees_t_Hart_tellen_zegeningen_coöperatie_17267.aspx Brown, J. S., A. Collins and S. Duguid (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational Researcher, 18, 1, pp. 32–42. Fox, R. (1999). Motivation and the Facilitation of Change, Learning, and Participation in Educational Programs for Health Professionals. The Journal of Continuing Education in the Health Professions, 19, 132– 141. Gielen, P. M., Hoeve, A., and Nieuwenhuis, L. F. M. (2003). Learning entrepreneurs as experts. The Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension, 9, (3), 103-116. Gijselinckx, C. (2012). Support for Farmers’ Cooperatives; Case Study Report Human Capital Building in Agricultural Cooperatives: Belgian and Canadian supportive policy measures. Wageningen: Wageningen UR. Harris, A., Stefanson, B, and Fulton, M. (1996). New Generation Cooperatives and Cooperative Theory. Journal of Cooperatives, 11, 15-29. Illeris, K. (2003). Workplace learning and learning theory. Journal of Workplace Learning, 15 (4), 167-178. Janz, B.D., J.A. Colquitt and R. A. Noe (1997). Knowledge Worker Team Effectiveness: the Role of Autonomy, Interdependence, Team Development, and Contextual Support Variables. Personnel Psychology, 50, pp. 877-904. Jussila, I., and Tuominen, P. (2010). Exploring the Consumer Co-operative Relationship with their Members. International Journal of Co-operative Management, 5, (1), 23-33. Klinkenberg, B., and Stuivenwold, W. (2008). De meerwaarde van een Coöperatieve Rabobank gemeten. Retrieved from http://www.bankingreview.nl/?portlet=bankingreviewandpage=bankingreview/downloadandid=20734 Koper, R., and Tattersall, C. (2004). New directions for lifelong learning using network technologies. British Journal of Educational Technology, 35, (6), 689-700.

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Lamberink, G., Helmer, D., and Brouwer, E. (2012). Coöperatie beter crisisbestendig dan gewone onderneming. Retrieved from http://www.mejudice.nl/artikel/782/cooperatie-beter-crisisbestendig-dangewone-onderneming Lang, R., and Roessl, D. (2011). Contextualizing the Governance of Community Co-operatives: Evidence from Austria and Germany. Voluntas, 22, 706–730. Lans, T., Wesselink, R., Biemans, H. J. A., and Mulder, M. ( 2004). Work-related lifelong learning for entrepreneurs in the agri-food sector. International Journal of Training and Development, 8, (1), 73-89. Lauwere, C. de, J. Verstegen, J. Buurma, E. Poot, P. Roelofs, J.W. of der Schans, M. Vrolijk and W. Zaalmink. (2006). Ondernemers en de actoren in hun omgeving in beweging; Zoektocht naar rode draden in agrarische transitieprocessen. Retrieved from http://www.lei.dlo.nl/publicaties/PDF/2006/7_xxx/7_06_04.pdf Majee, W., and Hoyt, A. (2011). Cooperatives and Community Development: A Perspective on the Use of Cooperatives in Development. Journal of Community Practice, 19, 48–61. Malloch, M., L. Cairns, K. Evans and B. O'Connor (2010). The SAGE Handbook of Workplace Learning. London: SAGE. Mulder, M. (accepted for publication). Conceptions of professional competence. S. Billett, C. Harteis, H. Gruber (Eds). International Handbook on Research into professional and practice-based learning. Springer. Mulder, M. (2011). The concept of competence: blessing or curse? I. Torniainen, S. Mahlamäku-Kultanen, P. Nokelainen and P. Ilsley (Eds). Innovations for Competence Management. Lahti: Lahti University of Applied Sciences, pp. 11-24. Mulder, M., Lans, T., Verstegen, J., Biemans, H., and Meijer, Y. (2007). Competence development of entrepreneurs in innovative horticulture. Journal of Workplace Learning, 19, (1), 32-44. NCR (Nationale Coöperatieve Raad) (2012), De NCR Coöperatie Top 100. Coöperatie, 1, 10-12. Nuthall, P. L. (2006). Determining the important management skill competencies. The case of family farm business in New Zealand. Agricultural Systems, 88, 429–450. Rodríguez, J. R., and Moral, A. M. (2003). Educational Level and Training of Human Resources in Farm Cooperatives in the Knowledge-Based Society: An Empirical Study. Journal of Rural Education, 31, (2), 145-466. Sligo, F. X., Massey, C., and Lewis, K. (2005). Informational benefits via knowledge networks among farmers. Journal of Workplace Learning, 17, (7), 452 – 466. Sol, J., Beers, P.J. & Wals, A.E.J. (in press). Social learning in regional innovation networks: trust, commitment and reframing as emergent properties of interaction. Journal of Cleaner Production. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2012.07.041 Stofferahn, C. W. (2009). Cooperative Community Development: A Comparative Case Study of Locality-Based Impacts of New Generation. Cooperatives Community Development, 40, 177-198. Tjepkema, S., J. Stewart, S. Sambrook, M. Mulder, H. ter Horst and J. Scheerens (Eds.) (2002). HRD and Learning Organisations in Europe. London: Routledge. Troberg, E. (2000). Knowledge Intensive Business Sector and the Cooperative Form: A Study of Finnish Knowledge Intensive Cooperatives. Journal of Rural Cooperation, 28, (2), 161-176. Tuominen, P., Iiro Jussila, I., and Rantanen, N. (2010). Managerial Competence in Consumer Co-operatives: Inducing theory from empirical observations. International Journal of Co-operative Management, 5 (1), 09-22. Verhees, F.J.H.M, Lans, T., and Verstegen, J.A.A.M. (2011). Entrepreneurial Proclivity, Market Orientation and Performance of Dutch Farmers and Horticultural growers. Paper prepared for presentation at the EAAE 2011 Congress, Zurich, Switzerland. Verstegen, J. A. A. M., and Lans, T. L. (2006). De kunst van het zien en het realiseren. Competenties voor succesvol ondernemerschap in de agrarische sector. (Raport LEI, 06.02). Retrieved from http://edepot.wur.nl.ezproxy.library.wur.nl/36880 Verstegen, J., Beldman, A., Bergevoet, R., Krikke, A., Lauwere, de, C., Poelarends, J, Poot, E., Splinter, G. and Stokkers, R. (2006). De zoekende ondernemer; Een studie naar het netwerken in the agrosector. (Rapport LEI, 2009-063). Retrieved from http://edepot.wur.nl.ezproxy.library.wur.nl/14931 Wadsworth, J. (2012). Study raises important questions. Rural Cooperatives, 79 (1). 2526. retrieved from http://www.rurdev.usda.gov/supportdocuments/RuralCoop_JanFeb12.pdf Wenger, E., R. McDermott and W.M. Snyder (2002). Cultivating Communities of Practice. Harvard: Harvard Business Press. Werr, A., Blomberg, J., and and Löwstedt, J. (2009). Gaining external knowledge –

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boundaries in managers’ knowledge relations. Journal of Knowledge Management, 13 (6), 448-463.

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Sharing Knowledge with and from Farmers Through a Community Knowledge Broker Network and the TECA Platform in Uganda Nichterlein K.1

Nakajubi B.2

Lima C.3

Abstract: The access to technical information and practices that can enable small farmers to improve their productivity is one of the key factors that can contribute to their development and, also, for the development of their communities. This paper presents a case study on the role that on-line networks and knowledge bases play to facilitate the sharing agricultural technologies and practices with smallholders in Uganda, helping them to meet the challenges faced in the field and improving their livelihoods. Through a partnership between Grameen Foundation and FAO, a knowledge base of farmer validated technologies and practices in agriculture, livestock, fisheries and forestry (TECA) from FAO and its partner organizations is used to repackage information and share it through mobile phones and a network of community knowledge brokers with small farmers. The same platform is used for sharing documented farmer practices with an online community of practitioners, where they can discuss them and, through feedback from the online forum, help to further improve the documentation. Well documented practices are then included in the TECA knowledge base to be shared with a wider community working with smallholders. The case of TECA stands out because it contains very practical information presented in non-academic language and using multimedia (video, audio, images and text) that can be easily understood by farmers and those providing advisory services to them. Grameen Foundation in Uganda uses information from TECA to reach more than 130,000 farmers in 35 districts via smart phone. About 45 percent the information shared are from TECA\'s knowledge base. The paper will illustrate the collaboration and highlight a few cases where farmers have taken initiative to improve their productivity and livelihoods through application of new knowledge shared through this cooperation.

1

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

2 Grameen Foundation, headquartered in Washington, D.C., 3

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

U.S, Africa, Asia, and Latin America and the Caribbean.

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Web 2.0 Social Media as an Extension Tool for Advocacy in Western Nigeria Oyebola Adebola1

E. Bifarin J.O.2

Abstract: This paper is an overview on how civil society organizations deploy Web 2.0 technologies for transnationalsocial advocacy. The technologies targeted are those commonly described as Web 2.0 social media including social networking sites, blogs, vlogs, podcasts and wikis. The Web 2.0 concept has come to be understood as a group of technologies that allows people to not only consume but also create content on the Web. This is encapsulated in the services which are essentially defining new modes of user interaction e.g. blogs, wikis, podcasts, RSS feeds etc. These ideas, while associated with Web 2.0, also demonstrate the power of over a million networked users. The development of the World Wide Web has introduced fundamental changes in the way people and organizations communicate and collaborate. The rapidity of these changes has left policy makers trying to keep up with the need to continuously monitor and introduce new conventions and laws to regulate the changing patterns of human interaction. The paper finds that Understanding the Web from the micro to macro levels that is from individual protocols to emergent behaviors such as blogging is important because the Web will only continue to develop and grow if it continues to be useful. If the technology no longer adds value to people, the Web will eventually become obsolete. The protocols are also essential in guaranteeing privacy and respect for personal boundaries which are important factors to ensure users feel safe and comfortable using these technologies. This paper conclude that the network effect which states that the value of a service is directly proportional to the number of people that use that service becomes more useful with increased numbers of Users. Users as creators where people no longer simply read material online but rather write and create original content. Keywords: web2.0. social media , tools, advocacy

1 2

Federal College Of Agriculture Along Obaile Road Akure Ondo State Nigeria Federal College Of Agriculture Along Obaile Road Akure Ondo State Nigeria

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The Role of Mass Media in Rural Development Paksoy M.1

Ikikat Tumer E.2

Abstract: For the purpose of picking up steam of rural development in Turkey it is needed that increase the level of farmers knowledge, skills and manners besides productivity and quality increase in production. In developing countries in order to realization of rural development it should be focused on agricultural extension studies. Low level of literacy rate in rural area and farmers limited facility to reach printed publications, decreased the utilization of written sources. This case increase the importance of agricultural education through the mass media (radio, tv, internet and mobile phone). Due to the fact that information given through mass media is practical and updated, offer rapid solutions to farmers problems, the mass media is important with regards to reach target groups. In this research it is aimed to investigate mass media in agricultural extension. For this purpose the information will be given about local and national radio and tv channels, web sites and gsm operators in Turkey. Key words: Rural development, agricultural extension, mass media, Turkey

INTRODUCTION Agriculture still play important role in Turkeys economy with 7,9% share from GDP and from export. %22,7 percent of population lived in rural areas and 22,4% employed in agriculture in 2012. (TURSTAT, 2013). For this reason rural areas keep importance in Turkey. Rural development is a process of action with economic, political, cultural and social dimensions. To put it differently, agricultural development is a process whereby the farmers possess modern knowledge and information. It is imperative for the farmers to have and accept the necessary technologies, innovations and knowledge for the rural development. Therefore, communication plays an important role in the process of rural development. The communication bridges built between public institutions, rural organizations and people generate the opportunities to ensure share of knowledge and experience needed for rural development. Advancement in agriculture is possible only through training the farmers for the purpose of learning new ideas and techniques and their firm adoption. Making the farmers embrace the innovations in the rural areas and their firm adoption is made possible via communication channels. There are four major channels to convey the innovation from the universities (or scholars in respective fields) to the farmer: peers and neighbors (informal communication), seller and wholesalers (commercial communication), public institutions and agriculturally specialized university units (public communication, mass media devices (mass communication). The farmers become aware of the innovations and develop interest in learning and adopting them via these channels (Türkdoğan, 2006). In addition to these, the media ensures publication and popularization of rural issues in the general public. It supports the educational and awareness activities; it specifically contributes to facilitating the technical information. The communication networks set up in the rural areas facilitate access by the local people to the service and the information. Therefore, it is evident that communication plays a remarkable role in rural development. In the rural communication activities in different parts of the world, radio, TV, press, computer, internet, other information systems, videos, films, theatres, festivals, meetings, panels and seminars are widely used. In the rural areas where traditional relations are prevalent, face-to-face communication is a commonly used method (Örs, 2011). In this paper we discuss mass media channels and Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) with contribution to rural development in Turkey. MATERIAL AND METHODS Information about mass media data collected from web pages of related public and private firms. Statistics about Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) obtained from TURSTAT (Turkish Statistical Office). 1 2

KSU, Faculty of Agriculture, Dept.of Agricultural Economics, Kahramanmaraş, Turkey KSU, Faculty of Agriculture, Dept.of Agricultural Economics, Kahramanmaraş, Turkey

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Mass Media Researchers categorize communication channels as either (1) inter-personal or mass media in nature, or (2) originating from either localite or cosmopolite sources. Past research studies show that these channels play different roles in creating knowledge or in persuading individuals to change their attitude toward an innovation. The channels also are different for earlier adopters of new ideas than for later adopters. Mass media channels are all those means of transmitting messages that involve a mass medium, such as radio, television, newspapers, and so on, which enable a source of one or a few individuals to reach an audience of many. Mass media can: 1. Reach a large audience rapidly. 2. Create knowledge and spread information. 3. Lead to changes in weakly held attitudes (Rogers, 1983). Radio and TV Broadcasting It is necessary that to educate people who live rural areas and whatever their education levels because technology is improving fast and changing continuously. The most important way is to catch up of agriculture sector and farmer radio and television which are related to agricultural informatics (Çavdar, 2009). Both television and the radio have the opportunity to reach the large masses quickly. Television and radio provides the cheapest communication accessed per person. However present messages to target audience indiscriminately and equitably. In absence of television or unwatched, radio can be listened. In agricultural extension studies experts benefited from radio and television for many years. Agriculture programs have been going on for rural sector since the start of official radio and television TRT (Turkish Radio Television) in Turkey. In 1990’s private radios and TV channels started to broadcast at local and national level. At the same time agricultural programs take part in private channels. In recent years thematic channels for agriculture started to broadcast from satellite and cable with rapidly changing technology and agricultural growth (Table 1). Table 1. Agricultural TV channels in Turkey Name

Founding Date

Founding Place

Broadcast Mode

Air Time

Bereket TV

2010

Ankara

Satellite

24 hour

Tarımturk TV

2011

Istanbul

Satellite, cable

07.00-0.00

Koy TV

2010

Bursa

Satellite

24 hour

In 2010, Ministry of Agriculture starts web agricultural TV from internet. Web agriculture TV broadcasts programs about national and international agricultural agenda, agricultural news, agricultural stock markets, agricultural weather, rural development, sample agricultural practices, regional cuisine and food safety for farmers. Sample broadcast stream of Bereket TV (27.08.2013) 00:00 Agricultural weather forecast 00:10 Tractor market 00:15 Animal market 00:30 Tractor market 01:20 Agricultural Education (Cotton) 02:30 Soil Actual 04:05 Agenda 05:20 Agricultural Education (Cotton) 06:00 Agricultural weather forecast

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06:05 Tractor market 06:10 Tractor market 07:00 Animal Time (dairy cows) 08:00 Plant Protection Time 09:30 Instruction for Use (Feed crushing machine) 10:15 Tractor market 10:20 Animal market 10:30 Fair Time - Kayseri Agricultural Fair 12:00 Agricultural weather forecast 12:05 Tractor market 12:10 Animal market 13:00 Karakiz–Karaoglan (TV series) 14:05 Agricultural Dictionary (Olive harvesting) 14:45 Tractor market 14:50 Animal market 15:00 Agricultural Education (Soil Analysis) 16:30 Soil actual (Animal symposium) 17:55 Tractor market 18:05 Animal market 19:00 Dairy of beekeeper 20:00 Agricultural weather forecast 20:05 Tractor market 20:10 Animal market 20:30 Animal Time (Milk and Meat Policies) (Live) 21:45 Tractor market 21:50 Animal market 22:00 Agricultural Dictionary (grafting in walnut) 23:05 Documentary (Old tractors) Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) ICT refers to technologies that provide access to information through telecommunications. It is similar to Information Technology (IT), but focuses primarily on communication technologies. This includes the Internet, wireless networks, cell phones, and other communication mediums (http://www.techterms.com). ICTs are a generic technology, their application to agriculture and to rural development are very extensive and pervasive. The facilitation of access to information and to knowledge is its main characteristic. They are profoundly transforming extension services through the use of multimedia technology, as well as through the possibility of developing innovative approaches based on interactive knowledge development processes that involve researchers, extension specialists and farmers. The main objective of ICT application, from a development perspective, is that of empowering people through knowledge. It increases the effectiveness of their development efforts through informed decision making and through their capacity to harness science and various forms of knowledge to achieve the objectives of poverty eradication, food security and sustainable development (Dhaliwal et al, 2011). Data started from 2004 about ICT statistics in Turkey. Between 2004-2013 availability of devices in households (%) in terms of computer and mobile phone increased but fixed line phone decreased both in urban and rural areas. Table 2. Availability of devices in households (%)

Year

Turkey

2004 2005 2007 2008 2009

Desktop computer 10,0 11,6 24,0 28,1 30,7

Portable computer (Laptop, Tablet PC) 0,9 1,1 5,6 9,1 11,2

Portable computer (Laptop, Netbook) -

Tablet computer -

Mobile phone 53,7 72,6 87,4 88,1 87,6

Television (including satellite dish, cable TV) 92,2 97,7 -

Fixed line telephone 81,6 81,3 72,7 68,4 61,9

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2010 33,8 16,8 90,5 2011 34,3 22,6 91,9 2012 31,8 27,1 93,2 2013 30,5 31,4 6,2 93,7 2004 14,2 1,2 62,4 2005 16,1 1,6 79,9 2007 30,0 7,2 90,3 2008 33,7 11,4 90,2 Urban 2009 37,1 14,3 89,6 2010 40,6 20,4 92,8 2011 41,0 27,9 93,6 2012 38,2 33,5 95,1 2013 36,2 37,9 8,1 95,6 2004 2,8 0,2 38,8 2005 3,7 0,3 59,9 2007 8,9 1,8 80,1 2008 13,6 3,2 82,8 Rural 2009 15,2 3,6 82,9 2010 16,6 7,6 85,0 2011 17,4 9,2 87,7 2012 16,3 11,8 88,5 2013 17,0 15,6 1,5 89,1 TURKSTAT, Results of the ICT Usage in Households and by individuals, 2004-2013.

93,9 99,0

56,1 51,4 45,5 37,9 84,5 83,6 74,2 68,9 63,1 58,8 55,1 47,4 40,6 76,5 77,4 68,9 67,0 58,9 49,4 41,9 40,9 31,5

89,3 95,6 -

The most striking case is availability of mobile phone in households both in urban and rural areas in Turkey. In 2013 it reaches 95,6% shares in urban, 89,1% in rural areas. In table 3 it’s showed that computer and internet usage increased during 2004-2013 period in Turkey. Besides male are used computer and internet more than female. Computer and internet usage in rural areas was very low levels. Table 3. When individual* last used computer and the Internet, by sex (%) Computer Year

Turkey

Computer and Internet users Urban

Rural

2004 2005 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2004 2005 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2004 2005 2007 2008

Total 23,6 22,9 33,4 38,0 40,1 43,2 46,4 48,7 49,9 31,4 29,6 40,1 45,2 47,7 50,6 54,7 57,8 59,0 10,4 11,7 17,8 20,6

Male 31,1 30,0 42,7 47,8 50,5 53,4 56,1 59,0 60,2 40,3 37,3 50,6 55,8 58,5 61,3 64,6 68,0 69,0 15,2 17,1 24,1 28,4

Internet Female 16,2 15,9 23,7 28,5 30,0 33,2 36,9 38,5 39,8 22,5 21,7 29,1 34,9 37,0 40,3 45,0 47,7 49,1 5,8 6,6 11,5 13,1

Total 18,8 17,6 30,1 35,9 38,1 41,6 45,0 47,4 48,9 25,6 23,1 36,6 43,1 45,5 49,2 53,2 56,6 58,0 7,5 8,2 15,2 18,3

Male 25,7 24,0 39,2 45,4 48,6 51,8 54,9 58,1 59,3 34,0 30,3 46,9 53,5 56,5 59,8 63,2 67,0 68,1 11,6 12,8 21,3 26,0

Female 12,1 11,1 20,7 26,6 28,0 31,7 35,3 37,0 38,7 17,2 15,6 25,9 33,1 34,6 39,0 43,4 46,3 48,0 3,6 3,9 9,0 10,9

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2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

22,2 25,6 26,9 27,6 29,5

30,9 34,9 36,2 37,8 40,1

14,1 16,6 17,8 18,0 19,3

20,7 23,7 25,7 26,4 28,6

29,1 33,1 35,3 37,1 39,2

12,9 14,6 16,4 16,3 18,4

*16-74 age group TURKSTAT, Results of the ICT Usage in Households and by individuals, 2004-2013.

In 2013, households with access to internet obtained 57,1% in urban, 29,1% in rural areas. Rural areas should increase the internet access with parallel to computer and mobile phone use. Table 4. Households with access to the Internet , 2013 % Have access

Have no access

Don't know

Turkey

49,1

50,2

0,7

Urban

57,4

42,0

0,6

Rural

29,1

69,8

1,1

TURKSTAT, Results of the ICT Usage in Households and by individuals, 2013.

In Turkey internet used mainly by individuals to participate social networks, send or receive e-mails, read new papers or magazines both in urban and rural areas. However finding information about goods or services an important activity followed these activities (Table 5). Table 5. Internet activities of individuals who have accessed the Internet in the last 3 months, by private purposes (%)

2013 Turkey

Urban

Rural

Sending/receiving e-mails

62,5

63,8

Participating in social networks

73,2

72,1

56,1 78,3

Reading or downloading online news/ newspapers/news magazines

75,6

76,4

71,8

Subscribe to news services or products to receive them regularly

21,3

21,8

18,7

Seeking health-related information (e.g. İnjury, disease, nitrution, etc.)

59,6

62,4

Looking for information about education, training or course offers

45,9

47,7

46,2 37,5

Finding information about goods or services

59,9

62,7

46,3

Downloading software (other than games software) Posting opinions on civic or political issues via websites (e.g. blogs, social networks, etc.)

19,1

20,0

14,7

28,7

28,9

28,0

Taking part in online consultations or voting to define civic or political issues

12,8

13,6

9,1

Doing an online course (in any subject)

8,4

9,0

5,5

Consulting wikis to obtain knowledge on any subject

32,6

33,8

Looking for a job or sending a job application Participating in professional networks (creating user profile, posting messages, or other contributions to LinkedIn, Xıng etc.)

12,9

13,8

26,2 8,4

4,2

4,7

1,7

Using services related to travel or travel related accommodation

26,6

27,4

25,5

Selling of goods or services, e.g. via auctions

9,3

10,0

6,0

Telephoning over the Internet / video calls (via webcam) over the Internet

55,1

56,6

47,4

Internet banking

24,8

26,8

15,4

Purposes

* January- March 2013 **16-74

age group

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TURKSTAT, Results of the ICT Usage in Households and by individuals, 2013

SMS Services and Farmer Clubs of GSM Operators There are 3 gsm operators in Turkey service from 1990s. All of them use sms services for farmers intensively. 2 operators have special packages for farmers. Farmers must send sms to subscribe agricultural news packages and farmer clubs. GSM operators provides information about agricultural weather forecast, product information, agricultural support programs, market prices, discounts, fair invitations etc. according to package. One operator also serves advertisement services published on web site and TV. Generally farmer information packages and services are free of charge. Households which have internet access often used mobile phone to connected internet (Table 6). Table 6. Percentage of households have devices connected to the Internet, 2013, %

Devices connected to the Internet

As a percentage of all households Turke y

Urban

Desktop computer

21,8

26,4

Portable computer (Laptop, Tablet PC )

25,6

Mobile phone (incl. smart phone)

29,9

Games console Smart TV

Rural

As a percentage of households with Internet access Turkey

Urban

Rural

10,7

44,3

45,9

36,9

31,6

11,1

52,2

55,1

38,1

34,9

18,0

61,0

60,8

61,7

1,0

1,3

0,1

2,0

2,3

0,5

2,9

3,8

0,7

5,9

6,7

2,5

Respondents may choose more than one option, therefore total don't give %100 TURKSTAT, Results of the ICT Usage in Households and by individuals, 2013

CONCLUSION Mass media and ICT used more intensively used in developing countries like Turkey to provide information to farmers with developing and chancing technology besides economy. Due to fact that, more contribution made for rural development. With increase of education levels of farmers it is expected that usage of mass media and ICT spread larger areas. Mobile phone and mobile internet usage tend to increase shares with respect to other devices. REFERENCES Cavdar, G (2009) Tarımsal Bilisim – Radyo ve Televizyon. Akademik Bilisim’09- XI. Akademik Bilisim Konferansı Bildirileri, 11-13 Subat 2009, Harran Universitesi, Sanliurfa Dhaliwal RK, Mohapatra L, Dhaliwal HS (2011) ICT for Agricultural and Rural Development. Raj. J. Extn. Edu. 19 : 110116. Ors, F (2013) The Contribution of Communication http://ferlalors.files.wordpress.com/2011/02/communication-in-rural-areas.pdf

to

Rogers, ME (1983) Diffusion of Innovations. Third Edition. The Free Press, New York (US) TURKSTAT (2013) Results of the ICT Usage in Households and by individuals, 2004-2013. Türkdogan, O (2006). Türkiye’de Köy Sosyolojisi. IQ Kültür Sanat Yayıncılık, Istanbul http://www.techterms.com/definition/ict http://www.bereket.tv http://www.tarimturk.tv http://www.koytv.tv http://www.tarimtv.gov.tr http://www.turkcell.com.tr http://www.vodafone.com.tr

Rural

Development.

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Ex Post Evaluation of Research Activities Financed by the Tuscany Region in the Fields of Viticulture and Aquaculture Proietti P.1

Tudini L.

Abstract The evaluation of research is one of the fundamental functions in the process of growth and dissemination of scientific knowledge. However, research is too much judged on its scientific contribution rather than on its relevance for practical farming. The aim of this paper is to measure the impact of research in agriculture, in terms of benefits for farms of a given sector and/or territory. This assessment is complicated by several issues that mainly concern the lack of adequate instruments, the available data, the objective limit in quantifying the concrete impact of research, the time lag between intervention and impact, the multidimensional nature of research and its products. To overcome these problems, the evaluation of the impacts of the research promoted by the Tuscany Region in the fields of viticulture and aquaculture is the result of a combined application of different methodologies (including qualitative analysis based on case studies, network analysis, etc.) and tools borrowed from ex-post evaluation about research activities in the fields of industry and SMEs, which allow to assess research in relation to its effective capacity of dissemination and exploitation of results. Although the results of the study show several different situations, the impacts of research remain largely unexploited and, in many cases, not visible, in spite of a large utilization of financial resources. The key issue for policy makers is how to organize the regional innovation system at best to make the most effective use of public funds. Keywords: knowledge, implementation, impacts, indicators of growth, evaluation criteria

INTRODUCTION In the period 1997-2008, Tuscany Region promoted several projects of applied research in aquaculture and viticulture sectors. The progress of these projects was carefully monitored and the achieved results were disseminated through print tools, technical meetings and the Region’s website. At that time, the delivery of projects’ results to farmers and their impact on the production process were not still monitored. The aim of this paper is thus to monitor these latter subjects and to also explore the real application of the results by end users. To achieve such intent, an operational framework based on four steps has been established, as follows: • set up of the methodology and tools to check the diffusion of innovations; • analysis of to what extent the original objectives of publicly funded researches were able to meet the needs of farmers; • check of the level of knowledge of the innovations generated from financed researches among advisors and farmers; • identification of useful elements to measure the penetration of innovation in the farms and its impact on the production process. The evaluation of research is one of the fundamental functions in the process of growth and dissemination of scientific knowledge. Generally, research programmes are mainly evaluated by focusing on their scientific contribution instead of exploring the real application of the results by end users. A less distorting evaluation approach should take into account both the scientific value of research and the wider effects of the programme on the economic-productive tissue of a given sector and / or territory. From a conceptual point of view, however, the measurement of the impact of research in agriculture, in terms of benefits for farms, is strongly characterized by the lack of adequate instruments and the difficulty in applying cause-effect relationship (Silvani et al., 2008). In fact, the correlation between research and application of innovation is not linear, but develops in an interactive ‘chain-link’ model (Kline and Rosenberg, 1986; Martin, 2007) based on feedback received and the interactions with external factors. Therefore, it is very demanding to understand what particular benefits can be attributed to a specific set of research activities. The assessment is further complicated by other issues that mainly concern:

1

INEA - Italian Institute of Agricultural Economics, Via Nomentana, 41 00161 Roma

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- the quality and quantity of available data; - the objective limit in quantifying the concrete impact of research; - the time lag between intervention and impact; - the multidimensional nature of research and its products, that concern scientific (contributions to the stock of knowledge), educational (contributions in terms of skills and educated personnel), technological (development of new products and processes) and socio-cultural dimensions (contributions to society more broadly) (Arnold and Balázs,1998). MATERIAL AND METHODS From literature review it appears that, to overcome the enounced problems, the evaluation should be the result of the combined application of different methodologies, including qualitative analysis based on case studies, network analysis, etc.. (Technopolis Group, 2009). This may allow to give a proximate answer about the impacts produced by research. Ambitions for impact evaluation remain low, with a focus on trying to measure only the measurable and therefore probably to say more about the plausibility of impact than to demonstrate it conclusively (Arnold and Balázs, 1998). Matter-of-factly, there is a lack of extensive body of studies concerning the instruments for the evaluation of publicly funded basic research on agriculture, but in the evaluation of both industrially and SME’s applied research some useful tools and approaches can be found. In particular, thanks to some studies carried out at the Freeman Centre, Science and Technology Policy Research - SPRU, University of Sussex, some key indicators, which link research and growth, could be reused after adapting them to this specific intent. These indicators show, de facto, the ‘channels’ through which the results of the research flow into economy: • growth in the stock of useful knowledge, not only in terms of availability of coded information, but also of tacit knowledge diffusion and absorptive capacity; • training of qualified operators, being able not only to know innovation, but also to use the acquired knowledge in a useful way; • creation of new methods, tools and processes; • development of network and stimulation of social interactions, which are essential for the circulation of information and dissemination of tacit knowledge; • enhancement of problem-solving capacity; • access to communication facilities, information flows and research products. Each of these indicators can play a useful role in measuring the impact, although not all of them have the same degree of measurability and their importance may vary depending on the sector (Salter et al., 2000; Salter and Martin, 2001; Scott et al., 2002; Martin and Tang, 2006; Silvani et al., 2008). Overall they are a first attempt to explain the mechanisms of connection between research and impacts, to be developed according to the specific needs of evaluation. The general methodology of the paper has been based on the development of a relational model that correlates research results to possible impacts: in fact, the relevant evidences that were used to measure the impact of innovation were derived from the breakdown of the original objectives of funded researches into expected outputs and outcomes and finally into their presumable impacts, as illustrated in the scheme below.

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The assessment of collected data was guided by three criteria: - relevance, that is to say the capacity of funded projects to address issues of interest in relation to the real needs of end-users, - quality, namely the scientific level of funded research, - effectiveness, specifically the ability of funded projects to reach potential users and enhance achieved results. A fourth criterion, cost-effectiveness, was not considered in this work. These criteria allow to evaluate research not only on the basis of its scientific contributions, but also in relation to its relevance on the productive activity and, therefore, on its real capacity of dissemination and use of results. Each criterion was declined to specific evaluation questions, taking into account the relational model and the key indicators. Information was collected from: - desk analysis of the available documentation regarding selection procedures of founded projects; - direct survey of potential end users (telephone interviews and questionnaires); - direct interviews and focus groups with the projects partners and end users (direct, indirect and potential) from the results of the funded researches. RESULTS Results from ex post evaluation of research activities in the Aquaculture Sector The Tuscany Aquaculture sector has 28 enterprises, consisting mostly of farms of freshwater species (localized in the Apennine zone) and secondly of marine species (localized in the coastal area of the province of Grosseto and to a lesser extent in that of Livorno), for a total of 41 production sites. Among the farms, there are 3 facilities for mariculture, an oyster plant and one plant for breeding and rearing of ornamental species. The Tuscany Region has promoted intensive research in aquaculture, with particular attention to the diversification of productive activities and environmental protection. The diversification of farmed species is one of the most effective strategies for the development of marine aquaculture in the Mediterranean. This issue has attracted the attention of the industry since the early ‘90 but, so far, it has generated modest effects on the production side. At the same time the Tuscany Region has paid particular attention to issues related to the environmental impact resulting from the aquaculture activities, by supporting research projects aimed at assessing the state of the environment in areas affected by the presence of production facilities. The study shows that funded research projects responded to the needs of the regional production. The diversification of productive species was and still is the main priority to be addressed, both at national and at regional level. As 69% of the funding was intended precisely to this issue, the requests of Tuscan fish breeders were satisfied. The main lines of research concerned Croaker, Mediterranean and Senegalese Sole, Octopus, Amberjack, Oyster, Mussel, Wastewater, Offshore, Wells. Concerning the achievements, the study indicates a non-homogeneous situation, that highlights positive findings for projects that have focused on issues of environmental nature (wastewater treatment, pumping water from wells overlooking the Lagoon of Orbetello), while for projects aimed at diversifying the species bred (sole, bream, octopus, etc.) the results did not meet the final expected objectives and, consequently, there were no spin-offs for businesses. Furthermore, for what concerns those supported projects that have not reached the expected results, it is remarked that, beyond technical problems or other issues that may have contributed to the lack of success, despite the technical and scientific monitoring carried out during the implementation phases of the research, no feedback control on whether to fund basic research purposes with tangible results in the long run was developed. In fact, an analysis of the feedback from the various phases of the project, e.g. at each key step, would enable to restructure the project in the face of the problems encountered or even to “close” the research in question. This latter reasoning leads to rethink the role of the Tuscany Region as a funding body for these research and the advantages and disadvantages of carrying out the research at companies that also bear the scientific coordination of activities. Among our findings, a positive interaction between university research and breeding world has been observed, but the interaction of these subjects should be aimed to facilitate the transmission of knowledge and experience in both directions. For the academic world is very useful to have a direct contact with the world of production, while for farmers it would be very useful to have an expert’s supervision to ensure a more pragmatic approach to research. There may be situations where the incorrect calibration of some breeding parameters leads to negative results in the trials, which could be avoided by simply adhering more strictly to the protocols of breeding. Increased focus on basic research before starting to experience the farming of new species would also be extremely beneficial: in fact it is necessary to know the stages of development in nature, habits and general characteristics of the species in order to avoid blind trials.

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Increased focus on sustainability of the farms of the future is crucial too: if you choose to breed carnivorous species then the reduction of wild stocks on which they are currently fed must be taken into account. It would be advisable to consider more herbivorous or omnivorous species which traditionally are not the Italian consumers preferred choice but which are part of an emerging market that serves migrant citizens who habitually consume herbivorous fishes. Sometimes the lack of diversification of farmed species depends not so much on the complexity of domestication of new species, but more on the difficulty in finding a product that competes in terms of stocking density and economic performance with sea bass and sea bream fishes. In addition, the prolonged interruption of research projects has deleterious effects, since it is objectively hard to pick up where one left off, wasting time and money. Some routes of investigation stopped at the initial stage and would require a second phase of experimentation in order to bring real benefit to the sector (as in the case of mussels). On aquaculture, even experts from the industry outside the region have agreed that Tuscany should take a decision on whether to fund research and hopefully continue to sponsor this sector. Hence there are two operational proposals. The first is to initiate a joint discussion between the different actors (companies, institutions and research) in relation to: • the results achieved in recent years, taking into account the strengths and weaknesses that have emerged; • the future of research in the field of aquaculture in the region in terms of funding and means of implementation; • the main priorities to be addressed. The second is to carry out an update of the monitoring of aquaculture in order to: • define the subject of the investigation; • determine the current situation and the possible scenarios; • identify the needs of knowledge. Results from ex post evaluation of research activities in the Viticulture Sector In 2010, the Tuscan Viticulture sector had 60.286,33 hectares of vineyards, distributed in 27.564 UTE (technicaleconomic unit) and 22.227 farms. More than 55% of the UTE on regional area was smaller than half a hectare and held a total of 6,5% of Tuscan vineyard, while a small percentage of the UTE with more than ten hectares (about 5%) held more than 55% of total regional vineyard. Over the last 20 years, the sector has undergone a wide restructuring, with a decrease in vineyards for the production of table wines (-44,0% from 1990 to 2000) in favor of vineyards for the production of quality (DOC e DOCG) wines (+21,6% from 1990 al 2000). A lot of funded research projects were addressed to support this restructuring. In general, funded research concerning viticulture sector can be correlated to six thematic areas: - clonal selection, 10 projects (from 2000 to 2009) - wine production improvement, 7 projects - characterization of regions and varieties, 4 projects - environment and landscape, 6 projects - marketing and economic aspects, 3 projects - defense, 1 projects The Region funded 10 research projects concerning the clone selection as this issue was considered strategic for new quality vineyards implantation. All the projects were judged very relevant by the interviewees. In particular, it was emphasized that this type of research, not only responds to the needs that emerged at that time, but also matches exactly the type of innovation that must be funded by the public sector since, by nature, it requires very long time for the production of both results and impacts, with a potential economic return of investment that cannot be easily sustained by single farms or other private enterprises. The studies that aim at improving the wine production were also considered very relevant, although to a lesser extent than the clonal selection. The other thematic areas follow in order of importance. As to what regards their scientific quality, all the projects were positively perceived, even though the researchers pointed out that the high fragmentation of funds among different University and research institutes prevents such organisms from being competitive with respect to other Research Units from abroad, thus making it harder to develop a research of excellence and a coordinated transfer of innovation. In general, over the years the scientific research has produced many results that could meet the needs of the farms, but in any case most of these results, for various reasons, have not been transferred or have not been absorbed and implemented d systematically at farm level. Nonetheless, some areas, where people seem more dynamic and innovative, have more absorptive capacity while this is not the case for other areas. Substantially, a viticulture innovation requires a cultural change. The majority of farmers is unsure on innovative actions and look for confirmation. An innovation culture can be created by empowerment and encouragement of farmers by means of operators which are able not only to know, but also to use the new knowledge in a meaningful way. The major constraints to learning today derive from

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the ability (and knowledge) that are needed to evaluate, select and correctly use the information available (Brunori et al., 2006). Research in the wine industry field has produced many results too, even more than in viticulture. In this case, a greater transposition has been observed, even if technological aspects were privileged with respect to the connections with the territories and the environment. The reason for the higher adoption of wine innovation is to be searched in its greater market involvement with respect to the genetic aspects: in fact, it is easier to change a wine tank or use a new type of yeast, rather than to plant a vineyard, and the return time of economic investment is much faster. Indeed, the research applied to the grapevine depends on the timing of its application to the plant, which is generally long. However a psychological resistance to genetics innovation has also been observed because farmers tend to be conservative (there may be cultural reasons that hinder the achievement of certain grape varieties). Moreover, the Italian legislation does not facilitate the introduction of such an innovation, establishing very long times for its transfer. For these reasons, viticulture innovation grows slowly: new varieties that are currently used can be counted on the fingers of one hand. The aforementioned diversity of speed in innovation is directly reflected on research matters: in the wine industry, oenologists are anticipating the farmers’ needs, while in the viticulture sector agronomists struggle to meet the need that farmers gradually manifest. Synthetically, the following conclusive remarks on innovation (which must be understood as the application of knowledge) can be summarized: - in the wine sector, it is higher for certain aspects (oenology, image, marketing) rather than for others (viticulture); - it is higher in those areas where entrepreneurial skills, creativity and ability to develop networks are greater, or in more absorptive zone; - it is easier implemented in structured farms with internal personnel that is able to use acquired knowledge correctly; - it is more developed inside integrated supply chain. In all these cases innovations of excellence have been observed.

