7.2. Communication theories

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4


Table of Content PART I

The City of Quest A Backgrounder

CHAPTER 1

Section 1.1. 1.2. 1.3.

On Communication: An Introduction Societal aspect of communication The Academic study of Communication: A brief overview 1.3.1 1.3.2

1.4.

1.4.1. 1.4.2 1.4.3

CHAPTER 2

Section 2.1. 2.2. 2.3. 2.4. 2.5.

CHAPTER 3

Section

3.1. 3.2.

PART II CHAPTER 4

Section 4.1. 4.2. 4.3. 4.4.

PART III CHAPTER 5

PART IV CHAPTER 6

Section 6.1.

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2.1.1.

2.5.1. 2.5.2

Communication theories scholarship: The process of inquiry Types of Scholarship Towards theorizing (social) Communication: A review Communication theories: Types of traditions Core Communication theories A summary: Communication theory as prism

In search of non-Western theories of communication

31

Review of Literature

41

Western universalism: A comment Western ideology: A brief overview An Alternative Paradigm Statement of the argument Delimitation Importance of the argument significance/relevance Rationale Conceptual Review Approaches and Reflection

The City of Love On Sufism

49

The Concept of Sufism Sufism as a cult The origin of Sufism

Sufis Ideology and worldview

The City of Understanding Aim and objectives

62

The City of Independence and Detachment Methodology

68

Methodological approach

5


6.2.

6.3. 6.4. 6.5.

6.2.1. 6.2.2. 6.2.3.

PART V

The City of Unity Analysis

CHAPTER 7

7.1.

7.2. 7.3.

7.1.1. 7.1.2. 7.1.3. 7.2.1. 7.2.2. 7.3.1. 7.3.2.

PART VI 8.1. 8.2.

CHAPTER 10

PART VII REFERENCES APPENDICES

Theoretical framework The idea of theory Dimensions of theory Metatheories Communication theories Social communication theories: Attributes theories Network communication theories: Relations theories Alternative non-Western theories of communication Classical Sufism concepts Alternative theories Theory A: Second Space (being and non-being space) Theory B: Chaotic Communication Flow/Pattern Theory C: Static-Dynamism Interplay Theory D: From Plurality to Unity

The City of Astonishment and Bewilderment Final Note

CHAPTER 8

CHAPTER 9

Data Nature of the data Time period of data Geographical area Sampling Structure Definition of key terms

75 85

125

Inferences Discussion

Evolutions and Limitations 9.1. 9.2.

83 67

9.2.1. 9.2.2. 9.2.3. 9.2.4.

138

Evolutions Limitations Conceptual/epistemological/methodological limitations Structural constraints Limitation of resources Time constrains

Scope for further research

147

The Deprivation and Death Appendix A Appendix B Appendix C

152 159

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Table of Figures Figures Figure 1.1. The levels of communication Figure 1.2. The Stages of Inquiry Figure 1.3. The Classical Ideal of Science Figure 1.4. Core communication theories Figure 1.5. Tiers of communication theories Figure 4.1. Tree diagram of the origin of Sufism Figure 6.1. Basic approach of Analysis Figure 6.2. Dimensions of Critical Discourse Analysis Figure 6.3. Illustration of research Structure Figure 7.1. metatheories approach Figure 7.2. Interaction to Action model Figure 7.3. Social Communication Theory Chain Figure 7.4. Hierarchy of contexts Figure 7.5. Social Actions Types Figure 7.6. Non-being space as apart of being space Figure 7.7. Seir-va-Soluk (Spiritual journey) Figure 7.8. Static-dynamism Figure 7.9. Dance’s Helical Model(Showing the dynamic nature of communication process) Figure 7.10. From Plurality to Unity Figure 7.11. The Spiral of Interaction Model Figure 7.12. Exchange and Enhancement of Meaning Figure 7.13. Comparative view between Sufism and West on core standpoint of communication Figure 8.1. Pyramid of Modernity, tradition, communication and development

Tables Table 4.1. Thoughts of Sufism Vs. Philosophy Table 6.1. the Comparison of different approaches to qualitative discourse analysis Table 7.1. Habermas Model of social sphere Table 7.2. Selected Social Theories and Their Theoretical Mechanisms Table 7.3. Sufism Concepts and Communication conceptual integrations

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Acknowledgements Appreciation is only a sparkle of joy of gratefulness expressed in a medium with it its own limitation. I picked up the pen to communicate my wholehearted appreciation to one and all who made this journey of research memorable and insightful one. Albeit in McLuhan’s words ‘medium is the message,’ I tried to put my thankfulness within the lines and my boundless and passionate gratefulness between the lines.

To my Guide & Guru, Mr. Vishram Dhole, who guided my scholarship, inspired me by his invaluable insights, and gave me courage all through these two years, especially during this challenging research…

To my distinguished professors, with no words shall I express gratefulness to the vast invaluable knowledge and wisdom of life which I learnt from you all: Dr. E. V. Chitnis, Prof. M. Y. Thote, Mr. Samar Nakhate, Mr. Ghode, Mr. Vishram Dhole, Dr. R. K. Madhavi, Dr. K. R. Sanap & …

To my Mother, my angle, the queen of the family whose mysterious influence of grace, of sweetness, and of love render the fulfillment of duties less wearisome, loneliness less bitter…

To my Father, Of his high sprit and of his free soul, my fairy daddy long leg, who helps and supports his “Judy Abbott” all through my life, who fatherly supports me, guides me and lifts me up whenever I fall…

To my brothers and sister, My unique trustees, who sent their sister with loads of their best wishes and diamond dreams with the Magic Carpet to the land of mysteries and wonders, India, to reach to stars

Also to my unique friends, For being there for me and mark haunting moments in my life…

And to one and all, Who helped me, please forgive if you could not find your name here, but be sure your name is written there in my heart for ever…

To butterflies, Whose presence may influence us, to universe, to Allah…

Thank you all

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Abstract Increasingly, there is a gigantic debate on the flow of communication theories from north to the south of our today’s ‘global village.’ Indeed, the arguments for the stateof-the-art research into Asian theories of communication – de-Westernization and indigenization scholarship – have been gathered momentum over the past two decades (Dissanayake, 2009). In similar vein, this research is an attempt to search for an alternative non-Western theories of communication. To meet this aim, the endeavor has been made to excavate thoughts of Sufism in order to bring to light alternative aspects of human communication. These thoughts primarily would be mined from poetic discourse of Sufism, since they believe their deep thought can be express only through elegance of poetic style, and secondly from their common practices. The major methodological approach is Maurice Duverger’s textual analysis, narrowed by discursive and critical discourse analysis. The structure of the book is inspired by Sufism idea of the Seven Cities of Love and is designed accordingly. The logic behind this attempt was the fact that the structure is a part of overall meaning or in McLuhan’s words, medium is the message. In analysis, initially Western theories is represented and it followed by the alternative non-Western theories. The Western perspective understood to be more individualistic, reductionist and logic-oriented in nature while Eastern view tend to be more collective, holistic and intuitive-oriented. This research brought to light that overall Western theories are constructed based on constitutive elements of communication, concepts of individuality/self, continuity, and dynamism. Accordingly, four alternative theories have been proposed. The overall embarking understanding is the fact that these two extremes should be well balance and blended.

Key words Non-Western theories of communication, Sufism, social theories of communication, discursive analysis and critical discourse analysis

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10

The Map of the Research Journey

Chapter 8: Inferences Discussions

Part VI: The City of Astonishment and Bewilderment

Chapter 9: Evaluations Limitations

Chapter 10: Scope for further research

END=START VII: The City of Deprivation and Death

City of Unity

Chapter 3: Review of Literature

Six + 1 Cities of Research

Part II: The City of Love

Chapter 4: On Sufism

Chapter 6: Methodology

Part IV: The City of Independence and detachment

Chapter 1: A Backgrounder Chapter 2: An Argument

Chapter 7: Analysis

Part V: The

Part I: The City of Quest

Chapter 5: Aim & Objectives

Part III: The City of Understanding


‫بش نو از ین چون حاکيت می کند‬ ‫از جدایي ها شاکيت می کند‬

Pay heed to the grievances of the reed of what divisive separations breed

1

2

The reed refers to human being Rumi’s Masnavi Manavi started with these lines from his poem entitled The Reed Flute. In fact, his great masterpiece, Masnavi Manavi (Spiritual Couplets), contains six main parts, which is an allusion to Seven Cities of Love of Attar. However, Rumi kept the last stage, as he claimed, the last stage is the perfection for human beings. Therefore, he had left it intentionally for the one to reach by her/his own. These seven cities, viz. Quest; Love; Understanding; Independence and Detachment; Unity; Astonishment and Bewilderment; and Deprivation and Death (annihilation), refer to ‘transformation of one from the lower level of the self, up to the near end in the hierarchy of self-soul-spirit. The structure of this book, accordingly, is inspired by this view. 1 2

11

12

Quest

Part I - The City of



CHAPTER 1 A BACKGROUNDER

Pay heed to the grievances of the reed of what divisive separations breed… This chapter is the first step of the City of the Quest. It provides a backgrounder and general introduction required for the journey.

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CHAPTER 1 A BACKGROUNDER ‘We live in communication just like fish live in water, wrapped in but unconscious of communication as much as fish are unaware of the water.’ (Hsia, 1988: 8)

 On Communication  What is social communication  The Academic study of Communication: A review  Theorization of (social) Communication: A review

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1.1. On Communication: An Introduction Would it be possible to fantasize life without communication even in our wildest dreams? Pithily endorsed by many scholars ‘We live in communication just like fish live in water, wrapped in but unconscious of communication as much as fish are unaware of the water’ (Hsia, 1988: 8). The fear of living without ‘the water’ only could be addressed in science fiction; however, the scenario of it flows is a topical scholarship. Admittedly, this research is an attempt to address this contemporary concern. In broad terms, communication is considered to be ‘one of those human activities’ which ‘few can define satisfactorily’ (Fiske, 1990: 1) despite its universal extensiveness. A simple justification could be the fact that ‘we tend to overlook communication, not because of its absence but because of its omnipresence’ (Hsia, 1988: 3). Indeed rather technical explanation of Theodore Clevenger added more insight to the problem. He put forth that, […] the continuing problem in defining communication for scholarly or scientific purposes stem from the fact that the verb ‘to communicate’ is well established in the common lexicon and therefore is not easily captured for scientific use. (Littlejohn, 2002: 6)

Despite this challenge, many scholars endeavored to define communication. An authentic example is Frank Dance, who distinguished three dimensions of communication as a foundation for definition; viz. ‘level of Observation,’ ‘intentionality,’ ‘normative judgment.’

3

However, as Littlejohn (2002) noted

‘establishing a single definition has proved impossible and may not be fruitful’ (p. 6) due to ‘diverse and multi-faceted’ nature of communication itself (Fiske, 1990: 1).

This diversity, in fact, is an

added advantage. Anderson highlighted ‘While there is not a right or wrong perspective, choices regarding [definitions] are not trivial. These perspectives launch scholars down different theoretical trajectories, predispose them to ask distinct questions, and set them up to conduct different kinds of communication studies’ (Cited in Littlejohn, 2002: 8). Regardless of various definitions, one major concern stands out; that is how communication is unfolding in society. In simple term what are the levels of human communication. The figure below is depicting these levels.