DISCUSSION The study highlights the significant financial commitment by the Region on relevant research projects, in particular on issues that require a very long time for production both of outcomes and impacts, where the possible return on investment could hardly be sustained by private enterprises (eg. clonal selection). The study shows, firstly, several situations concerning the achievement of innovation: - research outputs are not achievable as expected and, consequently, there isn’t any innovation; - expected outputs, albeit achieved, are not able to meet entrepreneurial needs and, consequently, are not implemented by farms; - expected outputs are achieved and meet the needs, but they are not adequately disseminated or there are no tools to make farms able to exploit them (innovation system bottlenecks); - research outputs really expand the pool of scientific knowledge available to farms, which can implement new products/processes (with considerable skills and efforts) thus developing new tacit knowledge. Moreover, the study helps to focus on several key points: • Between research and productive world there is still a certain distance, which can be overcome only when farmer and researchers work together facing a real problem and trying to find the possible solution: typically, these interactions are the result of chance, personal relationships, suggestions; unlikely they are promoted or encouraged by the policies (positive examples in this sense can be represented by PIF, or projects financed with the measure 124 of RDP, or local projects). • Farmers should have the opportunity to discuss with researchers the problems they face and the possible solutions to look for, thus participating in the definition of the research project. In this way they can raise the ownership of the potential solutions, delivering clear directions to researchers and increasing the degree of uptake of the results, thus reducing the transaction costs of identifying and acquiring knowledge. The involvement of farmers and the development of interactive networks are essential for the circulation of information and dissemination of tacit knowledge. • A fundamental issue concerns the circulation of knowledge: - the dissemination of research results ends, in 99.9% of cases, with a conference or other information events, or a publication (magazine or web). These communication channels can reach a large number of people, making them aware of new knowledge, but this is not enough to define this kind of dissemination

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effective, because effectiveness will be achieved only when the innovation is successfully applied from a large number of farms; - dissemination should not only take into account coded information but also the absorptive capacity, which includes a large amount of available information on the new results and of tacit knowledge. It is necessary to ensure that results are not only known but also used by the farmers, helping them to ‘own’ the innovation. • An issue that deserves attention is the target of research. Typically, public research is addressed at medium-sized farms and focuses on aspects of general interest, to which the private sector is less receptive. However, the study shows that project results are most implemented by those farms that have the skills to convert knowledge into practice, that are on the market, and that dispose of a technical structure able to evaluate innovation and to adapt it to the specific farm structure and needs, i.e. the large ones. At best, small and medium sized farms are aware of innovation (because they read something or because they were advised), but often they cannot implement it in the farms, as they do not have the necessary skills. This increases the gap between innovative farms and the others. • The methods and contents of training (funded under measure 111 of RDP) and advisory service (measure 114 of RDP) do not take into account research results. This leads into a lack of experts able not only to know, but also to use new knowledge in a meaningful way. Perhaps, it is necessary to reflect on the need to provide more resources, in research projects, for training and dissemination of the results so as to make them activities on their own. But there is also the need to review the advisory content that should go beyond the provision of standard services and aiming at providing facilitation tool for the acquisition of specific knowledge and skills by the farmers instead. • A final issue focuses on concentrating resources for innovation on priority needs, by creating synergies in the area and among research institutions, by avoiding excessive fragmentation that may compromise its effectiveness. “Research is an asset, however strong efforts are required to turn it in innovation”. References Arnold E., Balázs K. (1998) Methods in The Evaluation of Publicly Funded Basic Research. Technopolis, Brighton, UK, http://www.technopolis.co.uk/reports Brunori G., Magagnoli G., Magnavacchi A., Monterosso V., Proietti P. (2006) Messa a punto di una nuova metodologia per l’erogazione di servizi di assistenza tecnica alle aziende agricole. Direzione Agricoltura, Regione Emilia Romagna Kline S.J., Rosenberg N. (1986) An overview of innovation. In R. Landau and N. Rosenberg, (eds.), The Positive Sum Game, National Academy Press, Washington, DC. Martin B.R. (2007) Assessing the Impact of Basic Research on Society and the Economy. International Conference on ‘Science Impact: Rethinking the Impact of Basic Research on Society and the Economy’, Vienna, 11 May Martin B.R. and Tang P. (2006) The Economic and Social Benefits of Publicly Funded Basic Research. Report to the Office of Science and Innovation, Department of Trade and Industry, Brighton: SPRU. Salter A., D’Este P., Martin B.R., Geuna A., Scott A., Pavitt K., Patel P. and Nightingale P. (2000) Talent, not Technology: Publicly Funded Research and Innovation in the UK. Committee of Vice-Chancellors and Principals (CVCP), London. Salter A.J. and Martin B.R. (2001) The economic benefits of publicly funded basic research: a critical review. In Research Policy, 30, pp.509-32. Scott A., Steyn G., Geuna A., Brusoni S. and Steinmueller E. (2002) The Economic Returns to Basic Research and the Benefits of University-Industry Relationships: A Literature Review and Update of Findings. Report for the Office of Science and Technology, Brighton: SPRU -Science and Technology Policy Research. Silvani A., Bonella F., Cella L., Rotilio A. (2008) Nuovi mercati della valutazione: misurare l’impatto di uno sforzo addizionale territoriale in ricerca e innovazione. Rassegna Italiana di Valutazione, a. XII, n. 4

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Institutional Role in Realizing the Transition of Extension to Entrepreneurship: The Key to Existence of Extension Science Ramkumar S.1

Sethumadhavan T. P.2

Abstract: Transitions in the concept of Agriculture, and hence agricultural extension, needs to be realized by the practitioners of Extension, if it has to bear the results that it is intended to. The Context –content fit of Extension will decide its genuineness and relevance in the present day. This paper looks into the opportunities of Extension within an entrepreneurial outlook , which is vastly transforming the nature of agriculture. Within the frame work of time, territory and technology, the paper argues for the improvement of Extension capabilities, if this Science has to serve its rationale. This is explained with the importance of Institution (Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences University: KVASU) in recognizing the synthesis of entrepreneurial capabilities to Extension approaches. The Directorate of Entrepreneurship of Kerala Veterinary and Sciences University of Kerala, India launched novel programmes with due focus on innovativeness, market led extension strategies, sustainability and food security. Factors other than technologies like innovation processes, institutional linkages, knowledge on the context in which technology works (including policies) will decide the success of Extension rather than technologies or knowledge on technologies. The paper looks into the projects undertaken by the Directorate of Entrepreneurship as its efforts to make Extension more meaningful and applicable to the present day farmers (entrepreneurs) and professionals. Athulya, a bird that lays 305 eggs an year was a commendable technology from KVASU. By putting together five birds, a prefabricated cage, feed and essential medicines, the Directorate of Entrepreneurship developed a successful project named as Aiswarya Poultry Project that reaches the peri urban and urban households, aiding in achieving self sufficiency in egg availability and consumption. This project will help to provide nutritional security among women and children where more than 42 percent children born are with under weight in India. Egg being one of the Animal protein sources will help to correct protein malnutrition in the country. University’s entrepreneurship development programmes are aimed at maintaining food security and sustainability through augmenting production, value addition and innovation incubation.

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Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Kerala, India Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Kerala, India

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Sustainability Education Approaches in Agriculture Higher Education Rezvanfar A.1

Faham E.2

Mohammadi H.M.3

Abstract: Resources in the areas of agriculture are the basic resources in the world, that applying unsustainable technologies and policies through managers and decision makers limit the use of resources for present and future generations. Whereas, universities educate future managers and decision makers; therefore, global movement was shaped at universities in creating sustainable economic, social, environmental, and political future and also, it involved agricultural higher education. This movement was entitled sustainability education or education for sustainable development. In this paper, with introducing sustainability education in higher education - whole of university, curriculum change, teaching and learning strategies change and integrating sustainability into an informal environment at universityrecommendations are presented for integrating sustainability education in agricultural higher education.

Department of Agricultural Extension and Education, Faculty of Agricultural Management and Development, University of Tehran Department of Agricultural Extension and Education, Faculty of Agricultural Management and Development, University of Tehran 3 Department of Agricultural Extension and Education, Faculty of Agricultural Management and Development, University of Tehran 1 2

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Extension Education and Home Economics: Women’s Role in Advisory Work in Finland. Savisalo L.1 INTRODUCTION The difficulty of achieving common international definitions for some of terms to be used makes it necessary to starting the meanings that will be attached to them in this review paper. ‘Home economics’ will be used for the IFHE Position Statement in the 21 st century statement (IFHE 2008) as an arena for everyday living in households, families and communities for developing human growth potential and human necessities or basic needs to be met. The glocal – global and local contexts will be taken together. Home economics has a meaning of that position statement in this paper. ‘Extension’ will be used for general dissemination processes for policy and research information which is considered by its producers to be relevant and useful for farmers.’ Advice’ will mean the definition and clarification of problems and the options for their solution, arrived at through a personal relationship between an advisor and consumer. ‘Consultancy’ takes advice further to arrive at the choice of specific proposed course of action with the justifying arguments and evidence. (Rolls 2000) ‘Valorisation’ is dissemination and exploitation of project results. Valorisation is more than dissemination, information or awareness raising (Molly 2006, Slavik 2006). It will be assumed that the University roles in Extension include that of proposing general explanations of the main processes of information transfer in agriculture, based on research and analysis, as well as assisting the development of extension systems and contributing to them. The extension education is not teaching at the university in Finland any more. It means that the research of extension as such is not possible in university level. The advisory work is very vivid in whole country. If the Universities are to develop, and contribute to, appropriate training for the new Extension and Consultancy staff to work in the rural sector in European countries, these new challenges will need to find academic responses in the courses that are taught and the research that is conducted. Meaning of Extension with Home economics This paper is to find the larger meaning of Extension according to disseminate the advisory work until usual consumers. The food security is not any more only the agriculture. The small farmers and the part time farmers are more responsible to food security. As well the industrialized farming has change the role of extension. The small farming needs the local advisory work. T he women are not responsible of the farming. The food security and food safety belongs to the women. History of home economics teaching in Finland Education to girls was allowed in early 1812 in Finland. The home economics teaching started in 1836 in order to teach “the poor girls to prepare good food and clean houses to the ‘better’ people”. (Laine 1931, Levanto 2012) The specified teaching of home economics has been in discussion for long period. In 1980’s it was normal to have home economics education in schools all around Finland. Since 1963 the home economics education started to boys as well. The school renovation in 1970’s finished almost all home economics teaching in schools. The year 2012 there is again a fighting for a new “lecture format” statement (school lessons diversifying statement) to get more hand practical skills. The home economic teachers, women organizations, parliamentarians, individual people have signed the papers to get more lessons a week and during school time altogether for the home economics, handicraft, gardening, nutrition, consumer sciences into the school program. The education of wellbeing has become more important as the population is getting older. 1

Agr. Marketing, Nissinmaki 20, Espoo, Finland, [email protected]

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The unemployment has forced the people to find the necessity of tools for everyday skills. Education is the reply to train these skills. As “when you teach the woman you teach the family, when you teach the man you teach the individual” is the old common truth for the extension education. Home economics organizations Late 1800 started a very active movement to teach home economics to civilized women as well. The society found the cap of knowledge among the women who should have to negotiate and advise their staff about the everyday cleaning work not only in homes but in offices, establishments and other institutions. The situation has become same recently in Finland. The higher education of wellbeing has finished. At the University of Helsinki founded the department of home economics in the faculty of economics in 1946. The education for household teachers continued in three specialized high schools. In the beginning of 19th century the education to everybody was important. Not only political opening to educate women to find out their rights to take care of their life and take care on their part the family life (Laine 1947, Heinonen 1998) worldwide. Now the simple skills for everyday life are going to disappear. The older people are used to get food in their work employees during the daytime. Now they are getting retired without any touch to home and everyday life. There is a demand of educate the people understand the importance of food safety. Food security is well known in Finland. “If we don’t have a good harvesting year we can import the food”! The voluntary based home economics organizations The Martta organisation started in 1892 “Civilisation to women” but it was not allowed by Russian government. The women found a way to name it according to bible; Martha. The other voluntary based women’s advisory work organization, “Country women” was first a part of men’s extension organization. In 1920 -1930 it found a way to be independent part in the country side for the women. Now it is called Country-and home economics women. Country women have always been more land use professional orientated than Martta’s or Martha’s. The country women have been farmers’ wives or female farmers. Small or big farmers but having land to cultivate, and the animals to produce milk, wool, meat to develop many important things for human life in society. Both main women’s organizations have had international contacts. Country women is member in ACWW Association of Country Women in the World. Marttas have been very active internationally during time of Extension educationist. MSc Maija Riihijärvi-Samuel is one of starters of Extension Education at University of Helsinki in 1970’s. She was o executive manager in Martta’s long time. The Martta’s are the active member in IFHE disseminating the agricultural education among the women in Finland and globally. The recent program is in Cameroon to educate the women entrepreneurship. The women’s bank gives them loans for founding the gardening and selling the products to markets. The previous country in that project was Sierra Leone. The IFHE has a similar project AVOry Multicultural women’s Federation for Home Economics for the foreign women in Espoo. That is the model from IFHE in Moldova 2006-09. AVOry have continued that with the FIN-IFHE in Finland. Specially Country women had very active ‘surviving courses’ during second world war. The Martta’s as well but from more difficult starts without farmer background. These years the voluntary based city farming has reached Finland. The baskets and waste, uncultivable lands have found to be gardening, not real agriculture but the idea to cultivate the food on their own hands. The refugees or other immigrates who have not realized to grow anything in this Northern country have taught slowly to agricultural ideas. The food is not only in Lidl. The simple agriculture and even forestry is going to disseminate to third world when the newcomers go to visit their families and the relatives come to Finland to meet their cousins to Finland. The plant s are not the same but the tools and facilitates are to be sent and brought to abroad. The 4H in Finland is not that active among the foreigners, yet Research organizations TTS Työtehoseura Work efficience Institute Has been very active research organization in agriculture, forestry and home economics. TTS organized the big exhibitions and participated all the exhibitions concerning agriculture, forest and home equipments new innovations until recent times MTT maa-ja elintarviketalouden tutkimuskeskus is disseminating its innovations via edits and books. A few seminars have been organized to introduce new innovations. MTT is participating the overall seminars of rural development. Conclusion Extension Education is presented an important part of Home economics education. Home economics must have taken the task of disseminating the new innovations of everyday life .

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Pro Agria organization (ProAgria 2012) is active in agricultural innovations and disseminates all new to rural professionalist. The Metsäkeskus and Metsänhoitoyhdistys are active in Forestry Extension work. The research of Extension work in university level as such is looking for its future. References Alford, Harold J. (1968). Continuing Education in Action, Residential Centers for Lifelong Learning. W.K. Kellogg Foundation Battle Creek, Michigan. John Wiley & Sons. USA 153p. Heinonen, Visa (1998), ”Talonpoikainen etiikka ja kulutuksen henki” Kotitalousneuvonnasta kuluttajapolitiikkaan 1900-luvun Suomessa. ISBN 951-710-080-9. Helsinki 445 p. IFHE Position Statement (2008), edited by Dr Donna Pendergast, Lucern IFHE Position Statement (2013), Draft edited by Professor Donna Pendergast, Wien Laine, Katri (1931), Kotitalouskoulujen alkuvaiheita Suomessa 1850-1900. Porvoo 120p. Laine, Katri (1948), Maatalousnaiset 1797-1947. Maatalousnaistenkeskusjohtokunta, Helsinki 424 p Levander, Lena M. (1999), “A Glance to the History of European Seminars on Extension Education” Paper in the Proceedings of the 14th European Seminar on Extension Education , Cracow, Poland, 214 pages Levanto, Marketta (2013), ”Suomalaisen kotitalousopetuksen juuria etsimässä”, ( Searching the roots of the home economics education in Finland) Licenciate thesis. Helsinki Niilola, Liisa (2011) “Women are the strength of the countryside, Rural Women’s Advisory Organization in Finland” presentation in 20thESEE, Helsinki Molloy, Margaret (2006), Presentation of European commission in Leonardo da Vinci Valorisation Conference. DG Education and Culture. Helsinki Rolls, Maurice M. (2000), Recent Western European Experiences: implications for the study of Agricultural Extension. Unpublished draft AERDD University of Reading.UK, 14 pages, Prague C Z Slavik Milan (2006), “The changing role of VET teachers and trainers” presentation in Leonardo Valorisation conference. 3-4 April 2006. Helsinki. IFHE International Federation for Home Economics Maa- ja kotitalousnaiset MTT Maa-ja elintarvike talouden tutkimuskeskus (2012) www.mtt.fi MTK (2012)



Pro Agria National advisory organization www.ProAgria.fi TTS Työtehoseura (2012) Work Efficiency institute www.tts.fi

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Cyber Extension in Pakistan: Challenges, Lessons Learnt and Ways Forward Shahbaz B.1

Iftikhar M.2

Ata S.3

Abstract Pakistan is the developing country of South Asia and its economy is largely based on agriculture. The farmeroutreach, extension education and agricultural research are weakly interlinked in Pakistan and the agricultural extension system faces challenges like cost-effective outreach and need based extension. The extension system in the country worked well during 1960s and 1970s and in fact it was one of the drivers of green revolution in the Pakistan. However – as consequence of the green revolution – the farming system has become very complex due to intensive cropping, overuse of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Traditional extension system, therefore, faces difficulty in keeping pace with the rapidly changing agricultural geography, and addressing the needs of individual farmers. ICT based technologies have the potential to provide alternative solution to the limitation of traditional extension system. In this perspective a cyber extension project “technology transfer through cyber extension” was initiated by the University of Agriculture Faisalabad. The main objective of this first-ever initiative of Pakistan are to “reach the last mile” and connect the faculty, researchers, students and farmers through online network. Village information kiosks were established that are also serving as the training/research centers for the students. This paper presents the insights gained and lessons learnt from the cyber extension system in Pakistan. Qualitative and quantitative methods were used for data collection. The factors that hindered and supported the implementation of the cyber extension are elaborated in the paper. Although, the initiative faced initial resistance and stereotype behavior from some stakeholders but the results of the formative evaluation indicated gradual acceptance and expansion of the users. Policy implications for effective utilization of cyber extension in Pakistan and the developing country of similar socio-economic settings are also discussed in the paper. Based in the evide nces, we argue that an effective “institutional” collaboration between the government, private sector, academia and farmers’ organization is inevitable for the success of cyber extension

Institute of Agri. Extension & Rural Development, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad - Pakistan Institute of Agri. Extension & Rural Development, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad - Pakistan 3 Institute of Agri. Extension & Rural Development, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad - Pakistan 1 2

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Extension of Sustainable Agriculture Practices in Western Rajasthan: A Case Study from Pali District Singh D.1 Meena M.L.3

Chaudhary M.2 Roy M.M.4

Abstract: The hot arid region of India occupies 31.7 million hectare (ha) area and the major part of this arid region lies in western Rajasthan covering 12 districts (196150 km2 or 68.66%). In spite of the growing food demands soil nutrient depletion, land degradation and desertification continues to progress creating serious long-term sustainability problems in this area. Also, water scarcity is a major problem threatening food security due to poor water-use management practices being followed by most farmers. Thus, there is an urgent need for public extension and advisory organizations to allocate more resources and effort to educate the farmers for sustainable natural resource management practices. Looking to existing situation CAZRI through its KVK at Pali (24.75 degree to 26.483 degree North latitude and 72.783 degree to 74.30 degree East longitude) in semi-arid Zone of India came forward and addressed these issues by arranging a number of trainings (32) and demonstrations (54) in its adopted villages. The farmers were trained on water management techniques using efficient technologies such as drip irrigation to reduce water use; water harvesting technologies to increase the availability of water in the soil and growing water efficient crops that can increase farm income. Practical method demonstrations were imparted on land use management using sustainable cropping methods, such as minimizing soil erosion and increasing the use of organic matter that are cost effective. Selected result demonstrations on farmer field were conducted to train and educate farmers on how to reduce pesticide use, thereby reducing production costs, minimizing environmental pollution and eliminating pesticide contamination on food products. Technology transfer for water and soil management along with human capital development, especially the technical and management skills enhanced the hidden skills of the villagers and their attitude changed considerably towards a positive note. The KVK efforts resulted in construction of rain water harvesting structures by 5 farmers, adoption of drip irrigation technology by 32 farmers, vermi -composting by 24 farmers, orchard development of ber (Ziziphus maurtiana), lime (Citrus aurantifolia) and gonda (Cordia myxa) by 26 farmers and adoption of efficient varieties of wheat, mustard and cumin by 230 farmers in 99 hectares of area. Thus there is a great scope to increase the production as well as the productivity of most of the crops for which sustainable agriculture concept is a noval and highly practical approach ,the need is to promote these through collective action to facilitate food and livelihood security at village level.

Central arid Zone Research Institute, India Central arid Zone Research Institute, India 3 Central arid Zone Research Institute, India 4 Central arid Zone Research Institute, India 1 2

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Agricultural Extension in the Czech Republic, in its International Context Slavik M.1

Husa J.2

Abstract During the First Czechoslovak Republic, the Czech agricultural extension services became well developed, related to the establishment and operation of the country’s agricultural schools. Despite their limited forms of communication, in those times, many Czech experts contributed to the development of Extension Services in the Balkan countries of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. After the Second World War, in the period of socialistic forms of farming, Extension nearly ceased to exist. The authors analyse the new era of Agricultural Extension Services from 1989 to the present. Strong emphasis is also given to the share of the Czech University of Life Sciences in the project which deals with the regeneration of extension systems in the West Balkan countries (WBREN), together with some other prestigious universities in the EU. Key Words: Education, agriculture, extension, development of extension, EU, agricultural policy

THE ORIGINS OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION IN THE CZECH LANDS Agricultural Extension in the Czech Lands was always connected with the establishment and development of agricultural secondary schools, and has a very long tradition of service. Its origins date back to the 18th century, when the first school facilities were established. In 1728, the abbot of the monastery in Prague Břevnov founded a Theoretical Economics School, which served to prepare management officials for the monastery. In addition to theory, key practices on the estates were taught in this School, such as animal care, forestry, fruit growing, market gardening and fishing, often covering thousands of hectares. Many University educated professionals who were involved, were executives or specialists in livestock and crop production, and had knowledge of animal breeding and plant protection. Other institutions of a non-school character also served the similar purpose, namely improving agricultural production. The Patriotic Economic Society (Vlastenecko hospodářská společnost) was established and supported in 1767 by the State in Prague, and in 1770 in Olomouc. Both were not only an extension authority, but were also an economic policy tool of the State. In 1776, a Department of Crop Production was established at the then Charles-Ferdinand University (now Charles University) founded in 1348. The creation and success of this Department is related to the need to disseminate new production experience among small and large scale farmers. The formation and development of the Winter Farmers´ Schools resulted in the rapid development of general agricultural education. An important milestone was the formation of the first Economic School (Agricultural School) in 1862, with Czech as the language of instruction, in Chrudim. A school with a similar focus already existed in Libverda near Děčín, but this was a German language school. Education was designed to complement and strengthen the knowledge acquired in the primary schools. Extension was an accepted duty of the teacher, and since then the term Itinerant Teacher became known. Teachers of the agricultural schools began working this way; they organized seminars and lectures and visited farmers. It is interesting how many of these events took place, and how carefully records were kept, for example how many women were present.

1 2

Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Institute of Education and Communication, Czech Republic Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Institute of Education and Communication, Czech Republic

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Lectures Participants (total)

Women (from the total)

Seminars Participants (total)

Women (from the total)

Experiments meetings, exhibitions

Participants (total)

List of extracurricular activities of the agricultural schools from 1928-1929 to 1930-1931 The data on lectures are impressive. They record 6065 lectures, for 298, 221 participants, 46,185 of whom were women. On average, 49,1 persons of both sexes attended each lecture The total number of teachers involved was 700. AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION IN THE CONTEXT OF FOREIGN COUNTRIES The First Czechoslovak Republic During The First Czechoslovak Republic (between the two world wars) education and related agricultural extension activities achieved a considerable expansion. The agricultural advisors were active not only nationally, but made considerable contributions to the development of agricultural education and extension in the Balkan countries. Examples are in: •

Serbia (J. B. Lambl), Croatia (K. M. Lambl, Augustin Vychodil)

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introducing new intensive systems for a changing economy

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founding new agricultural schools, and exemplary breeding stations

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-

organising tradeshows

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producing textbooks in the Croatian language for agricultural laws



Bulgaria (Václav Stříbrný):

organising Bulgarian fruit growing and horticulture (J. V. Hráský), and expertise on the amelioration and improvement of land The advancement and achievements of agricultural education and advisory work were interrupted by the Second World War, when some of the schools were closed. The post-war period The post-war period was mainly characterized by the onset of the socialization of the villages, gradual destruction of private property, and the ending of agricultural extension. It was brought about, primarily, by destroying private farms and through changes in secondary education which began to specialise narrowly and to prepare gradually the system of secondary education to meet the needs of agricultural cooperatives and state farms. At the Head of the firms that operated on large areas (often in thousands of hectares) appeared many University educated professionals who were executives or specialists in livestock and crop production, and had advanced knowledge of breeding of animals and plant protection. The newly formed extension system has been constituted centrally by the Ministry of Agriculture in cooperation with the Universities. This period is characterised by the effects of foreign experts from northwest Europe (mainly Germany, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands) but also from the United States. Gradually, the system of Agricultural Extension as a whole was constructed, through seminars and visits abroad organized for those who then actively participated in the preparation of Agricultural Extensionists, so that Extension could function as an independent system with autonomy. Extension was opened to international trends, and cooperation, to solve the specific needs of the post-communist changes connected with the emergence of a market economy. New and unknown were areas where the issues related to the development of investment projects of new enterprises in agriculture, and the issue of farmers making their own decisions with all the attendant risks, but also with opportunities. The decision making process, as the demanding and self-evident process in Western democracies, was a key theme in seminars and workshops at that time. Most of those who previously worked in agriculture were members of agricultural cooperatives, where business decisions were taken through the leadership of the team, and the staff were perhaps well motivated, and by skilled categories of workers such as tractor drivers, and keepers of cattle. Many of the landowners remained as members of transformed cooperatives and this prevented a massive increase of collapse of the cooperatives and the arrival of private enterprises for primary production in the country. Many, by the process of restitution of property to their parents or grandparents, became newcomers from industry and the urban population. So the most desirable forms of service were economic extension, together with legal advice, information management, ICT and marketing extension. This differed from the common approaches to working with farmers; it is important not only to produce but also to sell. These initial and early developmental stages of agricultural extension in the Czech Lands have now advanced, and become a multistep service, both public and private. The quality of provision is ensured by a system of accreditation of agricultural extensionists, implemented by the Ministry of Agriculture. Support to agricultural extension on the Internet is guaranteed by the Institute of Agricultural Economics and Information (http://www.uzei.cz/left-menu/poradenstvi-a-vzdelavani.html), which also operates several websites such as „Agronavigátor“ (Agri-navigator) (http://www.agronavigator.cz/), „Agroporadenství“ (Agri-Counselling) (http://www.agroporadenstvi.cz/) and „Infovenkov“ (Info-countryside) (http://www.infovenkov.cz/). Each of these websites provides access to Extension information to farmers, and also mediates communication between all the stakeholders. The period after entry to the EU Agricultural Extension is always closely related to the development and functioning of agriculture as a sector of the national economy. A special period in this development was the entry of the Czech Republic to the EU, and currently it is possible to evaluate the experience and reality of the entry. The information this provides may be interesting, and even inspiring for countries that have undergone a similar development and are preparing for entry into the EU. The major changes in Czech agriculture happened in the 1990s (as already noted), but another important stage was the entry to the EU. Since May1st 2004, the Czech Republic has been in the EU common market,

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and operating within the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). In the period 2003 - 2009 there was a decline in the agricultural sector, including forestry and fisheries, contribution to GDP of 2,4%. Over the same period, the proportion of workers in these sectors in the total number of employees in the national economy fell by a quarter to 3.1%. The average annual budgetary expenditure increased by more than 73% compared to the period before the entry to the EU. Annual support to agriculture also increased. During the same period it more than doubled and, since 2007, EU budget expenditure has exceeded expenditure of the national resources. In improving the economic situation in agriculture, the operational dates participated decisively. In comparison with the previous period of agricultural policy, and thus the direction of Extension, it especially stimulated extensive cattle (cows not milk production) and business involvement in agri-environmental programmes, including organic farming. As a consequence there is a fairly stable situation of enterprises farming in the LFA (Less Favoured Areas). The higher risk position which exists outside the LFA farming enterprises, especially in conjunction with increasingly variable weather conditions, reinforces the importance of Extension in measures aimed at complex risk management. The degree of self-sufficiency in plant products increased significantly, and in all commodities exceeds domestic demand which is currently at around 130%. In animal commodities there has been a decline in the level of self-sufficiency in all important commodities except beef. Due to imports, self-sufficiency in the production of pork decreased to 79.5%. With the entry to the EU there has been strengthened interest in agri-environmental measures. There was a significant increase in organic agriculture (69%), but mainly on permanent grassland. The proportion of food produced by this form of agriculture is still very low, and the total consumption is only 0.75%. In the relationship between agriculture and rural development, it is evident that the significance of farming, hunting, and forestry in many regions has decreased further. The diversification of farms to non-agricultural activities so far represents a less important additional source of farm incomes. However, especially the development of agri-tourism can contribute to the creation of employment opportunities in rural areas. These are really significant tasks for agricultural extension, which should be oriented towards rural development and not focussed on primary production. Overall, the lower value of some economic indicators has been so far compensated by about three times lower labour costs, and by about five times lower land prices. These aspects, together with the potential value of the prevailing large-scale farming, represent the main comparative advantages of Czech agriculture within the EU 15 countries. PROJECT WBREN The Tempus IV project Western Balkan Rural Extension Network through Curriculum Reform addresses the deficiency in, and need for rural development curriculum reform, in the Western Balkan region. This is through training, development, and the implementation of rural development programmes following two streams. These are formal and non-formal rural development education intended to; 1) create and deliver non-formal, modular based training to stakeholders in rural development through 8 training centres, and 2) introduce an interdisciplinary, ECTS compliant Certificate in Rural Development (CRD) programme at lead Western Balkan Higher Education Institutions. These are the State University of Tetovo, University of Novi Sad, University of Banja Luka, and the Agriculture University of Tirana. Ultimately, the synergies generated through this project will lead to a strengthened rural development network within the Western Balkan region. In this way, higher education institutions and NGO’s in the region can become the foundation from which sound and meaningful rural development policies will shape the progress of their rural communities. The need to develop the competencies of the current extension staff and advisors working in the area of rural development is substantial. A module has been developed to concentrate on addressing the professional development of individuals involved with rural development in Albania, Macedonia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Serbia. This modular training is structured on a competence-based curriculum approach. The essence of this method is to equip learners with the knowledge, skills, and professional attitudes needed to perform in their jobs and function in society more successfully. The first step in such a curriculum development process is the conduct of a needs assessment amongst future participants of the training, and professionals and experts in the field of Rural Development. A first needs assessment was carried out by the 8 training centres who are the providers of this modular based training. The results from these needs assessments allowed priorities to be set when this modular based training was developed.

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The partners of the WBREN project decided that the modular-based training and the ECTS compliant Certificate in Rural Development should deal with similar topics. A list of the most important topics was therefore developed. Four themes were identified as the most important. In the modular-based training these four topics are dealt with in the following sequence; -

Rural Development Rural Economy Rural Ecology Rural Sociology

The EU partners in the project are the University of Reading (UK), Wageningen University (The Netherlands), University of Helsinki (Finland) and the Czech University of Agriculture, Prague (The Czech Republic) CONCLUSIONS Agricultural Extension is established and functions as an important part of the service activities associated with agriculture. In its development can be seen a series of identifiable stages as reactions to the changes undergone in agriculture as a sector of the national economy. The primary role of agriculture is as a source of healthy food. It also functions to give employment opportunities to some of the contemporary rural population and has an essential role in preserving landscapes, protecting environments and contributing through education to social wellbeing. For these and other functions, the advisors must be carefully prepared to respond as a professional group, in many ways that affect the actions and the technical and economic decisions of farmers, and managers of agriculture businesses and processing enterprises. They confront and are responsive to changes in the sociological structure of the rural population. For this, they need to be sensitive to displacement of the original population and respond to the new settlement dwellers who may not have jobs and who simply commute from rural residence, and to assist new forms of selfemployment. Extension and training of advisors in the Czech Republic necessarily responds to these general trends with a focus not only on professional excellence and social skills, but also on information equipment with communication competencies. The new demands in the major approaches now can be concisely expressed as from general technical extension to specific personal consultancy. Collaborative thinking has superseded research message transfer, and agricultural education has broadened into personal development and the growth of ability through self-directed learning and reflection. The aim of this paper was, somewhat retrospectively to reflect on the development of extension in a country that does not belong to the ‘cradles’ which nursed the origins of extension, in a country that has had much to learn in this new field of knowledge and to respond to recent international developments. In some periods there have been great difficulties and obstacles caused by geopolitical change and integration. Yet the history of Czech agricultural education combined with extension is impressive, and has exceeded national boundaries. Periods of prosperity have alternated with times of decline and the complete disappearance of the agricultural advisory services. Changes of the political and social systems in the 1990s brought new challenges and insights including the rediscovery of extension as an essential organisational and marketing tool as a contribution to the lives of new ownership farmers, and those starting farm business activities. There has been the emergence of consultants as an independent profession. During this time, there have been unprecedented possibilities to leave the national arena and contribute to European and world development. The authors of this paper were thus given an unprecedented opportunity to meet many new colleagues, including personalities of the international extension field who stand at the birth of the ESEE conference. These included Prof. Maurice Rolls, Prof. Anne van den Ban, Prof. Harri Westenmark, Prof. Abraham Blum, and other personalities. To some extent, the field of extension is now located in an international context with the first attempts to act and advise the Balkans in the present project WBREN. The participation of the Czech University of Life Sciences in collaboration with three prestigious European universities in other countries is a contribution to world extension and the opportunity to prove its quality. Sources: Černohorský Z. (1980). Dějiny zemědělského školství v Československu (The history of agricultural education in Czechoslovakia). Praha, SPN n. p. Leeuwis C. (2004). Communication for rural innovation. Blackwell. Oxford. Pohlová K. (2012). Agrarian foreign Trade Yearbook 2010. Prague, ÚZEI. ISBN 978-80-86671-90-1.

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Slavík M. (2003). Communication, consultancy and change in agriculture: a review of the scene from the Czech Republic. In: Proceedings. Higher Agricultural Education and challenges of the modern world. Agricultural University of Cracow. Poland. Slavík M. and M. J. Rolls (2005). From extending to consulting: the development of participative services for agriculture th

in the Czech Republic. In: Proceedings of 17 European Seminar on Extension Education. Turkey. Slavík M. and P. Žáková (Eds) (2006). The public and the agriculture and forestry industries. Proceedings of the 8 European Conference on Higher Agricultural Education. Czech University of Agriculture. Prague.

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Rolls M. and M. Slavík, I. Miller (2000). Information Systems in Czech Agriculture. Agricultural Extension and Rural Development Department, Reading, 1999. 114 p. ISBN 0-7049-1380-1. Rolls M. J. and M. Slavík (2003). Change in information systems in Czech agriculture. Czech University of Agriculture. Prague. ISBN 0-7049-1381-X. Rolls M. J. and M. Slavík (2006). Farmer intentions, perceptions and opinions in Czech agriculture. Czech University of Agriculture. Prague. České zemědělství šest let po vstupu do Evropské Unie (Czech Agriculture six years after EU accession), Prague, 2010, ISBN 978-80-86671-81-9. Tempus WBREN - Western Balkan Rural Extension Network, 2010 - 2013

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Public and Private Players on the Market of Agricultural Advice and Extension in Romania Stefanescu S.L.1

Steriu S.2

Dumitraşcu M.3

Abstract Since the decentralization of the Romanian governmental agricultural advisory and extension system in 2010, the former network continues to perform as Chambers of Agriculture subordinated to the local public administration of the County Councils. Beyond the inadequate number of professional staff to cover a significant proportion of Romania’s farms, the present usage of the term agricultural chamber does not correspond with its original meaning. Recently, the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development has taken important steps towards the provision of the legal frame for independent Chambers as well the organization of the election process for farmers’ representation. The paper provides a short overview of the last decade changes in the advisory and extension system and focuses on the outputs of two joint World Bank and Romanian Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development projects aiming, among other objectives, to reform, back up and strengthens the Romanian agricultural advisory and extension system. Within the frame of the projects, new actors have emerged on the market: (i) Training and Information Centres (TICs) set up in the main regions in Romania, as knowledge resource bases for improvement and updating the professional capacity of the extension, food safety and research specialists (ii) Integrated Agricultural Offices (designed on the model “one stop shop”) established in 4 pilot areas, that bring together under a single roof, agricultural advisory and administration services and (iii) socio-economic guidance service capacities and mechanisms established in 15 counties, seeking to increase the ability of the agricultural population to sustainably manage its income and assets under consideration of national and EU support programs. Keywords: chambers of agriculture, training and information centre, socio-economic guidance, one-stopshop, integrated agricultural office.