3 For further discussion see Littlejohn (2002: 6-9)

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Figure 1.1. The levels of communication4

Society - wide

Institutional / organizational Intergroup/ Association Intergroup Interpersonal

To put it in a nutshell, human history has been witnessing long record of human communication, irrespective of taxonomical distinction, say from ‘cave paintings by prehistoric humans’ (25,000 B.C) 5

to new media at the twentieth century A.D.. To bridge this section with the next section on social

communication it would be apt to cite the insight of Robert T. Craig about communication, … communication is the primary process by which human life is experienced; communication constitutes reality. How we communicate about our experience itself forms or makes our experience. The many forms of experience are made in many forms of communication. People’s meanings change from one group to another, from one setting to another, and from one time period to another because communication itself is dynamic across situations. (Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 6)

4 Source: Jensen (2002: 9): The levels of communication adapted from McQuail 2000 5 For a brief chronology of human communication see Jensen (2002: 9)

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1.2. Societal aspect of communication Significantly Colin Cherry, in his book On Human Communication, made the statement that ‘Communication is essentially a social affair’ (Cited in Beck et al., 2004: 266). He believed that, through ages ‘Man has evolved a host of different system of communication render social life possible’ (p. 266) that is ‘Communication have enabled the social units to grow’(p. 267). According to Cherry, the phrase of ‘people in communication’ would make sense, when the communication is unfolding in a ‘group of people, a society, [and/or] a culture.’ 6 In a nutshell, he succinctly put forth that ‘Communication is a social function.’7 Further discourse related to this topic is the argument of Raymond Williams in his book Communications (1962). He stated that ‘What we call society is not only a network of political and economic arrangements, but also a process of […] communication’ that is ‘society is a form of communication’ and in return, communication become ‘social institutions’ (Williams, 1962: 11-12). He further elaborate that communication has embedded in ‘all our social activities,’ therefore, ‘We cannot examine the process of general communication’ without considering societal factor. 8 Additionally he viewed that ‘we have been wrong in taking communication as secondary’ meaning ‘first, reality and then, communication about it,’ this is an old cliché ‘that there is life, and then afterwards […] account of it.’9 Robert T. Craig believed that: Communication … is not a secondary phenomenon that can be explained by antecedent psychological, sociological, cultural, or economic factor; rather, communication itself is the primary, constitutive social process that explains all these other factors. (Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 6)

Yet another invaluable argument credited to J. W. Carey’1989 a book entitled Communication as culture.10 He explained that ‘In a reconstructive formulation, society exist both by transmissions and in rituals. In structuration terms, communicative agency serves to both reproduce and contest social 6 See Beck et al., 2004: 266 7 Ibid, p. 268 8 See Williams, 1962: 12-13 9 Ibid, p. 11 10 The book could not be accessed. The reference is from Jensen (2004).

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structure through transmission of, as well as ritual participation in meaning’ (Cited in Jensen, 2004: 9). He added an authentic quotation from a pragmatic philosopher, John Dewey that ‘Society exists not only by transmission, by communication, but it may fairly be said to exist in transmission, in communication.’11 Given this bird’s-eye-view, scholars developed several theories and models considering societal aspect of communication. Examples would be Ritual model and Social Construction of Reality. A more comprehensive discussion would be discussed later in this chapter.

1.3. The Academic study of Communication: A brief overview Communication, in general terms, evolved as a systematic academic discourse and its gained momentum in the twentieth century especially in the second half. Many scholars believe that the reason behind could be proliferation of communication technologies, global equilibrium of power and economic-political scenario besides phenomenon such as industrialization and privatization / globalization.

12

Williams (1962) believed that the twentieth century had produced ‘a dramatic

tightening of interest in […] world of communication.’ However, the ‘intense interest in academic study of communication,’ in words of Littlejohn and Foss (2008), started after World War I (p. 4). They added that: […] the subject was further promoted by the popular twentieth century philosophies of progress and pragmatism, which stimulated a desire to improve society through widespread social change. This trend is important because it grounds communication firmly in the intellectual history of the United States during twentieth century. 13

It is believed that after the World War II, social science gained considerable attention and identically, it fully recognized as ‘legitimate’ discipline.

14

Communication, similarly, evolved as an

interdisciplinary area of study among social science disciplines. Scholars believed that ‘While many disciplines have undoubtedly benefited from adopting a communication model, it is equally true that 11 Cited in

Jensen, 2004: 9

12 See Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 4 13 Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 4 14 Ibid

18


they, in turn, have added greatly to our understanding of human interaction.’15 However, the challenge of the communication as a field is considered to be establishing itself as independent discipline. A proof of the aforementioned statement could be found in the claim of Littlejohn and Foss (2008). They stated that ‘In earlier editions of Theories, theories [were borrowed] from other disciplines’ but now the attempt is ‘to include primarily theories developed within the discipline itself – theories that center communication in ways other disciplines do not.’16 Accordingly many national and international associations and academic department get established to meet the overwhelming interest to this field. Furthermore, they explained that the history of communication theories is marked differently across the globe. For instance, in United States the emphasize was on establishing communication quantitatively as social science, while in Europe, inspiring by Marx theories, communication was coloring more in critical/cultural perspective.

17

Although very recent, the scenario in East was

rather different. Littlejohn and Foss (2008) put forth that ‘Western theories tend to focus on wholeness and unity, whereas Western perspectives sometimes measure parts without necessarily being concerned about an ultimate integration or unification of those parts’18 (p.5).

1.3.1.

Communication theories scholarship: The process of inquiry

Understood broadly, knowing about the process of inquiry, in fact, would help greatly in better acquaintance with communication as a field and its theories. In general, ‘Inquiry is the systematic study of experience that leads to understanding, knowledge, and theory.’ 19 Accordingly, three stages have been introduced for the systematic process of inquiry; viz. questioning, observation, and theory – or constructing answers. To elaborate more, the question can be of various types and the answers of phenomenon under question can be observed in quite diverse method over different desired and appropriate data. In the last stage the scholar is attempting ‘to define, describe, and explain – to make judgments and interpretations about what was observed.’20 This fact should be highlighted that

Ibid Ibid 17 Ibid 18 The more comprehensive discussion will be argued later in the chapter. 19 Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 7 20 Ibid 15 16

19


the process of inquiry does not stop at this stage and theories may leads to new questions. The diagram below is summarizing aforementioned process: Figure 1.2. The Stages of Inquiry 21 Questions

Theory

Observations

A well-informed scholar may notice that this model is only visualization of the overall process and different filed may have various types of questions, methods of observations, and probably other stages which may lead to diverse sort of theory. According to traditional social science, for example, Littlejohn (2002) presented another model which is highly inspired by experimental natural science.

Figure 1.3. The Classical Ideal of Science 22

Theories (Induction)

(Deduction)

Generalization

Hypothesis

(Method and measurement)

Observation

21 22

Source: (Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 7) Source: Littlejohn 2002: 21

(Operationali zation)

20


1.3.2. Types of Scholarship Understood broadly, there are three broad types of scholarship. They are as following: 1) Scientific Scholarship 2) Humanistic scholarship 3) Social scientific scholarship The Scientific Scholarship refers to ‘The scientific attempts to look at the world in such a way that all other observers, trained the same way and using the same methods.’ 23The associated ideas to this type of scholarship are ‘objectivity, standardization, and generalizability.’

24

Understood mostly, this

type of scholarship is apt for problems of nature. The Humanistic scholarship which is mostly associated with ‘subjectivity’ and it essentially ‘seek[s] creative interpretation.’25 If draw a comparison between humanistic and scientific scholarship, the latter one ‘aims to standardize observation’ and ‘reduce differences in what is observed’ while the former one aims to ‘understand individual subjective response.’26 The Social scientific scholarship which ‘includes elements of both science and humanities’ seeks ‘to observe and interpret patterns of human behavior’27 in its broadest sense. Similar to natural scientist, social scientist attempt for establishment of ‘consensus on the basis of what is observed’

28

(Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 9). Agreed broadly, communication inquiry may take advantage of the range of approach from humanistic to scientific.

23

Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 8 Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 8 25 Ibid 26 Ibid 27 Ibid 28 As it will discuss later, the Buddhist principle of dependent co-arising, as a non-Western discourse is considered to be an alternate view on this paradigmatic view. Besides that, comprehensive discussion will be presented later in this research on the alternative / non-Western view about types of scholarship and social science in particular. 24

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1.4. Towards theorizing (social) Communication: A review 1.4.1. Communication theories: Types of traditions Communication theory, in view of Robert T. Craig, ‘is a response to some aspect of communication encountered in everyday life … various theories address the social world in which people live.’ 29 He described seven traditions in which the communication has been viewed from different perspective. The first three traditions belong to the category of communication science and the other four traditions belong to the category of communication arts (Gunaratne, 2010: 481). These traditions are as following: 1) The rhetorical tradition 2) The semiotic tradition 3) The phenomenological tradition 4) The cybernetic tradition 5) The sociopsychological tradition 6) The sociocultural tradition 7) The critical tradition The rhetorical tradition is ‘governed by the art and method’ of the communicator (Littlejohn, 2002: 13). That is the problem or challenge would be ‘dealt with through carefully designed messages’ and ‘Logical and emotional appeals’ are among integral parts of rhetorical theories.30 Littlejohn (2002) stated that: ‘Rhetorical theories often challenge those suggesting that words are not action, that appearance is not reality, that style is not substance, and that opinion us not truth.’ (p. 13). The semiotic tradition deals with meaning making / understandings,

signs, symbols, and etc.

understood broadly, it view communication ‘as a bridge between the private worlds of individuals.’31 He succinctly specified that: ‘Semiotic theories often lie in opposition to theories suggesting that words have correct meanings, that signs stand for objects, or that language is neutral.’ 32

29

cited in Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 7 Littlejohn, 2002: 13 31 Ibid 32 Ibid 30

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The phenomenological tradition concerns the ‘personal experience’ – tha is ‘how individuals experience one another’ – and communication is essentially viewed ‘a sharing of personal experience through dialogue.’ 33 Littlejohn (2002) highlighted that: It is appealing as a theoretical approach when it points out the need for human contact, respect, acknowledgement of difference, and common ground. It resists discourses suggesting that communication is a mere skill, that words and things are separate, or that values are separate from facts (p. 14).

The cybernetic tradition mostly centers on discourse such as system complexity, brain/mind rationale and etc. It basically view communication ‘as information processing’ and address issues like ‘noise, overload, and malfunction’34 Littlejohn (2002) believed that ‘this tradition challenges arguments that make a distinction between machines and humans or that posit linear cause–effect relationships’ (p. 14). The sociopsychological tradition, which considered being a powerful tradition, ‘concentrate primarily on those aspect of communication that includes expression, interaction, and influence’ and its discourse discuss issues say ‘behavior, variables, effects, personalities and traits, perception, cognition, attitude and interaction.’35 In a nutshell, Littlejohn (2002) stated that: The sociopsychological tradition stands most in opposition to claim that people are rational, that individuals know what they think, and that perception is a clear route to seeing what is real. (p. 14).

The sociocultural tradition deals with thought of ‘social order’ and view communication fundamentally ‘as the glue of society’ and it addresses issues such as ‘conflict, alienation, and the failure to coordinate.’36 He explicated that sociocultural scholars ‘eschew arguments in favor of individual power and responsibility, unitary self, or separation of human interaction from social structure’ (p. 14).

33

Ibid Littlejohn, 2002: 14 35 Ibid 36 Ibid 34

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The critical tradition primarily view communication ‘as a social arrangement for power and oppression’ and it address the problems of ‘ideology, power and domination.’37 He put forth that, ‘It is an appealing approach to theory in situations that include the self-perpetuation of power, the values of freedom and equality, and the importance of informed discussion’ (p. 14).

1.4.2. Core Communication theories As a general treatment, communication theories are divided into five core facets. Littlejohn (2002) indicate them as following:

1) Development of the message 2) Interpretation and the generation of meaning 3) Message structure 4) Interactional dynamics 5) Institutional and societal dynamics

The concern of the first core communication theories is on the process of creating message in general and its scenario in various cultures. The second one deals with the fact that how human would process that message in diverse situation and culture. The third issue addresses the feature of constructed message itself. The forth one, concerns the ‘production and reception’ issues. And the last one, but far from least, address ‘the ways power and resources are distributed in society, the ways culture is produced, and the interaction among segment of society. The major concern of this research is located in this core domain of communication theories.

37

Ibid

24


Figure 1.4. Core communication theories38

Development of the message

Interpretation and the generation of meaning

Core communication theories

Message structure

Interactional dynamics

Institutional and societal dynamics

There is, to some extend similar classification of communication theories as a field by John Powers. His taxonomy includes four tiers39: Tier 1: the content and form of messages Tier 2: communicator as a) Individuals b) Participants in social relationships c) Members of cultural communities Tier 3: levels of communication as a) Public b) Small group c) interpersonal Tier 4: context and situation in which communication occurs

This figure is an illustration of description of core communication theories by Littlejohn (2002). The figure is developed by the researcher. 39 Source: (Littlejohn 2002: 16) 38

25


Figure 1.5. Tiers of communication theories40

Level

Communicator

Content

& Situ atio n

Context & Situation

1.4.3. A summary: Communication theory as prism Comparing communication theory to a prism would be a well suited metaphor since ‘Like a prism, 41

communication theory absorbs insight and reflects it back in colorful and interesting ways.’

Therefore, communication theory ‘can be a way to see many possibilities for how to think about and study communication, discover and understand how various theories correlate with and reflect one another.’

42

Besides that communication, in this way, ‘becomes a multifaceted process that impacts

and is understood in terms of many contexts, some narrow and some broad.’43 To highlight there again, ‘theories are a form of discourse. …[they] are discourse about discourse, or metadiscourse.’

44

In

Robert T. Craig belief, ‘Theories [of communication] communicate about communication’; for this reason they are called metadiscourse.45

This figure is an illustration of description of core communication theories by Littlejohn (2002). The figure is developed by the researcher. 41 Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 28 42 Ibid 43 Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 28 44 Ibid. p. 6 45 Ibid 40

26


One should keep in mind that ‘communication theories … look less like a bunch of rocks laid out on tables in a geology laboratory and more like a dynamic computer model of the way the earth was formed.’

46

Besides that, ‘The formation of a theory is not just the discovery of a hidden fact; the

theory is a way of looking at the facts, of organizing and representing them.’ 47 The last point here would be ‘action and theories are two sides of the coin. They explained that ‘How we think – our theories – guide how we act; and how we act – our practices – guide how we think. In the world of scholarship, formal theories and intellectual practices are inseparable.’48

Ibid Ibid. p. 15 48 Ibid. 46 47

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CHAPTER 2 THE ARGUMENT

Sliced to pieces my bosom and heart bleed While I tell this tale of desire and need….(Rumi) The second chapter of the City of the Quest provides the reasons and necessity of this journey and draw basic purposes

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CHAPTER 2 IN SEARCH OF NON-WESTERN THEORIES OF COMMUNICATION: THE PRINCIPAL ARGUMENT It was the best of times; it was the worst of times. It was the age of wisdom; it was the age of foolishness… It was the season of Light; it was the season of Darkness. It was the spring of hope; it was the winter of despair (A Tale of Two Cities Dickens, 1859) 49

 Western universalism: A comment  An alternative paradigm  Statement of the argument  Delimitation  Relevance and significance

Cited in Wang 2011: 28 – describing the ‘development in the global academic/scholarship structure of the modern worldsystem, particularly as it relates to the media and (mass) communication field.’ 49

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2.1. Western universalism: A comment A common belief indicating that ‘there is a real world in which things happen and that theory is made through reflecting on what has happened, on discourse, and on action’ (Jensen, 2006: 17). Although the theory is said to follow reality, Jensen (2006) added, ‘it also precedes and shapes it by articulating the general lessons of the particular practices’ (p. 17). Grippingly, Littlejohn and Foss (2008) put that ‘theories are construction’; thus ‘questioning a theory’s usefulness is wiser than questioning its truthfulness. Any given truth can be represented in a variety of ways, depending on the theorist’s orientation’ (P. 15). In a way theories are ‘tentative, contextual and qualified.’50 Putting the matter in another way, theories are construction and ‘a construction is a way of looking rather than a reproduction of reality’51 Given this fact, it stands to reason that the preponderance magnitude of communication theories which is constructed in West, influenced by the Western perspective. As argued by numerous scholars, ‘much western theory is dominated by a vision of individualism,’ where ‘people are considered to be deliberate and active in achieving personal aims’ this is while Eastern theories ‘tend to view communication outcomes as largely unplanned and natural consequences of events.’52 Another instance is that, while Eastern is emphasizing wholeness, the Western’s approach is focusing on reductionism. 53

2.1.1. Western ideology: A brief overview The discussion about Western ideology is quite a vast argument and it is very challenging to keep abreast of all issues with such limitation of the current section. For this reason, here the scope is delimited to maintain substantial theme in Western ideology. Argued by Marcus Raskin, the West and particularly ‘America has a tradition of pluralism and a philosophy of reasonableness’ (Froward in Levine, 2004: xii). He believed that deeply rooted ideology of pragmatism and reconstruction with

Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 27-28 Ibid 52 Ibid, p. 5 53 Ibid 50 51

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no means ‘are exercises in metaphysics,’54 metaphysics is essentially rooted in the East. In fact, Western civilization is said to influence extensively by Darwin’s theory. Darwin ‘undertook a confrontation with religion through the science of empiricism and conjecture.’55 that is while the essence of Eastern societies is religion. Besides that Darwin offered the idea of natural selection56 which in return emphasized survival of ‘individual organisms.’57 Leading by other historical / intellectual orientation, Individualism is considered to be integrated feature of Western societies, whereas in East the individuality can essentially be defined in terms of collectivity. Other important themes in Western ideology are the spirit of Capitalism, Utilitarianism, neutralism and reasonableness, secularity, materialism, empiricism, reductionism/science and etc.. 58

2.2. An Alternative Paradigm The tradition of research and theories, as discussed earlier, to a great extent is constructed based on Western ideology and perspective. That is mostly with scientific approach and the view of ‘knowledge as discovery’ (Littlejohn, 2002: 23). There exist numerous arguments regarding an alternative paradigm in communication theories. Some arguments are proposed in criticism of overall Western perspective on communication theories and accordingly looking for an alternative paradigm outside the system. Yet others are looking for alternative paradigm within body of the system itself. The illustration here would be Robyn Penman argument for alternative paradigm. He distinguished five tents, 59 1) Action is voluntary 2) Knowledge is created socially 3) Theories are historical 4) Theories affect the reality they covering 5) Theories are value laden By Action is voluntary, Penman believed that ‘Persons are in part self-moving, and you cannot predict behavior based on outside variable’ and ‘If this is true, it would be hard to predict how people would 54

Levine, 2004: xii Levine, 2004: xiv 56 A common discourse now centers on ‘artificial selection’ (See Levine, 2004) 57 Ibid 58 For more discussion of Western / American ideology see Levine (2004) 59 See Littlejohn, 2002: 23-24. 55

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behave.’60 The tenet of Knowledge is created socially means ‘communication theories themselves are created by communication, the very process they are designed to explain’ that is there is no one-toone relationship between the ideas in a theory and objective reality.’ 61 Theories are historical concerns the point that theories ‘reflect the settings and times in which they are created, and as times change, so too will theories.’ 62 Penman made this example that, […] culture in the United States is materialistic and individualistic. The entire system is predicated on the idea that people are motivated by rewards and punishment. […] In another era or another culture, such an idea might not even come up. (Cited in Littlejohn, 2002: 24)

The forth tenet, theories affect the reality they covering, discuss the point that theories ‘are not separate from the worlds they create but are part of those worlds.’63 The last tenet, theories are value laden, emphasize that theories ‘are never neutral’ and ‘hypothesis is rife with values.’64 Other scholars, mostly from Asia, are arguing for an alternative non-Western paradigm. For instance, Gunaratne argued that the traditional social science ‘have gone through several “developmental” bifurcations […] giving rise to “atomized” field of study, such as media and (mass) communication (identified by a variety of names), which exist in a state of ambiguity arising from the push and pull of the two cultures’ (Cited in Wang.2011: 30). And this is the point which Gunaratne believed that above-mentioned ‘atomization’ which was ‘consistent with the positivistic approach of reductionism’ stood ‘in sharp contrast to the emphasis on unity or the whole in Eastern philosophy.’ 65 The abovementioned argument is considered one part of this alternative jigsaw. The details of other arguments are presented later in chapter IV. However, this point may bring to our notice the importance and necessity of a new quest for alternatives. Therefore, after providing a general background and related concerns, at this moment it seems appropriate to state the core argument of this research.

Littlejohn, 2002: 24. Ibid 62 Ibid 63 Ibid 64 Ibid 65 Cited in Wang, 2011: 30 60 61

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2.3. Statement of the argument An old adage of necessity is the mother of invention may not sound very farfetched to the logic of any new argument. As hinted upon earlier, the discussion about communication theories as filed witnessed a heated debate. This, in fact, was concurrent with a fundamental ideological struggle of the early twenty-first century, that is, in words of Wallerstein, ‘the “struggle between European universalism and universal universalism.”’ 66 The Scholars worldwide hitherto, as Shelton Gunartne rightly pointed out, ‘embraced West-centric science as the received “wisdom” of the European Enlightenment and the ensuring “season of Light”.67 However, the discourse of non-Western approaches to media and (mass) communication theory – mostly at the epistemological 68 level – gained momentum in ‘The mystifying revelations of quantum physics and the challenges posed by chaos theory / complex dynamical systems theory and cultural and postcolonial studies.’69 Prior to that, ‘Enlightenment’ thinkers was translating the ‘certainties of science into certainties of cultural and political progress; in other words, ‘The prestige of science propelled some ambiguous areas of study […] to assert the culture of science by identifying themselves as social science.’70 ‘Unfazed by the allegations of scientism,’ Shelton Gunaratne stated, ‘the social sciences became the strongholds of positivism dedicated to the practice of nomothetic empiricism (because they believed that all scientific knowledge was testable and predictable) [emphasize added]. 71 Given these arguments, it is necessary to highlight that the stimulating and vibrant research culture in communication studies, of late has geared towards non-western –or de-Westernizing communication studies in all aspects. In so doing, in more sober assessment, one may notice the necessity of cutting edge research in this field. Therefore, attempt should be made to find out other frameworks of thoughts as an alternative those of Western to argue about communication studies in general and its theories in particular. According to Wimal Dissanayake (2009) ‘Asian countries […] have a very rich history and cultural tradition. Hence, it stands to reason that these cultures contain traditions of thought which address the question of human communication’ (8). Ibid, p. 28 Ibid, p. 29 68 Theory of knowledge (Wang, 2011: 28) 69 Ibid 70 Wang, 2011: 30 71 Ibid 66 67

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However this could not be without its challenges. As James Potter (2009) pithily put it ‘Developing a scholarly field is like solving a puzzle while at the same time designing it.’ In similar vein, as experienced by experienced researchers in this field, proposing a communication theory, particularly, is a scholarly ‘quest’, starting with ‘a fuzzy’ or ‘naïve vision’ toward providing a ‘good explanation for the components of the overall phenomenon’ (Potter, 2009). Considering all challenges, this research would argue for an alternative view on (social) communication theories in the context of central and west Asia with particular reference to Sufism thought. Understood broadly, the Sufism as a cult ‘has spanned several continents and cultures over a millennium.’ 72 Accordingly, it stands to reason to excavate the Sufism thought, discourse and practices in order to argue for an alternative communication theory.