INTRODUCTION Agriculture advice/extension is among the major challenges in rural development and a great opportunity. Along with farmers’ association and agricultural activities taxation, delivery of guidance and advice to farmers is one of the key elements for a successful implementation in Romania of the Common Agricultural Policy post-2013 program. With the EU accession agricultural advice, extension or consultancy cannot remain limited to the traditional tasks of supplying information, knowledge and training to improve farming and farm incomes. Also, specific assistance is required in assuring full compliance with the EC rules and regulations that farmers have to meet to be eligible for subsidies, under the different axis of income generation-investments, environmental measures, rural development-diversification and social and economic measures to ensure livelihoods. Unlike in many of European countries that use the term advisory services to describe their respective extension programs and activities (Swanson and Rajalahti 2010), most of the Romanian extension agents draw a line between the extend of the research based knowledge (“top down” approach) and the assistance given to farmers to deal with specific issues; whilst in other EU countries instead of “extension”, the use the term of “advisory services” is preferred by many (Davis 2008), in Romania on one hand the extension services are seen to be provided only by the public services, research institutes and input suppliers and on the other, the advice is a matter of responsibility and business for the entire (public or private) system. The public system consists in Chambers of Agriculture subordinated to the local public administration of the County Councils (and under the technical and methodological coordination of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development). In terms of private agricultural extension and advice, along with the very active input suppliers, there are many independent bodies providing mostly specialized consultancy in more or less narrow fields. On a continuous changing advisory market, there are quite successful stories of some private companies (e.g. RGIC, Romactiv, Romair, etc). Another group of extension providers consist of the qualified staff in the agricultural research institutes but the topics are focused and specialized in the field connected with the research area of each institute and the extension work is carried more as activities Project Management Unit MAKIS/CESAR-MARD, 011691, George Călinescu Street, no. 13, District 1, Bucharest, Romania. E-mail: [email protected] 2 Project Management Unit MAKIS/CESAR-MARD, 011691, George Călinescu Street, no. 13, District 1, Bucharest, Romania. 3 National Research and Development Ins.for Soil Science, Agro-chemistry and Environment Protection, 011464,Bucharest, Romania 1

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scheduled within the frame of research grants and projects (particularly the work packages of training and dissemination), and less on a fee basis at farmers’ request. A recent assessment of the current supply and demand for advisory services to the agricultural population in some regions in Romania (OSC, IRES 2010), identified three major demanded advice areas such as (i) backing up the farmers to access EU Rural Development Program funds by identifying the issue, writing up the proposal and take care of the bureaucratic procedures of the application’s submission, (ii) technological crop production and livestock keeping advice (carried mostly by the input supply firms) and (iii) consultancy for juridical, cadastre issues, feasibility studies, marketing, management (farm and assets), training etc. Recognizing the need for high quality agricultural services to facilitate compliance with the obligations of EU membership, the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) was involved in continuation of assisting Romania to set up a modern agricultural knowledge and information system, the aim being not only to establish an EU compliant system, but also to develop national institutional capacity for implementing the new requirements and to improve the flow of information on EU requirements and standards related to production. Specific components of two projects, one recently concluded, “Modernizing the Agricultural Knowledge and Information Systems-MAKIS” (BIRD 4758 – Ro) and the other on ongoing implementation “Complementing EU Support for Agricultural Restructuring” Project-CESAR” (Loan BIRD 4875–Ro), jointly coordinated by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development and the World Bank, had and have, among other objectives, particular tasks in backing up and strengthening the existing advisory system in Romania. BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE FORMER AND PRESENT ROMANIAN PUBLIC AGRICULTURAL ADVISORY SYSTEM The former Romanian public advisory and extension system was conceived as a centralized system, under the authority of the Ministry of Agriculture and consisted of a National Agency for Agricultural Consulting (ANCA), with headquarters in Bucharest, and its network of County Centres for Agricultural Consulting (OJCA) established in Romania’s 41 county capitals and Local Centres for Agricultural Consulting (CLCA). The ANCA system was created in 1998 within the framework of an EU-financed project under the PHARE program, with the aim to initiate the provision of agricultural consultancy services to Romanian farmers. In 2001, the public agriculture extension system was decentralized. Concerning the administrative and financial aspects, the OJCAs and the CLCAs were put under the local authorities of the counties and the local communities. Concerning the technical aspects, the ANCA kept a role of coordination, especially for the information and the training of farmers. Under the changed circumstances, the quality of the advice work for farmers was questionable due to the large-scale use of OJCA and CLCA extension staff to undertake nonextension activities. In 2004, the system was centralized again and the OJCAs and the CLCAs were re-transferred under the authority of the ANCA and the Ministry of Agriculture. Six years later, in September 2010, the process was reversed once again through the “Law on Decentralization of Selected Institutions under the Sub-Ordination of the Ministry of Agriculture, Forests, and Rural Development through the Reorganization of Agricultural Directorates for Agriculture and Rural Development and Setting-up of Agricultural Chambers”. This Law detached the National Agency for Agricultural Consulting (ANCA) from the OJCAs and CLCAs, the last two being incorporated for the second time under the regional councils (county and local administration). ANCA’s role had thus transferred to a purely technical advisory rather than an operational one and finally the agency was completely dismantled. Few of its former staff is now still working within a small “Compartment of consultancy, extension and training” in the Ministry of Agriculture, under the Department of Agricultural Policies. Late 2010, the Romanian Parliament adopted the “Law for Agricultural Chambers for agriculture, forestry and rural development” (Law nr. 283/28 December 2010). Due to critics raised by the stakeholders, after more than one year of debates, the Law nr. 283 has been recently modified and improved by the Law nr. 122/6 July 2012, giving green light to the organization of the election process for farmers’ representation. However, when this will happen, at the beginning will be difficult for the farmers’ representatives to play coherently their part. It requires a certain period of time to learn to take into account the collective interest, to deal with the politicians and the administration, to manage an agricultural chamber (Szlezak and Mazens 2006). It takes a certain time for these structures to develop sufficiently through organic growth and evolution and to be able to carry out a range of complex executive functions. Forcing this process would carry a major risk of agricultural chambers coming to be controlled and possibly abused by small but

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economically and politically powerful interest groups instead of representing and serving the interests of Romania’s farmers (Doorman and Eissen 2006). To date, the former county OJCAs and local level CLCAs network continue to perform as Chambers of Agriculture subordinated to the local public administration of the County Councils, although the present usage of the term agricultural chamber does not correspond with its original meaning and is therefore not in line with common usage in the EU. The county level chambers’ human resources comprise, in all 41 county offices, a number of 360 staff with an average of 7-9 staff/county office. At local (village) level, there are roughly 500 offices with 1 staff/office (most of them known as “the agronomist from the Mayor’s office). The ratio number consultant/beneficiary is 1/4700 (including subsistence farms) or 1/1764 (taking into account only the farms registered into the National Farm Registry). Quantitatively, it is obvious that the advisory staff is inadequate to cover even a minor proportion of Romania’s farmers. Experience elsewhere in Europe has shown that coverage of between 1 and 1.5 full time equivalents (FTE) of professional expertise is required to adequately serve 100 farmers – i.e., one consultant for between 65 and 100 farmers (Doorman and Eissen 2006). However, the still equivocal state of the public system has to reach urgently an end. An operative quick survey (146 questionnaires implemented in 11 counties), performed in March 2013 by the Ministry of Agriculture among small commercially oriented farmers has revealed a certain state of confusion pointing a proper source of information and knowledge that farmers need to effectively develop their farms into viable businesses (Ştefănescu S L, pers. commun.). To the question “Whether you need farming technical advice, to whom you apply?” 28% of the respondents answered “The Agricultural Chambers”, 18% indicated newspapers, TV and/or internet, 17% have chosen a private consultant/firm, 16% indicated the agronomist from the Mayor’s office, 10% an input supplier, other 10% a more experienced and skilled neighbor or friend and 1% apply to a close sited agricultural university/college/research station. Aggregate 44% of the respondents are still inclined to apply to the public services (Chambers and Mayor’s office agronomist), whilst 28% have indicated questionable sources (media, internet, neighbors or friends).

Newspaper/TV, 18% Agr Chambers, 28%

Neighbours, friends 10%

University/Research, 1% Input supplier, 10%

Agronomist, 16% Private consultant, 17%

Fig. 1: Distribution of the farmers’ answers (%) to the question: “Whether you need farming technical advice, to whom you apply?”

NEW PLAYERS ON THE EXTENSION AND ADVISORY MARKET

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Training and Information Centers The MAKIS Project, through the component “Support for Advisory and Information Systems”, has successfully set up Training and Information Centers (TIC) in the main regions in Romania (universities embedded), as knowledge resource bases for improvement and updating the professional capacity of the extension, food safety and research specialists to better serve the needs of farmers’ knowledge and technologies related to production, quality control, food safety processing and marketing, in order to permanently know, adapt and meet EU requirements (Ştefănescu et al. 2011). The TICs are functional, fully integrated to, and hosted by i) the University of Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences-USAMV Bucharest (for the South and part of the South East region of Romania training needs), ii) the University of Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences-USAMV Cluj (North-West Region and the Central Region), iii) the University of Agricultural Sciences Banat-USA Banat Timişoara (West Region, part of the South-West Region and part of the North-West Region) and iv) the University of Agricultural and Veterinary Sciences “Ion Ionescu de la Brad”-USAMV Iaşi (North-East Region and part of the South-East Region). The team of trainers for agricultural consultants was trained by the Danish Agricultural Advisory Service (DAAS) in Horsens, Bygholm College, Denmark. All four TICs have proved good capacity of accommodation and training facilities and qualified training staff and can provide, at the end of each of the training courses, formal Romanian Ministry of Education legally recognized post-university certificates/diplomas for participants, upon successful completion of the training. The Centers are acting like regional focal points able to serve the need for regular or ad hoc training under continuously updating broad topics of EU requirements. The training activity started in September 2006 in Bucharest, October 2008 in Cluj and Timişoara and February 2010 in Iaşi. Each training session was organized for 20 participants and lasted between 1 (for researchers) to 4 weeks (for consultants). The total number of trainees trained accredited in all four TICs along the entire Project life reached 2080 agricultural consultants, 488 food inspectors and 252 researchers. Another 5328 agro-processors and representants of the privat sector were “spilled over” trained. Once the funding from MAKIS Project ended, the TICs have continued to perform with applications on EU funded projects as well as training to private sector on fee basis. Integrated Agricultural Offices In 2006, a consulting foreign mission (two experts from Netherlands and Germany), draw a set of proposals for a medium term strategy to better attune Romanian extension to the needs of farmers and the requirements of the EU Common Agricultural Policy. The report noticed the proposals developed to have integrated service supply delivered by to-be-formed Agricultural Chambers (Doorman and Eissen 2006). The concept of integrated service supply was in line with EU policy; however, the use of the term Agricultural Chamber for a service organization diverged at that time from the common EU practice (and still is, since the concept of Agricultural Chambers as used elsewhere in Europe implies farmer-managed organizations, task not accomplished yet in Romania). The experts proposed separate paths for developing farmer organizations –agricultural chambers and for developing service supply. Developing farmer organizations, including agricultural chambers, was to take place gradually and “organically” in the medium and long term. Service reform was urgent and therefore, short term. However, it should be noted that in spite of these separate paths, public service reform should aim at introducing farmer participation and representation in determining policy and strategy for service supply. The preferred model for the development of agricultural support services was that of an “one stop shop” for services and overall farmer – state – EC interaction, including consultancy and control functions. Following the foreign consultants’ proposals, the concept of “Integrated Agricultural Offices” (IAO) was considered by key experts from the Ministry of Agriculture and the World Bank, the most appropriate model for meeting the needs of the farmers in the new EU CAP environment. The MAKIS Project consequently funded the establishment of four pilot IAOs (in Tecuci - Galaţi, Mediaş-Sibiu, Pucioasa - Dâmboviţa and Truşeşti - Botoşani), representing local “one stop service centers” that bring together, under a single roof, agricultural advisory and administration services. The IAOs became the main service point for the filing of applications for CAP support schemes (with the national agencies administering Pillar 1 and Pillar 2 schemes), and access to relevant information and advice on all aspects of support programs, farm management and technical advice traditionally provided by the former public network. The IAOs notably contribute (through close collaboration of concerned officers/advisers) to a significant reduction of procedural barriers, to expedited administration process, and thus, to a reduction of the related administrative costs. All pilot IAOs have established Consultative Councils with adequate local stakeholder and farmer representation, in order to ensure that all have a voice in determining policy and strategy for

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service supply chain and facilitate a smooth transition to Agricultural Chambers. Recently (in March 2012), the “Compartment of consultancy, extension and training” in the Ministry of Agriculture, looking for a further expansion of the IAO initiative grafted on the existing public advice and extension system, has started to explore the possibility of the establishment of additional IAOs in other counties, with CESAR Project support. Socio-Economic Guidance Providers An entirely new concept on the advisory market in Romania is the socio - economic guidance. One of the CESAR Project components (“Socio - Economic Guidance Services to the Agricultural Population - SEGPs”), seeks to increase the ability of the agricultural population to sustainably manage its income and assets under consideration of national and EU support programs. The socio-economic guidance service capacities and mechanisms established under the project facilitate access to information and advice relevant for the agricultural population to find solutions to problems or adaptation challenges in agricultural production, household, family and social economic relations beyond the farm itself. An initial “Assessment of Supply and Demand for Rural Advisory Services”, was completed within the frame of the Project in September 2010, providing a baseline of types and quantities of advisory service needs in the project regions. The elaboration of a “Handbook on Socio - Economic Advice” was finalized in June 2011, and its three volumes serves as case and reference guide for Socio - Economic Guidance Providers but may also be provided to interested consultants outside of the project context. The actual provision of socioeconomic guidance services to the agricultural population through contracted SEGPs (private advisory companies), has meanwhile started in the counties of Alba, Dolj, Olt, Timiş, Bihor, Argeş, Dâmboviţa, Braşov, Călăraşi, Mureş, Galaţi, Harghita, Cluj, Suceava and Teleorman. The agricultural population from the Project’s area will benefit, at request, of an assessment of their current and future financial situation (under various scenarios), and will consequently be offered tailor - made guidance with regard to their economic and social well - being to help them take the most suitable decisions their future activities and to accessing dedicated EU and national support. Such guidance may include: management of the own produced or inherited assets, inter-generational transfer of assets, develop the farm business plan and investment planning, assessment of insolvency risk for farm, exit from or extend the agricultural activity, signing contracts for services/goods/new employed farm workers and defining suitable options with regard to intentions of social status change (like early retirement, marriage of a farm family member, settlement of the young farmers, start the school education for children etc). Also, the selected SEGPs may either directly support agricultural population to complete applications for EU support (National Rural Development Program eligible socio-economic measures) or guide them towards other public or private advisory services available. REFERENCES Davis E. Kristin (2008) Extension in Sub-Saharan Africa: Overview and Assessment of Past and Current Models, and Future Prospects. In Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education, Vol. 15, Nr. 3, AIAEE, Texas A&M University, pp 15-28. Doorman F, Eissen W (2006) Proposals for a medium term strategy to better attune Romanian extension to the needs of farmers and the requirements of the EU Common Agricultural Policy, October, Final Consultancy Report, Romanian Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, National Agency for Agricultural Consulting, MADR/ANCA Archive. OSC Agency, IRES - Romanian Institute for Evaluation and Strategies (2010) Assessment of the Current Supply and Demand for Advisory Services to the Agricultural Population in the CESAR Project Region. Consultancy Report, Romanian Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (in Rom. lang.), MADR/PMU MAKIS/CESAR Archive. Szlezak L, Mazens J (2006) Development of the Romanian agriculture extension system within the framework of the EU agricultural policies, Consulting mission on the strategy and implementation plan for the reorganization of the Romanian agriculture extension system. Final Consultancy Report, Romanian Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, National Agency for Agricultural Consulting, MADR/ANCA Archive. Swanson B E, Rajalahti R (2010) Strengthening Agricultural Extension and Advisory Systems: Procedures for Assessing, Transforming and Evaluating Extension. In Agriculture and Rural Development, Disc Paper 45, World Bank, http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTARD Ştefănescu S L, Simona Steriu, Monica Dumitraşcu (2011) Training Centers Network for Agricultural Advice in Romania, In Romanian Agricultural Research, nr. 28, INCDA Fundulea, pp 271-276.

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The "New Extensionist": Roles, Capacities, and Strategies to Strengthen Extension and Advisory Services Sulaiman R.V.1

Davis K.2

Introduction Extension and advisory services (EAS) play an important role in agricultural development and to reduce hunger and poverty (Davis, 2008; Sulaiman & Holt, 2002). However, these services need new capacities to address the current challenges in agriculture and to contribute better to agricultural innovation. To do so, EAS should collectively perform a wide range of roles. These include developing networks; organizing producers; facilitating access to credit, inputs, and output services; convening innovation platforms; promoting gender equality; and disseminating new knowledge through training and demonstrations. To play these roles, EAS needs new capacities at the individual, organizational, and system levels. Purpose and objectives The broad objective of the “New Extensionist” concept was to increase clarity on the important role of EAS within agricultural development. This paper is based on a follow-up process to several international forums on extension that discussed the role of EAS in agricultural development. Specifically, the objective was to produce a position paper on the roles and capacities needed, using a process of global dialogue to validate the concepts and recommendations in the paper. Methods Based on a literature review, a position paper was developed detailing the role of advisory services; the need for enhanced capacities for EAS at individual, organizational, and system levels; capacity constraints at national, regional, and global levels; and recommendations to strengthen the capacities and role of EAS. The paper was peer-reviewed by a panel of experts from different sectors. A two-page summary of the paper was created and sent to international agricultural list servs with an invitation to an online survey. The survey consisted of seven questions with Likert scale or yes/no responses, with the option of giving openended responses. Over 200 global respondents took part in the survey, and many joined the in-depth electronic discussion, enabling dialogue and validation of the concepts and recommendations. Finally, the paper underwent validation exercises at global meetings of extension stakeholders and stakeholders from the entire agricultural sector. Results The position paper stated that at the individual level, EAS need staff with understanding of technical knowledge plus skills to manage social processes. At the organizational level, EAS need capacities to put in place systems and procedures to manage human and financial resources, institutions to facilitate partnerships and learning, and frameworks to deal with institutional, legal, and regulatory issues. At the system level, capacities for interaction, learning, and adaptation are important. To develop new capacities in EAS, actions must be initiated at the national, regional, and global levels by different actors. Overall the response to the position paper was positive and the concept and recommendations were validated. Experts agreed that the paper was useful for raising awareness of the importance of EAS. Survey respondents came predominantly from development agencies, research, education, and public advisory services. While they came from all over the world, areas such as Australia and the Caribbean were under-represented. The core roles suggested were mainly supported, except for that of mediating conflicts. Most of the capacities suggested to fulfill these roles were considered essential and in need of further development. On the whole there was agreement that the recommendations at the three different levels (national, regional, global) were actionable and clear.

1 2

Centre for Research on Innovation and Science Policy (CRISP), Andhra Pradesh, India Global Forum for Rural Advisory Services, India

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Following up on comments from the survey and experts, the electronic discussion debated further on the need to focus on gender issues, the role of private and civil society EAS, and the use of information and communication technologies (ICTs). Recommendations, educational importance, and implications There is much global interest surrounding the role of EAS and how to strengthen the capacities of these institutions to contribute to innovation and the reduction of hunger and poverty. The validated position paper made 12 recommendations for national-level capacity strengthening, five for the regional level, and seven for the global level. These recommendations also detailed which actors should take part. For international agricultural extension and education, these actors include universities and research centers, advisory services organizations, non-governmental organizations, and training institutions. Agricultural education programs are needed to further strengthen the roles and capacities of extension to better contribute to agricultural development. References Davis, K. (2008). Extension in sub-Saharan Africa: Overview and assessment of past and current models and future prospects. Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education 15(3): 15—28. Sulaiman, V.R & Holt, G. (2002) Extension, poverty and vulnerability in India. Country study for the Neuchatel Initiative. Working Paper 154. London: Overseas Development Institute.

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Study of Extension Problems Related to Canola Growth Undevelopment in Semnan Province, Case Study:Rurals of Garmsar Tayouri M.1

Khodayari F.2

Abstract With the general aim of studying and determining the important factors in canola growth undevelopment in the rurals of Garmsar from its farmers and experts points of view,a research has been conducted,with the descriptive and correlative-consistent method, to study this issue analytically and explanatorily.Moreover,the survey participants of this research, which is an applied, perspective and quantitative type, are in two groups who are Garmsar experts and promoters in the first one and its canola farmers in the other one, who have been studied by the ways of a simple random sampling and censusing;For this end, 34 farmers and 80 experts have been selected. In addition to that, the main tool of the study is a questionnaire whose face validity has been confirmed by the researchers and professors; the results of this validity for the double questions ,by using Alfakorunbakh coefficient, have been determined as the farmers questionnaire 87% and the expert one 82%;For the latter one, after gaining the descriptive statistics, the correlative ties have been studied when, in the second step, finding the differences among the expert groups,swot analysis and finding the strategic zones have been carried out; All these steps, except the swot analysis, have also been followed for the former one.The outcomes of the study show that the promotional activities aiming at canola growth in Garmsar have been at a very weak level and the educational level and meeting with the promoters have been very influential;Therefore,considering these weak and strong features, opportunities and problems, it is suggested that they should change their approaches and directions and carrying out some activities like planning, organizing the extensional courses and seminars and paying more visits so that they would try to help the development of canola growth with a practical long, short and average term plan, which can be beneficial for the country. Key words: Canola, effectiveness, acceptance, the important factors in the growth undevelopment, swot model

Introduction Determining the key factors in the culture undevelopment of the new crops in the farming areas is one of the agriculture planners and the promotional services missions concerns since some factors such as the exploitaters risk coefficient and the issues germane to the comparative advantage of the new and old produce in relation with each other are among the proposed elements in the operational levels which can effect the user decision. Canola growth in Garmsar also follows this procedure while it has not been regarded that important for the past five years during which it has been promoted. In effect, growing canola is paid attention as it is a very suitable substitute crop for wheat and barley ;It is also very economically reasonable and easy to grow and regarded as a very good resource for producing oil whose use have become pervasive in Europe and then in Asia since the seventeenth century(Hemingway,2001) In Iran, researches about the canola growth show that the current canola has a Greek root and been transferred to Iran by the Iranian experts in 1364.(The committee of promoting the strategic crops self-sufficiency,1384).Moreover, after the quarantine controls and issuing the health certificate confirming the absence of any pests ,they have been examined for ten years for comparing the qualitative and quantitave features and selection to determine their compatibility with Iran climate and the qualitative merits increase.Therefore,they have been selected for the central parts of Iran,Khorasan and Fars. The level of the fast growing crops, with a 140-day growth, is 48000 kilos in a hectare. In a research about the comparison between the international and business crops grown in Iran in Varamin in 1378, it has been resulted that the sindoze type, in respect of productivity, has had a 20% faster growth and a single boll weight increase. (The committee of promoting the strategic crops self-sufficiency, 1384).Currently, in spite of the rather satisfactory development of the canola farming lands in different provinces, in Semnan, especially in Garmsar,interest in growing canola has been low in spite of this fact that a technological project have been carried out for the past five years;Also,the farming lands areas have been 100 to 300 hectares. Regarding the reason of doing this research, it can be considered from two points of view, theoric and the legal requirements; In the second one, paying attention to the top legal documents and plan requirements can be of high significance. For instance, canola, among the oil plants and seeds, is considered one of the strategic farming crops; for that, some wide farming 1 2

CA: Islamic Azad University, Garmsar Branch, Iran Email:[email protected] Islamic Azad University, Garmsar Branch, Iran

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development projects have been started in the related offices and specialized entities,the extension and exploitation system department of the ex-agriculture ministry and the new farming promotion , education and research organization.Moreover,we can also study the importance of the research in the minor(farmers) , major(production) ,social, economical and technological aspects; In the firstone, finding out the key factors in the canola growth undevelopment can help to know about the farmers problems operationally, which, as a result, would cause them to be benefitted by many economical advantages while in the secondone, solving the different problems can pave the way for making this produce widespread, which can be very significant in Iran since it is confronting the serious lack of oilseeds.Besides,in the technological and social aspects, this can cause an increase in exploiting the production elements. In respect of the current research background, it can be studied from two aspects, the technological one and the social one (economics, society, education and training);in this study the second aspect is attended.Moreover,the other aspects related to the operational and research projects are also mentioned ; in this study the background of the research projects are discussed. Canola crop has been centered by the government in the operational levels through the extensional activities for the past ten years while the country experts have familiarized with it for 20 years; It has also advised to use it in the promotional system of Garmsar for five years;Therefore,with the exception of the technological and operational projects, some limited researches about that has been conducted. In the following, some are cited: 1.Alireza Hamedian, in 1380, has studied the important elements in convincing Gilan rice growers to start the canola growth as their second culture. To do so, through the descriptive and correlative study method, he has studied the personal and environmental characteristics and the social and economical status of the farmers, the acceptance of canola growth as the second culture, the market condition, the target areas, the farming lands and the features of various systems and etc.The upshots of his work demonstrates the importance of some elements like the level of extension relation with farmers, the sale markets, the sale guarantee of produce and the acceptance of canola growth as the second culture.2.Akbar Ashraf,in 1379,has taken action in determining the mechanisms of selecting the various crops for cultivation in Isfahan; For doing this, by designing a productivity measurement model and through the AHP statistical method, he has tried to know about the aspects,elements,criteria and the variables related to the decision making ways of Isfahan farmers. As a result, it has been found that some factors like the crop precorurals and the level of its productivity in a hectare, the level of market tendency (toward the crop) and the oilseed extraction factories are among the key ones in choosing the different varieties. In addition to the national projects, some international researchers have also carried out some studies in regard with the acceptance of growing canola commercially; their outcomes show that the cultivation of this crop in the developed countries, to a rather great extent, depends on the governmental support policies and providing the necessary education. As the first expert, Katler, in 2004, by doing his studies in the hot climate countries in the south and north America, has resulted that providing the farmers with efficient and suitable education and training by the government can have a great impact on the farmers tendency in producing the oilseeds.Prakask, the second researcher, in 2001,has showed the dependence of the level of Indian farmers tendency in growing canola on their feature of accepting the growth possible risk . Besides, Welech,in 1997,has centered on this point that the trainers who are assigned by the government to learn the farmers how to grow canola should have the necessary skills; It should also provide them with their special budget. He has also added that the relation between the trainers and farmers should be strengthened and they should take the farmers to good and productive farming lands so that they can be convinced.About the study key words, effectiveness has different meanings but the used one in this study is defined as the level of achieving the intended aims in an activity that can be fulfilled internally and externally and through the various models of target orientation, objective base and etc(Amiran 1383).The second word is the name of canola which is an annual plant and its different parts are used for the human and animal foods.In Iran, while its other uses are in a rather low level ,its seeds are used for oil extraction.(Shahidi 1376).The third word is “the key elements in the canola growth undevelopment”which can include a great spectrum like the organizational ones of promotion system, the ones related to the features of exploitation system, the farmers merits, the zone features, the comparative advantage and etc.The last one is “acceptance” which is a process of informing ,convincing, decision making, operation and accepting or rejecting an innovation(Rogers & Shumiker1369). Methods, Tools and Material This study, which is an applied one, has been conducted with the descriptive-corrolatavive and consistent ways. Its survey participants, who have been studied with the methods of taking census and simple random sampling, are the experts, promoters and canola growers, Among them, 34 experts and 80 farmers have been selected. To collect the necessary theoretical data and also the study projects history, the library and internet searching have been applied while for garnering information from the canola growers and experts, questionnaires have been plied. To assess the study face validity, the questionnaires have been given to the

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farming and promotion experts to obtain their opinions so that the necessary changes can be made in them. Moreover,to determine their validity, about thirty of them, through a primary pilot test in the society, their Alfakorunbakh coefficients have been obtained,which,after determining spss/win and through the software, have been calculated for the double questions which are, in order,0/87 for the experts questionnaire and0/82 for the farmers, which can be an acceptable number for the reliability in statistical terms. About the variables of the research, the dependent ones are the difficulties in developing the canola growth in Garmsar while the independent ones are divided into the personal, experts opinions on canola growth, the area conditions for it, the weak and strong points, the opportunities and problems of canola growth from the experts views, the conditions of exploitation entities and the level of farmers information and skills in cultivating canola ones. The criteria which are employed to measure these variables are rating and comparative for the personal features variables, the nominal type for the farming ones ,the nominal and comparative for the economical-social ones and the nominal-order type for the education-promotion ones. In this study, considering the reflection zoning,as it is mentioned, the descriptive-deductive surveying ways have been employed for analyzing the data; The descriptive necessary data are average, middle,mode,variance and the changes coefficients while the deductive ones are Spearman correlation coefficient, the non-parametric tests of Kruskal Wallis and Manwhitny. Regarding the test aims, it has two general and specialized ones; The former one is studying the influential factors in the canola growth undevelopment in Garmsar while the latter ones are studying the technologigal,personal,occupational and environmental features of Semnan canola famers,studying their impacts on the canola culture undevelopment,prioritizing the key factors in the canola growth undevelopment through the analysis model of SWOT and finally comparing these elements from the points of experts and farmers views. Results and Discussion 1. The results of analyzing the data:(the questionnaire of canola growers and experts) 1-1) Description of the features *The average age of the canola cultivators, whose oldest one is 74 and the youngest one is 25 is 42;The great abundance belongs to the age rank of 36-47,64/2%;This level is 82/25% in the age rank of 31-40 in the experts who are averagely 34 years old. *In respect of education, the greatest percentage belongs to the canola farmers who are literate while 73/52% of the experts, the greatest abundance, have B.A certificates. Moreover, about the education fields, as 33/75% of the canola growers are only literate, the other ones, who include 22/5% , have the science diploma. In the experts, the abundance distribution is as the following: Farming and plant produce 47/05%(the highest),gardening14/7%,the farming machineri8/82%,promotion 11/76%,plants diseases 2/94%, and the other fields 14/7%. *In terms of gender, 97/5% of the canola growers and 91/17 % of the experts are men. *About the occupational background, it is said the canola growers have a long history (the oldest farming activity background, except the canola growth, is 54 years) but 90% of the survey people have a 1-5year background since the canola cultivation has just been done far the past ten years in the area.Moreover, in the experts, 85/29% of them have worked in the canola culture just for 1 to 5 years. *Regarding the farming lands devoted to canola cultivation, in accordance with the canola growers questionnaire, 36/25% of them have not allocated more than 1.5 hectares of their lands for canola growth.Also,82/25% of them have their own lands. *Above all, 86/25% of the canola growers are the members of the rural production companies and 90% of them have had contacts with the promoters at least once in a month.To find out the problems of canola growth from the point of canola growers views, the chart 1 has been designed: Chart 1: Abundance distribution of canola growth according to Garmsar canola growers Row Canola growth related Statistics Zero Little questions 1 Little information and Abundance …… 10 knowledge of the area farmers Percent ……. 12.5 about canola culture Cumulative percent ……. 12.5 2 Regarding the necessary Abundance …… 3 orientation courses of little Percent ……. 3.75 significance Cumulative percent ……. 3.75 3 The lack of practicing Abundance 1 5 pragmatic teaching methods in Percent 1.25 6.25 the training and promotion Cumulative percent 1.25 7.5 courses 4 Neglecting the provision of Abundance 1 5 publications and Percent 1.25 6.25

Average

High

30 37.5 50 8 10 13.75 20 25 32.5

40 50 100 59 73.75 100 54 67.5 100

20 25

54 67.5

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21st European Seminar on Extension Education / Extension education worldwide, September 2-6, 2013, ANTALYA

5

6

7

8

9

supplementary learning tools for helping farmers to get more knowledge Neglecting the necessity of providing information and efficient advertisement for canola growth in the area The low skills and information of promoters in instructing farmers how to cultivate canola The newness of the canola crop and the presence of irresolution in farmers to grow that The more beneficial advantage and income earned in growing other crops than in cultivating canola The complexity in the general process of growing canola

Cumulative percent

1.25

7.5

32.5

100

Abundance Percent Cumulative percent

…… …… …….

4 5 5

22 27.5 32.5

54 67.5 100

Abundance Percent Cumulative percent

……. ……. …….

12 15 15

34 42.5 57.5

34 42.5 100

Abundance Percent Cumulative percent

…… …… ……

12 15 15

28 35 50

40 50 100

Abundance Percent Cumulative percent

…… …… ……

2 2.5 2.5

10 12.5 15

68 85 100

Abundance Percent Cumulative percent Abundance Percent Cumulative percent

1 1.25 1.25 19 23.75 23.75

3 3.75 5 43 53.75 77.5

38 47.5 52.5 11 13.75 91.25

38 47.5 100 7 8.75 100

Abundance Percent Cumulative percent Abundance Percent Cumulative percent

8 10 10 8 10 10

10 12.5 22.5 10 12.5 22.5

45 56.25 78.75 45 56.25 56.25

17 21.25 100 17 21.25 100

8 10 10 4 5.95 5.95 1 1.25 1.25 2 2.5 2.5 8 10 10 2 2.5 2.5 ….. …… ….. ….. ….. …..

10 12.5 22.5 19 23.75 29.7 3 3.75 5 10 12.5 15 2 25 35 18 22.5 25 2 2.5 2.5 3 3.75 3.7

45 56.25 56.25 22 27.5 57.12 42 52.5 57.5 34 42.5 57.5 30 37.5 72.5 38 47.5 72.5 13 16.25 19 19 23.75 27.5

17 21.25 100 35 43.75 100 34 42.5 100 34 42.5 100 22 27.5 100 12 15 100 65 81.25 100 58 72.5. 100

….. ……

2 2.5

34 30

54 67.5

10

The incompatibility of Garmsar environment for cultivating canola

11

The complex stages of cultivating canola

12

The complex stages between cultivating and harvesting canola

13

The complex stages of harvesting canola

14

The large amounts of canola pests

15

The absence of synchroneity between the canola growth and the other crops in Garmsar

16

The impossibility of growing canola in two seasons a year in a hectare

17

The low productivity of canola crop in a hectare

18

The canola need in a lot of fertilizers and pesticides

19

The low guarantee price of buying the crop by the government

20

The postponed farmers payment of the guarantee purchase by the government

Abundance Percent Cumulative percent Abundance Percent Cumulative percent Abundance Percent Cumulative percent Abundance Percent Cumulative percent Abundance Percent Cumulative percent Abundance Percent Cumulative percent Abundance Percent Cumulative percent Abundance Percent Cumulative percent

21

The lack of practical models for visiting and consultation in

Abundance Percent

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regard with growing and harvesting canola

Cumulative percent

…..

2.5

32.5

100

22

The use of just few suitable machinery for growing and harvesting canola in the area The excessive loss of the crop while being harvested

24

The low resistance of canola against bad climate condition

25

The tendency of the area farmers in cultivating the crops parts of which are used by them

….. 4 5 5 9 11.25 11.25 6.25 6.25 7 8.75 8.75

5 6.25 11.25 11 13.75 25 15 18.75 25 13 16.25 25

41 51.25 62.5 41 56.25 81.25 38 47.4 72.5 25 35 60

30 37.5

23

Abundance Percent Cumulative percent Abundance Percent Cumulative percent Abundance Percent Cumulative percent Abundance Percent Cumulative percent

26

Other elements

15 18.75 22 27.5 100 32 40 100

Abundance Percent Cumulative percent

This chart, clearly, states that whenever the role of promotion in canola is mentioned, it is grasped that this role has not been that remarkable; For example, 73.75% of the respondents have selected the ‘high’choice in answering the question of’ regarding the necessary orientation courses of little significance or 67.5% of them have again selected the ‘high’ choice in answering the question of neglecting the necessity of providing information and efficient advertisement for canola growth in the area. Beside the issue of promotion, the matters germane to the price are also one of the farmers concerns; For instance, in answering the question of ”the low guarantee price of buying the crop by the government considering the expenditures that it has”,82.25% have pointed the ‘High’ choice. Followingthis, by looking at the chart2, which demonstrates the abundance distribution of the canola growth and promotion in Garmsar by the experts, it is found that this process has not been satisfactory. Chart 2: Abundance distribution of the process of canola growth and promotion in Garmsar by the experts Row The process of promoting and Statistics Zero Little Average developing canola cultivation in Garmsar 1 Has the climatic conditions of Abundance 4 59 15 Garmsar for its suitability with Percent 5 73.75 18.75 growing canola been Cumulative percent 5 78.75 97.5 examined? 2 Have the cooperations and Abundance 10 54 16 promotional research projects Percent 12.5 67.5 20 related to the canola growth Cumulative percent 12.5 80 100 been carried out? 3

4

5

High 2 2.5 100 …. …. ….

Have the results of the canola experimental cultivation in the area been reported satisfactory? Have the necessary predictions about paving the way for a pervasive culture of canola in the area been studied?

Abundance Percent Cumulative percent

…. ….. …..

7 8.75 8.75

44 55 63.75

29 36.25 100

Abundance Percent Cumulative percent

38 47.5 47.5

33 41.25 88.75

9 10.25 100

….. …. …..

Has any operational planning intended to increase the areas of farming lands annually been conducted?