2.4. Delimitation As it generally understood, ‘The wide-ranging scope of […] research has implications for methodology’ (Jensen 2006: 7). Accordingly, to cope with the magnitude of this research,

the

Sufism thought, discourse and practices is delimited to Persia and to time frame of thirteen to fourteen century A.D which considered being the higher splendor/glory of Sufism discourse and thought till today. The details of the aim and objectives, methodology, and detail of delimitation of research is presented in chapter 5-6. the purpose here is to present general delimiting guidelines for sculpturing the overall shape of the study. Reductio-ad-absurdum: sculpturing the argument 1) This study is essentially is the broad domain of communication with specific reference to human (social) communication. Any further elaboration is only for the sake of achieving that purpose. 2) There is no criticism nor approval of any Sufism / spiritual thought and there is no emphasize on Sufism per se. Though the factors of ‘natioonality and cultural backgroung’ are undeniable, as McQuail and Windahl (1981) put it, the researchers tried to avoid any value laden prejudice. Sufism is viewed as an indication which reflect certain type of human (social) communication

72 http://www.mzand.blogspot.com/ retrieved on 23 April 2011

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3) The focus is not on criticism, challenging, or approval of de-westernization discourse, however it is viewed as an alternative view for human (social) communication 4) The argument is not a dichotomy between West and East, however the comparison may be made where necessary considering the logic of O’Sullivan et al. (1994) who claimed ‘without difference there is no meaning’ (xii).

2.5. Importance of the argument 2.5.1. significance/relevance The discussion towards non-Western discourse gained momentum of late (See chapter 3). Witnessing the fact that the scripted scenario about communication theories which is written mostly by West and nurtured by individualism, materialism and secularism ideology is not suitable, essentially for other parts of the world, particularly Asia in which collectivism, religiosity and mysticism is an integrated part of life. In tandem with these ideas, it stands to reason to endeavor for alternative view about communication theories in context of Asia. As pithily claimed by Wimal Dissanayake (2009) ‘communication is the lifeblood of society’ and considering this perspective ‘Asian countries […] have a very rich history and cultural tradition. Hence, it stands to reason that these cultures contain traditions of thought which address the question of human communication’ (8). The studies show that such attempts have been made in context of India, China, Japan and Korea, to name a few (See Wang, 2011). However, there is gap in knowledge particularly in the context of central and west Asia. Besides that a hitherto studies have been conducted to excavating traditions/frameworks of thought in Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism and Daoism, and related Far East thoughts.73 However, there is a neglected consideration about Sufism as a tradition of thought and as a source for alternative view. Interestingly, Sufism does not belong to certain nationality and has spread over quite large geographical area – from Turkey to China, for long period – more than a millennium. Given these facts, this research seems considerably significant and at the same time relevant. Another point to highlight is that, Sufism has become a topic of concerns of late, not only in Asia but also in Europe and America. 73 See Wang 2011

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In succinct phrase of Khatami (2003), ‘Civilizations rise and fall’ and they ‘ordinary transform one another’ (99). He highlighted further that once the ‘connection’ between civilizations is made the process of ‘transformation’ and ‘emergence’ of ‘new civilization’ would be facilitated (Khatami, 2003: 99-100).

2.5.2. 2.5.2 Rational From philosophical perspective, there are two extremes for the significance of current study. The first one is that if considering an alternative view on communication theories a ‘posteriori’ knowledge, which refer to ‘knowledge that is gained only by recourse to experience in the world’(Cox, 2006: 14), it would be worthy to put some ‘empirical flesh on bones’ (Ryfe, 2001: 767) to the scholarship of communication theories. This contribution to the scholarship of the subject in succinct statement of Cox (2006) ‘adds knowledge to the subject, and in no way can be regarded as a necessary conclusion from the subject’ (14-15). Secondly, if some claim that such notion is essentially an ‘analytical’ statement and ‘priori’ knowledge, still one can use the insight of Kant, who ‘sought to overcome … central polarity in philosophy’(Cox, 2006: 15). He postulated the possibility of ‘knowledge that is both a priori and synthetic, that which is necessarily true, but which still relies on … empirical investigation for its validation’ (Cox, 2006: 15). This study can significantly make a positive contribution to scholarship in communication theories, in particular, and our understanding of dynamics communication, in general. To make the story short, it would be apt to conclude this part with sagacious statement of Stanly Deetz: All current theories will pass in time. It is not as if they are in error, at least little more or less so than those in the past. They were useful in handling different kinds of human problems, problems we might find ill-formed and even silly, as others will ours. What remains is the human attempts to produce theories that are useful in responding to our own issues. We are struggling to find interesting and useful ways of thinking and talking about our current situations and helping us built the future we want. (Littlejohn 2002: 24)

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CHAPTER 3 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Silence! I am drunk, you know My hands are tied in this earthly show My disheveled mind moves to and fro And so we say, may it be so… (Rumi) Without Understanding the journey have no meaning. This chapter provides an understanding step and review of related literature.


CHAPTER 3 REVIEW OF LITERATURE Before action comes perception 74

 Conceptual Review: Non-Western discourse  Approaches and reflection on communication theories

This idea is ‘attributed to Aristotle and used within the environmental sector to argue for awareness raising and data collection’(Jensen, 2006: 1) 74

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The origin of the obsession of media and communication monopoly shattered paradoxically with the platform which it provided over years; this idea increasingly seems justifiable by the view that the roots of deconstruction is seeded in the progress of construction itself. 75 Current stimulating and vibrant research culture in media and communication studies, as highlighted earlier, is geared towards de-Westernizing communication and media studies in all aspects particularly with respect to de-Westernizing and Asianizing communication theories.

3.1. Conceptual Review 3.1.1. De-westernization of communication and media studies The early endeavor towards non-Western discourse could trace its roots back to the 1975 book of Fritjof Capra, The Tao of Physics (Gunarantne cited in Wang, 2011: 34). In his ‘purely intellectual exercise,’ Capra, overcame ‘the gap between rational, analytical thinking and the meditative experience of mystical truth’(Capra, 1975: 10) by ‘documenting the surprising parallels between the new physics and the main strands of Eastern philosophy – Buddhist, Confucianism, Daoism, and Hinduism (Wang, 2011: 34). Towards the end of the 1970s 76, Edward Said’s Orientalism created an eminent wave which lapped overwhelmingly around this pitch. Although it is very challenging to keep abreast of his contribution, it would be in earnest to summarize it in Gunaratne’s words: The publication of Edward Said’s (1978) Orientalism […] dealt another devastating

blow to scientific universalism while further encouraging the search for nonWestern models and paradigms. Cited in Wang, 2011, p. 34

The purposeful attention which paid to non-Western communication theories and media studies heated by the study conducted by UNESCO the so called NWICO77 during 1980s which claimed This claim is according to current understanding of the author and to be proven certain, greater inspection must be carried out. 76 According to Wang (2011: 34) other scholars who looked at ‘non-Western models and paradigms’ during 70s were Doi (1973), Nagashima (1973), Nishida (1977), Nishiyama (1971, 1973) – whom contributed to Japanese communication – and Oliver (1971, 1976) who ‘delved into communication and culture in ancient India and China, as well as rhetoric in Asian classic.’ 77 The New World Information and Communication Order: (NWICO) is ‘a term that was coined in a debate over media representations of the developing world in UNESCO in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The term was widely used by the MacBride Commission, a UNESCO panel chaired by Nobel Prize winner Seán MacBride, which was charged with creation of a set of recommendations to make global media representation more equitable. The MacBride Commission produced a report 75

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there is ‘generally a one-way traffic, […] from the major western exporting nations to the rest of the world, resulting in global imbalance in the media’ and communication order (Donsbach, 2008, p. 1985). In other words media and communication theories are flowing from north to the south of our today’s ‘global village.’ Gunarantne draw a conclusion that: […] (on the basis of the Buddhist principle of dependent co-arising) that the demise of NWICO signified a natural change of course as it occurred parallel to the rise of the network society facilitated by the exponential expansion of global Internet, which alleviated many of the grievances embedded in the demand for a NWICO. Cited in Wang, 2011, p. 34

The 1980s, furthermore, ‘witnessed more systematic approaches to developing non-Western communication models.’78 The expansion of the idea leaded to the wave of Asian Theories of Communication, which endeavored to excavate Asian thought in order to bring to light neglected aspects of human communication. The 1990s and 2000s witnessed ‘an exponential increase’ in nonWestern ‘reactions to European universalism.’79 The arguments for the state-of-the-art research into Asian theories of communication, in fact, have gathered momentum over the past two decades (See Dissanayake, 2009: 7). Being an eminent figure in this field, Wimal Dissanayake 80 (2009) cited Guo-Ming Chen and Yoshitaka Miikea as distinguished scholar and contributor of the aforementioned project.81 As director of the Cultural Studies Program at the East-West Center in Hawaii, Wimal Dissanayake, himself, contributed quite a lot to the deweternization and indigenization scholarship. Dissanayake’s wealth of study on ‘Classical Indian concepts of communication’ endeavoured to ‘reformulate some old ideas in new ways and locate them in more contemporary sites of interrogation.’82 He believed that ‘The reason why we need to pursue the excavations into Asian

titled "Many Voices, One World", which outlined the main philosophical points of the New World Information Communication Order.’ Source: http://madanmaniadhikary.blogspot.com/2008/10/new-world-information-andcommunication.html (retrieved on 14 April 2011) 78 Wang, 2011:34 79 According to Wang (2011: 34) the major contributor in these decade were ‘the book-length works of Sitaram (1995), Asante (1988), 1999), Kim (2002) and Combs (2005), among others.’ 80 See Appendix A for details about italic name 81 Dissanayake, 2009: 7 82 Ibid

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theories of communication is because so far communication studies have been ruled and guided by Western theories, models and paradigms.’83 As pithily claimed by Wimal Dissanayake (2009) ‘communication is the lifeblood of society’ and considering this perspective ‘Asian countries […] have a very rich history and cultural tradition. Hence, it stands to reason that these cultures contain traditions of thought which address the question of human communication’ (8). However, he pointed out, one should be aware of, firstly, ‘essentialism’, that is a tendency to underestimate ‘tides of history’ and secondly ‘pervasive presence of binarism’ between East and West. 84 These tendencies can be only used as a tactical move. Giving this, a recent noteworthy contribution and available scholarship to this field is Georgette Wang’s edition. In his 2011 book, De-Westernizing Communication Research: Altering Questions and Changing Frameworks, he highlighted four broad concerns of this filed in broad-spectrum. These four themes include: the challenges and contributing factors in ‘Eurocentrism in communication research,’ its potencies and ‘promises,’ the discourse on ‘cultural specificity to cultural generality’ and lastly, but far form least, its ‘opportunities, limitations, and implications’ (See Wang, 2011). To describe the book in few words, on can claim, it is ‘an effort to map out the critical issue involved in de-westernization and indigenization.’ 85 A chapter of this book, entitled ‘Emerging Global Divides in Media and Communication Theory: European Universalism versus Non-Western Reactions’ is marked by the scholarly attempt of Shelton Gunaratne, who is considered to be ‘the first to establish a perfect sketch by linking communication theories with Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism.’

86

He believed that the initiative works of

scholars, say Frank87 and Goonatilake 88, have exemplified the type of epistemological discourse required to remove the vestiges of Orientalism and to limit the extent of European universalism, an “artifact” of the rhetoric of power.’89 His chapter, particularly, is a comprehensive attempt to ‘assess the contemporary global divides in communication studies’ and it primarily aims to ‘enable scholars Ibid, p.8 Ibid, p.23 85 See preface to Wang 2011, p. xv 86 Ibid, p. xii 87 The major contribution of Frank was in documentation of ‘the achievements of the Asian Age that preceded the rise of Europe’ (See Wang. 2011: 28). 88 The most distinguished contribution of the Goonatilake was mining ‘the civilizational knowledge of South Asia to present the case for a global science’(See Wang. 2011: 28). 89 Wang 2011, p. 29 83 84

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to understand the history of the related developments within the framework of complexity science and the world-system analysis.’90 He believed that

the traditional social science ‘have gone through several “developmental”

bifurcations giving […] giving rise to “atomized” field of study, such as media and (mass) communication and ‘Such atomization’ which was ‘consistent with the positivistic approach of reductionism’ stood ‘in sharp contrast to the emphasis on unity or the whole in Eastern philosophy.’ 91

The reason being, as he set forth, is the fact that such ‘non-traditional fields of study,’ say media

and (mass) communication), ‘inherited the full flavor of European universalism’ since they ‘originated in the academic institutions of the center countries.’92

3.2. Approaches and reflection on communication theories As mentioned earlier many scholars attempt to enter the realm of non-Western discourse / paradigm in the field of communication and media studies. As recorded by Shelton Gunaratne: Research on Asian cultures and communication, […] continued with vigor focusing on China (e.g., Chinese philosophy and communication theory; revolutionary language and Chinese cognitive processes; impact of Confucianism); Korea (e.g., Korea’s communication culture; language in traditional Korean thought; interpersonal patterns); Japan (e.g., cultural considerations; intra-organizational communication; influence strategies of managers; Japanese rhetoric; interpersonal communication, including nemawasi and enryo-sasshi forms: cultural significance of silence), and the Indian Subcontinent (e.g., Asian theories of communication; classical Indian view of phenomenology of verbal communication theory; paradigm dialogues; rhetoric of ancient India; speech and silence in Panchatantra). Cited in Wang, 2011, p. 34

As pointed out earlier, the works of Dissanayake stand out. Some scholars believed that his works ‘became a kind of landmark in the study of Asian approaches to communication.’93 He believed that, Ibid Ibid, p. 30 92 See http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~db=all~content=a917794417 retrieved on 16 April 2011 93 Dissanayake, 2009: 8 90 91

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Asian countries as a wealth of cultural heritage can be considered invaluable mine for excavating thought for communication theories. And, according to him, one approach to achieve this is ‘by focusing on diverse concepts embedded in these countries,’ thus, ‘a logical start point is the study of concepts.’94 Respectively, he worked on ‘concepts of communication’, which were ‘articulated in traditional Indian culture.’ 95 A very successful instance applying non-Western cultural and philosophical insight for the sake of redefining the equilibrium of communication science is the contribution of Satoshi Ishii, and his student, Yoshitaka Miike, Japanese scholars. Satoshi Ishii’ outstanding model was based on Japanese cultural background and emphasized ‘the sender’s silence and ambiguity and the receiver’s sensitivity (enryo-sasshi communication), ‘Buddhist en-basedsystem-models’ (in human relationships), and the Buddhist concept of ‘path to enlightenment’ (Bodhi) ‘as ultimate communication’ (See Gunaratne, 2010: 480-82).

94 95

Ibid Ibid

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Part II - The City of Love

[Type the company name] 44


CHAPTER 4 ON SUFISM

Beloved reached desired glow And so we say, may it be so All doubts towards faith did grow And so we say, may it be so… This chapter provides an insight into the realm of Sufism.

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CHAPTER 4 ON SUFISM ‫آتش عشق است اکندر ين فتاد‬ ‫جوشش عشقست اکندر يم فتاد‬ Fire of love is set upon the reed Passion of love this wine will gladly feed (Rumi)

 The concept of Sufism  Sufism as a cult  The origin of Sufism  Sufis Ideology and worldview

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Understood broadly, the Sufism as a cult ‘has spanned several continents and cultures over a millennium.’ 96 In Asia, one could trace the hue of Sufism almost from its west – Turkey – to its far east – China. Reconsidering the standing of this cult, this chapter focused on the concept of Sufism, its origin and brief historical background, Sufism as a cult and as a Islamic sect, and Sufism ideologies and worldviews.

4.1. The Concept of Sufism Approved by many scholars, it would be logical to start a given discussion with the concepts. The reason may be lying in the fact that ‘Humans are by nature conceptual beings’ (Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 19). Discussing about Sufism, as broadly mentioned, there exists somewhat various conception (see Bahadur, 1999: ii). According to Bahadur (1999) ‘Sufism [pronounced as ‘Soofeeism] also known as Tasawwuf, is Islamic mysticism.’ He further elaborate that there exist various ‘views’ about origin of the term Sufism. Some scholars believe that Sufism is derived from the word ‘soof’, meaning the ‘wool’, or from ‘soof’, meaning a ‘row’, which alludes to their first row position in Judgment Day, while others believe the roots of the term, is from Greek ‘sophia’,97 meaning they were sophists (see Bahadur, 1999: 1). Akhtar (1991) believed that the ‘linguistic controversy regarding derivation’ of the term Sufi, is due to counter argument regarding the origin of Sufism (p. 87). He believed that the core emphasis of Sufis is on ‘Safa (Purification)’ which is a mean to achieve ‘Divine pleasure’ (p. 87). Regardless of various roots, one major concerns stands out: that is the thoughts and ideas of Sufism which could be seen as a source of inspiration for enlivening the social communication scenario and embarking upon auspicious (social) communication theories.


This statement is claimed by Bahadur (1999) however Lings (1975) and Motahari (1978)argued that there is less evidence that the term is originated from Greek or outside the terminology of Islam. 97

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4.2. Sufism as a cult According to Motahari, (1978), Sufism emerged in eight century A.D. – approximately two hundred years after Islam (p. 203). He further added that Irfan / Sufism appeared and originated from Islam and he believed that other counter argument regarding the origin of Sufism is not yet proven to be true (p. 186). He highlighted the fact that Urfa98 (Gnostics) significantly differ with other culturalscientific classes of Islam, say Exegetists (Mofaserin), Traditionist99 (Mohadesin) Jurists (Foghaha), Theologist (Motekallemin), Divine Philosophers (Phalasafe), and that is they created a social sect in the history of Islam with distinctive characteristics (p. 186). Irfan broadly can be discussed with respect to two perspectives: social dimension and scholastic dimension (p. 186). Those attributed to social dimension are called, specifically, as Sufis. They are called Urafa, as an alternative, if they are viewed from scholastic dimension (p. 186). Motahari (1978) highlighted that Urafa and Sufis can be considered as a religious branch of Islam, however; they usually do not have such claim by their own (p. 186). Nevertheless, they are a ‘dependent’ and ‘consistent’ social group with quite a wide range of thoughts, discourses, communication pattern, body language and dress code, which distinguishes them as a specific social and religious sect/cult (186). Akhtar (1991) added that ‘there are and have been ‘Urafa’ […] who bear none of these external signs to distinguish them socially from others; yet, at the same time, they have been profoundly involved in the spiritual methodology of ‘Irfan (Sayr wa suluk)’ (p. 94). According to Aktar’s view, many scholars are, […] holding the view that sufism is the natural outcome of Qur’anic teachings, maintain that it originated in the practices of early Arab Muslims who were disillusioned with the corruption of the Muslim society due to affluence as a result of continuous flow of wealth in Arabia and its major cities, and occupation of fertile lands by Muslims soon after the death of the prophet (S). They withdrew themselves from the society that was deviating from the ideals of Islamic justice and simple living, and they concentrated on worship and spiritual growth. This tendency began

Urafa linguistically is a noun. Urafa refers to intellectuals/sages/saints of the field of Erfan / Sufism, their similar status are as philosophers who concern about the field of Philosophy. Akhtar (1991) stated that Urafa ‘seldom used the term sufi for they usually called themselves Arif and their knowledge of the highest spiritual order Irfan.’ 99 Scholar of Tradition (Hadith) 98

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[Type the company name] during the regime of the Third Calliph and was strengthened after the tragedies of Karbala’, Harrah and massacre in the city of the Holy Ka’bah’. (Akhtar, 1991: 92)

4.3. The origin of Sufism There are quiet a diverse argument regarding the origin of the Sufism and, in fact, many scholars admitted this fact, whilst tried to draw some assumption. For example, S.W. Akhtar 100, highlighted that, […] the origin of the term Sufism and its doctrines are usually considered borrowed from non-Islamic sources. Among orientalists only a few are of the view that sufism is the core of Islamic teachings, such as [Reynold Alleyne] Nicholson101 and Henry Corbin.’ (Akhtar, 1991: 86)

On the other hand, it is pertinent to note that, there are several scholars who believed that the roots of Sufism could be traced back to eminent saints of Islam or infallible Imams. For instance, Akhtar (1991) explained that ‘Kamal al-Din Maytham ibn ‘Ali ibn Maytham al-Bahrani (d. 679 A. H.), in Sharh Nahj al-balaghah, has interpreted Imam Ali’s words in terms of Sufism. It was he directed the attention of Muslims toward the significance of Nahj al-Balaghah with regard to the doctribe of Irfan. He claimed that Ali is the leader and master (wali) of the Sufiyyah’ (p. 97). However according to Motahari (1978), the life and practices of those eminent figures/Islamic saint, were only sources of inspiration for Sufis. He believed those Islamic saints cannot be considered as Sufis and Sufism emerged two hundred years after Islam.102 Akhtar (1991) discussed that ‘Undoubtedly all religions have a mystical dimension that may be said to be the common element or essence of religion’ (p. 86-87). He believed that since ‘the fundamentals of faith and ritualistic worship are aimed at perfecting morality’ from Islamic point of

‘Syed Waheed Akhtar (1934 - 1996) was an Urdu poet, writer, critic, distinguished orator, and one of the leading Muslim scholars and philosophers of the 20th century.’ Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waheed_Akhtar (retrieved 19 feb 2011) 101 Reynold Alleyne Nicholson, (1868 - 1945), English orientalist who exercised a lasting influence on Islāmic studies. Source: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/414211/Reynold-Alleyne-Nicholson (Retrieved 19 Feb. 2011) 102 See Mothari 1978: 186 100

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view103; therefore it may seems more ‘compatible with the spirit of Islam’ to define Sufism ‘as the essence of Islamic morality’ (Akhtar, 1991: 87). He raised the claim made by some ‘eminent Sufis’ of which Sufism is ‘the essence of Islamic morality’ (Akhtar, 1991: 86). A sober analysis of the origin of Sufism, Motahari (1978) believed that, it could be derived from Gnosticism [Irfan]104 – a discipline which is derived from Islamic sciences (See Motahari, 1978). Understood broadly, the Gnosticism can be viewed from two perspectives: firstly, from theoretical perspective and secondly, from practical perspective. 105 The former gave birth to a new taxonomy of scholars called Urafa who accentuated new discipline known as Irfan at the scholastic level.106 This, by its very nature respectively gave birth to Sufism cult who emphasized on Tasawwuf. 107 In other words, Tasawwuf or Sufism is known to be much the practical and social aspect of Irfan.108 The figure 1 below depicts the origin of Sufism. Figure 4.1. Tree diagram of the origin of Sufism109

Sufis Urafa

‘Islam comprises three aspects: dogmas (aga’id), worship (Ibadat) and social obligations (muamalat). The fundamentals of faith were revealed through the Prophet (S), and he prescribed the details of ritualistic forms of worship that were decreed by Allah in His Book in general terms only.’ (Akhtar, 1991:87) 104 Irfan is a science that has been evolved from Islamic sciences. Gnosticism is not one and the same with Sufism. 105 See Motahari, 1978 106 Motahari, 1978 107 Ibid 108 Ibid 109 The figure has been developed by the researcher according to the argument about Sufism by Islamic scholar Morteza Motahari ( 1978 ). 103

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4.4. Sufis Ideology and worldview As discussed earlier there exist various cultural-scientific category under the broad umbrella of Islam, viz. Exegetists (Mofaserin), Traditionist110 (Mohadesin) Jurists (Foghaha), Theologist (Motekallemin), Divine Philosophers (Phalasafe), Urfa111 (Gnostics) to name a few. The central purpose of the last category, which is Urafa who concerns about Erfan, is to address and discus about the perfection of human being. Accordingly, the Erfan has been divided into two dimension; one is scholastic dimension which deals with theoretical issues and the other is social dimension which deals with practical aspect of their core purpose which is human perfection. In practical dimension the have introduced, for example, the doctrine of Seven Cities of Love. Given this initial note the broad thoughts of Sufism would be represented below. Agreed unanimously, without differences there is no meaning. As O’Sullivan et al. (1994) pithily expressed ‘without difference there is no meaning’ (xii). It would be appropriate here to draw a clear distinction between the thought of Sufism / Erfan in comparison with philosophy.