Abundance Percent Cumulative percent

11 13.75 13.75

55 67.75 81.5

13 16.25 97.75

1 1.25 100

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6

7

8

9

10

11

12

Have the required promotional plans and actions intended to make farmers more informed about canola growth been taken? Have any training orientation courses aiming to help farmers acquire more exploitation skills been organized? Have some support actions like insurance services, providing machinery and …with the purpose of doing a wide cultivation by farmers been taken? Have the related principles of making the innovations known and taking the new activities by farmers been taken into consideration by the extension sector? Have any promotional supports for the innovative farmers to cultivate canola been thought about? Have any necessary actions aiming to solve the canola growers problems by the agriculture ministry management been taken? Have the plans related to the guarantee purchase of crop been followed exactly?

Abundance Percent Cumulative percent

8 10 10

57 71.25 81.25

30 37.5 93.75

2 2.5 100

Abundance Percent Cumulative percent

…… …… ……

45 56.25 56.25

28 35 96.25

5 6.25 100

Abundance Percent Cumulative percent

2 2.5 2.5

47 58.75 61.25

34 42.5 96.25

3 3.75 100

Abundance Percent Cumulative percent

…. ….. …..

43 53.75 53.75

34 42.5 96.25

3 3.75 100

Abundance Percent Cumulative percent

19 23.75 23.75

38 47.5 71.25

13 16.25 87.5

10 12.25 100

Abundance Percent Cumulative percent

18 22.5 22.5

59 73.75 .96.25

2 2.5 98.75

1 1.25 100

Abundance Percent Cumulative percent

4 5 5

35 43.75 48.75

39 48.75 97.5

2 2.5 100

1-2) Swot analysis A)The analysis of the strong features(S):Considering the data, it can be concluded that the climatic conditions for cultivating canola are better than the soil. Moreover, in prioritization and the farmers familiarization with the conditions of growing and harvesting canola, it can be said that the farmers have more information about harvesting rather than planting. B)The analysis of the weak features(W):To analyze the weak features of canola culture while developing it in Garmsar both personally and in groups, the following chart is provided in which four weak points, the absence of enough machinery, the lack of interest, the postponed payments and regarding the second planting of no importance, are centered. C) The analysis of challenges (T): The problems represented in this research are categorized in five items and prioritized with the changes coefficients; Therefore, it has been determined that paying attention to the economical benefits of the area produce in deciding prices and the guarantee purchase of canola is the most serious challenge while the removal of governmental supports for canola is the least serious one. D) The analysis of opportunities (O): In respect of chances, the best one is the ranking of canola as one of the strategiccrops; The others are the ratification of the promotional project for optimizing and developing canola growth in the national level and planning to fulfill that.Moreover, establishing a relationship between the technological aspect of canola growth and its promotional aspects in the direction of developing canola culture can be the least important opportunity.E) Determining the strategic area: As the weak and strong features, opportunities and challenges related to canola cultivation and its development in Garmsar have been considered in the fore-going parts, it would try to determine the strategic zone. Based on the changes coefficients average and in comparison with the weak and strong features, it is seen that the weak features are more than the strong ones;Also,the opportunities are more than the challenges when they are compared; The strategic zone of WO is obtained and its strategy is regarded a change of direction. Based on these results and according to this strategic zone, it can be said that a direction change is required for promoting and instructing canola in Garmsar so that its productivity and quality would be augmented. Besides that, it is observed that regarding canola, the weak features are more than the strong ones, which shows naïve productivity.

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2. Comparative statistics A) Correlative coefficients Spearman correlative coefficient has been applied to study the relation between the variables of the rankrank and rank-distance comparison; to change these ties, the necessary relations in regard with the experts and farmers are provided in the chart 4.The problems relevant to the canola growth undevelopment are centered in four aspects which are the ones caused by promotion, comparative advantage (studied in regard with the experts), level of knowledge, skills and technology, infrastructure facilities(studied in regard with the farmers);Therefore, the dependent variable, the undevelopment related problems, are observed in these four aspects.Moreover,in regard with the independent variables which have been used in the Spearman correlative coefficient, some items like age, job background in the agriculture ministry,education,fields,duration,familiarization with canola, the background of promotional activites in growing canola, the average production of canola cultivation, the weak and strong features and the opportunities and challenges of growing canola(About the experts)are focused. Besides that, the variables whose impacts are studied with the dependent one (about the farmers) are age,education,background,the farmers bank loan,income,the monthly visits with promoters, the farming lands under crops cultivation and that of canola. Chart 3 Study of the relations between the independent and dependent variables with Spearman correlative coefficient Type of the dependent independent variables Level of the Significant Hypothesis survey society variables correlative level(S) status coefficients Experts Problems caused Age 0/014 0/23 H by the acceptance promotional Job background in the 0/021 0/11 H aspects agriculture ministry acceptance Education 0/018 0/07 H acceptance Field of education 0/06 0/59 H acceptance Time needed for 0/017 0/31 H familiarizing with canola acceptance Background of promotional 0/08 0/12 H activities in canola growth acceptance Average amount of canola 0/034 0/092 H growth production in a acceptance hectare in the area The area of farming lands 0/014 0/072 H devoted for canola acceptance cultivation The experts views about 0/35 0/089 H cultivating canola acceptance

Problems caused by the comparative advantage aspects

Weak features-

0/32

0/04

H¹ acceptance

Strong features+

0/41

*0/032

H¹ acceptance

Challenges+

0/22

*0/039

H¹ acceptance

Opportunities-

0/048

**0/01

H¹ acceptance

age

0/016

0/23

Job background

0/454

0/047

Education

0/014

0/77

H¹ acceptance H¹ acceptance -H acceptance

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Farmers

Problems caused by the level of knowledge and skills

Technological problems and infrastructural facilities

Fields of education

0/04

0/82

H acceptance H¹ acceptance H acceptance H acceptance

Time needed for familiarizing with canola Background of promotional activities in canola growth Average amount of canola growth production in a hectare in the area The area of farming lands devoted for canola cultivation The experts views about cultivating canola Strong features -

0/414

0/019

0/09

0/14

0/058

0/23

0/034

0/082

H acceptance

0/08

0/72

0/458

*0/023

Weak features+

-0/517

**0/001

Challenges+

+0/347

0/0014

Opportunities -

-0/672

0/023

age

0/024

0/29

Education+

0/482

0/040

Background

0/1

0/65

The amount of loan dedicated by Farmers bank Income

0/085

0/19

0/098

0/22

Monthly visits with promoters Farming lands under crop cultivation Farming lands under canola cultivation Age

-0/436

**0/000

0/013

0/78

0/019

0/33

0/017

0/27

Education-

-0/397

0/04

Job background

0/09

0/74

The amount of loan dedicated by Farmers bank Income

0/053

0/14

0/048

0/28

Monthly visits with promoters Farming lands under crop cultivation Farming lands under canola cultivation

-0/436

**0/000

0/016

0/092

0/029

0/095

H¹ acceptance H¹ acceptance H¹ acceptance H¹ acceptance H¹ acceptance H acceptance H¹ acceptance H acceptance H acceptance H acceptance H¹ acceptance H acceptance H acceptance H acceptance H¹ acceptance H acceptance H acceptance H acceptance H¹ acceptance H acceptance H acceptance

In chart 4, it should be said that, in regard with the experts, there is a negative significant tie between the strong features , opportunities, in one hand, and the problems engendered by the promotional aspects, in the other hand; This also exists between the strong points, in one hand, and the opportunities and the problems caused by the comparative advantage aspect while this is positive between the weak features, challenges and the problems caused by the comparative aspect(about the experts),the time needed for familiarizing with canola crop and also between the opportunities and the difficulties caused by the comparative the afore-mentioned aspect.Furthermore,by studying the independent variables and their impacts on the dependent one in regard with the farmers obtained by the Spearman correlative coefficient,

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we can conclude that a significant and positive relation exists between education and the problems caused by the level of skills and knowledge while this is negative between the literacy level and the promotersfarmers monthly meetings in one hand, and the technological, infrastructural and facility difficulties in the other hand. B)Non-parametric tests As the statistical tests can compare two or more series of variables and considering the nature of data presented in this study, the type of practiced tests are non-parametric which is Manwhitny in comparing two groups and Kruskalwallis in doing that for more than two divisions of variables. To analyze the findings and make them clearer, the chart 4 is provided as the following: Chart 4: Studying and comparingtwo groups of variables with the non-parametric test of Manwhitny Type of dependent independent Level Signifi Hypothesis the variables variables ofManwhitny(U) cant status survey level(S society ) Farmers Problems caused Marital status 839/5 0/07 H by the level of acceptance knowledge and Membership in 1080 0/98 H skills cooperatives acceptance Farmers bank H loan acceptance The Marital status 1022/5 0/201 H technological, acceptance infrastructural Membership in 1047/5 0/29 H and facility cooperatives acceptance problems Farmers bank H loan acceptance

According to the chart 4 and studying the impact of the independent variable on the dependent one, it can be explained that no significant tie is seen between the membership in cooperatives, the marital status, Farmers bank loans and the problems related to the level of knowledge and skills and the technological, infrastructural and facilities ones. Chart 5: Studying and comparing a number of variables divisions with the non-parametric test of Kruskalwallis Type dependent independent Chi-square Df Significan Hypothes of the variables variables coefficient t level(S) is status surve y societ y Exper Problems Five major 12/916 4 0/074 H ts caused by crops in acceptanc the Garmsar e promotiona Five major 25/45 4 **0/001 H¹ l aspects crops in acceptanc Garmsar + e Farm Problems Main job 6/824 6 0/447 H ers caused by acceptanc the level of e knowledge Status of the 20/63 3 **0/004 H¹ and skills farming acceptanc lands e ownership+ Three main 13/28 2 0/11 H always acceptanc cultivated e crops

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The technologic al, infrastruct ural and facility problems

How to provide the necessary machinery for plant stage How to provide the necessary machinery for stage between planting and harvesting How to provide the necessary machinery for harvesting stage Main job

11/86

2

0/06

H acceptanc e

6/63

2

0/48

H acceptanc e

6/89

2

0/23

H¹ acceptanc e

11/95

6

0/078

Status of the farming lands ownership+ Three main always cultivated crops How to provide the necessary machinery for plant stage How to provide the necessary machinery for stage between planting and harvesting How to provide the necessary machinery for harvesting stage

19/27

3

**0/007

H acceptanc e H acceptanc e

5/245

2

0/439

H acceptanc e

19/82

2

**0/006

H¹ acceptanc e

20/11

2

**0/005

H¹ acceptanc e

19/9

2

**0/006

H¹ acceptanc e

According to the chart 6 and its all parts and based on the experts answers analysis, we can say that a positive and significant relation exists between the independent variable of five major crops in Garmsar and the problems made by the aspect of comparative advantage; This also is between the independent variable of the farming lands ownership and the difficulties made by the level of knowledge and skills.Moreover,in regard with the tie between the independent and dependent variables related to the farmers, a positive and significant relation is observed between the independent variable of the status of the farming lands ownership and the technological, infrastructural and facility problems; Besidesthat, this is seen between the independent variables of the provision ways of the necessary machinery for plant,inter plant –harvest and harvest stages and the dependent one related to the technological, infrastructural and facility problems.

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Suggestions 1.As the study results show a dissatisfactory level of literacy among the farmers, it is advised that the agriculture office management of Garmsar rurals should improve this level by cooperating with the Islamic rurals committee, its local leaders and the entity of education for the illiterate. 2. As the contact between promoters and farmers is indispensible in their inter- information communication so that they would be aware of each other conditions and the promoters can instruct the farmers technologically 90% of whom visit the promoters only once in a month, it is suggested that, these contacts should be increased in the direction of causing improvement in the work condition and information exchange. 3. For solving the problems germane to growing canola some ways are proposed as the following:@.Holding some courses and giving consultations with the aim ofmaking the farmers know canola and its benefits while persuading them to grow [email protected] the orientation courses and the frequency of visits for the farmers@Holding practical courses in the fields and avoid giving lectures and theories.@Increasing simple and illustrious publications distributions among the illiterate [email protected] the experts of Garmsar agriculture office and its service branches to acquire more savvy in some issues like canola planting,interplanting and harvesting stage and harvesting and other technological ones so that they would be able to answer the farmers various questions during the courses.@Ensuring the farmers about the advantage, benefit and reasonability of canola cultivation in comparison with the other crops.@ Explaining the farmers if they go by the promoters technological pieces of advice, they would be able to earn more money by growing canola than any other crops.@Explaining the farers that not only Garmsar climate is suitable for canola growth, but also it has a lot of potentiality for it. 4. Since the farmers have no clear opinion about the canola pests and diseases, it is a matter of concern for them, which can make them depict no interest in it;Therefore,it is advised that the promoters of Garmsar agriculture office, should hold some courses, either privately or in groups, in order to make the farmers know about the crop pests and disease and how to remove and cure them. 5. Another matter of concern about canola growth is a misconception that it has low productivity. If the farmers are informed about the reasonability and high productivity of canola culture, in one hand, and the government, with a decent plan, takes action in buying this crop with guarantee, in the other hand, they would definitely become more active in growing canola.Moreover,the farmers payments should not be postponed. 6. As it is seen, the weak features and opportunities are super than the strong ones and challenges;a change in the current promotion direction in a different framework and with a better planning is advised. References The general information and statistics department of agriculture ministry, 2008. The planning and budget office of agriculture ministry, The basic agronomy information . Asadi.N2008, An approach to Garmsar, The territory of bright sun.Pazine publications, page 35-48 Alyari,A.Shekari.F,2004.Oilseeds, Farming and physiology.Amidi publications,page22-26, Tehran. Ashraf, A, 2005.About the selection mechanisms of canola different sorts for growing in Isfahan. M.A thesis, Isfahan industrial university. Amiran.H, 2009.Familirization with the measurement ways of the quality systems efficiency Hamedian, A,1380.Studying the key elements in Gilan rice growers interest in growing Canola as their second culture,The M.A thesis.Azad university. The committee of promoting the strategic crops, 2007.The promotional project of canola growth development and optimization. The office of extension and exploitation systems of agriculture ministry. Shahidi, A.Sepehr, K, 2005.Canola aphids .The office of organizing promotional plans and technology publications of the agriculture ministry, p122-125. Shahidi, A.Fruzan, K.,2001.Cnola.The factory of oilseeds growth, Tehran. Rogers ort,M&F.shumiker,2000.Conduction of innovations, an inter-culture approach.University of Shiraz,page158-165 The agriculture ministry,2006.The yearly statistical farming report of the 1385-1386 years.The publication section of the general statistics and information office of agriculture ministry

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Cotler, D.2004.The effects of education on farm production.UN Department of International Education and Social Affairs, pp.88-99. Hemingway, J, mustards.2001.Brassica spp and snaps Alba (craciperae).In: semmons, N.W. (Ed). Evaluation Crops Plants.Londen, pp.59-56. Prakask, s.2001. Cruciferous oilseeds in India. India. In: Tsunada, S.Hinata press, Tokyo, Japan, pp.154-263 Welch, F.1997.The role of investments in human capital in agriculture.In: Schults T.w(Ed).Distortions of Agriculture Incentives. Indian University Press, Blomington.pp.45-78

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Agricultural Extension: The Case of Farm Advisors in Greece in the Framework of the Reg. (EC) 1782/2003 (FAS) Tiligadi V.1

Koutsouris A.2

Abstract The current paper addresses the farm advisory system (FAS) developed in Greece based on the Regulation (EC) 1782/2003, in parallel implying an attempt to reactivate Agricultural Extension in the country. Data were collected through a questionnaire based survey addressing agricultural advisors who were integrated in the Greek FAS; the survey was contucted through e-mail and/or telephone, intending to explore the implementation of FAS in Greece. Therefore topics such as advisors’ training, the employment of extension methodology, farmers’ participation and the programme’s impact are dealt with. The continuation and appropriate implementation of the FAS program can become a basic pillar aiming at sustainable rural development. In this respect, it should address in general the multifunctionality of rural areas, i.e. include a number of topics of interest beyond cross-compliance, thereby supporting agricultural holdings and resulting in direct socio-economic benefits for the country, especially under the current crisis circumstances. Key-words: Extension education, CAP, evaluation

INTRODUCTION The setting-up of Farming Advisory System(s) is an important element of the 2003 European Union (EU) Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) reform. A major change introduced in the EU agriculture through this CAP reform, concerns the discontinuance of the link between farming subsidies and (volume of) production. Since the reform’s implementation, producer support is largely decoupled from production decisions with farmers being entitled for support independently from both the level of production and production choices. On the other hand, farmers, in order to be able to receive support (payments), have to respect environmental, food safety, and animal welfare legislation, as well as the maintenance of the farm in good agricultural and environmental conditions (GAEC). If these standards are not respected, farmers may be subject to reduction or withdrawal of CAP payments. This link between the payments to farmers and the respect of compulsory standard is called cross compliance. The FAS (i.e. advisory activity) has been introduced through Regulation (EC) N° 1782/2003, in order to cover at least GAEC, that is, to help farmers to “become more aware of material flows and on-farm processes relating to the environment, food safety, animal health and welfare”. Setting up FAS, i.e. a comprehensive system offering advice to, at least, commercial farms, was mandatory for the EU Member States (MS) since January 2007 (Regulation, article 13). The FAS although primarily aiming at helping farmers to be at least compliant with cross-compliance can, as the term “at least” mentioned in the Regulation suggests, also serve as a horizontal tool covering broader CAP issues depending on the needs of MS to improve the sustainable management and overall performance of their holdings. According to the Regulation, in order to attain such objectives two measures have been available to the MS: measure 114 supporting the use of advisory services by farmers and forest holders (Regulation, article 24) and measure 115 supporting the setting-up of farm management, farm relief and farm advisory services for farmers and of FoAS for forest holders (Regulation, article 25). The participation of farmers is voluntary. The use by farmers and forest holders of management and advisory services, and the setting-up of farm management, farm relief and farm advisory services is supported from the European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development (EAFRD) as foreseen under Regulation (EC) N°1698/2005. Furthermore, detailed capacities are requested from authorities and bodies selected to provide such advisory services, in order to be selected or accredited (Article 15(2) of the Regulation (EC) N° 1974/2006). These include appropriate resources in terms of staff, technical and administrative capacity. Regulation (EC) N°1782/2003 also requires strict obligations in terms of data protection from advisors and advisory bodies.

Dept. of Agricultural Economics & Rural Development, Agricultural University of Athens, Iera Odos 75, 11855 Athens, Greece [email protected] 2 Dept. of Agricultural Economics & Rural Development, Agricultural University of Athens, Iera Odos 75, 11855 Athens, Greece [email protected] 1

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In a nutshell, according to ADE et al. (2009, p. 2) when considering the setting-up and implementing FAS, the following key elements have to be considered: 

The field of the FAS-advice is at least "the whole" cross-compliance requirements at farm level.

 If EARFD funds are mobilised under pillar two, in addition to the scope of cross-compliance, occupational safety standards based on Community legislation have also to be covered as a minimum requirement.  FAS can be operated by one or more designated authorities or by private bodies and therefore is defined as a system rather than specific services.  Under Regulation (EC) N°1782/2003, the minimum target group for FAS were those farmers receiving at least €15,000 of direct payments in line with provisions laid down for the different payment systems in Regulation (EC) N°1782/2003. However, this condition was removed through Regulation (EC) N°73/2009.  MS have the possibility to enlarge their FAS framework to other standards, such as other good farming practices (even larger than GAEC) and standards relating to agrochemicals, or any other Community or national relevant standards.  Advice and compliance control must remain separate, the farmer bearing the ultimate responsibility for his actions in relation to cross-compliance The FAS has been gradually introduced since 2005 and, as aforementioned, MS were obliged to introduce it from January 2007. FAS Implementation in Greece In Greece the Ministerial decrees concerning FAS were launched in 2006 and the FAS was established in 2007 - as required by the EU Regulation. The Greek Ministry of Rural Development & Food (YPAAT) chose to implement only Measure 114 through private bodies of mixed status (profit/non-profit) with mixed cost for farmers (i.e. support to the farmers is limited to 80% of the eligible cost per advisory service, up to a maximum amount of €1500). In the first place, in 2006, agronomists were called to submit applications to become certified as advisors within the FAS. In the first place, 638 independent agronomists as well as 30 so-called advisory structures (such as agricultural co-operatives or agronomists’ companies) with 92 agronomists were certified. The minimum requirements were that agronomists should have a university degree and at least two years of professional experience as well as that they do not work either for a public agency (including higher education institutions) or as dealers of agro-inputs. Furthermore FAS advisors were obliged to follow specific training related to the objectives of FAS and relevant policies (i.e. at least, SMR & GAEC) in December 2008. Out of those registered finally 39 independent agronomists and 16 structures (with 58 agronomists of which 4 agricultural co-operatives with 8 agronomists), i.e. 97 agronomists, actively participated in the programme. As far as farmers were concerned the FAS was activated in November 2008 – February 2009; during this period farmers were asked to put forward their applications to enter the programme. The call was published on the sites of the YPAAT and the Payment & Control Agency for Guidance & Guarantee Community Aid (OPEKEPE). Overall, 4,370 applications were received by the relevant authorities out of which 3,859 were approved. The FAS was active till mid-2009. By the end of 2010 all relevant controls were completed; 2,160 farmers produced the documentation in order to get the relevant subsidy. Finally 2,114 were approved; that is, 55.23% of those who had put forward an application were finally found eligible and were subsidised for the advice recieved. METHODOLOGY The current paper utilises data collected through a survey among all those (individual agronomists and structures) who actively participated in the Greek FAS programme. The survey was based on questionnaire which was sent by email (October 2011) followed by telephone calls to ask advisors to reply in time. Finally, by December 2011, 51 questionnaires were returned (25 from independent agronomists and 26 from agronomists in structures).

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The distribution of advisor’s age is as follows: 35% up to 35 years old; 33% form 36-40 years old; 32% over 41. Most of the advisors have a university degree in crop scienec (49%) followed by those with a general degree in agronomy (29.5% - older graduates from the Agricultural University of Athens or the School of Agriculture, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, at a time when no specialised degrees were provided) and agricultural economists (12%). Furthermore, 39% have followed postgraduate studies. In terms of working experience one out of four had a 2 – 5 year working experience and the rest of the advisors more than 5 years. Finally almost six out of ten had been working as either farmers’ consultants (i.e. supporting farmers in putting together their applications and relevant techno-economic documentation/studies to access various EU programmes) or advisors. Advisors’ training for FAS In order for advisors to be able to effectively fulfil their tasks their training in two series of short courses (one covering general issues and one specialised on the modules advisors were to be occupied with – see below) was foreseen. However, instead of these short courses six one-day meetings, have been finally organised in Athens, Thessaloniki and Larissa, in December 2008, addressing all issues. Particpation in these meetings was compulsory; they were followed by a 76.5% of the registered advisors. According to our survey results, just under 20% of the advisors considered the training provided as satisfactory. On the contrary 33% consider it inadequate and almost 14% bad. Furthermore 80% stated that they did not receive clear guidelines for action and two thirds of the advisors are not satisfied by the materials provided. Given such an assessment, advisors’ proposals concerned the need for: regular, extensive and integrated training (12); better organization of the training (11); practical as well as theoretical training (10); training targeted to regional conditions and needs (8); the use of ICTs (4); better trainers (4); reactivation of agricultural extension service (2). Furthermore, 94% stressed the need for re-training (or, continuous training): 51% believe that training should take place once a year and 16% more often (once in every 3 or 6 months). On the other hand, although the majority of the advisors (51%) stress that their training in terms of the necessary for the programme documents (checklists, etc.) was inadequate, they did not find either any difficulty in filling them with the farmers (96%) or that the task was time consuming (88%). FAS Modules Three quarters selected to be activated in 3 out of the modules available (with 3 being in fact the maximum of modules allowed for each advisor). The most common modules were, besides GAEC, environment (over 90%) and plant health (65%). It is worth mentioning that few of the advisors chose to be involved in animal health (7.8%) or welfare (5.9%). The modules concerning ‘the implementation of the CAP’, ‘quality products’ and ‘farm management’ were selected by quite a number of advisors (between 25% and 33%) while less advisors (less than one out of five) picked up the modules ‘rural development’ and ‘farm restructuring’. The actual advise provided comprised besides GAEC and occupational safety (mandatory modules) for almost all advisors (more than 90%) environmental issues; plant health was dealt with by 65% of the advisors, the implementation of the CAP by 35%, farm management as well as quality products by 27% each. Additionally, advice on the restructuring of farms was provided by 20% of the advisors, on rural development by 16%, on animal health by 8% and on animal raising and welfare by 6%. Farmers’ participation All advisors stated that they recruited the participants of the progamme among their already existing clientele - a fact implying that no farmer approached the advisors in order to participate. Only one out of three advisors claimed that farmers showed interest in the programme with the rest claiming that farmers were indifferent or, to a lesser degree, suspicious. For the majority of the advisors (65%) farmers did not understand the importance of the programme; 25% claim that farmers had some understanding with only 10% claiming that farmers had a good understanding of the programme. However, according to two-thirds of the advisors, not all interested farmers participated in the programme. This, according to the advisors, is attributed to the fact that farmers did not have any economic gain (or incentives) and to a lesser degree that they finally did not understand the programme’s importance.

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As far as their clientele is concerned, 35% of the advisors advised at most 15 farmers, 32% between 15 and 40 farmers and 33% more than 40 farmers. According to the 84% of the advisors they did not face any difficulties in accessing the farms with the notable exception of those working in the islands or very few advisors who serviced farms in distances over 100 km, the visiting of which may incur high costs. Relationship with farmers Almost three quarters of the advisors believe that their role is to cooperate with the farmer in order to reach a commonly agreed solution to his/her problem. In practice the majority (53%) of the advisors claim that the farmers listened to their advice and then chose whether they apply it or not; 33% maintained that they cooperated with farmers in order to reach a commonly acceptable solution; 10% stated that farmers trusted their advice and implemented it; and, in a limited number of cases farmers asked for specific advice to solve problems which they themselves considered as important to them. In parallel, 53% of the advisors found that farmers have at least some knowledge in order to be able to implement the problem (mainly related to production techniques) while 41% consider that farmers’ knowledge is inadequate and 6% negligible. Most of the advisors visited the cooperating within the programme farms at most 3 times; 20% 1 time, 27% 2 times and 31% three times and 20% more than 3 times. The core communication technique followed by advisors was individual (one-to-one) contacts with farmers-clients mainly on the farm and to some degree in office. The majority of the advisors delivered informational (printed) material as well while the use of group techniques was negligible. At this point a further concern of the advisors has to be noted. It relates to their payment by the farmers. As aforementioned, farmers were to pay the advisors and then get the relevant subsidy accounting for the 80% of the expenses. However, only one out of eight advisors received 100% of his/her remuneration for the services provided. In the majority of the cases advisors only received the 80% (i.e. the subsidy provided to farmers) since farmers “are not used to pay for services” (26 advisors) or “farmers cannot afford it” (9 advisors). In the rest of the cases there has been an agreement between the two parties at the beginning of the programme. The programme’s results As shown in Table 1, few advisors believe that their intervention through the programme had any significant impact on the cooperating farms in terms of either competitiveness (just under 6%) or environmental performance (just under 10%). Thus, in most cases little to moderate improvement is reported (78.5% and 78.4% respectively). According to the advisors, farmers had rather poor gains in terms of both managerial skills and technical knowledge through their participation in the programme (Table 2). Indeed, approximately 10% of the advisors believe that farmers had significant gains in terms of managerial skills with even less (almost 6%) stating that farmers gained substantial new technical knowledge. The knowledge gained by farmers mainly refers to cross-compliance/environmental protection, plant protection and cultivation techniques. Minor gains were referred to relating to occupational safety and farm management. In parallel, most advisors (almost two out of three) believe that such new knowledge was minimally used/ put in practice; less than 8% believe that this knowledge was indeed used – ‘much’ and ‘very much’). This according to the advisors owes to farmers’ mentality (“they know everything”) and the lack of (economic) incentives; other factors concern the limited time available for such a behavioural change as well as constraints relating to farmers (such as farmers’ age; “old aged”) and farm conditions. As far as the advisors’ view on the provision of innovative advice to farmers and the degree of implementation of such innovations is concerned the results were not satisfactory (Table 3). Only one out of six of the advisors said s/he provided to a significant degree information about innovations to farmers while only one out of seventeen advisors claims that farmers implemented innovations to a significant degree. The information provided concerned organic farming and integrated production management, waste management and to a lesser degree new plant protection and/or cultivation techniques and use of new machinery. The innovations applied by farmers mainly relate to plant and soil protection and to a lesser degree waste management and organic farming.

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On the other hand, only one third of the advisors provided ‘integrated’ information to the farmers, i.e. the policy targets of the EU, the aims of cross-compliance and therefore the recommended techniques. Overall assessment Overall, the advisors involved in FAS believe that the programme did not succeed in changing farmers’ way of thinking and practice (10%), that its impact was minimal (36%) or moderate (41%). This is attributed by the advisors to a number of factors such as to constraints pertaining the programme itself, their own inadequate training and farmers’ indifference. The shortcomings of the programme according to the advisors mainly were the inadequate understanding of cross-compliance by themselves (12 advisors), deficiencies in the organization (9) and the bureaucracy of the programme (8), farmers’ attitude (indifference – 5, and suspiciousness - 4). Nevertheless, 81% of them believe that such shortcomings can be alleviated. Furthermore, 95% of the advisors believe that the scope of the programme (fields/modules on which advice should be provided) should be broadened. Therefore, 90% of the advisors state that the programme should be continued/repeated since it can be useful in providing information on cross-compliance and environmental protection as well as on farm management to farmers, in securing an advisor for farmers, while also providing information on a variety of issues (the CAP, quality products, new/novel farming techniques, occupational safety). Finally, 70% of the advisors believe that the participation of farmers in the programme should be compulsory since this way farmers would improve the management of their farms and their environmental performance, avoid penalties due to violation of cross-compliance standards, produce higher quality products and, overall, enhance the viability of their farms. Alternatively, the attraction of more farmers into the programme is related by the advisors with their own (better) training, the design of an information campaign by the Ministry of Rural Development & Food, the incentives provided to farmers (such as the extra points awarded or precedence given to those participating in FAS vis-à-vis access to modernisation schemes, agro-environmental programmes, Young Farmers programme, etc.). CONCLUSION At the EU level, the main goal of the FAS is raising farmers’ awareness of EU legal requirements with farmers’ use of it being voluntary. The implementation of FAS in Greece has been assessed through a survey addressing the advisors who participated in the programme. In most aspects Greece followed, in general, the practice followed by the majority of the EU MS: the FAS was set up as a specific service, complementary to existing extension services; the FAS is coordinated and supervised by public bodies; the advisory bodies were selected via calls for tenders; the advice embraced broader issues beyond GAEC; the approach adopted was on-farm one-to-one advice; there has not been much prioritising of groups of farmers, except the initial obligation to give priority to farmers receiving more than € 15 000 in direct payments; farmers partially contributed to the costs of that advice (20%), i.e. farmers were supported/subsidized up to 80% for the services up to a maximum amount of €1500 (EC 2010). However, as aforementioned, Greece made use of only one of the two measures available, that is, of measure 114. The FAS evaluation on the EU level (ADE et al. 2009; EC 2010) concluded that, overall, the FAS helped increase farmers’ awareness on the topics addressed; one-to-one advice was considered particularly effective; the establishment of the FAS represented a good opportunity to rethink and improve the wider advice and knowledge information systems in the agricultural sector; the FAS helped farmers to meet crosscompliance requirements; it also increased farmers’ financial management skills (accountancy) and improved their bookkeeping as regards cross-compliance obligations; that the voluntary concept and overall flexible architecture of the FAS should be maintained although the effectiveness of the FAS was still limited. Greece, as pointed out, chose to pun the programme through mixed private bodies. Given the serious problems of its public Extension service (see, Alexopoulos et al. 2009; Charatsari et al., 2011; Koutsouris, 1999) FAS was expected to somehow become a system which might compensate for such a situation. The programme was actually implemented in 2009. The results of the programme as shown through the preceding analysis, although not including farmers’ views on the issue, are rather moderate. This owes to a number of factors including advisors’ inadequate training and thus line of action, farmers’ mentality and indifference towards the programme, the short time of the programme’s implementation, the lack of an effective campaign to create awareness about the programme and so on. As a result, advisors believe that the gains on the part of the farmers in terms of knowledge and skills are at most moderate as well as that innovations were largely not disseminated through the programme.

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Moreover, at this point the failure of the programme on the national level to meet its targets should be also underlined (Table 4). This is a rather disappointing situation given that the programme will be put in place again in the next CAP implementation period (2014-2020). Nevertheless, the lessons learned through this study, along with the general recommendations of the EC (EC 2010) can contribute to the improvement of the pre-conditions necessary for its more effective implementation in the future. References ADE – ADAS – AGROTEC- Evaluators.EU (2009) Evaluation of the implementation of the Farm Advisory System. ADE, Louvain-la-Neuve (Belgium). Alexopoulos, G., Koutsouris, A. and I. Tzouramani (2009) The financing of extension services: A survey among rural youth in Greece. The Journal of Agricultural Education & Extension, 15(2): 175-188. Charatsari, C., Papadaki-Klavdianou, A. and A. Michailidis (2011) Farmers as consumers of agricultural education services. The Journal of Agricultural Education & Extension 17(3): 253-266 European Commission (2010) Report from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council on the application of the Farm Advisory System as defined in Article 12 and 13 of Council Regulation (EC) No 73/2009, COM (2010) 665 final. EC, Brussels (Belgium). Koutsouris, A. (1999) Organisation of Extension Services in Greece. Options Mediterranneenes, Serie A: Seminaires Mediterraneenes, 38: 47-50 Table 1: Farms’ improvement in terms of competitiveness and environmental performance Improvement Very much Much Some Little None Total

Competitiveness Frequency Percent 2 3,9 1 2 11 21,6 29 56,9 8 15,7 51 100

Environment Frequency Percent 3 5,9 2 3,9 20 39,2 20 39,2 6 11,8 51 100

Table 2: Farmers’ managerial skills and technical knowledge improvements Management Technical Improvement Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Very much 1 2 1 2 Much 4 7,8 2 3,9 Some 21 41,2 25 49 Little 19 37,3 18 35,3 None 6 11,8 5 9,8 Total 51 100 51 100 Table 3: Farmers’ information and implementation of innovations

Very much Much Some Little None Total

Information Frequency Percent 2 3,9 7 13,7 10 19,6 25 49 7 13,7 51 100

Table 4: Overall performance of the programme Participants in FAS Ex-ante target no of farners 25,000 no of forest holders

5,000

Implementation Frequency Percent 2 3,9 1 2 11 21,6 18 35,3 19 37,3 51 100

Revised target 6,000 1,500

Outcome 2,144 0

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The Role of Agricultural Extension on Entrepreneurship Torun E.1 Abstract In this study, the role of agricultural extension in rural entrepreneurship has been tried to be presented. Agricultural extension uses the means of communication in order to make an innovation reach the target group and to increase the practicability of it; encourages entrepreneurship in the rural areas, and by giving a non-formal, or out of school, education, it directs people to new professions and job areas or to make changes in their current jobs. In this sense, agricultural extension has a really important role in activating or motivating the entrepreneurs. The purpose of this study is to examine the role of agricultural extension in the development and promotion of rural entrepreneurship. In this respect, the role of agricultural extension in rural entrepreneurship has been studied in terms of agricultural extension, entrepreneurship, the entrepreneur and the characteristics of the target group. Key Words: Agricultural Entrepreneurship

Extension,

Entrepreneurship,

Rural

Development,

innovation,

Rural

1. INTRODUCTION The number of people who do not have an adequate and balanced diet is over one billion. This means that one-sixth of the world population is facing starvation. The number of deaths, mental and physical impairments caused by hunger, imbalanced diets or malnutrition has reached tragic dimensions on both national and international basis. When deaths caused by hunger and malnutrition are taken into consideration, it is seen that the death toll is higher than deaths caused by AIDS, malaria, tuberculosis and the other illnesses. 10.9 million children lose their life before they reach the age of five. Because of irregular and unfair distribution of income, while certain communities that are consuming world resources insatiably are dealing with health problems emerging due to overnutrition, more than one billion people suffering from hunger and malnutrition are living under threat of either starvation or death because of inadequate and contaminated water (Anonymous, 2012). Due to poverty, people are not able to produce or purchase adequate food. Increasing food prices because of natural disasters, financial crisis, wars and political problems also affect this situation negatively. The effect of the increasing prices is felt more in the poor and unemployed communities and this decreases the power of purchase. In fact, although the world food production potential is enough to feed the whole population, the unfair distribution and the comsumption system forms one of the most important parts of the problem. According to the strategical plan of TAO, when the world population increase is taken into consideration, it seems necessary to increase the current agricultural production to about a rate of 70% (Anonymous, 2012). Here at this very point, in terms of the sustainability of agricultural activity, on the one hand, and the processing of agricultural produce, on the other hand, and its being presented to the people (consumers) at the desired form, place and time, the importance of entrepreneurs and entrepreneurship comes to question. In terms of the future of humanity, the continuity of agricultural activities and sustainable farming/agriculture become more of an issue. When it comes to the continuity of agriculture, individuals who can work in this field and undertake risks are needed. In order to stimulate and encourage these people, agricultural extension and communication need to be carried out very well. Thus, for the entrepreneurs who will be in service in the agricultural sector, the importance of the agricultural extension increases day by day. Agricultural extension is a service or system that helps the rural people via an educational process in order to modernise current agricultural technologies, to increase production efficiency and income and to improve life standards (Taluğ, Tatlıdil, 1993). Agricultural extension is an out of school education system or an educational process that aims to transfer to people the information that will be useful in increasing the life quality of people living in the countryside and help them gain the necessary information, attitude and skills to be able to use this information in their lives efficiently (Taluğ, Tatlıdil, 1993; Ceylan, 2010). Kocaeli University, Arslanbey Vocational School, Marketing and Advertising Department 41285 Kartepe / Kocaeli TURKEY [email protected] 1

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Agricultural extension is a service or system which assists farm people, through educational procedures, in improving agricultural production (farming) methods and techniques; increasing production efficiency and agricultural income; bettering their standard of living and lifting the social and educational standards of rural life (Maunder, 1973). Extension also feels it necessary to teach the farmers business management and decision-making skills because as the new technology comes out, the need (demand) of the farmers for managership and decisionmaking skills and knowledge increases more. With the extension education, the farmer’s ability to perceive his/her own problems, choose the most suitable of the alternative solution options to his/her condition, and finally, his/her problem-solving skills are tried to be improved. This changing role of the extension education makes the extension agent a person who provides an active teaching and learning environment rather than a person who only transfers the information (Ceylan, 2010). Agricultural extension is essentially a non-formal education activity. Agricultural extension service is a training activity that aims to enable change in the knowledge, experience, practices and attitudes of the rural population (Watts 1984). Agricultural extension is, in the widest sense, a training activity. The purpose of this training is to transfer useful information to people and to teach people how they will use them in order to improve their life and the life of the communities they are a member of. The points the agricultural extension activity will help farmers via training are as follows (Bilir, 2011). 

Improving farming methods and techniques,



Increasing production efficiency and income,



Improving their standard of living,



Lifting the social and educational standards of rural life,



Farmers’ learning managerial and decision making skills,



Improving the leadership and organizational skills of rural people.

Certain issues such as how the innovations will be conveyed to the farmers, choosing the target group that the technology will be taken to, transferring the innovations that are planned to be taken into a suitable form, making the agricultural extension institutions work efficiently, evaluating the results of agricultural extension and its application are the problems whose solutions are still being sought in order to increase the efficiency in the agricultural information and technology flow system (Rölling 1990). In augmenting the activity, minimising some of the limitations or getting rid of them is emphasized. Making concrete proposals to the ones who determine the national agriculture policy and publisher researchers’, farmer organizations’ and private sector’s working in rapport with each other are some factors that can directly affect the success of the system (Kaimowitz 1990). Adaptation to changing situations is possible with the quick application of the innovations. Agricultural extension is one of the most important means that can be used for making the agriculture and agriculture based industries survive (Özkaya et al., 2005). As it can be understood from these definitions, agricultural extension and entrepreneurship are two important factors that complete one another in encouring agricultural and rural development. This shows how important the role of agricultural extension in rural entrepreneurship is. 2. MATERIAL and METHOD The main material of the study is literature review. Secondary data consists of the opinion and ideas on agricultural extension, communication and rural development. The primary goal of the literature and opinion review is to discuss the role of agricultural extension in rural entrepreneurship in terms of the development of the countryside in place, and to make suggestions by emphasizing that agricultural extension and rural development are factors completing one another. 3. 2. RESEARCH FINDINGS and DISCUSSION The most important purpose of extension training is to create behavioural change. The producers’ transferring the information and techniques they can use efficiently in their own lives to the other producers becomes meaningful only when this information turns into practice. Agricultural extension is a service or system that helps rural people within the scope of an educational process in order to renew the agricultural technology already in use, to increase the production efficieny and income, and to improve their living conditions (Bilir, 2011). Agricultural extension, which is an out of school education service, basically has two dimensions. These are:

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1- The communication

Dimension Objectives

Know-how Human behaviour Communication skills The communication dimension of agricultural extension is to the the farmers have one-way or mutual relations with the relevant institutions and organizations and to provide the flow of information. 2- The educational Dimension in assisting those people to acquire the necessary knowledge, skills, and attitudes to utilize this information or technology effectively The educational dimension aims to make producers use the transferred information in their own life practices and gain the skills necessary to do this. Agricultural extension and communication are indispensable development elements in the developmental process. Agricultural development is usually understood as the level of technology the farmers accept in order to increase production. Although the rate of technology adopted is an important sign of development, it cannot be accepted as the only means in this process (Ceylan, 2010). Rural development is the process of transferring technical information and innovations to the farmer and their accepting it. In brief, it is the positive attitude of the farmer toward change. A general outcome of the rural development is its being an encouragement, research and extension activity and a proper investment. The investments’ becoming a part of the activity reminds us of the entrepreneurship and the entrepreneur, and another important role of the extension acitivies is to tempt, improve and encourage entrepreneurship in the rural areas. For the farmers to become educated individuals in the agricultural development process might make them adapt themselves to the conditions of the new level better. There will be a more efficient communication with the agricultural extension agents, and as the farmer will realize his problems and improve his/her solution finding, questioning and comprehension skills, he/she will be able to support agricultural development (Kızılaslan, 1999). It is possible to say that in rural development agricultural extension education and communication are important. The components of agricultural extension education and communication and entrepreneurship are also efficient and important in terms of keeping farmers informed about the innovations, enabling them to analyze and comprehend. 2.1. Entrepreneurship It is really difficult to give an exact definition for the term entrepreneurship. It is seen that his word which was first used in the middle Ages is derived from the Frenchword ‘entreprendere’ which means ‘to undertake’. This definition has changed in time, taking on new meanings and especially in the 20th century it started to be defined as the process of taking risks, following the latest developments, utilizing the opportunities, and putting these into practice (http://www.msxlabs.org., 2013). When the literature is reviewed, it is seen that the concept of entrepreneurship has been analyzed by many scholars with different points of view. In the studies conducted, this term was mostly tried to be explained by handling the subjects of taking risks, raising capital, arbitrage and the coordination of the production factors. Many writers identified entrepreneurship as starting a small business and managing it (Başar, Tosunoğlu and Demirci, 2001). The term was first defined in the early 18th century by the Irish-French

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economist Richard Cantillon. He defined entrepneur as a person who pays a certain price for a product and a service in order to resell it at an uncertain price. This definition emphasizes and reveals the risk-taking feature of the entrepreneur (Tosunoğlu, 2003). Depending on the economic development process, new features have been added to the definition of the term entrepreneur. R. Cantillon’s definition was improved by Jean Baptise Say and it was emphasized that as well as taking risks, an entrepreneur must have the quality of organizing and managing means of production. Joseph A. Schumpeter was the first person to emphasize and bring up the innovative and dynamic features of an entrepreneur as the building stone of human resources in economic development. In his studies, Schumpeter tried to explain the term entrepreneurship by the concepts of creating new ways and techonological inventions, and he focused his attention on finding new sources in order to create new products, new services, new processes, new supply resources and new markets. According to Schumpeter’s point of view, an entrepreneur is defined as a person or an institution that will cause change in society (Odabaşı, 2005). In the simplest term, entrepreneurship means succeeding in doing business. An entrepreneur is a person who takes risks in business and economics. It has existed since the beginning of humanity. From the person who tried to sell two apples in the primitive age to the person who runs a holding in the modern age, from a person who takes risks in an organizational structure to a shepherd, each person can be defined as an entrepreneur. There is nobody in life who is not an entrepreneur. All the processes from a child’s starting primary school to his/her being a civil servant are entrepreneurship processes (Arıduru, 2007). We can define entrepreneurship as a process of turning innovative ideas and technological knowledge into a new product, service or business. Entrepreneurship is also an innovative activity. Development of a new production method, production of new goods, discovery of a new raw material resource and reconstructing it, and creating a new market etc are all innovations and entrepreneurship (Gürel, A., 2010). Entrepreneurship is one of the phenomenons that gained importance during the transition from the industrial society to the information society. Within this period, entrepreneurship is defined as the transformation of intellectual labour to an economic value and takes place in production factors. Putting new business ideas into practice and new businesses that will be started are the primary prerequisite for an economy to grow. For this reason, increasing the number of entrenepreneurial people and businesses in the society and training these people/enterprises are among the primary goals of the countries (Müftüoğlu, 1996). As can be understood from these definitions, entrepreneurship is not only a person’s starting his/her own business but also overhauling his/her present business or opening to a new sector. Here an entrepreneur or an undertaker needs to be informed about the innovations and follow them in order to start his/her own business, overhaul and develop it. At this point, agricultural extension and communication becomes a part of the activity and it helps the managers to be informed about the innovations and the use technology. In this context, the terms “Agriculture and Rural Affairs” stated in the paragraph (a) of the first clause of the Article 4 and the first clause of the Article 34 of the Regulation on the Reorganization of Agricultural Extension and Consulting Services were replaced with the terms “Food, Agriculture and Livestock” (Anonymous, 2006). By putting the Regulation on the Reorganization of Agricultural Extension and Consulting Services into effect, all necessary arrangements were made to extend the consulting services by providing agricultural engineers and the related professionals with a training on agricultural extension and consulting, to provide the necessary conditions in the agricultural policies in order to develop the people (farmers) in the rural areas and increase their income levels, and to enable agricultural extension activities and agents to work more actively in the field. It is also wished to develop enterprises by means of agricultural consultants, establish agriculture based industrial enterprises and promote (encourage) entrepreneurs who tend to be risk taking. 2.2. Entrepreneur An entrepreneur is a profit-oriented entity that gathers and takes hold of the production factors in order to produce and market economic goods or service, and that bears all the risks which might rise as a result of his attempts. According to the economists, an entrepreneur is a person who predicts about the resources with the purpose of increasing their values and plans to start a business; who organizes human resources and helps to process the inputs; who has the ability of offering the outcome obtained to the use of the consumers in a way that will enable him/her to make profit; and a person who brings innovations and a new order (Müftüoğlu and Ark., 2007).

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An entrepreneur is a person who produces goods and service by bringing production elements (nature, labour, capital) together in a systematic and conscious way. An entrepreneur is a person who finds and attempts to produce goods and service demanded by the society and a person who pioneers it (http://www.muhasebedersleri.com, 2013). Besides, in modern sense, an entrepreneur is a person who takes risks in the trading area. The common traits of entrepreneurs are being brave, decisive, greedy, openminded, intelligent, down-to-earth, rational and judges of character; having good communication skills and the abilty to create and start a business, and putting their dreams or ideas into practice (http://www.msxlabs.org/,2013). An entrepreneur is a person who is open to new ideas and not afraid of taking risks, who shows great effort to improve new ideas, watches for opportunities, thinks up ideas and looks for ways and opportunitinies to put them into practice. The characteristics that distinguish entrepreneur people from the others can be classified into three groups: a) Socio-economic characteristics, b) personal traits and c) communication skills. (a) Socio-economic characteristics of entrepreneurs can be listed as being more educated, having a higher rate of literacy, having a high status, trying to have a high social status, running a big business, having a more commercial-economic and marketing position, and having a positive attitude to taking a loan or, in other words, taking risks. (b) In terms of their personal traits, entrepreneurs are people who can put themselves in other people’s place, who do not have strict behaviours and firm beliefs, who are interested in abstract things, who are compatible to change, and who want to come to a conclusion in the jobs they do. (c) When it comes to the communication skills that distinguish entrepreneurs from other people, we can say that they are usually sociable people who have more social participation, who are more integrated with the system, who travel, who are interested in extraterritorial things. Entrepreneurs have close relationships with the institutions and organizations, follow the mass media more and have strong interpersonal relations. Entrepreneurs are people who search for more information, who are better opinion leaders and who are more interested in modern norms than the traditional ones. Without doubt, we can add more to the socio-economic, personal and communicational qualities of entrepreneurs (Gürel, 2010). An entrepreneur is a person who creates and manages change, who uses his/her modernist ideas in creating additional value to his/her current sources and becomes the catalyser of change by turning opportunities into marketable ideas (Atik, 2002). As it can be understood from these definitions, agricultural extension has an important role in encouraging or creating entrepreneurship in rural development, providing rural entrepreneurs with self-confidence and risk-taking skills and in making use of the current scarce resources and watching out opportunities. The duty of agricultural extension is to educate, motivate and upskill rural entrepreneurs. The role of agricultural extension is understood from the characteristics an entrepreneur needs to possess. The characteristics an entrepreneur needs to have are listed below. (http://proje.karatekin.edu.tr/girisimcilik/, 2013); 

Desire to be successful,



Bellicosity and perseverance,



Ability to take responsibility and risk,



Creativity,



Ability to use the opportunities,



Ability to do planned work and research,

 Ability to work with others, trust them and be able to give confidence to the people he/she is in contact with, 

Knowing their drawbacks, seeing their limits and making use of suggestions,



Being ready to work under harsh conditions,



Desire to improve themselves.

2.3. Target Group For an innovation to be put into practice, innovative and entrepreneurial people are needed. The characteristics of the target group who will implement this innovation are also important. In terms of

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agricultural extension, the characteristics of the target group in rural development, in order words, the farmers need to have are listed as follows (Gürel, 2004); 

Having an entrepreneurial spirit,



Being in good rapport with extension agents,



Being interested in innovations,



Being educated,



Being rational,



Having a good social status,



Not being anti-social or self-enclosed,



Using sources of communication well,



Having a commercial and economic status in adapting to the innovations,



Having a more specialised business,



Being interested in abstract things,



Being intelligent,



Having a positive attitude toward evaluating new jobs and opportunities,



Being more positive toward science,



Being more integrated in the social system,



Having the ability to be an opinion leader,



Sticking to modern norms more than traditional ones,



Turning towards the outer world,

The characterisitics listed here also emphasize the traits of a modernist entrepereneur. In other words, these are important characteristics the target group must have in terms of determining the number of entrepreneurs in the countryside and providing agricultural extension services and improving the entrepreneurial spirit. Here at this point, agricultural extension is an important factor in reaching the required goals in entrepreneurship in rural areas and development, and fostering an entrepreneurial spirit. 3. RESULT and SUGGESTIONS In line with these findings, we can say that agricultural extension has an important role in the encouragement of entrepreneurship in rural areas. In addition to actualising rural development, the mission of agricultural extension is to increase the practicality of the innovations in agricultural areas by increasing the number of rural entrepreneurs. The role of agricultural extension in rural entrepreneurship is providing people living in rural areas with job opportunities, increasing their level of income, reducing the unemployment rate, and preventing unemployment by extending labour (force) over the whole year to make use of the spare time remaining after seasonal work. The aim of agricultural extension in rural entrepreneurship is to improve the life standards of the small businesses (farmers) in the countryside via new enterprises and investments. To do this it is necessary to: 

Increase the productivity,



Raise the levels of income,

 Increase the profitability at the end of an agricultural activity and make agricultural activities attractive, 

Facilitate labour by using technology,

 Start to apply technological and managerial innovations in order to create favourable abd sanitary conditions.

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For all these things to happen, people who are innovative, who can apply and adopt innovations and take risks, in other words, entrepreneurs are needed. And for this; Besides the out of school education of agricultural extension and consultancy, extending the consultancy service by also providing communication training for the relevant careerists with a relevant profession is really important for the rural development. That there is an insufficient number of agricultural engineers, technicians or operators working within the body of the Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestock shows that especially the consultancy services have an important place in meeting the deficit in this area. Thus, the relevant ministry must increase the number of both extension agents and the consultancy service staff and make the necessary arrangements as soon as possible in order to communicate information, technology and innovations in the countryside in time. Closing these gaps in the countryside will accelerate the action of the individuals that do agricultural activites there or the ones who will start an enterprise in agricultural area. In order to make the investments in time, encourage the entrepreneurs help develop people in their own premises and prevent migration;  The people in the rural areas who have an entrepreneurial spirit must be determined and supported.  By encouraging entrepreneurship and improving agriculture based industrial enterprises, rural people must be provided with employment.  For the adaption and application of the innovations in the countryside, agricultural extension education and the improvement of entrepreneurship spirit are needed.  As there is a high rate of risks and uncertainties in the agricultural area, it is necessary to support and minimise them.  The efficiency/role of agricultural extension in entrepreneurship must be supported by both the public and private sectors. REFERENCES Anonymous, 2006. “Tarımsal Yayım Ve Danışmanlık Hizmetlerinin Düzenlenmesine Dair Yönetmelik” Resmi Gazete Tarihi: 08.09.2006 Resmi Gazete Sayısı: 26283 Anonymous, 2012. “Türk Veteriner Hekimleri Birliği 16 Ekim Dünya Gıda Günü”, Basın Bildirisi, 2012 Atik, S., 2002. “Kültürün Girişimciliğe Etkileri”, Kara Harp Okulu Bilim Dergisi, Sayı: 3, ss. 38-51. Arıduru, A., 2007. “Girişimcilik ve Kadın Girişimciler” http://www.maxihaber.net/yazarlar/konukyazar/2007, Erişim Tarihi: 06.03.2013) Başar, M., Tosunoğlu, B. T., Ve Demirci, A. E., 2001. “Girişimcilik ve Girişimcinin Yol Haritası: İş Planı”, Eskişehir Ticaret Odası Yayınları, No: 14. Bilir, M., 2011. “Kırsal Kalkınma Sürecinde Tarımsal Yayımcılığın Önemi”., I. Ulusal Sarıgöl İlçesi Ve Değerleri Sempozyumu, 17–19 Şubat 2011 Sarıgöl/Manisa Ceylan, İ.C., 2010. “Tarımsal Yayım Ve İletişim” Dersi Ders Notu, A.Ü. Ziraat Fakültesi Tarım Ekonomisi Bölümü, Ankara. Gürel, A., 2004, Tarımsal Yayım ve Yeniliklerin Benimsenmesi, Ders Notu, Trakya Üniversitesi, Tekirdağ Ziraat Fakültesi, Tekirdağ Gürel, A., 2010, Kırsal Kalkınma Yatırımları Açısından Hayrabolu’da Üretici Davranışları, Hayrabolu Değerleri Sempozyumu, Hayrabolu, Tekirdağ. Kaimowitz, D., 1990. “Making The Link, Agricultural Research and Technology Transfer in Developing Countries”. Published in Cooperation With The International Service For National Agricultural Research (ISNAR), Westview Press, London. Kızılaslan, N., 1999. “Tarımsal Kalkınma Sürecinde Teknik Eleman ve Çiftçi Eğitiminin Önemi”, Ziraat Mühendisliği, Sayı:322, s.29-32, Temmuz-Ağustos. Maunder, S., 1973, “Agricultural Extension Agr 355”,www.scribd.com/.../Agricultural-Extension...2011, Erişim Tarihi: 06.03.2013 Müftüoğlu, T., 1996. “Girişimcilik” Açıköğretim Fakültesi Yayını No:524, Eskişehir. Müftüoğlu , T., Ürper, Y., Başar M., Tosunoğlu, B.T., 2007. “Girişimcilik”, TC. Anadolu Üniversitesi Yayını No:1567, Açıköğretim Fakültesi Yayını No: 824, Eskişehir.

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Odabaşı, Y., 2005. Girişimcilik, Anadolu Üniversitesi Ofset Baskı .2. Baskı , Eskişehir. Özkaya, T., Ceylan, İ.Ç., Aktaş, Y., Şelli, F., Pezikoğlu, F., 2005. “Tarımsal Yayım Hizmetleri ve Organizasyonu”. Türkiye Ziraat Mühendisliği VI: Teknik Kongresi, TMMOB Ziraat Mühendisleri Odası, 2. Cilt, Ankara. Röling, N.,1990. “Extension Science, Information Systems in Agricultural Development”. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Taluğ, C. Tatlıdil, H. 1993. “Tarımsal Yayım Ve Haberleşme”, Ders Notu, A.Ü Ziraat Fakültesi Teksir No: 141, Ankara. Tosunoğlu, B. T., 2003. “ Girişimcilik ve Türkiye’nin Ekonomik Gelişme Sürecinde Türkiye’nin Yeri”, Eskişehir, Anadolu Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Basılmamış Doktora Tezi. http://www.muhasebedersleri.com/ekonomi/girisimci.html, Erişim Tarihi: 06.03.2013 http://www.msxlabs.org/forum/ekonomi/12306-girisimcilik.html. Erişim Tarihi: 06.03.2013 http://proje.karatekin.edu.tr/girisimcilik/index.php?option=com_content&view=article,Erişim Tarihi: 06.03.2013)

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Patterns of Climate Change and Coping Strategies of Small Farmers in Mountainous Area of Kaghan Valley, Northwest Pakistan Umair S.1 Tanvir A.

Babar S. Shoukat A.

Abstract The mountainous areas of northwest Pakistan are typify with patches of agriculture field and terrace farming, while continuation of livelihood depends on agriculture and livestock in these region. These mountainous areas are very vulnerable to climate change and climatic extremes. Kaghan Valley was selected purposively because it is fragile area and changing of weather patterns and climate change negatively affects the source of livelihood of people. The study was designed to analyze the patterns of climate change and how small farmers cope with climate change and climatic extremes. The results designate that there is the significant change in climate pattern in the study area for the last fifty years and this change has its adverse impacts on the agriculture and livelihoods of small farmers. Food storage, crop rotation and migration were reported as the most experienced coping strategy of the small farmers to build their resilience against climate change. It is therefore suggested that alternate agricultural practices should be introduced to build the resilience of the people and forest must be conserve to avoid deforestation. In this regard agricultural extension and forest department have to play their role to build the capacity of the small farmers to cope with the changing trends of climate. Key words: Climate change, Coping strategies, Mountainous area, Kaghan Valley

Introduction Climate change can be narrated as long term change in the state of climate of specific location, region or planet. This change in the climate is measured by average weather such as temperature, precipitation etc. Change in the variability of climate is also considered as climate change even if the average weather condition remains the same (IPCC, 2007). One of the major causes of change in climate condition is the natural variability like volcanic eruptions, variability in sun’s intensity etc. On the other hand human activities like releasing of green house gases and aerosols in the atmosphere, changing land surface and by damaging ozone layer (Oxfam, 2009). It is evident that climate change have a momentous effect on the livelihood of the people especially farmers to adopt the practices according to changing climate (IFPRI, 2011).Adaptation to climate change is relatively very difficult for those people who are located in marginalized environments, areas of high variability of temperature, rainfall and natural hazards struggling to sustain their livelihoods under the stress of climatic variability and food insecurity. Small and subsistence farmers are more vulnerable to climate change and it is hard for them to cope with climatic variability because of small farm sizes, lack of modern technology and diverse non climatic stress (Mirza, 2003).Climate changes have its negative impact on agriculture and livestock and poses a great threat for the state of food security (Schmindhuber and Tubiello 2007). It is estimated that average temperature will be increased by 20C to 40C by the year 2080.Thus the yield of many crops will be threatened severely due to this increase in temperature, so in future it will be more difficult to feed the growing population and to achieve the food security(Lobellet al, 2008). Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP) is the hilly and mountainous province of Pakistan. It has large rugged dry hills and vast gravelly plains and patches of agricultural fields. The subsistence livelihood of this region is based on agriculture and livestock.Changing patterns of climate results into the heavy floods which have caused a extensive damage to the crops, livestock and infrastructure in the area and hence make the people more vulnerable in these regions (Ahmad, 2011). Small farmers have limited access to technology and facilities and are directly affected by increased prices (WFP, 2010). Recent changes in temperature and heavy rainfall has severely affected the livelihoods of small farmers, because their livelihoods mainly depend on the natural resources and the availability of these natural resources depends on moderate climate (Sadaat and Saifulislam, 2011).

Institute of Agri. Extension and Rural Development, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan [email protected] 1

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Methodology The main focus of this research study is to find out the patterns of climate change on and coping strategies of small farmers in Kghan Valley. Kaghan Valley of district Mansehra of KPK province was selected purposively because this is mountainous area and such areas are fragile and directly affected by climate change (Schild, 2008).Therefore, keeping in view the above situation, this study was designed in Kaghan Valley which consists of four union councils i.e. Kaghan, Ghanool, Kawai and Mahandhri. Two of the four union councils (Kaghan and Kawai) were chosen through simple random sampling. Then from each union council three village were selected through simple random method. From Kaghan UC, three villages Kaghan, Lari and Batakundi were selected by using simple random sample technique. From Kawai UC three villages Kawai, Paras and Bella Balseri were selected randomly. From each selected village 20 respondents were selected randomly thereby making a sample size of 120 respondents. Mixture of qualitative and quantitative methods was used for the data collection. Focus group discussion and key informant interviews were conducted in order to obtain qualitative data. While quantitative data were collected through structured questionnaire. Researcher visited the study area during 2011-2012 and collected qualitative data by personal observations. Various useful information was collected during these visits. An interview schedule was developed in order to obtain quantitative data which was tested for its reliability and validity. As a result of pre-testing necessary amendments were made to give final shape to the interview schedule. The farmers were approached at their farms and homes. Although the interview schedule was in English but interviews were carried out in local and Urdu language to make it easy for communication and the required information was obtained with maximum accuracy. The quantitative data were analyzed with the help of Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). Descriptive statistics was used for the interpretation of data. Results and Discussion Climate Trend Analysis Kaghan Valley lies in the easternmost part of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. It covers the adjoining area of Kunhar River and is characterized by high mountains. The climate of valley is sub-humid to humid. There is the different climate pattern of the valley which shows a significant variability over the area. So, the data about rainfall and temperature of past 50 years is collected from Pakistan Meteorological Department. Rainfall In this section pattern of precipitation is discussed. In Kaghan Valley annual precipitation amount are very extreme and vary all over the valley. The graph has shown the precipitation pattern over the valley for last five decades.

Annual Mean Rainfall

1961-1970

1971-1980

1981-1990

1991-2000

2001-2010

Figure 1- Annual mean precipitation averaged over Kaghan Valley (Source: PMD, 2012)

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The course of precipitation during last five decades shows a significant variability. From 1961 onward there is continuously increase in the annual precipitation. Annual rainfall of 1961 is about 1100mm but suddenly in the next decade (1971-80) there is the rising trend of rainfall and maximum rainfall is recorded which is 1800mm.In the next coming years the annual amount of rainfall become slightly decreased which is recorded as 1600mm in 1981-90 and 1500mm from 1991-2000.But from the period of 2001-2010 the amount of rainfall is again gradually get rise which is recorded as 16200mm.In nut shell there is the constant variation of precipitation over the last 50 years in Kaghan Valley. Since there is decreasing trend of precipitation from 1971-2000 but from 2001 onward the precipitation is keep on increasing which lead to flood and other climatic extremes. Temperature The data regarding temperature over kaghan valley of last 50 years is collected from Pakistan Metrological Department in order to analyze the temperature variability over the area. The data collected is presented in graphical form below.

Annual Mean Temp. 26 25,5 25 24,5

24 23,5 23 1961-1970

1971-1980

1981-1990

1991-2000

2001-2010

Figure 2-Annual mean Temperature averaged over Kaghan Valley (Source: PMD, 2012) The data in figure 2 revealed that there is a significant variability of temperature. The annual mean temperature of the decade 1961-1970 is 24.6oC. Then in the coming years the temperature was rose which is recorded as 24.8oC for year 1971-80 and 24.9oC for year 1981-90.But there is sudden decrease of temperature in the decade 1991-2000 and the annual mean temperature fall to 23.8 oC. In the first decade of 21st century there is considerably increase of annual mean temperature over the area which is recorded as 25.5oC. Since there is gradual rise of temperature from 1961, the temperature get down in the last decade of 20th century. But in the next coming years the temperature increased and become hot over the Valley and this increase of temperature was mainly due to many factors like deforestation, emission of green house gases, rainfall, which results into different climatic events and negatively affect the livelihood of the people (Martin, 2012). During a key informant interview with Chief Meteorologist of Pakistan Metrological Department it was found that Pakistan is very vulnerable to climate change and this climate change is due to natural resources degradation and human activities which results in rising temperature, irregular rainfall, floods and drought. Forests which play an important role in regulating the environment is not in adequate amount in the country and its proportion is decreasing day by day, however KP province which has very huge forest area is under the cruel hands of timber mafia. Efforts should be made towards planting trees in order to reduce pollution and to reduce the negative impacts of climate change. Coping Strategies People living in the mountainous areas have long been vulnerable to seasonal climatic variability and shocks and their livelihood is greatly disturbed by this as they have very limited options to cope with these events. So the data regarding different coping strategies adopted by the respondent in the event of climatic extremes is given in table 4.12 Table 1: Coping strategies against climatic extremes

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Coping strategy

Yes

Use drought resistant varieties Change in cropping pattern Crop rotation Forest conservation Planting of trees Heat/moisture tolerant varieties Water storage Migration Access to weather forecast Increased land area Food storage Inducting new land for cultivation

F 6 12 91 10 22 23 0 67 33 12 120 26

No % 5.0 10.0 75.83 8.33 18.33 19.16 0.0 55.83 27.5 10.0 100.0 21.66

F 114 106 27 110 98 95 120 53 87 105 0 92

% 95.0 88.33 22.5 91.66 81.66 79.16 100.0 44.16 72.5 87.5 0.0 76.66

The table 1 depicted that total 100% of the respondents store food as their most important priority in order to cope with the negative impact of climate extremes, followed by 75.83% of the respondents who reported that they adopt crop rotation by replacing wheat with vegetables and maize with potato and vegetables in order to cope with climatic extremes, while 55.83% of the respondent migrate to the lower areas to make themselves safe from the event of climatic extremes. All 100% of the respondents said that they never store water and 95% of the respondents reported that they never used drought resistant varieties to cope with the negative impacts of climate. About 91% of the respondent reported that they don’t conserve forest to reduce the impact of climate change and they cut the trees more rapidly for their daily use. Majority of the respondents reported that “We have to cut wood for our daily use like fire purposes, cooking and for shelter as we have no alternate source” The above mentioned results show that food storage is the main coping strategy which is adapted by the respondents. Most of the respondents said that they usually store food in the winter season because in those areas winter is very severe due to heavy snow and rainfall and migration is also taken place of the people in this severe winter climate as the livelihood options become very low in these areas. It is very stunning situation that the climate change severely affect the livelihoods of the people but they don’t put their efforts to conserve forest and plant trees in order to regulate the environment so there is need to empower local institution in the perspective of participatory forest management system and a relationship of trust must be developed between authorities and local stakeholders (Shahbaz and Ali, 2009). Therefore, it is concluded that there is significant variability in the climate over the last few decades and this climate change poses a negative effect on the livelihood activities of the people especially it becomes very difficult for farmers to cope with this climate change. Food storage, crop rotation and migration were found to be the most practicable coping strategy in the event of climate change. So, it is very important to conserve agriculture and forest of the area and public agricultural service could play its vital role in this regard. There is need to reorganize the agricultural extension department, need to create awareness among the people and there is immediate need to provide basic facilities like education and health to the people of that area.A strong and research based policy is therefore needed to address this issue. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research study was conducted within the frame work of the Research Project RP2 (Livelihood Futures) funded by the Swiss National Centre of Competence in Research (NCCR North-South) Switzerland.The authors highly acknowledged the financial and technical support of NCCR and Sustainable Development Policy Institute (SDPI), Islamabad, Pakistan. References Ahmad S (2011) Significance of climate change in Pakistan.www.dawn.com/blog. IFPRI (2011) International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) Annual Report 2010. IPCC (2007) Climate change 2007:Impacts,adaption and vulnerability. Working group II contribution to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report Brussels.

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Lobell D B, Burke M B, Tebaldi C, Mastrandrea M D, Falcon W P,Naylor R L. (2008) Prioritizing climate change adaptation needs for food security in 2030.Science 319(1):607-610. Mirza M M Q (2003) Climate change and extreme weather events: Can developing countries adapt?. Climate Policy.3 (3):233-248 Oxfam (2009) Even the Himalayas have stopped smiling. Climate change, poverty and adaptation in Nepal. Published by Oxfam international August, 2009, Nepal. Shahbaz B and Ali T(2009).Donor-driven participatory forest management and local social realities: Insights from Pakistan. In Geiser U and Rist S (Eds.).Decentralization meets local complexity. Local struggle, state decentralization and access to natural resources in South Asia and Latin America. NCCR North –South. Swiss national centre for competence in research North –South University of Bern, Switzerland. Sadaat A A and Saifulislam A K M(2011) Impact of climate change on rural livelihood: A case study.3 rd International Conference on Water and Flood Management (ICWFM-2011). Schild A (2008) International centre for integrated mountain development (ICIMOD, S) Position on climate change and mountains systems.28 (3):328-331.International Mountain Society. Schmindhube J and Tubiello F N (2007) Global food security under climate change. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science (PNAS). 104(50):19703-19708. Martin K (2012) Linking climate change with food security in high land of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa North West Pakistan. Master Thesis. Wurzburg University Germany (availableonlineatwww.nccrpakistan.org/publications_pdf/Livelihoods/Kienzler_Thesis_small.pdf) WFP (2010) Food security and market assessment in crises areas of NWFP and FATA, Pakistan. World Food Program Islamabad.

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Investigation of the Central European Agricultural Advisory Systems with special regard to the Austrian and Hungarian Systems Ver A.1

Milics G.2

Kozari J.3

Abstract Farmers in the European Union require important information that helps them to apply for subsidies, furthermore such information helps them to receive sufficient professional and economical knowledge for the practical application. It is essential for the farmers to receive reliable information in order to fulfil all requirements expected by the various regulations and criteria systems. This is where a professional advisor can help the farmers. In general the farmers do not have enough receptivity and capacity for the adaptation of the information. For this reason it has been recognized both is European and national level that knowledge transfer (advices, training) has to be encouraged, furthermore professional advisors are needed in the close location of the farmers (Tóth, 2005). In Hungary several advisory systems are working parallel. The main aim of these advisory systems is knowledge transfer. Unfortunately maintaining these systems is expensive, unnecessary and their efficiency is questionable. In Austria the long-standing agricultural advisory systems work reliable. In this article the aim was to investigate how Hungarian advisory system can be rationalized. A questionnairebased survey helped to investigate the target groups and came to the conclusions based on the 400 questionnaire. Based on the already existing institutional structure a new structure could be developed. In the new structure the already existing parallel advisory systems could be integrated. Keywords: Rural development, Farm Advisory System, agricultural advisor, farmer

INTRODUCTION The aim of the paper wasto analyze a comparable advisory system with the Hungarian one which is more advanced and haslongertradition.To these conditionsAustria corresponded best as it has similar environmental circumstances, also it issurrounding area (Lower Austria, Burgenland) and theextension/advisory systemin Austria is well developed (Cser et al., 2007; Vér– Cser, 2012).Further aim was to introduce a new structure into the Hungarian system, which would fulfill the requirements of the modern farm advisory systems. MATERIALS AND METHODS In order to compare the two country’s advisory systems questionnaire based data collection was carried out. Personal interviews and consultations with the professional advisors as well as visiting the local farmers helped to investigate how the Austrian consultancy system works in the practice. General data provided about the Austrian agricultural sector were partly collected during the internship spent in Austria, when data was available on the website of the Chamber of Agriculture, partly they were adopted from various leaflets and professional publications made by various institutes. Legislative systems in Hungary as well as in Austria were also investigated. The questionnaire based survey was carried out between 2008 and 2011 depending on the form the target groups were involved in the work. In order to be able to compare the Hungarian and Austrian advisory systems, the role of the following target groups have been investigated in the advisory system: • Farmers: both plant producers as well as forest managers, as individuals. • Professional advisors: In Hungary those who are listed in the record of the professional advisory register; In Austria those who belong to the Regional Chamber of Advisors.

University of West Hungary, Faculty of Agricultural and Food Sciences, Institute for Training and Consultancy, Mosonmagyaróvár, H-9200, Lucsony u. 2., Hungary, [email protected] 2 University of West Hungary, Faculty of Agricultural and Food Sciences, Institute for Training and Consultancy, Mosonmagyaróvár, H-9200, Lucsony u. 2., Hungary, 3 Szent István University, Páter Károly str. 1., Gödöllő, H-2100, Hungary 1

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The aim was to collect minimum 100 questionnaires from both target groups (farmers and advisors), therefore the conclusions drawn would be based on 400 questionnaires and the suggestions would be reliable and represent the opinion of the farmers. Based on the results provided by the questionnaire a New Farm Advisory System for Hungary could be developed. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION According to the results of the questionnaire professional advisory system from the point of the farmers are depending on the time the farmer spent in the agricultural sector, therefore the experience level the farmer engaged during the years. In Austria the percentage of the farmers (92%) who are working in the agricultural sector for more than ten years is much higher than in Hungary (39%). In order to be effective in the advisory systems it is mandatory to have the professional technical background, as well as being able to apply various knowledge transfer techniques. These characteristics are shown in Fig. 1.

Hungary; advice via telephone; 75 Austria; advice via telephone; 92 Hungary; give advice in the office of the consultant; 46 Austria; give advice in the office of the consultant; 91 Hungary; course organizing; 22 Austria; course organizing; 89 Hungary; write an article in professional journals; 29 Austria; write an article in professional journals; 75 Austria; demonstration organizing; 59 Austria; visiting the farmers in their homes; 74 Hungary; group and project advisory; 12 Austria; group and project advisory; 71 Hungary; demonstration organizing; 22 Hungary; visiting the farmers in their homes; 59

% Hungary

Austria

Figure 1. Knowledge transfer technologies applied by the Hungarian and Austrian advisors Knowledge transfer techniques applied by the advisors in Hungary are advice via telephone, consultation in the advisors office or visiting the farmers in their homes. Nearly half of the advisors (46%) consult with the farmers in their office. The more costly and workload (organization) required methods, such as course and demonstration organizing are existing in 22-22%. It is also relatively rare method to write an article (29%) in the professional journal, or advice booklets. In Austria, the distribution of the different knowledge transfer techniques is much more equal.Moreover, each method is more often used than in Hungary. Similarly to Hungary advice via telephones are the most applied advising technique, nearly all advisors are using this method (92%). It is also very popular (91%) to give advice in the office of the consultant. The explanation is that the advisors are working full time for a Camber of Agriculture. The Austrian farmers are going into the offices of the advisors with trust at the Chamber of Agriculture, in case he/she needs any help of advice. In Hungary this trust does not exist, the farmers do not prefer the visit into the office of the advisors. Summing up the conclusions of the research it can be concluded that the results can be used in their complexity in the development of the efficiency of the Hungarian advisory system; therefore the suggested structure would be available for the farmers and the advisors as well.