110

Scholar of Tradition (Hadith) Urafa linguistically is a noun. Urafa refers to intellectuals/sages/saints of the field of Erfan / Sufism, their similar status are as philosophers who concern about the field of Philosophy. Akhtar (1991) stated that Urafa ‘seldom used the term sufi for they usually called themselves Arif and their knowledge of the highest spiritual order Irfan.’ 111

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Table 4.1. Thoughts of Sufism Vs. Philosophy 112

Sufism / Erfan What is perfection?

What is imperfection? How to reach to perfection? (the way) What is the core method/vehicle to perfection? What is the starting point? Which faculty involves? Who seek perfection? Who is the guide? Worldview

Doctrine

Theme

Understand and Reach to the Truth (The truth is nothing but Allah) Not reaching to the Truth (Seir va Soluk /Tey alTarigh)113 Spiritual Journey Love

(Talab/Khastan) The desire to seek (Del) Heart/intuition Morad Morshed Human is originated from Allah and msut return to its origin again (vahdat dar kastar va kastar dar vahdat) Unity in plurality and plurality in unity From polarity to Unity

Philosophy Reach to the understanding of the world/universe

Logical reasoning

Intellect

(Aghl) Mind/reason Philosopher

Hekmat114 Nazari (theoretical philosophy: Understandings) and Hekmat Amali (practical philosophy: Justice) Logical in reasoning and balancing in paractice

The figure has been developed by the researcher according to the argument about Sufism by Islamic scholar Morteza Motahari ( 1978 ). 113 Literary means ‘death/deprivation in Allah’ (my translation) and signify that see nothing but Allah (my footnote). 114 Hekmat means understanding the reality of things in whatsoever they are. 112

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The Sufism view the perfection of human being as journey to the Truth and the absolute Truth (Haqh) is only Allah. According to Muhyi al-Din ibn al-'Arabi (See Appendix B: Section VI: Scholar 4) ‘there is only Truth, and that truth is only Allah’(Motahari, 1972). Additionally they believe that the things other than Allah is not reality, that is everything except Allah is just a shadow of reality. In Sufi’s View a human could be called perfect whom understand the Truth and reach to it. Rumi in his poem refers to it as ‘Fana fel-Allah’115 and believed that this is the last city of Love, viz. the City of Deprivation and Death. On the other hand they believe, on the other extreme of perfection, a person who fails to reach the truth is imperfect. .Urafa believe that in order to reach to the truth, one has to look for seiro soluk / tey tarigh – a journey of seven stages of perfection. Besides that it is believed the vehicle (Markab) of this journey is Love. The way to reach to the truth is the way of heart and willingness of the heart (Talab/Khastan) and the way to reach to reality is not of the mind and intellect but the heart. Al-Ghazzali, a prominent Scholar of Islam (11 Century A.D.) (See Appendix B), held the view that that ‘institution (kashf) was the higher level of reason (‘aql) and was organically united with it, but in his mystic experience he seems inclined to reject reason’ however, paradoxically, his rejection of philosophy [is] in rigorously logical form’ (Cited in Akhtar, 1991: 96). They additionally have faith in the fact that, what so ever could help us to reach the truth is the level of perfection. In other words, even a step to that perfection is identical to the perfection itself. However, they have drawn discrepancy between the degrees of perfection. As mentioned earlier, reaching (vosul) to the Truth means the perfection of human and whosoever reach the Truth is called the Morshed and, accordingly, can be a guide for people who seek this perfection (Morid). According to Akhtar (1991) ‘Sufis believe that the world can never remain without a qutb, upon whom depends the preservation and guidance of human beings’ and the Morshed ‘is the guardian of the faith and receives instruction from Allah directly’ (1991: 89). Hafiz, for example, used several significant metaphors signifing Morshed (the guide) such as ‘Taere Ghods’116 :

115

Literary means ‘Stepping in to the journey’ (my translation) and generally signify that a person who desire to reach to Truth should start her/his quest and travel through seven city of human perfection. (my footnote) 116 These verses are referring to the journey of a being to the Truth and seeking guidance from those who passed this way. Due to limitation, author of this book could not access to translation of these verses. Besides that the technical translation of literary text is not the specialization of the author.

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"‫همتم بدرقه راه كن اي "طاير قدس‬ ‫که دراز است ره مقصد و من نو سفرم‬ O Taere Ghods (the Guide)! Pray for me The journey is long and I am the beginner 117 *** ‫ترك اين مرحله بي همرهي خضر مكن‬ ‫ظلمات است بترس از خطر گمراهی‬ Do not leave this stage without the help of Khezr (the Guide) All through is darkness, afraid of dangers of misleading118 Another point to highlight about the worldview of Sufism/Erfan is theme that human is originated from Allah and, there again, must return to its origin. Accordingly seekers must start their journey to reach to perfection, from Plurality to Unity. In fact, the initial poem in the first book of Masnavi – Rumi’s masterpiece – which is resemblance of the city of Quest, is reciting this the aforementioned idea (Also see Appendix D): ‫بشنو از ني چون حکايت مي کند‬ ‫از جدايي ها شکايت مي کند‬ Pay heed to the grievances of the reed Of what divisive separations breed ‫کز نيستان تا مرا ببريده اند‬ ‫در نفيرم مرد و زن ناليده اند‬ From the reedbed cut away just like a weed My music people curse, warn and heed ‫سينه خواهم شرحه شرحه از فراق‬ ‫تا بگويم شرح درد اشتياق‬ Sliced to pieces my bosom and heart bleed While I tell this tale of desire and need 117 118

My translation My translation

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‫هرکسي کو دور ماند از اصل خويش‬ ‫باز جويد روزگار وصل خويش‬ Whoever who fell away from the source Will seek and toil until returned to course In a way, the perfection is nothing but reaching to the origin, the end is nothing but the beginning itself. On the other side of the continuum, one could find philosophers with quite a different worldview in contrast Urafa. the (divine) philosophers see the perfection of human being with two respect: one Hekmat Nazari (theoretical philosophy) and Hekmat Amali (practical philosophy) (Motahari, 1972). And this could essentially achieved through intellect and logical reasoning : Hekmat literary means understanding the reality of things in a whatsoever way they exist. Or it means understanding the system of universe holistically.

119

Philosopher is considered to be the

perfect of human being in the the world/universe – this logic is said to be the origin of Plato’s Philosopher king120 . In contradictory to Sufism/Erfan, they believe that whosoever who reach to the understanding of the world is the perfect. However, they believe, besides the theoretical understanding, the person must enjoy the attribute of moral Justice. This in turn will bring social justice and so on. The moral justice here mostly refer to ‘balancing – the desires of human – via intellect and logical reasoning’ (Motahari, 1972). In a nutshell it would be apt to summarize the core issue with Andrew Levine statement. He believed that, […] philosophy is an activity that responds to situations that rational beings, or at least beings who are aware of their own rational capacities, sometimes confront, and cannot evade. Seen this way, philosophy is not exactly a body of doctrines or set of beliefs. Rather, it is a way of addressing a kind of puzzlement, one that is mainly conceptual in nature – in the course which doctrines and beliefs will typically, but not necessarily, emerge. Perhaps no idea fits this description better than the idea of reason. [Emphasize added] (Cited in Levine, 2004: ix)

Here the idea is rather different from scientific approach which aims to understand the world in reductionist manner. The aim here is to mention general view about perfection. This statement is mentioned according to the current knowledge of the author and there is a need for more investigation which is not the aim of this research. 119 120

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Besides these two aforementioned worldviews, it would not be out of worth to highlight the thought of perfection from other ideological perspective. The Western civilization, based its ideology as gaining power – dominance over nature, other human, etc. – is the perfection. This ideology hugely boosted by the Darwin’s Theory and attributed to Francis Bacon thoughts. Accordingly the imperfection is in weakness. As another instance, it is generally believe that the Hinduism 121 consider the perfection as kindness / affection to the otherness. For example, Ghandi in his book, This is my Religion, was emphasizing this fact. This view consider selfishness as imperfection. Some other ideology consider beauty/aesthetics as perfection. A final note to this section would be Martin Lings (1975) belief on Sufism. He said ‘Sufism is a touchstone, an implacable criterion which reduces everything else, except its own equivalents, to a flat surface of two dimensions only, being itself the real dimension of height and of depth’ (7 – 8).

These verses are referring to the journey of a being to the Truth and seeking guidance from those who passed this way. Due to limitation, author of this book could not access to translation of these verses. Besides that the technical translation of literary text is not the specialization of the author. 121

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of

Part III - The City of Understanding



58

CHAPTER 5 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

Being on the board of an adventuresome journey of research brings dual feelings of exhilaration with the spice of trepidation… This chapter is the guideline of the research throughout the journey.


CHAPTER 5 AIM AND OBJECTIVES ‫جسم خاک از عشق بر افالک شد‬ ‫کوه در رقص آمد و چاالک شد‬ Body of dust from love ascends to the skies The dancing mountain thus begins to rise (Rumi)

 Aim  Objectives

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Being on the board of an adventuresome journey of research brings dual feelings of exhilaration with the spice of trepidation. And when you as a captain, commanding over your research, facing with tempest of ideas unbalancing your vessel, or reaching to whirlpool of challenging thoughts which dragging you to their gravity, the interplay of these dual feelings get your adrenaline flowing. However, you feel safe when you know where to anchor off your research and which coast is the desired one. And the lighthouses, which are your objectives, will ensure seeing the sight of the shore even in fog and reaching there safety. As a point of departure from this metaphoric/poetic discourse, it would be apt here to highlight once again the significance of the aim and objectives in the research, and more significantly at this stage where the researcher, virtually of course, is reached to the city of Independence and Detachment. To warm up the discussion in academic manner, it would be pertinent to highlight once again Dissanayke (2009) ideas. He believed that, Asian countries have a wealth of ‘traditions of thought’ which stands to reason to be evaluated as an

invaluable mine for excavating notions for

communication theories. And, according to him, one approach to meet this aim one should focus ‘on diverse concepts embedded in these countries,’ thus, ‘a logical start point is the study of concepts.’ 122 To achieve this, in his earlier work, Dissanayake, majorly taken subject like philosophy, aesthetics and linguistics of classical Indian works into account. He believed that these works could offer ‘extremely valuable insights regarding the nature, scope and process of human communication.’

123

Accordingly, he conceptualized five notions, with no essential interrelation among them, in ‘the light of modern thinking of communication.’ 124 Given this introductory part, the aim of this stud could be represented as following:

Aim The aim of this study is to put across an alternative / non-Western view on (social) communication theories in the context of central and west Asia with particular reference to Sufism thoughts.

Dissanayake, 2009: 8 Ibid 124 Ibid 122 123

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Objectives To meet the aim of the study the following objectives is anticipated:



To study / excavate Sufism thoughts, texts, and practices

This objective is developed in order to discover / explain goals, common assumptions, elements, themes and doctrines with reference to social communication as seen in through body of discourse in Sufism. In this research, however, the central attention has been given to the discourse of poetry. Since the thought of Sufism believe in superiority of heart over mind and accordingly the poetry and its metaphoric and melodious language is compatible to the former one. Besides that, they believe the substantial quality of their thought can be conveyed through metaphoric language and not a common verse. With this in mind, it seems more appropriate to emphasize more on the genre of poetry in addition to their practices. 

To critically review scholarship of communication theories / metatheories

The second objective is built to probe / delve into the existing scholarship of communication theories and related discussion around it. Without a clear vision of prevailing scenario, any alternative suggestion may lose its meaning substantially. Accordingly a critical review of scholarship of communication theories / metatheories would help to meet the aim of the research. 