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Figure 2. The proposed new structure of the advisory system in Hungary The aim therefore is to build such a network, which relies on the need of the farmers, and starts at the farmers. In order to work effectively such structure is needed that the professional advisors have the knowledge, the experience and the knowledge base for giving up to date and innovative advice for the farmers. By the integration of the existing (in many cases parallel) advisory systems a new structure has to be formed, which is outlined in Fig. 2. According to the opinion of the authors with the lead of the National Agricultural Extension, Rural Development and Training Institute (VM NAKVI) the Consortium of the Regional Extension Centres would coordinate the work of the advisory network. The background institutions for the Regional Extension Centres, such as Universities, model and demonstration farms, laboratories, etc. would be able to coordinate this work with the existing infrastructural and institutional background. It would also be important as a part of the network apart from application of quality management, marketing and production management systems, operating the demonstration farms as well as support for them would be the responsibility of the Regional Extension Centres. The role of the existing locally functioning village advisors, and Chambers of Agriculture would be taken over by the local Agrarian and Rural Development Advisory Centres, which would be working extensionally compared to the existing system. Therefore, there would be no parallel networks, and the farmers would know exactly where to turn in case they need professional advice and the most up to date information. The rural entrepreneurs (farmers) would be in contact with an organization which could provide a complex “one window” service similar to the Austrian system. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Authors wish to thank “TALENTUM PROJECT” TÁMOP 4. 2. 2. B – 10/1 – 2010 – 0018 for the financial support. References Cser J.-Vér A.- Lakner D. (2007): Advisory qualification programs at the University of West- Hungary, Faculty of Agricultural and Food Sciences (Rural Development international scientific conference, Kaunas 2007. Nov. 8-10., 152158. p.) Tóth K. (2005): Evaluation and development possibilities of the agricultural knowledge system in Hungary (In Hungarian: A mezőgazdaságiismeretirendszerértékeléseésfejlesztéséneklehetőségeiMagyarországon.)PhD dissertation, Gödöllő, 171.pp Vér A. - Cser J. (2012): Investigation of the Hungarian and Austrian agricultural advisory system among the farmers based on questionnaires. (ActaAgronomicaOvariensis. Vol. 54. No 1. p. 53-62. 2012)

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Monitoring Creative Processes: the Timeline and the Learning History. Wielinga E.1

Herens M.2

Abstract Agricultural advisors often act as facilitators in network processes with stakeholders in a joint search for solutions acceptable to all. The outcome of such processes is hard to predict. Yet most funding agencies require detailed project descriptions, with SMART formulated targets and performance indicators, to keep executing agencies accountable for spending. Regular monitoring and evaluation (M&E) methods, focused on measuring anticipated results and explanations for success or failure, often fail to grasp what really matters in such processes. The Timeline Method and Learning History were designed for reflection on what is actually happening rather than what is supposed to. In the version presented in this paper, monitoring is done with the stakeholders, and this seems to work well for the continuation of the process. Project commissioners also appear to like the results. We begin with a selection of relevant literature highlighting the roots of the methods. Then our paper becomes practical: how do the methods work, and what were our experiences with the different ones? We have applied them in a range of circumstances; networks around farmers’ initiatives, international NGOs in North-South collaboration, programs on rural development and health workers’ initiatives stimulating physical activity. We conclude with a reflection on the advantages and limitations of the methods. Keywords: network processes, monitoring and evaluation methods, action research, complex systems

NETWORK PROCESSES ARE DISCOVERY JOURNEYS WITH UNPREDICTABLE OUTCOMES Advisors in agriculture (and other sectors) are often involved in processes with stakeholders that are hard to plan for. Take, for example, a project with farmers who have formed a network to find new solutions for a problem. If the outcome was known, they would not have to search for something new. Such projects resemble a heroic journey. The hero and his friends take to the road with an ambition and a plan. Soon they encounter unforeseen obstacles. Their equipment and knowledge appear insufficient, their assumptions were not quite right and some friends may give up, but when the crisis is at its peak, help comes from an unexpected corner. Ultimately, they do not arrive at their premeditated destination but at another place, one better than they could have hoped for. If they were held accountable for their original plan, following a prefixed evaluation scheme, the project would be judged as a failure, even though the result was beautiful. Snowden (1999) distinguishes four different systems in which people can operate: [1] In simple systems the relation between action and outcome is clear. The desired result can be reached by following a simple recipe. [2] In complicated systems, there are many mechanisms at work, but there is still a direct link between action and effect. Desired results can be reached through analysis and instruction. An airplane is a complicated system; the effects of a pilot’s actions are predictable. Otherwise nobody would dare to fly. [3] This is different to complex systems, such as the weather. There are so many factors involved that outcomes can only be predicted up to a certain extent. Here one should try to recognise patterns and respond accordingly in order to attain satisfying results. [4] Chaotic systems are so unpredictable that one should just act regardless. It is also useful to classify interactive processes with respect to the desired result: a] Transfer: The end situation is a given. The process consists of getting people to do what it takes to reach it. [b] Exchange: The initiating actor has a desired end situation in mind, but cannot reach it without contributions from others, who want something in return. The result emerges from negotiations over give and take and it is probable that no-one gets exactly what they wanted. [c] Co-creation: Actors share an ambition, and pool resources (knowledge, means, access to networks, positions of power, etc.) in a creative process. The result cannot be foreseen, but might be better than

1 2

Consultant and owner of LINK Consult, The Netherlands. ([email protected]) PhD Candidate Wageningen University and Research, The Netherlands ([email protected])

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anyone could have foreseen. The classical range of M&E tools that compare outcomes with prefixed yardsticks are valid for simple and complicated systems. Network processes however, with different stakeholders looking for new solutions, are always complex. So how can you monitor the unexpected? How might you value the capacity of a project to learn and adjust within an unpredictable process? Here we need tools that enable the actors involved to learn from the unforeseen. EVALUATION OF COMPLEX PROCESSES IS AN ISSUE IN LITERATURE There is a vast body of academic literature available addressing the issue of complex program evaluation (Barnes, Matka, & Sullivan, 2003; Kouévi, Van Mierlo, Leeuwis, &Vodouhê, 2013; McCormack et al., 2002; Patton, 2012; Sridharan, Campbell, &Zinzow, 2006; Sridharan&Nakaima, 2012). Patton (2012) points out the need for “utility”:“The focus in utilisation-focused evaluation is on intended use by intended users. Since no evaluation can be value free, utilisation-focused evaluation answers the question of whose values will frame the evaluation by working with clearly identified, primary intended users who have responsibility to apply evaluation findings and implement recommendations”(cited in: (Visser et al., 2013). Whether or not it is fair to speak of a paradigm shift, clearly complex program evaluations require effort to understand complex issues (Snowden, 2003) such as contextual and historical influences, mechanisms and the impact of the unexpected in relation to outcomes. Dominant evaluation approaches addressing these matters, are: Participatory and collaborative evaluation research (Campbell, Patton, &Patrizi, 2003) involving stakeholders in a systematic way in the planning and implementation of program evaluation, in order to generate stakeholder ownership and support, and to enhance interpretability and use of evaluation results (O'Sullivan, 2012). Theory driven evaluation developed to provide answers to problems of evaluation approaches limited to before/after and input/output designs traditionally used in intervention and program evaluation (Chen, 1989; Donaldson, 2003; Prashanth et al., 2012; Sridharan&Nakaima, 2012; Van Belle, Marchal, Dubourg, &Kegels, 2010). Developments in the field of theory-driven evaluations include the theory of change (Blamey & Mackenzie, 2007; Fulbright-Anderson, 1995) to evaluate complex interventions. Mostly applied to program evaluation it seeks to establish the links between intervention, context and outcome through the development and testing of logic models (Van Belle, et al., 2010). Realistic evaluation, developed by Pawson and Tilley (Pawson, Greenhalgh, Harvey, &Walshe, 2005; 1997) seeks to indicate “what works in which conditions for whom”. It aims to identify the underlying generative mechanisms of the intervention and the influence of context upon the outcomes. Who is Evaluating? When co-creation is aimed for, what counts is the capacity of the network itself to create the conditions that allows stakeholders to become creative. Then learning from the ongoing process is crucial. This raises the issue of whether the advisor, as a “free actor” facilitating complex processes, can play a role in the M&E of such processes (Wielinga&Vrolijk, 2009). Are advisors in the role of evaluator, often in combination with other activities, aware of the importance of principles of participatory evaluation strategies, and the methods and techniques that go along with them? (Christie, 2003). Evaluation techniques are required which allow evaluators to involve stakeholders systematically and integrate their programme expertise and knowledge into the evaluation, simultaneously facilitating cocreation and building evaluation capacity, in order to come to more understanding of complex programs (Askew, Beverly, & Jay, 2012). Creating responsive capacity, taking organisational cultures, political actors and stakeholder variety into account, is crucial in complex processes. (O'Sullivan, 2012; Wielinga&Vrolijk, 2009). Other dimensions of competence development are reflective practice and transformative action, as knowledge is constructed and reconfigured in the dynamic working environment (Brunton& Jeffrey, 2010;Van Mierlo, 2010; Wielinga&Vrolijk, 2009; Wielinga et al., 2008).

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The Various Methods Presented Have Various Roots Various useful methods and techniques have been described in past years, bringing organisational learning and evaluation practice together. The Critical Incident Technique (CIT), recognised for over fifty years (Flanagan, 1954), still finds a place in modern evaluation strategies (Edvardsson&Roos, 2001; Flanagan, 1954). It evolved into a recognised technique for organisational and intercultural learning (Brunton& Jeffrey, 2010; Davis, 2006; Gremler, 2004; McAllister, Whiteford, Hill, Thomas, & Fitzgerald, 2006). The Most Significant Change (MSC) technique is a dialogical, story-based technique. Its primary purpose is to facilitate programme improvement by focusing the direction of work towards explicitly valued directions and away from less valued directions (Dart & Davies, 2003). The Timeline technique elaborates further on the importance of narrative to create meaning; emotion, memory and identity (Rappaport, 1995; D. Snowden, 1999). Identifying and visualising learning increases and achievements are vital parts of the learning process, a driving force in complex programs. They help to demonstrate emergent, dynamic learning as the programme is implemented (Eldred, Ward, Dutton, & Snowdon, 2004; Sridharan&Nakaima, 2011). The visual timeline method offers practitioners an alternative way of gathering data to inform the design of appropriate interventions and of visualising benefits that may not have been provided by more conventional approaches. (Mazzetti& Blenkinsopp, 2012). The Learning History Understanding how community and organisational narratives are created and appropriated into our personal life stories (and vice versa) and how these stories influence identity and behaviour, personal and social change, is one of the aims of narrative theory and research (Rappaport, 1995). The Learning History, developed by a group of social scientists, business managers and journalists at MIT (Kleiner& Roth, 1997), is a tool that includes and creates understanding for the importance and contribution of one’s own experiences, as well as value and meaning in one’s own performances in work and life. It is a written narrative of an organisational or collaborative critical event, presented in two columns. In one column, relevant episodes are described by the people who took part in, were affected by, or observed them. In the other, learning historians (trained outsiders and knowledgeable insiders) identify recurrent themes in the narrative, pose questions, and raise "un-discussable" issues. The Learning History forms a basis for group discussions, both for those involved in the event and others who also might learn from it. Appreciative enquiry also stems from theories of organisational change, adding a focus on positive enquiry techniques. The aim is that both interviewer and interviewee(s) focus not on problem orientation, but build conversation around appreciative approaches: stories about what works, what are successes. It also builds on interview techniques which avoid judgement during the conversation (Cooperrider& Whitney, 2005; Naaldenberg, Vaandrager, Koelen, &Leeuwis, 2012). Observations and citations are documented and used as data sources for further interpretation and systematic analyses at different levels. GOOD EXPERIENCES WITH THE TIMELINE AND THE LEARNING HISTORY Here we would like to share our experiences from the past eight years. The first author was involved in a large-scale experiment with over 120 networks of Dutch livestock farmers working on initiatives for sustainable innovations ((Wielinga&Vrolijk, 2009; Wielinga, et al., 2008). Collecting data about progress and results based on the initial project plans seemed pointless. The projects had been approved because of the quality of the initiatives, whilst concrete plan building was already part of the assistance offered by the experimental programme. However, the process and results were unpredictable. The action research team looked for different tools to bring what was actually going on in the networks into the picture, and adopted the Learning History (Kleiner& Roth, 1997). As input for these Learning Histories, the facilitators were asked to make a Timeline with their respective participants, focusing on the energy level in the network (Wielinga 2001). This was done around two-thirds into the process, allowing the networks to use the insights derived from the Timeline session for the remainder. Initial reluctance was soon overcome when the word spread from one network to another about how useful it had been. As a next step, facilitators were asked to elaborate the results into a narrative story, adding their analysis to it. These Learning Histories were sent to the Ministry of Agriculture that funded the experiment ((Teenstra, 2007) and were well appreciated. The network approach for stimulating innovations at farm level was transformed into a regular subsidy arrangement for all sectors in agriculture, and is still running and popular to this day, five years after the experiment ended. Our version of the Timeline Method and Learning History became part of the “FAN approach” (Wielinga&Vrolijk, 2009) which has found its way into numerous workshops, training courses and action

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researches. The second author of this paper participated in such a course, and convinced her organisation to make the approach available in over thirty regional networks for health workers stimulating physical health in local communities. At present she is working on a PhD study monitoring the effects of this programme. The Time Line Method Reveals Perceptions of What Mattered Most A typical Timeline session is held with stakeholders and usually takes no longer than 1 - 1½ hours. An advisor acting as facilitator activates the session, asserting that it is useful to look together at the process itself, separately of the contents, which are usually the focus of meetings. It provides the opportunity to vocalise points of satisfaction and dissatisfaction, and to learn from the past for improvements for the future. When monitoring on behalf of external actors is required, it also provides useful material for reporting. A Timeline is prepared on a wall, using flipcharts or wallpaper, divided into three rows. The top row is for moments that gave positive energy to the process, the middle for moments that took energy away, and the bottom for breakthrough moments (new insights, opportunities). Milestones in the process (e.g. meetings everyone can remember, months or years) divide the Timeline with vertical lines (figure 1). All participants in the session are provided with a marker and at least ten self-adhesive sheets (Post-Its, 12 x 7.5 cm). They are asked to recall moments that mattered to them, write them down as statements and place them on the corresponding spot on the Timeline. They are to do so in silence. Looking at the result, the facilitator first asks for impressions of the overall picture. Usually a kind of energy curve is visible, with ups and downs. It might already be a relief for some to know that such down-periods are natural, and even necessary in a learning process. Often the breakthrough moments follow periods of struggle, and this becomes visible on the Timeline. Then the group tries to understand what has been written. Different perceptions of the same events are interesting. All perceptions are valid, including those that deviate. Perhaps patterns can be recognised. The last step is to draw conclusions. This results in an agenda of issues to take up when the process continues.

The Learning History Converts Perceptions into a Narrative Story and Adds Analysis Based on the results of the Timeline session, the facilitator makes a Learning History. This consists of a narrative story and an analysis. The story must be recognisable by all stakeholders involved: “Yes, this is how it happened, and this reflects what was essential”. Significant differences in perceptions should also be included. It is helpful to divide the story into four to six separate scenes, which are given “newspaper headlines”, such as “A Flying Start”, “Help in Times of Trouble” etc. Clusters of sheets on the Timeline usually indicate periods in which significant changes took place. The result is a story of events (“... and then …”), reflecting their history, memory, emotions and meanings attributed throughout the process. The facilitator then adds her own analysis. This should be done in a traceable way, in textboxes or on the opposite pages to those of story. Questioned should be asked and answered for every scene, such as: What factors account for the change in this scene? What interventions were made and by who? What was the effect?

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How can this be understood? The facilitator makes explicit what theory she uses to make this analysis. In our programmes, the facilitators used the models of the FAN approach they had been equipped with through initial training. These models help to recognise patterns and possible interventions. Facilitators can use any theory they like, as long they make it explicit. This leaves the story open for debate. Someone else could draw different conclusions from the same observations using another theory. Naturally, the Learning History concludes with lessons learned. A typical story counts only 6 to 8 pages. The Learning History can be shared and discussed by the stakeholders at a following meeting. It can also be used for reporting. It is then important that attention is paid to the presentation, preferably by communication specialists. Observations on the Effects of the Methods In our experience the Timeline Method has turned out to be easy to handle by people who have not received extensive training in doing so. Technicians with some sensitivity for group processes can do it. Participants appreciate the method. In most networks it is uncommon to look at the process, and observations at that level usually reveal matters that need to be addressed for a good continuation. Furthermore, all perceptions are appreciated without judgement in this method. Therefore the less outspoken also feel that they are taken seriously. In networks already in existence for some time, newcomers can learn about the history whilst stayers feel recognised for their role as pioneers. The method also enables conflict to be brought back to manageable proportions, by tracing back the patterns that later escalated. We have seen that after a Timeline session network members always took more responsibility for their own network process. Advisors can make Learning Histories too, but this is a bigger step to take. Professional guidance is preferable, as with network facilitation training. It appears to be very hard for facilitators to identify the effects of their own interventions. Our version of the Learning History stimulates them to pay ample attention to them. Here it is very helpful to be coached by peers and professionals. In this way facilitators learn explicitly from what they tend to do intuitively. The effects on their facilitation skills are often impressive. We have also used peer-to-peer sessions with facilitators to analyse what interventions could be useful as next steps in network projects. This could include actions to overcome difficult times while the network members themselves are unable to do what is required (Faber &Wielinga, 2011). For the commissioning party a well written Learning History is much more interesting to read than a standard report with answers to questions or spreadsheets with data. It tells how project heroes have dealt with challenges and what they have discovered. Limitations and Puzzles On a practical level, we have often observed that both stakeholders and managers are reluctant to allot time to a Timeline session, focused as they are on contents and outputs. Once they have experienced how it works out and word has spread however, this is no longer a problem. This threshold can be overcome by making it a compulsory part of a larger programme or action research. A more principal limitation is the risk of being self-referential. Painful taboo issues may remain under cover. When there is suspicion of this, additional evaluation tools may be necessary. Within the methodology it can be useful to collect information through individual interviews with stakeholders who were absent for the Timeline session, or who participated but kept surprisingly silent on certain issues. Such interviews are helpful anyway. The Timeline method and Learning History cannot replace other, more quantitative methods for collecting hard data. A clear and useful picture consists of both the data and narrative story. Discussion and Conclusions The power of the Timeline Method, combined with the Learning History, is that it generates knowledge acceptable to the stakeholders. It is based on their own perceptions and an analysis that is transparent and open for discussion. Such accepted knowledge is essential for processes of co-creation. This is different from uncontested knowledge resulting from objective scientific research. With complex systems and conflicting interests such knowledge is usually hard to find, considered irrelevant by stakeholders or abused as a weapon ((Wielinga, et al., 2008). The other side of the coin is that some issues might remain underwater, because stakeholders are unable to see them or have reasons for not bringing them to the surface. One can ask how powerful other tools are in

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such cases. The outcome would be contested anyway, and it would not stimulate stakeholders to take on their responsibility. More enthusiasm and trust between stakeholders in a network diminishes the risk that the Learning History will remain superficial. It is the art of facilitation to stimulate such “Vital Space” ((Wielinga, 2001; Wielinga&Vrolijk, 2009; Wielinga, et al., 2008), where stakeholders become curious and creative. This is not only important when M&E is to be used for the internal learning process. It is also desirable in relation to accountability that both stakeholders in the project and the funding agency engage in a learning process with curiosity and creativity on both sides. We believe that the approach described in this paper is a valuable contribution to the repertoire of M&E tools currently in use. Especially when projects require a high degree of creativity from stakeholders, it helps them to gain insight into their own learning process and to build up mutual trust. It improves their capacity to generate their own responses to a changing environment. REFERENCES Askew, K., Beverly, M. G., & Jay, M. L. (2012). Aligning collaborative and culturally responsive evaluation approaches. Evaluation and Program Planning, 35(4), 552-557. Barnes, M., Matka, E., & Sullivan, H. (2003). Evidence, Understanding and Complexity: Evaluation in Non-Linear Systems. Evaluation, 9(3), 265-284. Blamey, A., & Mackenzie, M. (2007). Theories of change and realistic evaluation. Evaluation, 13(4), 439-455. Brunton, M. A., & Jeffrey, L. M. (2010). Using the critical incident technique for triangulation and elaboration of communication management competencies. Journal of Vocational Education and Training, 62(3), 239-255. Campbell, M., Patton, M. Q., & Patrizi, P. (2003). Changing stakeholder needs and changing evaluator roles: The Central Valley Partnership of the James Irvine foundation. Evaluation and Program Planning, 26(4), 459-469. Chen, H.-T. (1989). The conceptual framework of the theory-driven perspective. Evaluation and Program Planning, 12(4), 391-396. Christie, C. A. (2003). The Theory-Practice Relationship in Evaluation, 7-36. Cooperrider, D., & Whitney, D. D. (2005). Appreciative inquiry: A positive revolution in change: Berrett-Koehler Publishers. Cousins, J. B., Whitmore, E., & Shulha, L. (2013). Arguments for a Common Set of Principles for Collaborative Inquiry in Evaluation. American Journal of Evaluation, 34(1), 7-22. Dart, J., & Davies, R. (2003). A dialogical, story-based evaluation tool: The most significant change technique. American Journal of Evaluation, 24(2), 137-155. Davis, P. J. (2006). Critical incident technique: a learning intervention for organizational problem solving. Development and learning in Organizations, 20(2), 13-16. Donaldson, S. I. (2003). Theory-driven program evaluation in the new millennium. Paper presented at the Stauffer Symposium on Applied Psychology, Evaluating Social Programs and Problems: Visions for the New Millennium., Claremont Colleges, Claremont, CA, US. Edvardsson, B., & Roos, I. (2001). Critical incident techniques: Towards a framework for analysing the criticality of critical incidents. International Journal of Service Industry Management, 12(3), 251-268. Eldred, J., Ward, J., Dutton, Y., & Snowdon, K. (2004). Catching confidence. NIACE www. niace. org. uk. Faber, K., & Wielinga, H. E. (2011). Looking at collaboration in North-South networks. Experiences from an action research. Final report “Healthy Networks Learning Programme” 2010-2011. The Hague. Flanagan, J. C. (1954). The critical incident technique. Psychological bulletin, 51(4), 327. Fulbright-Anderson, K. (1995). New approaches to evaluating community initiatives: Theory, measurement, and analysis (Vol. 2): Aspen Inst Human Studies. Gremler, D. D. (2004). The critical incident technique in service research. Journal of service research, 7(1), 65-89. Kleiner, A., & Roth, G. (1997). How to make experience your company's best teacher. Harvard Business Review, 75(5), 172. Kouévi, A. T., Van Mierlo, B., Leeuwis, C., & Vodouhê, S. D. (2013). The design of a contextualized responsive evaluation framework for fishery management in Benin. Evaluation and Program Planning, 36(1), 15-28. Mazzetti, A., & Blenkinsopp, J. (2012). Evaluating a visual timeline methodology for appraisal and coping research. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 85(4), 649-665.

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McAllister, L., Whiteford, G., Hill, B., Thomas, N., & Fitzgerald, M. (2006). Reflection in intercultural learning: examining the international experience through a critical incident approach. Reflective Practice, 7(3), 367-381. McCormack, B., Kitson, A., Harvey, G., Rycroft-Malone, J., Titchen, A., & Seers, K. (2002). Getting evidence into practice: the meaning of `context'. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 38(1), 94-104. Naaldenberg, J., Vaandrager, L., Koelen, M., & Leeuwis, C. (2012). Aging Populations’ Everyday Life Perspectives on Healthy Aging New Insights for Policy and Strategies at the Local Level. Journal of Applied Gerontology, 31(6), 711-733. O'Sullivan, R. G. (2012). Collaborative Evaluation within a framework of stakeholder-oriented evaluation approaches. Evaluation and Program Planning, 35(4), 518-522. Patton, M. Q. (2012). A utilization-focused approach to contribution analysis. Evaluation, 18(3), 364-377. Pawson, R., Greenhalgh, T., Harvey, G., & Walshe, K. (2005). Realist review - a new method of systematic review designed for complex policy interventions. Journal of Health Services Research & Policy, 10(Suppl.1), S1:21-S21:34. Pawson, R., & Tilley, N. (1997). Realistic evaluation. Thousand Oaks, CA US: Sage Publications, Inc. Prashanth, N. S., Marchal, B., Hoeree, T., Devadasan, N., Macq, J., Kegels, G., et al. (2012). How does capacity building of health managers work? A realist evaluation study protocol. BMJ open, Vol.2(2), pp.e000882 Rappaport, J. (1995). Empowerment meets narrative: Listening to stories and creating settings. American Journal of community psychology, 23(5), 795-807. Snowden, D. (1999). Story telling: an old skill in a new context. Business Information Review, 16(1), 30-37. Snowden, D. (2003). Complex Acts of Knowing: Paradox and Descriptive Self-Awareness. Bulletin of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 29(4), 23-28. Sridharan, S., Campbell, B., & Zinzow, H. (2006). Developing a Stakeholder-Driven Anticipated Timeline of Impact for Evaluation of Social Programs. American Journal of Evaluation, 27(2), 148-162. Sridharan, S., & Nakaima, A. (2011). Ten steps to making evaluation matter. Evaluation and Program Planning, 34(2), 135-146. Sridharan, S., & Nakaima, A. (2012). Towards an evidence base of theory-driven evaluations: Some questions for proponents of theory-driven evaluation. Evaluation, 18(3), 378-395. Teenstra, E. E. (2007). Leergeschiedenissen van 2006 [Learning Histories of 2006]. Wageningen: Wageningen UR. Van Belle, S., Marchal, B., Dubourg, D., & Kegels, G. (2010). How to develop a theory-driven evaluation design? Lessons learned from an adolescent sexual and reproductive health programme in West Africa. BMC Public Health, 10(1), 1-10. Van Mierlo, B., Arkesteijn, M. & Leeuwis C. (2010). Enhancing the Reflexivity of System Innovation Projects With System Analyses. American Journal of Evaluation, 31(2), 143-161. Visser, I., Guijt, I., Kusters, C., Roefs, M., De ruyter de Wildt, M., & Wolsky, A. (2013). Impact Evaluation: Taking stock and looking ahead. Paper presented at the Impact for Evaluation, Wageningen, the Netherlands. Wielinga, E. (2001). Netwerken als levend weefsel: een studie naar kennis, leiderschap en de rol van de overheid in de Nederlandse landbouw sinds 1945. Wageningen UR, Wageningen. Wielinga, E., & Vrolijk, M. (2009). Language and Tools for Networkers. The Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension, 15(2), 205-217. Wielinga, E., Zaalmink, W., Bergevoet, R., Geerling-Eiff, F., Holster, H., Hoogerwerf, L., et al. (2008). Networks with Free Actors: Encouraging Sustainable Innovations in Animal Husbandry by Using the FAN Approach (Free Actors in Networks): Networking is Sensing Opportunities!Wageningen UR.

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Impact of Large-Scale Irrigation Schemes in Iran: A Constructivist Approach Zarafshani K.1 Barani S.3

Karami S.4

Sharafi L.2 Ramezani M.5

Abstract Since the Iranian Revolution in 1975, the government has taken numerous steps in rural development projects. Land fragmentation coupled with inefficient use of water resources made rural development practitioners to facilitate large-scale irrigation schemes. Over 1000 hectares of rain-fed farm land was transformed into irrigated fields in Kurdistan Province. Thus far the impact of this national large-scale irrigation scheme is not yet revealed at farmer level. Therefore, this study used constructivist methodology to assess the impact of irrigation scheme in western Iran. Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) approach was used among a purposeful sample of farmers who experienced irrigation scheme. Social Mapping, Transect Walk, Pair-wise Ranking, and Problem Tree were used to collect data. Results revealed that lack of farmer participation during project planning and implementation had impacted the project negatively. The result of this study has implications for extension education. If rural development projects are to impact farmers livelihood in a positive manner, extension education should not follow a “one-size-fit-all” approach. Key words: land improvement, PRA, impact, extension education, irrigation scheme

Razi University, Kermanshah, Iran Razi University, Kermanshah, Iran 3 Razi University, Kermanshah, Iran 4 Razi University, Kermanshah, Iran 5 Razi University, Kermanshah, Iran 1 2

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Which organizational models stimulate higher access to agricultural extension services? Empirical evidence from Italy Bartoli L. 1

Chiappini S. 2

De Rosa M. 3

La Rocca G. 4

Abstract The growing complexity of agricultural extension services (AES) has stimulated the debate on which organizational model fits best with higher necessity to foster farmers’ participation in extension programs. Do privatization and contractualisation add up to higher levels of participation? Due to the public nature of some AES, is it necessary to maintain a minimum presence of public? The aims of our paper is on the one side, to analyse the access to agricultural extension services on behalf of farms working in regions with different organizational models; on the other side, the paper tries to test efficacy of different organizational models in terms of drumming up higher levels of consumption of AES on behalf of farms. To make this we will put forward a classification of the organizational models of AES in Italy, and we investigate the relationships between type of governance and access to agricultural extension services. To analyse access to AES, we will present the results of an empirical survey on Italian farms: more precisely we will describe the attitude to consume AES on behalf of farms belonging to regions classified on the basis of different organizational models. Besides we will distinguish farms localized in different rural area, by making reference to the National strategic plans (urban areas, area with intensive agriculture, intermediate rural areas, rural marginal areas. The obtained results will permit us to verify the efficacy of each organizational model and, eventually, to provide for possible normative solution to stimulate organizational adjustments in the supply of AES. Key words: Agricultural extension services, privatization, contractualisation

INTRODUCTION European Policy for Agricultural Extension Services (AES) has been revitalized during the last phases of rural development policies (2007-2013). The most important measures aiming at improving the supply of extension at farm level concern vocational training and information actions, the use of advisory services and the setting up of management, relief and advisory services. To cope with the new role agriculture and the necessity to adapt the system of agricultural services to the new scenario has fostered pluralistic views of extension supply, as underlined in the recent Best Fit approaches (Birner et al., 2010). Best Fit approach reveals particular utility in the analysis of “good” supply of agricultural extension, which makes it possible to reach all types of potential beneficiaries of agricultural services. As a matter of fact, the objective of avoiding “result paradox” (Benvenuti, 2000) could be reached by involving all types of farms, even small and marginal ones and by considering their multifunctional role (Labarthe, Laurent, 2009). The growing complexity of agricultural extension services (AES) has stimulated the debate on which organizational model fits best with higher necessity to foster farmers’ participation in extension programs. Do privatization and contractualisation add up to higher levels of participation? Due to the public nature of some AES, is it necessary to maintain a minimum presence of public? In this setting, supply and consumption of agricultural extension services could be strictly jointed to the production of externalities: for example, positive externalities could rise in the case of free access to information and innovations from other actors, through informal horizontal mechanisms of transmission and self-learning, above all within specific regions well-known as learning regions (Lundvall, 2006; Umali, Schwartz, 1997). Similarly, other examples of positive externalities are diffusion of good agricultural practices, practices of animal welfare and sustainable use of natural resources. Market failure linked to the presence of externalities (either positive or negative) may be reduced by public policy: it could be the case to offer a complete public service and the role of services takes on the nature of public good. This is particularly true in determined rural areas, classified by the European rural policy as marginal, where environmental and physical characteristics reduce the propensity to offer private services to farmers. However, as underlined in literature, public intervention in economics could be not effective and government failure may emerge (Stiglitz, 2000). That could be the case of agricultural services in rural areas, classified as marginal rural areas with problems of University of Cassino, Faculty of Economics, Via S. Angelo – Loc. Folcara - 03043 Cassino, Italy University of Cassino, Faculty of Economics, Via S. Angelo – Loc. Folcara - 03043 Cassino, Italy 3 University of Cassino, Faculty of Economics, Via S. Angelo – Loc. Folcara - 03043 Cassino, Italy 4 University of Cassino, Faculty of Economics, Via S. Angelo – Loc. Folcara - 03043 Cassino, Italy 1 2

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development. As a matter of fact, a relevant research question is: do progressive decentralization and privatization of AES really fit with growing territorialisation of rural development policies? Is a good penetration of AES in rural marginal areas granted within a privatizedsystem of services? In these areas should a “core” public intervention be kept? To answer these questions, by assimilating farmers to consumers of agricultural services (Charatsary et al., 2011) we put forward an analysis of the access to AES which makes reference to Italian farms working within different rural areas and in region classified with different models of governance: do diversified levels of governance match with different degrees of access to AES on the basis of different degree of rurality? After a brief methodological note, we will present the results of an empirical research realized in Italy, concerning the access to AES on behalf of farms situated in regions with different organizational models. MATERIALS AND METHOD The paper puts forward a comparison of access to AES on the basis of territorial characteristics and models of governance: models of governance have been defined in previous researches (La Rocca, 2012); key aspects considered to define models of governance are: functions, actors, type of service. We make reference to this criterion to compare different Italia regions on the basis of different models of governance, more precisely, by comparing: a) b) c) d)

regions with prevailingly public structures of governance (Piedmont and Campania); regions with decentralized structures of governance (Umbria); regions with private+Ngo structures of governance and balanced participation (Lazio); regions with pluralistic, privatized and participated model of governance (Veneto).

In each region, we make reference to rural areas as classified the national strategic plans as: urban poles; areas with intensive agriculture; intermediate rural areas; rural marginal areas.

-

The underlining hypothesis is that in region characterized by the prevailing presence of public governance, higher levels of access to services should be granted in rural marginal areas, where privatized systems of services are less involved. To test this hypothesis wehave classified farms on the basis of degree of access to agricultural extension services1; therefore, we have obtained four relevant groups of farms:

1. farms with full use to AES (farms with regular access to AES in all possible sources: training, information 2. 3. 4.

and advising) farms with partial use of AES (use of one or more services, with the exclusion of others) farms with voluntary not use of AES (farms which do not consciously use services, due to their inadequateness or due to farmers’ self-reliance farms with gap of access to AES (farm not using services due to informational asymmetries, or to a set of unsustainable costs).

RESULTS Figure 1 depicts the aggregate situation concerning the use of AES in the whole considered sample. Few more than the half make a systematic use of agricultural services, while more than 40% do not use them. The share of farms using services raises in areas with intensive agriculture and in intermediate rural areas, while it reduces in urban poles and rural marginal areas. In these last areas the majority of farms do not consume agricultural services. To get confirmation about connections among types of rural areas and access to services, a chi-squared test has been put forward.

1

See De Rosa et al. (2012)

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not use of aes; Total; 45,2

not use of aes

use of aes; Total; 54,8

use of aes

not use of aes; D; 54,95

use of aes; D; 45,05

not use of aes; C; 39,55

use of aes; C; 60,45

not use of aes; B; 40,77 use of aes; B; 59,23

not use of aes; A; 56,76 use of aes; A; 43,24

Fig.1: Use of agricultural services A= urban poles; B=areas with intensive agriculture; C= internmediate rural areas; D= rural marginal areas. The proposed test has enlightened dependence between rural zones and access to services, then underlining profound differences among various rural areas designed by the national strategic plan. In this sense, innovation do not spread out in a linear and uniform way, as supported in some regional perspective on innovation diffusion (Hagerstrand, 1965), but, as stressed in best fit approaches, a contextualization of analysis should be privileged to overcome linear models of innovation (Knickel et al., 2009). To get more precise information which link models of governance, types of rural areas and access to agricultural services, it is necessary to compare regions characterized by different organizational models. RESULTS AT REGIONAL LEVEL Tables 1-4 evidence access to services in regions with different organizational models. From the table some interesting differences emerge in rural marginal regions In regions with prevailingly public structures of governance the situation is depicted in table1 referred to farms in the north and south of Italy. In rural marginal areas, rates of full consumption seem lower with respect to the national average (36% vs. 33%), both n the north and south of Italy. But, if in the south partial use of services is evident, in the north, the percentage of use is limited to the full access: that means the 2/3rd of total have no access to AES in northern Italy. Areas with intensive agriculture show the highest percentage of access to services, with higher percentage in the north than in the south. Table 1 - Access to AES in regions with prevailingly public structures of governance North (Piedmont) A B 42,9 56,7 6,0 9,4 6,0 2,4 45,2 31,5 100,0 100,0 South (Campania) column % A B full consumption 38,6 39,2 voluntary not use 11,6 12,9 partial use 20,5 19,9 gap of access 29,3 28,1 Total 100,0 100,0 column % full consumption voluntary not use partial use gap of access Total

C 52,7 6,8 3,4 37,2 100,0

D 33,3 19,3 0,0 47,4 100,0

Total 49,3 9,1 3,1 38,5 100,0

C 40,0 12,5 17,5 30,0 100,0

D 33,9 11,6 23,2 31,3 100,0

Total 38,1 12,1 20,4 29,4 100,0

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As concerns regions with decentralized structures of governance, table 2 show relative results. The considered region is characterized by the presence of only C and D rural areas: in marginal areas access to AES, either full or partial, involve good percentages of farms (73,6%). Another relevant result is evident: gap of access is practically absent: therefore, AES get an effective system to spread out information to farmers. As a consequence the voluntary non-use includes few farms: 14% of farms in C areas and 26% in D areas. Table 2: Access to AES regions with decentralized structures of governance (Umbria) column % full consumption voluntary not use partial use gap of access Total

A 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0

B 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0

C 37,2 14,0 44,6 4,1 100,0

D 32,4 26,5 41,2 0,0 100,0

Total 36,1 16,8 43,9 3,2 100,0

In the regions with private or Ngo structures of governance and balanced participation, presented in table 3, good percentage of consumption of services emerge in rural marginal areas: only 1/4 th of farms do not use services voluntarily or due to gap in the access (De Rosa et al., 2012); therefore, higher access with respect to national average is found. Table 3 - Access to AES in regions with private or Ngo structures of governance and balanced participation (Lazio) column % full consumption voluntary not use partial use gap of access Total

A 54,8 16,7 23,8 4,8 100,0

B 44,0 19,3 29,4 7,3 100,0

C 38,7 19,9 29,8 11,6 100,0

D 35,9 15,4 38,5 10,3 100,0

Total 41,8 18,9 29,9 9,4 100,0

Finally, regions with pluralistic, privatized and participated model of governance show the highest performance of AES in intermediate and marginal rural areas (table 4): more than 58% of farms gain access to all type of services in D areas and 75% in C areas; on the other side, if we consider almost one access (that includes either full or partial access), the percentage of farms is lower than other regions. Table 4: Access to AES in regions with pluralistic, privatized and participated model of governance (Veneto) column % full consumption voluntary not use partial use gap of access Total

A 58,3 33,3 0,0 8,3 100,0

B 67,4 8,2 0,3 24,2 100,0

C 75,0 3,3 3,3 18,5 100,0

D 58,1 6,5 3,2 32,3 100,0

Total 67,6 8,9 0,9 22,6 100,0

CONCLUSION Our research has tested the adoption of agricultural services, with particular attention on farms located in rural marginal areas. Different organizational models have been compared to test relative effectiveness. On the whole, the results show a progressive reduction in the access to services in the case of farms located in marginal areas. In these areas multifunctional agriculture is relevant and a multifunctional role of agriculture should be the key concept to maintain a territorial garrison for agricultural services: as a matter of fact, in this area, we have enlightened the role of public goods taken on by extensions services. Our empirical evidence show high percentage of access in regions with pluralistic, privatized and participated models of governance, even in rural marginal areas: penetration indicators are very comfortable; on the contrary, public governance does not seem always able to stimulate farms to consume agricultural services. How explaining the contradiction of a reduced rate of access to services with public governance in rural marginal areas? The low efficacy of public intervention in AES has been deeply enlightened in literature:

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Birner and Anderson (2007) underline following critical points: informational asymmetries, capabilities, bureaucracy and political interests. These ties are deepened by the small structure of the Italian agricultural sector and makes it difficult to develop demand-driven approaches. On the supply side, however, it cannot be hold back that the role of public is still relevant: new challenge are related to environmental and multifunctional aspects of agricultural activity, which make it urgent to revise the role of public in agricultural services, above all in rural marginal areas. Three main aspects should be in agenda to revitalize public role (Anderson, 2008): structure of governance, management and capability, methods of extension. Finally, other tools to reduce failures in extension services call for action concerning an institutional design (Birner and Anderson, 2007): as our empirical analysis confirms, decentralization and participation could be a good answer to make services more coherent with local needs and to foster higher levels of performance. References Anderson J.R. (2008); “Agricultural advisory services”, background paper for the World Development Report. Birner R., Davis K., Pender J., Nkonya E., Anandajayasekeram P., Ekboir J., Mbabu A., Spielman D.J., Horna D., Benin S., Cohen M. (2010); “From best practice to best fit: A framework fordesigning and analyzing pluralistic agricultural advisory services worldwide”, Journal of agricultural education and extension, 15(4): 341-355. Birner R., Anderson J.R. (2007); “How to make agricultural extension demand driver?”, IFPRI discussion paper 729. Benvenuti, B. (2000); Assistenza tecnica e divulgazione agricola tra tradizione e rinnovamento”, in Caldarini C., Satta M. (eds.): Formazione e divulgazione, Roma, Inea. Charatsary, C., Papadaki-Klaudianou, A., Michailidis, A. (2011); Farmers as consumers of agricultural education services: willingness to pay and spend time”, Journal of agricultural education and extension, 3: 253-266. De Rosa M., Bartoli L., Chiappini S. (2012); “The adoption of agricultural extension policies in the Italian farms”, paper presented at 126th EAAE seminar, Capri 27-29 June. Hagerstrand T. (1965); “Aspects of the spatial structure of social communication and the diffusion of information”, Regional science association: papers, XVI, Cracow congress. Knickel K., Brunori G., Rand S., Proost J. (2009); “Towards a better conceptual framework for innovation processes in agriculture and rural development: from linear models to systemic approaches”, Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension, Vol. 15, no. 2, 131-146. Labarthe, P., Laurent, C. (2009); Transformations of agricultural extension services in the EU: Towards a lack of adequate knowledge for small-scale farms. 111th EAAE-IAAE Seminar: Small Farms: decline or persistence, University of Kent, Canterbury, UK, 26th-27th June. Lundvall B.A. (2006); “Knowledge management in the learning economy”, DRUID working paper n.06-6. La Rocca G. (2012); Modelli organizzativi nell’offerta dei servizi di sviluppo agricolo: il caso italiano, Ph.D.Thesis, University of Cassino and Southern Lazio. Stiglitz J.E. (2000); Economics of the public sector, New York, W.W. Norton & Company. Umali D. L., Schwartz L. (1997); “Public and private agricultural extension: Partners or rivals?”, World Bank Research Observer 12 (2): 203–24.

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POSTERS

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Actual and Potential Utilization of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) as Sources of Information by Agricultural Extension Workers Abdulrazzaq A.H.1

Elshafie E.M.2

Magd Z.H.3

Abstract The main objectives of this study were to identify the characteristics of the Agricultural Extension Workers (AEWs) in the Republic of Iraq, to explore the availability of the ICTs infrastructure and investigate the actual utilization of information sources by AEWs in agricultural extension work and their potential utilization in the case of the availability of ICTs. The study was conducted in the three Provinces of: Wasit, Babylon and Al-Diwaniyah in the Republic of Iraq. A sample of 163 (AEWs), representing about 75% of the total (AEWs) in the studied area was personally interviewed by using a questionnaire designed and pretested for data collection. Frequencies and percentages were used for data presentation. The most important results could be summarized as follows: The AEWs were: males (72%), from young age (48.5%), with a B.Sc. degree (64.4%), from different specializations including plant production (57.7%), animal production (11%) specialized and agricultural extension (10.4%), attended training programs in computer, operation system, internet and ICTs (53.4%), (24.5%), (19%) and (8.6%) respectively. The majority of the AEWs (76.1%) have a computer proficiency in office word, in addition to 39.3%, 38%, 16%, 9.8% and 4.3% with a computer proficiency in: office power point, office access, office excel, ICTs and expert system respectively. Concerning the availability of the ICTs infrastructure it was found that: More than one-half (52.8%) of the AEWs have a computer at home, and 68.1% have a computer at their office. More than one-half (54%) of the AEWs have an internet service at their areas of residence, and 38% have this service at their office. The majority (96.3%) of the AEWs have an electric supply at their areas of residence, and 98.7% who have this supply at their office.

Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research College of Agriculture - University of Wasit, Egypt Professor of Agricultural Extension Fac. Agric . Cairo University, Egypt 3 Professor of Agricultural Extension Fac. Agric . Cairo University, Egypt 1 2

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The Perception of Egyptian Farmers About Distant Learning in Agricultural Extension Education El-Baaly E.M.1

El-Gohary A.M.2

Abstract This study aimed to identify perception of Egyptian farmers about distant learning in agricultural extension education. The four indicators of awareness with distant learning, perceived suitability of distant learning methods, availability of distant learning methods, and perceived use of distant learning methods were used to indicate farmers' perceptions. Distant learning is treated in its broadest sense to include all extension methods that lack face-to-face contact between extension agents and farmers. The field survey was conducted in Gharbia Governorate, in the middle part of the Nile Delta; a multi stage sample of 240 farmers was selected. Data were collected from sample farmers by personal interview using a structured interview schedule. Findings of the study could be summarized as follows: 1- Only 38.3% of the sample stated that they heard about distant learning in agricultural extension education. 2- About 70% of the sample did not know what distant learning in agricultural extension education means. 3- The most suitable distant learning methods according to respondents are farm TV. programs, extension leaflets, extension magazine, and mobile phones, in that order. 4- The most available distant learning method according to respondents is farm TV. Programs; whereas electronic education is the least available. 5- The most frequently used distant learning methods according to respondents are farm TV. Programs and extension printed matter; whereas mobile phone is the least frequently used method. Keywords: Extension methods, mass communication methods, distance education, self-directed learning, indirect communication.

INTRODUCTION Agricultural extension education employs a variety of methods to transfer learning messages to farmers. Some such methods are based on direct contact between extension agents and farmers. Other methods take place with no such direct contact. Actually there may be a location gap and \ or a time gap between the extension agents and farmers. In this case the farmers learn while the extension agent is not present in the teaching- learning situation. The term distant learning was introduced to refer to such teaching-learning situation. The introduction of the concept was facilitated by the development of computers and electronic contacts, but the term is broad enough to encompass all mass contact methods used in agricultural extension education. Available literature on distant learning is centered around the extension agents (ElBaaly and El-Gohary, 2012; Qamar, 2005; Verduin and Clark, 1990). The farmers as the target of such education have not been widely considered. There is a need to investigate the perception of farmers about distant learning. The present study is intended to investigate how Egyptian farmers perceive the concept of distant learning and the method available to be employed under this concept. Specifically, the paper aims to a) Assess whether Egyptian farmers heard the term distant learning; b) Assess whether Egyptian farmers know the meaning of the term; c) Assess how farmers consider distant learning methods to be suitable, available, and usable for them. MATERIAL AND METHODS The Study was conducted in Gharbia governorate on farmers served by well-equipped extension centers. Three equipped extension centers were selected and a purposive sample of 80 farmers was chosen from farmers served by each extension center, making a total sample size of 240. Data were collected from sample farmers by personal interviews used a structured interview schedule. Sample farmers were asked to state whether they heard the term distant learning and what it meant to them. The list of 15 distant learning 1 2

Faculty of Agriculture, Tanta University, Egypt Faculty of Agriculture, Tanta University, Egypt

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methods was presented to the respondent and was asked to state the degree to which each method is suitable, available, and usable to him. Collected data were tabulated for presentation. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Farmer responses in table 1 indicate that 38.3% of the sample heard the term distant learning. But the percentage of those who know what the term means is only 30% of the sample. Those figures mean that the term is not widely familiar. Table 2 presents responses of the sample as to how distant learning methods are suitable for agricultural extension education. The listed methods may be ordered according to perceived suitability with television at the top, fallowed by the pamphlet, the magazine, mobile calls, leaflets, radio programs, in that order, Electronic methods (computers, internet and VERCON) are considered less suitable for agricultural extension education. Table 3 presents farmers responses about the availability of distant learning methods. Figures in the table indicate that distant learning methods are far from being available. A small minority of farmers perceive each method to be available. Table 4 presents the reported frequency of using distant learning methods by the sample. Figures in the table show that television programs, magazines, leaflets, and pamphlets are the top distant learning methods in terms of use. The use of other methods, particularly the electronic methods is rather limited. It could be concluded that television programs is the top method. This is probably the reason why an agricultural television channel has be established by the Egyptian government recently. It could also be concluded that printed methods come in the second rank after television programs. But Electronic methods, despite their potential attract have little attention. Conclusion It may be concluded that the concept of distant learning is not widely familiar to Egyptian farmers. However, some distant learning methods are perceived to be available and suitable. References El-Baaly, E. M., The Use of Distant Learning Media in Agricultural Extension, Ph.D Thesis, Tanta University, Egypt, 2011 (Arabic). El-Baaly, E. M., El-Gohary, A. M., Opinions of Extension Center Personnel about Distant Education in Agricultural Extension, Journal of Agricultural Research Kafrelsheikh University, VOL.38, NO.4, December 2012, ISSN 1110-032X, (Arabic). Qamar, K., Modernizing National Agricultural Extension System: A Practical Guide for Policy – Makers of Developing Countries, F.A.O., 2005. Truelove, W., The Selection of Media for Distance Education in Agriculture, F.A.O., March 1998. Verduin, J.R., Clark, T. A., Distance Education : The foundations of Effective Practice, Jossey Bass Publishers, San Francisco, Oxford, 1990.

Table 1. Responses about distant learning Item Heard the concept of distant learning Know the meaning of distant learning

yes frequency 92 72

percent 38.3 30.00

no frequency 148 168

percent 61.7 70

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Table 2. The Responses of sample as to how distant learning methods are suitable for agricultural extension education (N=240) suitability Distant learning methods high moderate low no Freq. Freq. Freq. Freq. leaflet 57 84 52 47 pamphlet 69 87 45 39 Newsletters 52 78 55 55 Extension magazine 77 90 39 34 Extension reports 28 38 43 131 Newspaper articles 44 74 66 56 Telephone calls 58 72 47 63 Radio programs 57 82 51 50 Cassette records 40 85 41 74 Television programs 135 67 24 14 Video records 56 70 37 66 Computer hard discs 49 57 49 85 internet 54 46 50 90 VERCON 58 55 39 88 Mobile calls 89 63 32 50 Table 3. Farmers responses about the availability of distant learning methods (N=240) availability Distant learning methods high moderate low no Freq. Freq. Freq. Freq. leaflet 22 20 66 132 pamphlet 30 26 74 110 Newsletters 12 12 64 152 Extension magazine 26 28 87 99 Extension reports 7 6 33 194 Newspaper articles 12 18 84 126 Telephone calls 31 24 33 152 Radio programs 20 28 53 139 Cassette records 7 11 31 191 Television programs 52 57 65 66 Video records 10 14 34 182 Computer hard discs 7 13 24 196 internet 8 11 22 199 VERCON 2 6 15 217 Mobile calls 27 13 23 177

Table 4. The reported frequency of using distant learning methods by the sample (N=240) usability Distant learning methods always Sometimes rarely no Freq. Freq. Freq. Freq. leaflet 41 55 24 120 pamphlet 46 57 22 115 Newsletters 26 41 23 150 Extension magazine 44 79 17 100 Extension reports 12 6 11 211 Newspaper articles 21 48 46 125 Telephone calls 14 27 23 176 Radio programs 14 41 30 155 Cassette records 6 16 16 202 Television programs 74 94 16 66 Video records 8 18 20 194 Computer hard discs 9 15 14 202 internet 9 6 18 206 VERCON 6 6 13 215 Mobile calls 7 16 5 212

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Agricultural Extension System in Morocco: Problems, Resources, Governance and Reform El Bilali H.1 Abouabdillah A.5

Driouech N.2

Berjan S.3

Ahouate L.6

Azim K.7

Capone R.4 Najid A.8

Abstract Extension is an essential pillar for sustainable agricultural and rural development. The agricultural sector represents about 15% of Morocco’s GDP. Income-generating activities diversification challenges mandates of and operations within the traditional agricultural extension system (AES). The review paper aims at providing an overview on AES in Morocco with a particular focus on problems, resources, governance and reform. Apart from the Department of Training, Research and Extension of the Ministry of Agriculture, many other public and civil institutions deal with the AES governance at national, regional and local levels. The current AES can not effectively support the implementation of the Green Morocco Plan (GMP) – the cornerstone strategy for agriculture development - for many reasons: lack of a comprehensive agricultural research strategy; inadequate financing; weak and nonoperational linkages between extension agents, researchers and farmers; inadequate decentralization and subsidiarity. An extension agent must on average cover 12,400 ha and 1930 farmers. Most extension agents have technical profiles and are aged over 50 years. Extension services are mainly related to crop production with a limited attention to the non-farm and offfarm sectors. The AES is still largely gender-biased. The new strategic vision for agricultural extension aims at: developing a multidimensional and multi-stakeholder advisory system; empowering farmers; shifting from mass extension to a demand-driven advisory system; diversifying funding sources; fostering decentralisation; and improving governance. For these reasons the National Office for Agricultural Advisory Services (ONCA) was recently established. Nevertheless, preparedness of extension agents, farmers and their organisations is still an issue. Keywords: extension system, governance, reform, Morocco.

INTRODUCTION The agricultural sector represents about 15% of Morocco’s GDP and is a major source of employment. Agricultural exports totalled €1.4 billion in 2010. The Moroccan government’s cornerstone initiative to improve the performance of the agricultural sector is the Green Morocco Plan (GMP) (Oxford Business Group 2012; MAPM 2011). Extension is an essential pillar for agricultural and rural development. Rural people are diversifying their income-generating activities and have new needs. That represents a challenge for extension services (Albaladejo et al. 2010; Rivera and Qamar 2003). Agricultural extension is taking a new dimension as new learning needs of farming communities are challenging mandates and operations within traditional extension systems (Qamar 2005). In fact, extension organisations need to provide a wider range of services to a more diverse clientele (World Bank 2008). It is clear that the current extension system can not effectively support the implementation of the GMP (MAPM 2011a). The challenge is to upgrade the current system to allow it providing information and training to farmers in agricultural production, marketing, professional organization and natural resources management (Al Balghiti and Mouaaid 2010). The paper aims at providing an overview on agricultural extension system (AES) in Morocco with a particular focus on problems, resources governance, and reform.

Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Bari, Italy Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Bari, Italy 3 Faculty of Agriculture, University of East Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina 4 Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Bari, Italy 5 National School of Agriculture, Meknes, Morocco 6 Regional Directorate of Agriculture of Rabat-Salé-Zemmour-Zaer, Rabat, Morocco 7 National Institute of Agronomic Research (INRA), Agadir, Morocco 8 Provincial Directorate of Agriculture, Essaouira, Morocco 1 2

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MATERIAL AND METHODS The paper is based on a review of secondary data from different sources such as the Ministry of Agriculture, the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), the World Bank, etc. Secondary data were cross-checked with and validated by members of the staff of key institutions in the Moroccan agricultural education-training-research-extension system such as the regional directorates of agriculture (e.g. Directorate of Rabat-Salé-Zemmour-Zaer), the provincial directorates of Agriculture (e.g. Directorate of Essaouira), the National School of Agriculture (ENAM) and the National Institute of Agronomic Research (INRA). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Agricultural extension cannot be considered independently of research and training/education. The impact of agricultural interventions is, to a large extent, dependent on interaction between these three components (MAPM 2011a). The national agricultural research system is composed of a variety of institutions whose main mission is to meet the objectives of the GMP (IFPRI 2012). These include institutions such as the Hassan II Institute of Agronomy and Veterinary Science, ENAM and the National School of Forestry. Colleges of Science of universities undertake some agricultural research through master and doctorate theses and dissertations (Sadiki 2012; Al Balghiti and Mouaaid 2010; MAPM 2011a). The main problem with the national agricultural research is the lack of a clear long-term agricultural research strategy but the most important weakness is related to coordination (Al Balghiti and Mouaaid 2010). The evolution of the national extension system was marked by number of actions: the Plowing Operation (1957); the Fertilizer Operation (1965); female animation introduction (1980), and the Research/Extension project (1989). The creation within the Ministry of Agriculture of the Education, Research and Development Directorate, which will be later called Education, Training and Research Directorate (DEFR) in 2010, is an important milestone of this process (Al Balghiti and Mouaaid 2010). Entities of the Ministry of Agriculture dealing with extension are numerous and operate at central, regional, provincial and local levels (MAPM 2011a). The extension policy is concerted at national, intermediate and local levels. The financing is ensured by the two first levels (Al Balghiti and Mouaaid 2010). At the central level, agricultural extension is under the responsibility of the Division of Agricultural Extension at the DEFR, which is in charge of national policy definition, coordination and implementation in the fields of agricultural education, training, research and extension (MAPM 2011a; Rivera et al. 2005; Al Balghiti and Mouaaid 2010). Many other public institutions are dealing with the AES governance including the regional directorates of agriculture; the provincial agriculture directorates and the local agricultural development centres (MAPM 2011a). Independent extension initiatives are supported by NGOs, included in projects initiated by international organizations or developed by private companies engaged in agriculture (MAPM 2011a; Al Balghiti and Mouaaid 2010). Weaknesses and problems can be highlighted in all phases of the public agricultural extension process: needs definition, strategy formulation, planning, implementation, and evaluation (MAPM 2011a). Despite huge regional disparities, an extension agent must on average cover 12,400 ha and 1930 farmers. In addition, most extension agents have technical profiles, are aged over 50 years and graduated more than 20 years ago; which hinders their ability to meet farmer needs (MAPM 2011a). This weakness is further exacerbated by the lack of an integrated lifelong training programme (Al Balghiti and Mouaaid 2010). The time spent by extension workers on technology transfer actions is low (only 11%) (MAPM 2011a). Agricultural extension services are mainly related to production techniques, plant health management and quality management. Meanwhile human resources and time dedicated to professional organization, economic and project management, information on the state aid and incentives, labelling, marketing, packaging, processing, etc. are rather limited. In addition these services are provided only by some extension centres mainly those located in irrigated areas (Al Balghiti and Mouaaid 2010; MAPM 2011a). The negligible support of rural women (less than 10%) is also due to a gender misbalance among extension workers (MAPM 2011a; Al Balghiti and Mouaaid, 2010; Rivera et al. 2005). Financial resources devoted to the public extension remain rudimentary and inadequate taking into consideration its missions and functions (MAPM 2011a). Linkages between agricultural extension, training and research actors are weak and often nonoperational (MAPM 2011a; Al Balghiti and Mouaaid 2010). Extension has a very new role to play and needs serious attention for its reform and modernization (Qamar 2005). To ensure that the extension system is able to support the GMP, a new structural configuration and

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mechanisms of connections between its components have been developed. The new configuration system aims essentially at: redefining the organizational architecture of agricultural education and research governance; delineating the system functions and operation modes; and establishing mechanisms for linkages between the involved institutions (IFPRI 2012). Extension reform, implemented since 2010, aims to redefine the concept of extension. An emerging trend is the gradual extension privatization. The new strategic vision of agricultural extension is based on the plural and progressive autonomy of farmers and stakeholder accountability. It is designed taking into consideration three basic guidelines: a multidimensional advisory system; a multiplicity of funding sources, and an optimized governance. It focuses on three major areas: allowing transition from a public to a multistakeholder system; shifting from a mass extension to a more targeted approach; and empowering farmers (MAPM 2011a). It also provides for the restructuring and strengthening of local extension centres and the regional chambers of agriculture (MAPM 2011a; Al Balghiti and Mouaaid 2010). According to Rivera et al. (2005), the reform of the Moroccan agricultural extension system should also aims, inter alia, at: promoting demand-driven orientation of the extension system; investing in the education and training of agricultural producers; promoting gender equality; designing structures for effective institutional cooperation; promoting public-private partnerships; fostering participation of agricultural organizations; and promoting communication technologies use. The promotion of coordination among the institutions of agricultural research, agricultural and rural extension, and farmers is crucial (Qamar 2005). The agricultural extension system in Morocco is evolving towards an integrated Agricultural Knowledge and Information System for Rural Development (AKIS/RD). However, it is still confronting different gaps in development and it appears to have a system that lacks adequate decentralization, participation and subsidiarity. Farmers and their organisations appear unprepared as yet for their role as partners with public institutions (Rivera et al. 2005). CONCLUSIONS The GMP offers a unique opportunity to develop Moroccan agriculture. However, for achieving that it is important to upgrade agricultural extension services. In fact, the extension system is ill performing. To tackle this challenge a reform process is being implemented since 2010. Nevertheless, farmers and their organisations appear unprepared as yet for their new role as partners rather than beneficiaries. Therefore, it is necessary to decentralize decision-making to lower levels of government and relevant local organizations, while training people at these levels in the processes of management and administration. Morocco’s agricultural advisory system needs long-term diversified and sustainable financing and governance arrangements adequate to support innovation. The Moroccan government decided to establish the National Office for Agricultural Advisory Services (ONCA). The law regarding the establishment of ONCA was adopted in November 2012 by the Parliament. ONCA should be officially operational in 2013. REFERENCES Al Balghiti A, Mouaaid A (2010). Country profile report on agricultural research, extension and information services: the case of Morocco. Sub-regional workshop on: Knowledge exchange management system for strengthening rural community development; Cairo. Albaladejo Ch, Auricoste C, Barthe L, Couix N, Duvernoy I, Girard N, Gross H, Labatut J, Lenormand P (2010) Le conseil agricole au carrefour du développement sectoriel et du développement territorial : accompagner l’activité agricole en situation. ISDA (Innovation and Sustainable Development in Agriculture and Food), version 1, 13 Oct. 2010, Montpellier. IFPRI (2012) Agricultural extension and advisory services worldwide: Morocco. International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). Available at: http://www.worldwide-extension.org/africa/morocco. MAPM (2011) Situation de l’agriculture marocaine N°9. Novembre 2011. Ministère de l’Agriculture et de la Pêche Maritime (MAPM), Rabat. MAPM (2011a) Le conseil agricole : une nouvelle stratégie de service pour les agriculteurs. Ministère de l’Agriculture et de la Pêche Maritime (MAPM), Rabat. Oxford Business Group (2012) Economic Update. Morocco: Boosting agriculture. 16 April ; accessed on 8/07/2012.

2012.

Qamar K (2005) Modernizing national agricultural extension systems: a practical guide for policy-makers of developing countries. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Rome. Rivera WM, Qamar MK (2003) Agricultural extension, rural development and the food security challenge. FAO, Rome.

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Rivera WM, Qamar MK, Mwandemere HK (2005) Enhancing coordination among AKIS/RD actors: an analytical and comparative review of country studies on agricultural knowledge and information systems for rural development (AKIS/RD). FAO, Rome. Sadiki M (2012) Plan Maroc Vert: les enjeux de la formation agronomique. CIHEAM Watch Letter 22, September 2012,“Education in the Mediterranean: Trends and Challenges”; 10-14 p. World Bank (2008) World Development Report 2008: Agriculture for development. Washington D.C.

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Agricultural Extension Centers Enhanced Extension Educational Performance in Egypt El-Gohary A.M.1

El-Baaly E.M.2

Abstract Agricultural extension in Egypt started as early as 1945. Extension agents had no offices and were hosted by the farmer cooperatives .starting 1995, a number of extension centers were established to be the official offices of extension agents. There are 194extension offices in Egypt now, of which 17 are located in Gharbia governorate. The object of this study was to asses the extent to which extension centers enhanced extension performance. A stratified sample of 187 extension agents was selected, 77 agents belong to extension centers, and 110 agents housed in farm cooperative. Data were collected by personal interview with sample persons. The findings of the study may be summarized as follows 1 – Extension agents belonging to extension centers scored higher than those hosted by farmer cooperatives on each of the individual performance indicators of number of extension meeting held, number of local leaders employed, number of extension fields, number of farmers contacted, and number of demonstration meetings held. 2 - Extension agents belonging to extension centers scored higher than those hosted by farmer cooperatives on each of the organizational performance indicators of number of scheduled forums, number of farmers attended forums, number of office visits, number of farm visits, number of home visits, number of non-scheduled forums, number of attendant farmers, number of training days, and number of farmers attended training. 3 – The personal traits of extension agents, the organizational traits of extension unit and type of work place, combined explain 48.1 % of the variance in overall individual performance; with pre-service training and type of work place explaining about 43.6 % of the variance. 4 - The personal traits of extension agents, the organizational traits of extension unit and type of work place, combined explain 51.2 % of the variance in overall organizational performance; with the three variables of pre-service training, stability of division of labor, and type of work place explaining 47.5 % of the variance. 5 – Type of work place is the main predictor of both individual performance and organizational performance. It could be recommended that agricultural extension centers should cover all villages in Egypt.

1 2

Tanta University , Egypt Tanta University , Egypt

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Agricultural Advisory Services Between National and Donors’ Policy Frameworks in Benin Moumouni I.1

Mouzoun B.X.2

De Romemont A.3

Faure G.4

Abstract With the liberalisation since early 1990s, different types of organisation - i.e. NGO, farmer, private and public organisations - provided agricultural advisory services (AAS) in most Sub Saharan Africa. Farmer organisations and NGOs were especially promoted through projects funded by international donors. Stakeholders, driven by the Ministries of Agriculture and donors, adopted national strategies for agricultural advisory services. In Benin, this policy document outlined the objectives, the guiding principles and provision mechanisms of advisory services. On behalf of pluralistic AAS, many AAS projects were developed in the framework of bilateral cooperation. Public organisations, in charge of the coordination of interventions, had to take care that any intervention fits within the national policy. In this article, we wonder whether the implementation of AAS at grassroots level was influenced by national stakeholders, donors’ policies, operational service providers or rather by farmers. We selected three NGO (CADG, GERED and LARES), one farmer organisation (FUPRO) and one public organisation (CeCPA-Bohicon) providing AAS with different financing arrangements for comparative case studies. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with leaders of these AAS organisations, advisers and farmers to complement policy document review. We addressed their AAS governance mechanisms, approaches and methods. We found that donors highly influenced the implementation of AAS through the project-led AAS mechanisms. This resulted into a diversity of AAS approaches implemented, with sometimes non observance of some guiding principles stated in the national policy. However, operational service providers including their field agents had, not full, but a certain degree of freedom for adapting services to local conditions. As consequence, different providers supported by the same donor could make use of different strategies to meet farmers’ needs. Farmers had less influence on the implementation of AAS. Still much is to be done for promoting a real farmer-led AAS. Keywords: Agricultural advisory services, Benin, Governance, Policy farmework

INTRODUCTION With the liberalisation since early 1990s, different types of organisation - i.e. NGO, farmer, private and public organisations - provided agricultural advisory services (AAS) in most Sub Saharan Africa (Carney 1998, Katz 2002). These stakeholders, under the leadership of the Ministries of Agriculture and donors, adopted national strategies for agricultural advisory services. Farmer organisations and NGOs were especially promoted through projects funded by international donors (Puplampu and Tettey, 2000). Many AAS systems were established. The involvement of many stakeholders in financing and the development of many advisory services providers strengthened the need for relevant governance systems. Debate on the AAS governance was related to the distribution of roles among stakeholders and how to improve the effectiveness of services (Faure et al. 2012). Diverse paradigms such as participatory extension, demanddriven services, market-driven services or farmer-led extension were developed to guide extension work towards addressing farmers’ concerns or meeting farmers’ needs (Schmidt et al. 1998). While private service providers operate in profitable sectors, governmental and non government organizations should focus on poor farmers, food security issues (Anderson and Feder, 2004). In addition government was expected to play regulation and coordination role. In many West African countries, new AAS policies were made to provide stakeholders with guideline principles. In Benin, the National Strategy for Agricultural Advisory Services (SNCA) was adopted. Building on the experiences of the Farming Systems Improvement and Diversification Project (PADSE) which served as pilot project, the SNCA identifies the objectives AAS, key stakeholders and their roles, three strategic

University of Parakou, BP: 1269 Parakou, Benin Email: [email protected] University of Parakou, BP: 1269 Parakou, Benin 3 UMR Innovation, CIRAD-INRA-Supagro, Montpellier, France 4 UMR Innovation, CIRAD-INRA-Supagro, Montpellier, France 1 2

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orientations, four types of AAS and six principles to guide service provision. General principles in AAS provision in Benin (MAEP, 2008): Contracting: Clients of the AAS should better control, appreciate and approve the services they are being supplied with. According to this principle, farmers receive vouchers to pay service providers depending on their level of satisfaction. Subsidiarity: The management and the supply of AAS should be assigned to the lowest level structure. Complementarity: Thanks to permanent dialogue, AAS activities organized by all stakeholders should be complementary so as to have synergy in the intervention. Free adherence: Clients of AAS should be heads of farm, volunteers and available to participate in activities, accept farm and home visits from AAS agent and be open to discussion and innovations. Mutual trust: the advisor and the farmer should trust each other. Co-financing of AAS: All the AAS stakeholders including end-users should contribute to financing AAS provision. Progressively, the beneficiaries, through their organizations are expected to take over the financing AAS. The Ministry of Agriculture should control the alignment of any player to these principles. On behalf of pluralistic AAS, many AAS projects were developed in the framework of bilateral cooperation. Public organisations, in charge of the coordination of interventions, had to take care that any intervention fits within the national policy. Service providers are then under triple influence of donors providing funds and expertises, public policy defining principles and local needs and demands of farmers. These three logics can be converging or diverging. In this article, we wonder whether the implementation of AAS at grassroots level was influenced by national stakeholders, donors’ policies, operational service providers or rather by farmers. METHODS The governance refers to decision making mechanisms for driving AAS system. The paradigm of governance points out the multiplicity of actors involved, the partnerships they establish and the place of farmers and their organization in decision making. Governance mechanisms are all arrangements defining the place and role of each actor in the implementation of AAS policy and strategy. According the driving forces, there are farmer/demand-, service provider/offer-, down-stream actors/market-, donor/financing-driven AAS. The financing mechanisms seem to determine to a large extent the governance systems and AAS approaches (Faure et al., 2011). In Benin, donors operate through development projects. These projects are usually led by light management multi-stakeholders committee. The projects financed NGO, farmer organizations and less public organizations to implemented AAS at grassroots level, generally according to priorities and methodologies they define. To analyse the governance system, we study AAS systems formed by interactions between stakeholders (public organizations, projects, NGO, farmer organization, etc.) to provide farmers with AAS. We focus on the approaches of AAS projects, the roles/strategies of services providers and the involvement of stakeholders in planning, monitoring and evaluation. Table 1: Case studies Organizations providing AAS CeCPA (Bohicon) FUPRO CADG

Types of organization Public

Donors MAEP - Benin

Projects / Institutions DICAF

AFD -France

PADYP

SNV - The Netherlands SDC Switzerland

PROCOTON

Farmer organization NGO

GERED

NGO

LARES

NGO

ASPAP

Type of AAS and coverage Technical AAS to all farmers over the country Management advice to family farm to selected farms in the South Management advice to selected in the North Management advice to selected in the North Management advice to selected in N’Dali district

We selected three NGO (CADG, GERED and LARES), one farmer organisation (FUPRO) and one public organisation (CeCPA-Bohicon) providing AAS with different financing arrangements (Table 1). It’s important to notice that CADG and GERED are two NGO which are under the influence of the same technical staff. Semi-structured interviews were conducted to address AAS governance mechanisms, approaches and

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methods. In each project, we conducted interviews with the head of AAS department, three advisors, three farmers-advisers and three farmers selected randomly. Document and discourse analysis was used to understand the approaches of AAS used by projects, the roles/strategies of services providers and the involvement of stakeholders in planning, monitoring and evaluation. We implemented a comparative case study method to analyze similarities and dissimilarities between case studies. RESULTS To analyse the importance of stakeholders in AAS governance, we described the understandings/approaches of AAS, the roles/strategies of services providers and the involvement of stakeholders in planning, monitoring and evaluation. Role of the donor to promote Management Advice The role of donors to influence AAS is obvious. Management Advice for Family Farms approaches have been promoted in Francophone Africa with the support of French cooperation entities, most notably the French Development Agency (AFD), for nearly two decades. Support from elsewhere in Europe (Belgian, Dutch, Swiss cooperation entities) and involvement of some States have made it possible to adapt the MAFF approach to different contexts. Benin was one of the first countries in West Africa to implement MAFF, starting in 1995 in the framework of pilot projects. MAFF is currently being implemented there with the support of bilaterally funded programmes, such as PADYP (Project to Support Development of Production Dynamics) funded by the AFD. Advice is provided by nearly a dozen NGOs who have acquired extensive experience in MAFF, by farmer organizations such as FUPRO (Federation of Producer Unions of Benin) or by the Ministry of Agriculture which has recruited more than 250 advisers for MAFF. Nearly 20,000 farmers are more or less involved in MAFF in Benin. Basically the MAFF adviser conducts group advisory sessions and also monitors farmers individually. Work is organized using a multi-phase management cycle (analysis, planning, decision/action, monitoring, and evaluation) with frequent adviser-farmer interactions. MAFF is implemented in a flexible and gradual manner. The adviser uses a farm-diagnosis phase to identify farmer requirements and orient activities. He then organizes collective training on farming techniques (fertilization of maize, cotton pest control, regulation of blooming of pineapple, etc.). He also trains them management concepts and the use of corresponding tools (harvested crop management, crop-season planning, cash flow planning, revenueexpenditure accounts, etc.). In this way, MAFF encourages farmers to reflect, helps them in forecasting and trains them to use techno-economic indicators (gross margin, costs/income ratio, etc.). This helps the farmer analyze the results and the performance of his farm. During the crop season, the adviser ensures individual monitoring of farmers in their fields to provide additional training and targeted advice. At the end of the season, a first analysis of the technical and economic results, both at crop production level and entire farm level, is undertaken with farmers in group meetings. Some advisers use computers to perform additional processing on the data of the farmers. These more accurate results are then presented and discussed with each farmer. Based on the results of the previous crop season, the advisers and farmers together plan the following crop season. Under the MAFF approach, exchanges between farmers are encouraged through various collective activities (training, group meetings to discuss results, field visits to share experiences, innovation trials in farmers’ plots, etc.). MAFF differentiates itself from extension, which is aimed primarily at transferring knowledge and new technologies to farmers, especially in the domain of agricultural production. The MAFF approach is similar to that of ‘Farmer Field Schools’ in that it promotes farmer learning. It does so, however, by focusing on the farmer and his family farm (and not mainly on crop production) through technical and economic analyses. Understandings and approaches of AAS Within the same MAFF framework, discourse analysis of service providers revealed that the providers’ understandings/approaches of AAS are different with regard to thematic focus, the emphasis to be given to alphabetisation, the orientation of AAS towards farmers’ needs and the social function devoted to AAS (Table 2). Thematic focus: The AAS providers we investigated dealt with farm management and accounting. FUPRO and CADG diversified the thematic portfolio of AAS by including farming techniques. In addition, FUPRO addressed market issues. CeCPA also included farming techniques learning, but through establishing linkages to specialists. Emphasis on alphabetisation: More than the other service providers, GERED/CADG and FUPRO consider alphabetisation as key element of AAS and consequently organized literacy courses.

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AAS social function: GERED/CADG, LARES and FUPRO are involved in promoting solidarity among farmer organizations around both self-organized financing of farming activities and farmer-to-farmer training systems. CADG promoted farmer solidarity through farmer-to-farmer training systems only. Table 2 shows AAS approaches implemented by service providers, based on the discourse of their management staffs. Table 2: AAS approaches implemented by organisations AAS Providers AAS approaches CeCPA We focus our AAS on farm management skills development. With regard to farmers’ other needs, we link them to others matter specialists from our organization or not. FUPRO Our AAS aims at meeting any farmer’s expectations and focuses on agricultural techniques, farm management tools and marketing. Therefore, we provide literacy courses to interested farmers. We support farmer self organized microcredit services and small poultry enterprises. CADG Our AAS aims at meeting any farmer’s (literate or not as we provide literacy courses) expectations. It includes agricultural techniques and farm management tools. Advanced farmers were invited to assist the other through farmer-to farmer trainings. GERED We oriented our AAS towards training of farmers for recording any operation undertaken in their farms. We also promote solidarity among farmers who are advised and supported to organized « alphabetisation » and microcredit services for themselves. LARES The AAS we provide aims at promoting solidarity among farmers who are then invited to provide support each other for developing good control of decision making tools, broadening trainings and organizing microcredit services for themselves.

The AAS approaches developed by AFD-funded organizations (FUPRO and CADG) are similar with respect to their broader thematic focus and the solidarity function devoted to AAS. Both AFD-funded organizations are dissimilar with regard to the place of alphabetisation in the AAS. GERED and CADG, leaded by the same staff and funded by different donors, were different on the scope of the thematic focus. GERED/CADG covered fewer issues but included alphabetisation as key activity. In conclusion donors highly influence AAS through development projects and AAS governance mechanisms. This resulted into differences of AAS approaches implemented by the same technical staff (GERED and CADG for instance). However, service providers had, not full, but a certain degree of freedom in defining their services approaches, regarding local conditions. As consequence, different providers supported by the same donor (CADG and FUPRO for instance) could make use of different approaches to meet farmers’ needs. Strategies of stakeholders in AAS implementation We looked at the strategies of AAS implementation used by selected service providers (Table 3) with regard to whether they conducted a preliminary diagnostic, the farmer groups they targeted, the roles of field staff members and their alignment with national AAS guiding principle. Compared to the other AAS providers, AFD-funded service providers implemented almost similar strategies. Indeed, FUPRO and CADG conducted preliminary diagnostics to investigate specific needs of both literate and illiterate farmers while LARES for instance thought that farmers felt similar needs which were already well-known. LARES, operating within the framework of the SDC-funded AAS project, only worked with literate farmers able to manage book-keeping while the others intent to extent MAFF approach to illiterate farmers who represent the majority of farmers. GERED operating within the framework of the SNV-funded AAS project relied on three categories of field workers (advisor, farmer-advisor and supervisor). Supervisors were representatives of farmer organization in charge of controlling advisers’ engaged by GERED, with the aim of becoming later full advisors. LARES, FUPRO and CADG relied on two categories (advisor and farmer-advisor) and CeCPA only relies on advisor. Training activities were also conducted by farmers-advisers while their fellows operating under LARES did only retraining, i.e. after the advisor has trained farmers. No service organization strictly complies with the national AAS principles. The principles of subsidiarity, co-financing and complementarity were less observed. GERED’ strategy was more advanced in the implementation of principle of subsidiarity. However we found overlapping of its intervention area with the ones covered by other AFD-funded AAS providers, violating the principle of complementarity.