To argue for alternative – non-Western / indigenous – communication theories

As Gunaratne (2010) succinctly stated the central question before non-Western discussion is ‘What are the contributions that different cultural perspectives have introduced, and can make, to the development of communication/social science research, as well as the communication discipline in general? (p. 482). As documented in the literature review, various Asian cultural perspectives, particularly Indians, Chinese, Japanese and Korean have contributed to this argument. However there is gap in knowledge about study of Sufism. Admittedly, the Sufi cult ‘has spanned several

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continents and cultures over a millennium’ 125 from Turkey to China and is known to be more crosscultural, rather being labeled to a certain national boundaries.


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& Detachment

Part IV - The City of Independence



64

CHAPTER 6 METHODOLOGY

When the moon was shining its light Both worlds were garden of delight All souls for home then took flight And so we say, may it be so… How we reach to a place would decide to great extent the overall meaning of journey. This chapter provides methodological Approach.


CHAPTER 6 METHODOLOGY ‫چون نباشد عشق را پرواي او‬ ‫او چو مرغي ماند يب پرواي او‬ Fearless love will courageously dare Like a bird that’s in flight without a care (Rumi)

 Methodological approach  Data  Sampling  On structure  Definition of key terms  Final note

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Understood broadly, the approach/way we look at a particular issue, to a great extent may shape the matter itself. That is, four dimensionality of the problem – including time factor – can be captured and addressed form limited perspectives. The implication and significance of this statement can be much tangibly be felt when it comes to rather complex and puzzling subjects like communication theories. This chapter by addressing methodological approach/structure, would provide answers to ‘what,’ ‘how,’ and ‘why’ has been studied.126 An all-inclusive discussion about theoretical framework and ideological/conceptual framework is presented later in core analysis chapter, and some basic part is already covered in backgrounder chapter. This chapter would highlight approach, method, data, sampling, operational definition and a note on structure.

6.1. Methodological approach Reevaluating the concern of this study, Dissanayake (2009) mentioned that attempt toward Asianising communication theories may face lacuna of apt epistemological and methodological approach. Accordingly, one should understand the limitations and act wisely to achieve the aim with best possible existing option. For instance, Dissanayake, particularly, drew attention to the fact that there is a need ‘to excavate Asian theories of communication in the light of new theories and concepts that … [are] circulating in the academe’ [my emphasize] (Dissanayake, 2009: 24). In one way or the other it may seem paradoxical to Asian-ising communication theories in Western manner, however, Dissanayake, who spend years of involvement in ‘Asian communication theory,’ made this statement that ‘the most fruitful way [is to implement] … Western theories into service in furthering our understandings of Asian approaches to communication’ (25). Besides that Gunaratne, 2010 drew our attention to the point that: [non-Western] scholar must go beyond the epistemological (knowledge)/ methodological dimension of the study to explore its axiological (values/ ethics) and onto-cosmological (metaphysics) dimensions as well. No comprehensive theory is possible without including all three dimensions.

These three basic questions is known to be Aristotelian way of argumentation. Bolouri (1997) and Udernani (2006) also used this discourse. 126

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Given this insight, the methodology of the current research is designed based on approach of Maurice Duverger’s

127

textual analysis – Discourse Analysis128 – who emphasized on ‘empirical

methods of investigation rather than philosophical reasoning.’ 129 The French scientist, Duverger, were designing questions and trying to extract the analytical-descriptive answers from given texts. To explain more, the method is to bridge an instant dialogue between researcher and the text in order to reach to a certain inertia – which here in this case is proposing alternative communication theory. The other point to highlight here is that, the term text should be considered in its broadest sense. This concern would delineate further in the nature and scope of data.

Figure 6.1. Basic approach of Analysis130

Questions

Theory / Quasi-Theory

Texts/ Observations

Bhumika Udernani (2006) highlighted quite interesting fact that ‘A text is not closed, segmented object with determinate, composite meanings, but rather an indeterminate field of meaning in which intentions and possible effects intersect’ (p. 17). She cited from Bruhn (1991) the task of the analyst that is ‘to bring out the whole range of possible meanings, not least the “hidden” message of the text’(Udernani, 2006: 17). Similar to her conscious decision, this study, which is qualitative in 127 The French political scientist Maurice Duverge pioneered ‘study The Authoritarian Personality (1950), which used a 29item questionnaire to detect the susceptibility of individuals to fascist beliefs’ (see Encyclopædia Britannica) 128 Textual Analysis is considered to be a broad approach and it shelter a broad family of analysis (See Alasuutari, 2008: 431446). The Discourse Analysis is considered to be an apt method of analysis for this research. The details are presented later in this chapter. 129 Maurice Duverger. (2011). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved from http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1084689/Maurice-Duverger on 28 March 2011 130 This figure is designed according to the understandings of the author and is inspired by – the stages of Inquiry of Littlejohn and Foss (2008)

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approach, would excavate Sufism thought to great extent from selected ideal texts and to a lesser extent from Sufism social practices. According to Udernani (2006) qualitative research can be ‘adaptable at all stages of the research process because it is both inductive and deductive’ (p. 19). She added that: Rather than directing the attention to one or two isolated variables, a qualitative research tends to be oriented to a wide range of interconnected activities, experiences, beliefs and values of people in terms of the context in which they are situated. This allows a qualitative research to explore a multiplicity of dimensions and relationships in the context. In other words, it portrays a holistic picture. Udernani (2006: 19)

Nevertheless, textual analysis is considered a broad methodological approach and it is consist of various types of analysis under its big umbrella. Kim Christian Schroder emphasized that textual analysis should be viewed as ‘lenses, both literal and metaphorical’ (Cited in Jensen, 2004: 98). Given this initial explanation, one may notice that texts are an integrated ‘part of social life’ (See Jensen, 2004: 20). For this reason literature and other fine arts have been studied so far and the researcher relied ‘extensively on discourse analysis and other approaches to social use of language’ (See Jensen, 2004: 20). Jensen (2004) believed that a ‘discursive turns’ happened at The twentieth century, however, witnessed an emphatic turn to study of language and other signs in a number of disciplines, first and most explicitly in philosophy, and with a shared ambition of making the procedures for analyzing texts, artefacts, and events more explicit and systematic. [Emphasis added] (p. 26)

The initial choice for analyzing text may see to be linguistics, however, in effect, it is ‘a somewhat technical and reductionist conception of language as a modularized interface with reality’ (Jensen, 2004: 26). On the other hand, Ludwig Wittgenstein, the icon of twentieth century, ‘held that all knowledge must be founded on elementary propositions about minimal feature of reality’ that is the establishment of ‘a correspondence between the structure of reality and the linguistic, logical, and other discursive structures expressing our understanding of it’ (Jensen, 2004: 27). Interestingly, ‘The later Wittgenstein himself rejected this formal and structural view of language’ (Jensen, 2004: 27). In turn, he defined

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[…] language as a complex set of discursive activities, so-called language games that are inseparable from the life form, or practice, which they serve to constitute. [Emphasis added] (p. 27)

This view brought about a ‘discursive turn’ – a promotion of ‘a precise focus on language and culture – in research culture. In doing so ‘concepts of ‘discourse’ – the social uses of signs – have entered broadly into the convergence of the two scientific cultures’ (Jensen, 2004: 27). As Schroder pointed out text can be studies in both quantitative and qualitative approach (See Jensen, 2004: 20). As mentioned earlier the approach of this research is qualitative in nature. There again there exist different types of analysis among qualitative approach. Taxonomy, of course may differ in one way or the other. Here the researcher considered perspective of Schroder. She distinguished three broad types of qualitative discourse analysis; viz. Critical Linguistic, Critical Discourse Analysis, and Discursive psychology131 (see Jensen, 2004: 98-116). The table blow is depicting their major differences. Table 6.1. the Comparison of different approaches to qualitative discourse analysis 132

Sociocultural

Critical

Critical Discourse

Discursive

Linguistic

Analysis

Psychology

(+)

+

(+)

_

(+)

++

++

++

+

Practices Discourse Practices Textual Analysis Other scholars introduced Narrative Analysis, Conversation Analysis, Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis etc. (See Alasuutari, 2008: 430-446). 132 Source: Jensen, 2004: 110 131

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According to above table it seems that both Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) and Discursive Psychology seem apt for this study. Although they may appear similar, they are not identical. The dimensions of Critical Discourse Analysis are represented in figure below. Figure 6.2. Dimensions of Critical Discourse Analysis 133

TEXT

DISCURSIVE PRACTICE SOCIAL PRACTICE

As illustrated above, the text is at the core of this model. The second dimension of analysis focuses on ‘discursive practices’ and the third dimension highlights ‘much wider socio-cultural practices’ (See Jensen, 2004: 106). Keep this insight into consideration, in a nutshell, the method has been based on Critical Discourse Analysis, and where necessary, Discursive Psychology due to limitation of the former one. To conclude, it would be apt to keep in mind the highlight of Potter (2009) as he pointed out that one should not ‘lose sight of the overall phenomenon’ (xv) by trapping into challenges of research formalities. He practically put emphasize to the fact that some of ‘The scholars […] get so engrossed in a few theories, research questions, and methods that the familiar grows so large that it blocks the view of’ overall phenomenon (Potter, 2009: xv).

133

Source: Jensen, 2004: 107

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6.2. Data According to the idea of ‘bias of communication’ of Harold Innis (1951) any medium – as a data source – is not without its bias. However, it would be practically challenging for a researcher to keep abreast of all sources, let alone to research with multilevel of constrains. For, this reason although it was desirable to study visual data, such as painting – including miniature, architecture, typography and pattern, dress code and etc. vocal data, such as music, recitation and etc, and dramatic data, such as dance, rhythmic movement, the researcher delimited her data to literary data, the poetry text of Sufism. The reason behind is lie in the original idea of Sufism itself. They believe that their thoughts cannot be simply expressed in words and actions, since they carry substantial meaning.

However,

metaphoric language and its unique nature provide a ground to seed their deep thought. In this way, one may notice it would be a cognizant decision to choose poetry for excavating Sufism thought. Besides that poetry has been deeply rooted in Persian tradition, especially Persian mysticism. And in a way all other forms of expression from visual and vocal to dramatic, is highly inspired by poetry. Besides the text as a primary data, the researcher used some commentary reference to cross check the ideas. As a tertiary data, to limited extent, the researcher delved into the Sufism practical/social communication.

6.2.1. Nature of the data Due to logics of sampling method, as it will discuss later in next section, the primary data respectively are as following: 

Divan-e Masnavi Manavi by Molavi Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Rumi (13 century A.D)



Divan-e Khwajah Hafiz Shirazi (14 century A.D)



Mantiq al-tayr by Shaykh Farid al-Din al-'Attar (13 century A.D)

The first two works are considered as major reference. The texts are in Persian language, however attempt has been made to find the equivalent English translation for in-text citation as far as possible. The commentary, secondary data:

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

Discussions of Morteza Motahari on Islam and Erfan (1972) and (1978) (In persian)

6.2.2. Time period The poetic text belongs to thirteen and fourteen century A.D.. And the commentary belongs to second half of twentieth century.

6.2.3. Geographical area Understood broadly, the Sufi as a cult has spanned several continents and cultures over a millennium,’ 134 from Turkey to China and has been expressed through Arabic, Persian, Turkish, and a dozen other languages. Considering this fact, to sound more empirically, the geographical area is delimited to Persia.