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Table 3: Organizations’ strategies and alignment to national AAS principles AAS DiagTarget groups Roles of local field staff provider nostic Adviser Farmeradviser GERED Literate and Facilitation Training illiterate cotton Follow-up Follow-up farmers LARES Literate farmers Training Retraining Follow-up Follow-up FUPRO Literate and Training Training Yes illiterate farmers Facilitation Follow-up Follow-up CADG Literate and Training Training Yes illiterate farmers Facilitation Follow-up Follow-up CeCPA Literate farmers Training No farmerYes Follow-up advisor

Supervisor

Observed principles 1 2 3 4 5 6

Control Substitute of advisers No supervisor No supervisor

X X

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

X

No supervisor

X

X

X

X

X

No supervisor

1- Contracting 2- Subsidiarity, 3- Free membership 4- Complementarity, 5- Mutual trust 6- Co-financing

Service providers were all looking for broadening and sustainability of their intervention. While relying all on farmer organizations (farmer-advisers, supervisors, etc.) to get their experiences extended and sustainable, they developed different operational arrangements at grassroots level. These differences seem to be displays of the influence of donors on AAS providers in shaping their intervention strategies. The noticeable dissimilarities between GERED and CADG and the similarities between FUPRO and CADG provide good evidence of this influence. Involvement of stakeholders in planning processes We focussed on AAS planning processes to analyze the involvement of stakeholders (Table 4). Except for the public AAS case, the selected providers were funded and operating within the framework of development projects. Such projects were characterized by logical frameworks which clearly mentioned the activities to be done. Any activity to be carried out should fit in the framework of the project. Once AAS providers developed their annual working plans, they sent them to project leaders acting on behalf of the donor for approval. The latter could cancel, add or validate some activities. Staff members and donors were thus highly involved in the planning processes in all our case studies. Table 4: Levels of involvement of stakeholders in AAS planning processes AAS Levels of involvement of stakeholders in AAS planning providers Government Donors AAS providers AAS staff Advisers Farmers-advisers GERED +++ +++ ++ + LARES +++ +++ +++ ++ CADG +++ +++ ++ ++ FUPRO +++ +++ ++ ++ CeCPA +++ +++ +++ ++ +++: High ++: Average +: Low - : No involvement

Farmers + ++ ++ ++ -

One staff member described the influence of the donors in the planning processes as follows: « The donor is the first partner to whom we send first our action plan. We need to get it approved before implementation. He reserves the right to change anything we suggest. Moreover, the donor needs our action plan to plan his own follow-up plan ». Advisers and farmers-advisers were less involved in the planning processes. They provided staff members with any required information for the planning process. In the implementation of the activities, advisers and farmers-advisors considered farmers’ concerns to get them involved as much as possible. Farmers and the government did not play almost any role in the planning of AAS. The levels of involvement of stakeholders in AAS planning processes were the same for both AFD-funded AAS providers (FUPRO and CADG). Compared to them, LARES involved better its advisers and GERED less its farmers-advisers. The high similarity between providers funded by the same donor, and the

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dissimilarities between AAS projects funded by different donors and implemented by the same staff reveal the influential role of the donor in the AAS planning processes. In the case of FUPRO which is managed by farmers’ representatives, we did not observe significant differences in AAS provision in terms of content of advice, method to provide advice, or work organization of advisors. One would think that farmer organizations would be in better position to better take into account the needs of farmers. DISCUSSION Who finally control the governance of AAS in Benin? We found that donors highly influenced the implementation of AAS through the project-led AAS mechanisms. The State plays a role in AAS by providing advice through the CeCPAs and by promoting public policies. But we observe the quasi-absence of the State in the governance process of the whole AAS in order to guarantee the effective implementation of the principles in AAS provision. It comes from its inability to coordinate AAS projects’ activities over the country (Moumouni and Labarthe, 2012) due to a lack of human resources to facilitate coordination processes at local level, a lack of financial resources to support and orient a pluralistic AAS and finally to the autonomy of donor funded projects. This resulted into a diversity of AAS approaches implemented with a limited observance of some guiding principles stated in the national policy. NGOs, including their field agents, have some room of manoeuvre to adapt their AAS approach depending on their own objectives, values, resources and trajectories. As consequence, different providers supported by the same donor could make use of different strategies to meet farmers’ needs. But to obtain contracts and to survive they need both to provide high quality services which are recognized by farmers and to accept the terms of reference of donors funded projects. In fact this room of manoeuvre is limited. The Farmers’ Organizations are not really able to influence the AAS provision because they lack human capacities to fully participate in the designing and monitoring of projects. There is no formal and operational mechanism (multi-stakeholders platform, steering committee, etc.) provided for this purpose at neither national nor local level. They also face material and psychological difficulties for directly financing and thus controlling the AAS provision (Faure et al. 2011). Such a case study reveals both the fragile situation of the farmers’ organizations which sees the AAS as an opportunity to obtain funds, and the influence of external actors to define the AAS approach. Finally, farmers participating in AAS activities had few influence on the implementation of AAS. They can select some topics among those proposed by the advisor or influence the calendar of the advisor. Consequently, agricultural advisory services were provided to farmers without sufficiently taking into account their specific needs and knowledge. Such an approach does not value enough endogenous management knowledge, logic and practices (Moumouni et al. 2011). Still much is to be done for promoting a real farmer-led AAS. For the AAS to meet farmers’ expectations and to be of interest for them, farmers should be involved in designing AAS approaches, implementation strategies and activity planning as suggested by Cerf and Meynard (2006). CONCLUSION This study addressed the issue of the governance of AAS through analyzing the AAS providers’ approaches, their strategies in AAS implementation and the participation levels of stakeholders in AAS planning processes. Basing on comparative analysis of five case studies in Benin, the study pointed out the influence of donors in AAS governance process through projects mechanisms. Mechanisms for improving farmers’ contribution to the governance, as beneficiaries or clients of AAS, should be established. In addition, shortcomings in the government coordination system which reduce the participation of public organizations in the governance should be appropriately addressed. REFERENCES Anderson, J.R. & Feder, G. (2004) Agricultural extension: Good intentions and hard realities. World Bank Research Observer, 19: 41-60. Carney, D (1998) Changing public and private roles in agricultural service provision. Overseas Development Institute, Natural Resources Group. London, ODI. Cerf M and Meynard JM (2006) Les outils de pilotage des cultures: diversite´ de leurs usages et enseignements pour leur conception. Natures Sciences Sociétés, 14(1), pp. 19-29. Direction du Conseil Agricole et de la Formation Opérationnelle (DICAF) (2008) Stratégie National de mise en œuvre du Conseil Agricole (SNCA) an Bénin. Bibliothèque Nationale du Bénin.

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Faure G., Desjeux, Y. and Gasselin P (2012) New Challenges in Agricultural Advisory Services from a Research Perspective: A Literature Review, Synthesis and Research Agenda. The Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension, 18:5, pp 461-492 Faure G, Rebuffel P, Violas D (2011) Une analyse systémique des dispositifs de conseil à l'exploitation familiale en Afrique de l'Ouest. Cahiers Agricultures 20, pp 364-9. Katz E (2002) Innovative approaches to financing extension for agriculture and natural resource management. Eschikon, LBL MAEP (2008) Stratégie nationale de mise en œuvre du conseil agricole au Bénin (SNCA). Cotonou, république du Bénin, 81p Moumouni I, Nouatin GS, Baco MN (2011) Du système formation et visites au conseil à l'exploitation agricole familiale au Bénin : rupture ou continuité ? Cahiers Agricultures 20, pp 376-81. Moumouni I. and Labarthe P (2012) Institutionalization of knowledge sharing platforms in the last three decades in Francophone Sub SaharanAfrica. Proceedings of the 10th European IFSA symposium, July 1-4, 2012, Aarhus (Denmark) Schmidt P, Etienne C, and Hurlimann M (1998) Vulgarisation participative: Aperçu de trois projets de développement agricole en Afrique. Lindau, DDC, SKAT and LBL. Puplampu PK, Tettey JW (2000) State-NGO Relations in Era of Globalisation: The implications for agricultural development in Africa. African Political Economy 84, pp 251-272.

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Analysis of Functions of Rural ICT Offices in Sustainable Agricultural Development: The Case of Boirahmad County, Southwestern of Iran Nooripoor M.1

Davari M.R.2

Abstract Today, knowledge-based society is known as a model for sustainable development, so it is considered to use information and communication technology (ICT) in different regions of the country. Therefore, a lot of ICT offices are established in rural areas of Iran. One of the most important functions of these offices is their contribution in agricultural development process. Thus, the aim of this study was to identify the functions of these offices in sustainable agricultural development process and also to find the obstacles they faced in this context. Field data of the study was collected from operating staff of these offices in BoiraAhmad county villages. A pre-designed questionnaire with close ended questions was designed for this study. Questionnaire\'s validity was verified using face validity and its reliability coefficient was calculated from 0.72.7 to 0.94 using Cronbach\'s Alpha Coefficient. Also some informal- qualitative interviews were conducted with respondents to identify obstacles they faced to achieving the desired functions. The results showed that functions of these offices are too far from ideal situation so that their scores were less than very poor in most of cases. Also, analysis of the qualitative data identified numerous personal, community and organizational obstacles in this area. More detailed description of the findings is displayed in the body of the paper.

1 2

Yasouj University; Iran Yasouj University, Iran

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Impact of Climate Change Extension on Agriculture in Sub-Sahara Africa Oyebola Adebola E.1

Olatokunbo B.2

Abstract Climate change is projected to impinge on sustainable development of most developing countries of subSahara Africa as it compounds the pressures on natural resources and the environment associated with rapid urbanization, industrialization, and economic development. The impact of climate change on agriculture is now real and without adequate adaptation and mitigation strategies to climate change, food insecurity and loss of livelihood are likely to be exacerbated in sub-Sahara Africa. The Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), released in 2007, has clearly revealed that increases in the emission of green house gases (GHGs) have resulted in warming of the climate system by 0.74°C between 1906 and 2005. Such climatic changes are affecting agriculture through their direct and indirect effects on crops, soils, livestock and pests, and hence the global food security. It was also recognized that a reliable and timely early warning system of impending climatic risks could help determination of the potential food insecure areas and communities. Such a system could be based on using modern tools of information and space technologies and is especially critical for monitoring cyclones, floods, drought and the movements of insects and pathogens. This paper declared that a concerted effort, backed by policy makers at the national level would be the key to enhance food security as well as ensuring agricultural sustainability. New genotypes tolerant to multiple stresses: drought, floods, heat, salinity, pests and diseases, will help further increase food production. This would require substantial breeding and biotechnology (including genetically modified varieties) related efforts based on collection, characterization, conservation and utilization of new genetic resources that have not been studied and used.

1 2

Federal College of Agriculture Akure Ondo State Nigeria Federal College of Agriculture AkurenOndo State Nigeria

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Attitudes of Extension Experts of Ardabil Province Towards Mobil Communication in Extension Education Shirdel A.1

Ghafari O.2

Bagheri A.3

Abstract Nowadays, ICTs have found significant role in education. Among them, Mobil as an inexpensive and available technology with ease of application placed in the highest level. The aim of this study was to examine Ardabil province extension experts' attitudes of Mobil use in extension. Survey research method was used in this study. The instrument of the study was a validated questionnaire. A pilot study was conducted to get the reliability. Agricultural extension agents were the statistics population of the study. Data was collected and analyzed from 114 extension agents of Ardabil province. Results show experts have little used of Mobil in extension education and information programs. They perceived Mobil as an appropriate media for extension education with considering cost reduction, however, inadequacy in rural infrastructures and farmers' weak skills had limited the use of Mobil in extension. Key words: Agricultural, Education, ICT.

INTRODUCTION The importance of agriculture for the food needs of the growing population isn't covered for anybody. Population growth and increased need for food led to an excess pressure on natural resources. This has increased the need for new technologies. Application of new technologies requires the necessary knowledge and skills of farmers and users of these technologies. Meanwhile, governments spend huge budget in agricultural education and to train farmers by use of agricultural extension programs every year. In current decades, following the structural adjustment programs, there has been a major problem in providing the cost of extension. This problem along with the low ratio of extension agents to farmer especially in developing countries (Swanson et al., 1997) complicated the education of and it led authorities to thinking about new technologies with low costs in order to promote extension coverage and enhancing effectiveness of the programs. So many methods have been used that one of the most efficient of them is application of ICTs, which cell phone technology is one of them. According to some researchers, ( Hudson, 2006; Jagun et al., 2007) ICTs can help with increasing the ability of people of developing countries in getting information and making correct decision and develop agricultural and rural and poverty reduction. Hudson 2007, classified the role of ICT in development into four categories: 1) efficiency, ratio of output to input (getting information for improving performance of agriculture), 2)Effectiveness, increasing the quality of products, services and organizational functions, 3)Equity, distribution of development benefits for all areas, 4)Availability, ability to communicate, regardless of time or geographical barriers. Mobile spreading in rural areas of developing countries has made changes in last decades (GSM, 2008). ICTs had influenced an access on information related to markets, weather and other basic services. This effect is because of the use of cell phone that we can get information easily (chista, 2010). Ilahiyan (2007) has argued that cell phone has made a revolution in the ways of access, change and information management by people. Because it have changed ways people interact with markets, enabled people to extract basic and suitable information for decision making. Results of a research conducted in the use of cell phone by the farmers and its role in production capacity in Nigeria showed that a frequency of contact with Agricultural Information Center about farmers who used cell phone were more in compare with farmers who didn't use cell phone. Also use of cell phone by farmers had increased contact with extension agents and the production capacity of farmers (Bolarinwa and Oyeyinka, 2011). Result of a research (Martin and Abbott, 2010) in Uganda showed that some half of farmers used cell phone for coordinating access to agricultural inputs, market information, technical advice with experts.

Master of Agricultural management, University of Shamse tabrizi khoy, Iran Master of Agricultural management, University of Mohaghegh ardabili, Iran 3 College of agriculture, University of Mohaghegh Ardabili, Iran 1 2

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A study in Iran (Omidi najaf abadi& Anishe, 1999) Showed that information about pests and pest management and giving information about prices and the market place of agricultural products, is one of the important opportunities by the use of cell phone in agricultural development. As Maru Pesce and have declared nowadays there is a concern that lack of investment in ICT, national capacity in research and promoting agriculture causes problems and has a negative effect on farm productivity and food production. Determining the use of ICT technology in agriculture, forestry and fisheries is important in improving market performance (Jensen, 2007). The purpose of this research is to investigate attitudes of extension experts of Ardabil province towards Mobile phone communication in extension education. MATERIAL AND METHODS This research is a descriptive research. Population of the research includes agriculture extension which related to the agricultural Organization. The sample includes 75 experts and promoters and necessary information are collected from them. The instrument which is used in this research was a questionnaire which its reliability has confirmed by a groups of experts, and for getting validity a study has been done. For investigating the attitudes of extension experts of Ardabil province towards mobile communication in extension education, the researcher used a scale includes 20 items in Likert. So each item had a score from 1 to 5 and from negative to positive towards the use of mobile in agriculture extension. For negative items, the score is contrary to the above case. So with calculation of mean and standard deviation, items are ranked according to the Coefficient changes. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Results showed that the average age of respondent were 37.6, 74 of them were men and just one of them was women. 24 percent of them were single and 76 percent were married. From educational level, 81.3 percent of them in B.A degree and higher level and the educational level if other respondent were diploma. The university curse of experts were Crop Science and gardens 54.6 percent, animal science 24 percent, management, economic, extension and development of agriculture 9.3 percent, natural resources 5.3 and other respondents were studied in other subjects. From the history of educational activities – promoting, %47, %16.1, %17.7, and %7.3 of respondents were 5, 10, 15, 20 year and others were more than 20 year. From employment situation , %53.3 of them were formal employee, 0.4 were official demo, %13.3 were contractual and %21.3 were member of construction soldiers and others were contractual employee. From management level, %70.6 of respondents were extension employees, %20.6 of them were staff and %8.8 of them worked at managerial level.%81.9 extension work of respondent were in agriculture affairs , %16.7 were worked in fisheries and aquatics extension affairs. It was asked from respondents in a week, how many times did they use mobile work time. Results showed that %33.3 of them a little , %41.3 of them some times. Other respondents , that is, %25.3 of them this technology more in working. The average years of usage of mobile by the respondents were 7.3 year (SD: 2.8 year) and average expenses for ever two month use of mobile were 250000 Riyals. Respondents had 18 farmers mobile number in a controlled area (SD,14) and 25 (SD, 19.5) of their colleagues. By the use of mobile in different educational –extension activities, questions were asked from respondents . according to the scores from 1 to 6 from Unwillingness to more willingness, this results showed that extension factors showed relatively average willingness. Among the questions , giving their mobile number to farmers for making advisory contact and in agricultural affairs with average 3.92 higher and use of message for sending educational-extensional text with average 2.67 got lowest score among the questions. Also, familiarity of experts with mobile capability for using it in extensional affairs were lower than average. May be lowest level of skills of extension experts about named capabilities can have an important role in unwillingness to use short message for sending educational text for farmers. Today mobile is used for sending educational texts for farmers. For example, in a workshop the use of ICT in extension which is held with agriculture extension experts in December in 2011 in Ardabil province. Some of skilled experts had declared that by the use of message they could inform farmers with plant Diseases like yellow color of wheat and how to confront with it in widespread or when growing wheat inform to all of farmers before implanting crops to lotion wheat seeds.

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At the end were asked from respondent do they like t o use mobile in each of following situation for communicating with farmers. As table (1) shows most experts tend to use mobile while going to village. This is because for collecting people for educational extensional classes and informing them about agriculture affairs. The lowest score related to people who work in offices in compare with other factors for example home showed that they are so busy in office and they don’t have enough time for educational extensional affairs which is theirs important work. Table 1, willingness to use of mobile for communicating with farmers situation Mean office 3.15 home 3.25 when going to village 4.17

SD 1.8 1.47 1.4

For investigating the attitudes of agriculture extension factors towards using of mobile in extension educations used attitudes items as has shown, in table 2. Mentioned item has ranked according to the mean SD and coefficient changes in table. As results showed that mobile items causes time saving with mean score 4/36 more than attitudes mean. After that mobile items can be used as a supplementary in extension, use of mobile reduces expenses of commute and agriculture transactions. General coordination of agricultural activities is easy by the use of mobile, use of mobile causes improvement in quality of extension activities. Mobile is just a fancy instrument and isn’t suitable for office works Which with mean score more than 4 means agree to strongly agree were put in the second to the sixth rank. This result showed that from the experts view mobile can be as a suitable supplementary material for extensional activities, coordinating of general activities of agriculture and extensional used for reducing expenses. According to the reverse score of sixth item, extension experts had disagreed with useless of mobile for table 2, attitudes of experts towards the use of mobile in extending department affairs. Table 2. Items Mobile causes time saving Use of mobile as supplementary material in extension Use of mobile for reducing expenses of commute and transactions Use of mobile causes coordinating of general activities of agriculture be easy Use of mobile cusses quality improvement in extension activities Mobile is a fancy instrument and I it doesn’t have any work value Mobile causes promoters access to updated information The expense of use of mobile is expensive mobile is an instrument s of increasing technical knowledge of farmers mobile doesn’t have any effect on performance of extension activities mobile in work place increase satisfaction use of mobile at work increase self confidence use of mobile reduces stress in extension we can not get good information by mobile giving two-way information is better than radio and TV in extension we can not get suitable information access to mobile causes laziness in doing works with unsuitable deep structure of villages, mobile in extension isn't good in villages traditional ways are more common than that mobile in villages traditional ways are more common than that mobile most of farmers cant use mobile

mean 4.36 4.16 4.20 4.19

SD 0.71 0.7 0.82 0.8

CV 0.16 0.17 0.19 0.19

rank 1 2 3 4

4.06 4.21 3.75 3.01

0.77 0.93 0.86 1.23

0.19 0.22 0.23 0.41

5 6 7 8

3.84 3.89 3.45 3.35 3.4 3.45 3.32 3.43 3.57

0.92 0.98 0.93 0.91 0.96 1.04 1.01 1.07 1.16

0.24 0.25 0.27 0.27 0.28 0.3 0.3 0.31 0.32

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

2.88 3.07 2.4

1.13 1.28 1.2

0.39 0.42 0.5

18 19 20

in fact , despite the existence of bureaucracy of jobs , they don’t accept mobile as a suitable instrument. Results of other items showed that experts were strongly agree with this topic: mobile causes promotion of technical information of promoters and farmers, the expense of mobile in extension isn't a lot. Mobile can be effective in performance.

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According to the positive attitudes of extension experts towards using of mobile in different fields of extension activities, last three items showed that from their view , there are other important barriers against use of this technology in extension. According to this result, most of experts believe that because of unsuitable deep structure of villages can't use mobile as an agriculture extension .in villages use of old methods of communication is more common than mobile, most of farmers can use mobile. According to the named advantages , it is necessary to remove existence barriers in using mobile in extension and use this tool widely in extension. Analyzing the relationships between variables According to the result of Man White Ni test , married experts in compare with single experts had favorable attitude towards using of mobile in extension (Z=-2.348 Sig=0.019). Correlation Analysis showed that attitude has a positive relationship towards experts , use of mobile in extension with age, history of extension, and has a negative relationship with English knowledge (table 3). Table (3) correlation Test of variables with attitudes of experts towards the/ use of mobile Age history of extension use of mobile attitudes 0.225 0.283 0.256 0.019* 0.005** 0.008**

English skill -0.247 0.011*

Also Regresyion analysis by step by step method (table 4) showed that two variables have history in extension and by the use of mobile could explain in total 16/4 percent of attitude changes. Ithis result show that attitudes in compare with mobile was personal and the studied variables haven't any powerful effect . Table (4) results of Regresyon attitudes towards the use of mobile in extension Model B Std Beta History of 0.411 9.256 0.330 extension Use of mobile 2.662 8.873 0.293 Sig.=0/000 constant=19.342 R2Adj=0.146 R2=0.164

t 3.434

sig. 0.001

3.049 R=0.404

0.003 F= 9.904

Factor analysis towards risk For summarizing data and investigating key elements of attitudes towards mobile is used factor analysis. Amount of K.M.F(0.786) and Bartelt Test(Sig=0.000, 825.54) showed that data for analyzing agents were suitable. In this analyzing, six agents with amount bigger than 1 extracted and according to agent and after rolling by the varimax method classified in table 5. Table 5, extracted risky agents after rolling by the Varimax method Agent special amount percent of variance Improvement of extension 3.488 17.44 Personal satisfaction 2.749 13.732 Performance 2.096 10.467 Updated information 1.967 9.836 Social barriers 1.588 7.939 Technical barriers 1.368 6.839

percent of total variance 17.44 31.172 41.639 51.475 59.414 66.253

As it has been shown in table (5), first factor as an extension improvement, with special amount 3.488 only has gotten 17.44 percent of experts attitudes variance towards mobile. After that second factor as a personal satisfaction with special amount 2.749 also has gotten 13.732 percent of variance. From third to sixth factors, with the name of performance (special amount: 2.096), updated information ( special amount: 1.967), social barriers (special amount:1.588) and technical barriers (special amount: 1.368) has gotten other percent of variance 10.467, 9.836, 7.939, 6.839 . so total variance which is described by factor analysis with special amount bigger than one an rolling factor in a Varimax way, were 66.253 percent which is acceptable in economical and social investigation. Table (6) shows item position in factors and their loading factor. In calculation of factor analysis, loading factors were higher than 0.3.and in its naming of factors if there is more than one loading factor, the biggest loading factor in naming factors has been considered.

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Table (6), the rotation matrix of attitude factor towards the use of mobile in extension Factors variables loading factor Extension improvement supplementary material 0.780 Extension quality improvement 0.765 Time saving 0.748 Coordinating public activities 0.702 Reducing commute-transaction 0.623 Tool to raise awareness among 0.523 farmers Personal satisfaction making self confidence to job 0.792 Giving two-way information 0.769 Less stress at work 0.753 Increasing job satisfaction 0.649 Performance laziness in working 0.789 Mobile as a fancy tool 0.670 Doesn’t have any effect on 0.670 extension performance Expense for extension is high 0.524 Updated information lack of useful information about 0.750 mobile Access to updated information 0.626 Social barriers unsuitable in extension 0.814 Efficiency of traditional methods 0.668 Technical barriers unsuitable deep structure of 0.744 villages Lack of skills of farmers 0.705

Conclusion Results showed that most of experts used limited use of mobile in extensional affairs and most of them preferred to use mobile when going to village. They had less familiarity with mobile capacities. A little familiar with these capabilities and the high cost of mobile and Lack of financial support in paying the used cost of mobile had Prevented its widespread use in the extension. Investigating of the attitudes towards its use show that they found that with considering the heavy cost of commute for controlling villages and also coming farmers to cities, mobile is a useful tool for reducing expenses especially financial extension which is a serious problem in Iran and world. In addition to it, they considered mobile as a suitable supplementary material for extension educations, so , they believed that unsuitable deep structure of village for using of mobile and low skills of villagers made the use of this tool with limitation as if they prefer traditional media is more efficient than mobile. So for widely use of mobile in extension following suggestion is considered: A ) paying some expenses of experts mobile by related ministry when using mobile in extension B ) giving quota of short message to extension experts for sending educational messages. C )holding workshops for using ICT especially mobile in extension for farmers in extension D ) encouraging experts in order to use this technology for extension goals. References 1. Omidi Najaf Abadi , M & Anishe, R,. Chalenges and opportunity in using mobile in agriculture education. (case study, Fomat area), Agricultural Research, Extension and Training 106-97:(3)2. 2. Bolarinwa, K. K., and Oyeyinka, R. A. (2011). Use of Cell Phone by Farmers and its Implication on Farmers’ Production Capacity in Oyo State Nigeria. World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology, 75. 3. CHISITA, C. T. (2010). An investigation into the impact of ICT's in the provision of agricultural information to small scale farmers in Harare. Scientific and Technical Information and Rural Development IAALD XIIIth World Congress, Montpellier, 26-29 April 2010. 4. Global System for Mobile Communications [GSM]. (2008). Universal access: How mobile can bring communications to all. Retrieved Feb. 9, 2009, from: http://gsmworld.com/documents/universal_access_full_report.pdf

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5. Hudson, H. (2006). From rural village to global village: Telecommunications for development in the information age. Danbury: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Incorporated. 6. Ilahiane, Hsain Impacts of ICT’s on agriculture: Farmers and Mobile Phones. http://www.public.iastate.edu/~hsain/Research/Impacts of ICTs in agricultute Ilahiane.ppt.Accessed 23 December, 2009 7. Jagun, A., Heeks R., & Whalley J. (2007). Mobile telephony and developing country micro-enterprise: A Nigerian case study. Institute for Development Policy and Management. Retrieved Mar. 24, 2009, from http://www.sed.manchester.ac.uk. 8. Jensen, R. (2007). The digital provide: Information (technology), market performance, and welfare in the South Indian fisheries sector. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 122(3), 879-924. 9. Martin, B. and Abbott, E. 2010. Development Calling: The Use of Mobile Phones in Agriculture Development in Uganda. UNESCO. Available on-line at: http://ifap-is-observatory.ittk.hu/trackback/442. 10. Maru A. and Pesce V. Adoption of Information and Communications Technologies in Agricultural Research for Development. FAO, Rome, Italy. Retrieved at Dec. 1, 2011, from: www.fao.org.

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Credit Access and Livestock Productivity Among Rural Women Farmers in Nasarawa State, Nigeria. Silong A.K.1 Abstract Agriculture is the major source of food and livelihood in Sub-Saharan Africa including Nigeria. It employs nearly 3/4 of the Nigerian population; rural women play a very significant role in agricultural production. However, the sector is underperforming in the country; one of the reasons for the underperformance is that the dominant actors, women lack the opportunities and the resources they require to make the most fruitful use of their time. As compared to crop production, the participation of rural women in livestock related activities in Nasarawa State, Nigeria is much higher and makes significant contribution to their livelihood. However, majority of these women are small holders and still rudimentary in their farming methods. To overcome the problems of poor performance and declining productivity; the resources available to the rural women have to be efficiently utilized. Efficiency measurement therefore becomes very necessary for monitoring productivity and benefit economies in ascertaining the extent to which it is possible to increase productivity. The main objective of the study is to investigate the major factors influencing the efficiency of small ruminant production among rural women inNasarawa State, Nigeria, with specific outlook on the influence of credit and gender power relations on technical efficiency of rural women. Multi-stage sampling techniques were used in selecting respondents. The approach to the research adopted both quantitative and qualitative enquiry. Quantitative methods employed the use of structured interviews which includes the Harvard Gender Frameworks.Quantitative methodswill employ the use of descriptive statistics for gender analysis, sources of credit and factors determining access. The stochastic frontier production function will be used to determine technical efficiencies of men and women separately and major factors influencing them. Qualitative method employed the use of focus group discussions. Nvivowill be used for the analysis of qualitative data obtained Keywords: Small holders, rudimentary, small ruminants, input- output factors, socio-economic factors, gender power relations, technical efficiency. INTRODUCTION Women constitute about 49 % of the Nigerian population NPC (2006), about 72% of this female population live in rural areas and are involved in agricultural production (IFAD, 2006). As compared to crop production, the participation of rural women in livestock related activities in Nigeria and the study area is much higher and makes a significant contribution to their livelihood and the Nigerian economy (CBN, 2005 and Ayoadeet al., 2009).However, many of these rural women farmers are characterised by small holdings and still rudimentary in their farming methods (Idowu and Ajani, 2008; Ogunlale and Mukhtar, 2009; Ayoadeet al., 2009). One of the reasons for this is that their accesses to productive resources, especially the needed capital for investment in their productive activities have been very low due to cultural, reproductive, marital and religious factors (Quisumbing and Pandolfelli, 2008). This situation is further escalated by the patriarchal political systems and social structures in the country that shape gender power relations which results in rural women not deriving equal access to education, technology, and rarely have equal access and control with men of the critical farm resources and services. FAO (2011) reports that the negative impact of gender discrimination on productivity is more obvious in the livestock sector in Nigeria, Ghana and Bangladesh than in most other areas of agriculture. This could be the reason for the problem in the livestock sector in Nigeria whereOjo (2003) reported saying that the livestock industry in Nigeria falls short of its aim of self-sufficiency in animal protein consumption that is put at 5g/caput per day which falls short of the recommended level of 35g/caput per day by the Food and Agriculture Organization.

1

University of Reading, School of Agriculture, Policy and Development, RG6 6AR, Reading, United, Kingdom.

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21st European Seminar on Extension Education / Extension education worldwide, September 2-6, 2013, ANTALYA

There has been an increasing awareness in the past two decades of the important role that credit plays in agricultural production and poverty reduction among developing nations of the world, In effect; the World Submit for Social Development in the UN (1995) pinpointed the importance of improving accessibility to credit for the disadvantaged and low income earners among which are women. According to Muniraj (1987) and Armenderiz and Murdoch (2010); credit in agriculture is the money extended to the farmers to stimulate the productivity of the limited farm resources, it is not a mere loan or credit of advance; it is an instrument which could be used to promote the wellbeing of a society and improve the welfare of the poor. In Nigeria, like in most developing countries, the small scale farmers (majority of who are women) constitute the core of the agricultural sector and produce the bulk of the food and fibre used in the country (IFAD, 2006; Idowu and Ajani, 2008, Ogunlale and Mukhtar, 2009). Facilitating financial innovations aimed at providing sustainable credit services to them and enabling them to make efficient use of it therefore becomes very important for procuring farm inputs and meeting production expenditures for increased productivity (Okunade, 2007). Another means of ensuring increased productivity is with measurement of efficiency in production. Thisbecomes very necessary for monitoring agricultural productivity and benefit economies in ascertaining the extent to which it is possible to increase productivity (Amaza, 2000). The measurement of technical efficiency in livestock production improves our understanding of the relationship between the inputs employed in production and output obtained in the production process given the technology of production adopted; it indicates the efficiency at which inputs are transformed into output. Studies conducted by Quisumbing (1996) and Marindaet al. (2006) revealed that all things being equal, there’s no evidence of gender productivity differences in agriculture, in general, female and male farmers are in the same way efficient as farm managers. However, lower yields and lower efficiency of female farmers are attributable to lesser levels of human capital and resource inputs than men. A pre-requisite for enhanced efficiencyof small ruminant production among rural women in the study area is the identification of those factors which prevail at the farm and household levels which affect their efficiency of production. The results most often summarize the major indicators of economic performances and often characterize the relative performances among farms. This is with the overall objective of suggesting policies that could be adopted to increase the overall productivity of their production units. The investigation of technical efficiency of small ruminant production among rural women farmers’ in the study area is important for the following reasons: Firstly; rural women constitute a majority of the poor in most countries in Sub-Saharan Africa including Nigeria and the study area in particular. According to Olayemi (1997) and Amaza (2000) there is often a strong relationship between poverty and insecurity. As stated by FAO (2009a) poor rural women in Sub-Saharan Africa spend most of their income on food and paying children’s school fees which can improve family welfare.The low-cost of investments in small ruminant production, ease of management and quick rate of growth and returns can provide poor rural women with new income generating activities (Lathan, 1997). Therefore, an increase in the productivity of livestock among rural women farmers which is the ultimate goal of the study implies an improvement in their welfare, and consequently a reduction in their poverty levels and food insecurity.Secondly, there is often a strong correlation between food related issues and economic development in low income countries (Maluf, 1998). Increasing the productivity of small ruminants’ production among rural womentherefore stands out among the requirements for social equity in terms of both poverty relief and building up of economic activities in the study area. The study involved both men and women small ruminant farmers in Nasarawa State, Nigeria, involving both men and in the study is account for the differences in factors that influence efficiency and productivities of men and women which could arise as a result of differences in socio-economic, cultural, institutional and religious factors in the study area which may affect the two genders differently (March, 1999). It is hoped that the findings of the study will have policy implications for increased productivity of livestock in the study area. Research aim and objectives The study aims to investigate the major factors influencing the efficiency and productivity of rural women farmers’ livestock enterprises in Gombe State, Nigeria with special outlook on the influence of credit on technical efficiency of rural women farmers.

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21st European Seminar on Extension Education / Extension education worldwide, September 2-6, 2013, ANTALYA

Objectives I. Identify and describe the sources of credit to rural women farmers and the factors influencing their access II. Determine the influence of credit and other variables on efficiency and productivity of the rural women’s’ small ruminant enterprises III. Investigate the major constraints to improvement in the livestock enterprises of rural women farmers MATERIALS AND METHODS Multistage sampling techniques were used to select 216 farmers. Instruments for data collection were structured interviews which included the Harvard Gender Frameworks and focus group discussions. The study covered 2010 and 2011 production periods. Descriptive statistics will be employed using SPSS 19 to determine socio-economic characteristics of rural farmers, their sources of credit and factors determining access to credit. The same method will be used to analyse data collected with the Harvard Gender Frameworks to determine the roles of men and women productive and reproductive activities in the study area, their access to productive resources as well as factors influencing gender power relations (March, 1999). The stochastic frontier production will be used to determine the major production input factors and socio-economic factors including credit affecting efficiency and productivity of livestock production among rural farmers in the study area. A stochastic production function comprises a production function of the usual regression type and a composite disturbance term equal to the sum of two error components: (Aigner, et al. 1977; Meeusen and Van de Broeck, 1977). The model is defined by: Yi

=

f (Xi β) eЄ ;

=

Vi-Ui;

i =1,2,…………,N ………………….(3.1)

and Є

i=1,2………….,N

……………………….(3.2)

The frontier of the farm is given by combining (3.1) and (3.2) Yi =

f (Xi; β) e (v-u)……………………………………………….

Thus

Yi

=

(3.3)

F (Xi β) exp (Vi – Ui)

Where, Yi = Production level for the ith sample farm, Xi = vector of input quantities used by the ith farm, these are flock size( X1), livestock(X2), feeds(X3), labour (X4), rent (X5), drugs and chemicals (X6), vaccines (X7), water (X8) and transport/other costs (X9);β’s= coefficients of Xi which are to be estimated; Vi = Random error which is associated with random factors (diseases, weather and so on);U i= Non-negative random variables which are associated with inefficiency;f(.) = appropriate function of the vector and Є =the composite error term consisting of V and U. The symmetric or two sided components, Vi, accounts for random variation in production (output) due to factors outside the farmers’ control (e.g. weather, diseases, etc.), and is assumed to be independently and identically distributed as N(0,δ2v) independent of Uiwhich is a one-sided component. (Vi is assumed to have a normal distribution) Ui, is a non-negative random variable and reflects technical inefficiency (or production losses) arising from managerial decisions of the farmer and other farm specific characteristics, also independently and identically distributed (assuming half normal distribution) Thus, U= 0 for a farm whose output lies on the frontier, And U>0 for one whose output lies below the frontier. Typically, it is assumed that, Ui follows an identical and independent half normal distribution as U~/N (0, δ 2u) and arises from the truncation at zero of the normal distribution. Technical efficiency of an individual farm is defined in terms of the ratio of the observed output to the corresponding frontier output, given the technology of production adopted. It therefore implies that the frontier output varies with the level of technology employed by the farm. Technicalefficiency (TE) = Yi/ Y*=f(Xi ;β) exp(vi-ui)/f(Xi, )exp(vi) exp(-µi>O) ......................................(3.4) Where,Yiis the observed output and Y* the frontier output. In most cases TEO.

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21st European Seminar on Extension Education / Extension education worldwide, September 2-6, 2013, ANTALYA

Yi achieves its maximum feasible value of f (Xi; β)e v-u - frontier output if and only if, TE=1. Otherwise TE