6.3. Sampling Sampling method is grounded on Max Weber’s ‘ideal type’ sampling technique, in which the selection of texts is based on the most ideal and comprehensive representation of Sufism thought. Since the major concern of this research is to excavate the Sufism thought, other sampling method seems inappropriate. The ideal type here is operationalized as: 

Most comprehensive representation of Sufi thought,



Most ideal touchstone and allusion for other works/forms;



Ideal reference for Sufi practitioners;



Most referred works in wide spatio-temporal span (historical/geographical)

After locating the ideal type poets, the ideal work of them is chosen accordingly, viz. Divan-e Masnavi Manavi (Spiritual Couplets), Molavi Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Rumi’s masterpiece (13 century A.D), Divan-e Khwajah Hafiz Shirazi (14 century A.D), Mantiq al-tayr (The Speech of the Birds), a masterpiece of mystical literature of Shaykh Farid al-Din al-'Attar (13 century A.D). For example, Rumi commenting about al-'Attar and said: 'Attar passed through seven cities of love135, 134 http://www.mzand.blogspot.com/ retrieved on 23 April 2011 135 What Rumi means by the 'seven cities of love' are the seven valleys of which al-'Attar speaks in his Mantiq al-tayr.

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While we are yet in the bend of a single lane. Although there exists numerous Sufi/Uraf scholars (See Appendix B) these above mentioned are considered to be ideal for study based on above mentioned criteria. Besides that, these works was more practically accessible in comparison to other resources, where they are available only in museum archives and national libraries and their languages need specialized translation.

6.4. Structure Understood broadly, the content and the structure are one and the same. That is the former one is the spirit and the latter is the physique and action. It is most desirable both singing harmonious melody. The holistic structure of this book may seem rather odd in existing academic climate. An overwhelming courage is necessary to swim against the river direction. The core argument of this study, that is an alternative view on communication theories, gave me sufficient courage to design this book differently. This book by its very nature is a communication. Communicating about an alternative view, to my understandings, may create a deconstructive and/or (re)constructing viewpoint, which fortunately or unfortunately appears in all levels. Representation, traditionally, was considered to be in two types: ‘Scientific’ and ‘literature’ (Alasuutari, et al., 2008: 602). This division has been made, probably, for ‘the belief that representing ‘scientific facts’ requires a method of writing that is free from aesthetic whimsy and emotions’ (Alasuutari, et al., 2008: 602). Amir Marvasti136 believed that ‘A procedural approach to writing was first developed by natural scientist (e.g. physicist) and later adopted by social scientists (e.g. sociologist) as the ideal model for disseminating facts’ (Cited in

Alasuutari, et

al., 2008: 602). As he further elaborated, ‘the two representational cultures of science and literature, with the former presiding over the domain of ‘universal truths’ and the latter being relegated to the world of fiction and individualistic self-expression’ (Cited in

Alasuutari, et al., 2008: 602). This view

136 Marvasti in described alternative writing practices and focused on six genre: viz. writing with picture, performative writing, writing factual fiction, poetic representation, writing the author, post-colonial writing. (See Alasuutari, et al., 2008: 602-613).

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remained unchallenged since ‘the third culture of representation’ which is now questioning the necessity of treating science and literature as mutually exclusive realms of knowledge’ (Alasuutari, et al., 2008: 602). In realm of social science, as Alasuutari, et al. (2008) noted that, ‘while some remain devoted to the traditional divide, there is a growing awareness of the rhetorical dimensions of writing and representing facts, particularly among qualitative researchers (p. 602). Some counter arguments regarding the conventional view on text are credited to feminist scholars proposing ‘the absence or distortion of female subjectivity in dominant textual paradigms’ (Alasuutari, et al., 2008: 602). Other important movements, which challenged the ‘textual shift in social science’, are postmodernism or poststructuralism ‘that explicitly and intensely questions the value and presumably benign character of all scientific knowledge’ (Alasuutari, et al., 2008: 602).

The structure of this book is inspired by

thought of Seven Cities of Love by Attar. Besides that by the logic of the story of Blind Man and the Elephant of Rumi, at the beginning of each chapter a brief description is provided. These seven cities are as following: 1) The City of Quest; 2) The City of Love; 3) The City of Understanding; 4) The City of Independence and Detachment; 5) The City of Unity; 6) The City of Astonishment and Bewilderment; 7)

and The City of Deprivation and Death

Indeed, Rumi’s great masterpiece, Masnavi Manavi (Spiritual Couplets), inspired by this idea and it contains 6 main parts which transforms one from the lower level of the self up to the near end in the hierarchy of self-soul-spirit. The last stage, as he claims, ‘supposed to be the stage of perfection for human beings that he had left for the one to reach by herself/himself.’ 137 Considering the point that the content and structure are two wings of a successful fly, the attempt has been made to design and argue the book in similar vein. Accordingly, each part is named after these stages. The last city here is considered to be a new begging for new quest and in this way the cycle of Sufism can be completed.

137

http://www.facebook.com/group.php?gid=2408598405

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The holistic structure is an allusion to the thought of Sufism which believes the end is the beginning itself and everything is returning to its origin. Rumi in his The Reed Flute (Masnavi Manavi: Book 1) said: ‫هرکسي کو دور ماند از اصل خويش‬ ‫باز جويد روزگار وصل خويش‬ Whoever who fell away from the source Will seek and toil until returned to course

Figure 6.3. Illustration of research Structure END=START The City of Deprivation and Death Part1: The City of Quest

Part6: The City of Astonishment and Bewilderment

Part5: The City of Unity

7 City of Love/ Research

Part4: The City of Independence and attachment

Part2: The City of Love

Part3: The City of Understanding

6.5. Definition of key terms 138 One major concern about media scholarship is unity of conceptual terminology among scholars. Many scholars, however, debate the lack of it in contemporary research climate (See Potter, 2009). In similar vein, Steve Chaffee persuaded scholars to ‘build a shared basis’ for definition of key terms 138

Due to the scope of words limit all key terms are not mentioned.

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in his 1991 publication, Communication Concepts 1: Explication (cited in Potter, 2009: xviii). Therefore, the researcher tried to put her terminology in framework of current research culture to avoid such diversity. Besides that, as succinctly stated by O’Sullivan et al (1994) in the introduction of Key Concepts in Communication and Cultural Studies, it is very significant to be ‘alert to potential meanings’ in media-cultural related studies since the ‘object of study is the social world that we ourselves inhabit’ (xi). Theory, ‘in its broadest sense, as any organized set of concepts, explanations and principles of some aspect of human experience.’ All theories are considered to ‘abstractions’, that is ‘They always reduce experience to a set of categories and as a result always leave something out.’ In other words ‘A theory focuses our attention on certain things – patterns, relationships, variables – and ignore others’(Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 14). Communication theory, The term communication theory refers to ‘a single theory, or it can be used to designate the collective wisdom found in the entire body of theories related to communication’ (Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 14) Metatheory, ‘is a filed that attempts to describe and explain the similarities and differences among theories’(Littlejohn, 2002: 26). Communication networks, ‘are the patterns of contact that are created by the flow of messages among communicators through time and space. The concept of message should be understood here in its broadest sense to refer to data, information, knowledge, images, symbols and any other symbolic forms that can move from one point in a network to another or can be cocreated by network members’ (Monge et al, 2003: 3). Discourse, ‘a collection of metaphors, allusions, images, historical references and so on that populate some cultural phenomenon’ (Alasuutari, 2008: 431).

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Unity

Part V - The City of


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CHAPTER 7 ANALYSIS

Celebrate this festivity Restored to compatibility Festivals abound in our city And so we say, may it be so… This city of journey is the unity of ideas. It is the core analysis of the research.

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CHAPTER 7 ANALYSIS ‘…communication is the lifeblood of society’ ‘Asian countries […] have a very rich history and cultural tradition. Hence, it stands to reason that these cultures contain traditions of thought which address the question of human communication.’ Wimal Dissanayake (2009: 8)

 Theoretical framework  Communication theories  Alternative non-Western theories

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7.1. Theoretical framework 7.1.1. The Idea of theory As mentioned earlier, communication is a multifaceted phenomenon. For improving communication, as Littlejohn and Foss (2008) pointed out, one can ‘provide a set of recipes,’ however; they believed such approach would highly ‘ignore the complexities and ambiguities of the communication process’ (p. 2). Furthermore, offering ‘some basic models,’ likewise, would ‘offers a limited view of communication (Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 2). That is while, focusing on theories of communication would bring about wealth of ‘explanations’ which benefit us in better understandings of ‘the phenomenon we call communication’ (See Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 2). Besides that, theories, which are the ‘organized knowledge of a field,’ can provide ‘a starting point’ (Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 2) for a deep sea diving in any filed while practicing skydiving. Nevertheless, as Stanly Deetz succinctly put it, ‘a theory is a way of seeing and thinking about the world. As such it is better seen as the ‘lens’ one uses in observation than as a ‘mirror’ of nature’ (Cited in Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 15). Accordingly it is essential to particularly explicate the lens and algorithm of theorization.

7.1.2. Dimensions of theory According to in Littlejohn and Foss (2008) there are four dimensions of theory (p. 15). They are: 1) Philosophical assumptions – the ‘basic beliefs that underlie the theory’ 2) Concepts – ‘building blocks’ of the theory 3) Explanation – the ‘dynamic connections made by the theory’ 4) Principles – ‘guidelines for action’ Littlejohn and Foss (2008) further elaborate that some typically named ‘quasi-theories’ are those which include the first two dimensions, however, a well establish theory must have ‘at least the first three dimensions’(p. 15). 7.1.2.1. Philosophical assumptions The foundation for any theory, as Littlejohn and Foss (2008) explained, ‘is the philosophical assumptions that underlie it’(p.15).

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7.1.2.2. Concepts In words of Littlejohn and Foss (2008) ‘Humans are by nature conceptual beings’ (p.19) that is they ‘learn to see the world piecemeal or item by item’ and to ‘sort out whole areas together from the flux of experience’ (Thomas Kuhn cited in Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 19). Thus, the important dimension of a theory is ‘concepts or categories’ in which ‘Things are grouped into conceptual categories according to observed qualities’ (Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 19). Littlejohn and Foss (2008) gave details that ‘Concepts – terms and definitions – tell us what the theories is looking at and what is considered important’ and for determining the concepts, ‘the communication theories observes many variables in human interaction and classified and labels them according to perceived patterns’(p. 19). To put it another way, the ideal goal of theory is ‘to formulate and articulate a set of labeled concepts’ and then these set of conceptual terms would become ‘an integral part of the theory’(Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 19). 7.1.2.3. Explanation Theories which remains at the conceptual level, according to Littlejohn and Foss (2008) is known to be ‘taxonomies’ since they do not ‘provide an understanding of how things work’(p. 19). Therefore, it is worthy to ‘go beyond taxonomies to provide explanations – statements about how the variabls relate to one another – to show how concepts are connected ‘(Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 19). In an explanation, ‘the theories identifies regularities or patterns in the relationships among variables’ or in other words the explanation ‘identifies a “logical force” among variables that connects them in some way’(Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 19). However this point should not disregard that the connection in social sciences is hardly an absolute one Indeed, we can draw associated lines or/and probable relationship (See Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 19). Littlejohn and Foss (2008) put emphasize on two common types of explanation among others, viz. ‘casual’ and ‘practical’ (See p. 19). In the former one, ‘events are connected as casual relationships, with one variable seen as an outcome or result of the other’ that is event is determined by some antecedent event’ while the former one emphasize ‘actions as goal related, with the action designed to achieve a future state’ that is ‘outcomes are made to happen by actions that are chosen’ (Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 19). For theories that the practical explanation is the central concern, yet another dimension of the theory is considered that is principle.

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7.1.2.4. Principles The principle – ‘the final dimension’ of a theory – is considered to be a guideline which make interpretation of the even possible(Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 20). The principle include three parts accroding to Littlejohn and Foss (2008): 1) Identification of ‘a situation’ or an ‘event’ 2) A ‘et of norms or values’ 3) Assertion of ‘a connection between a range of actions and possible consequences’ The significance of the principle lies on the fact that it ‘permit a researcher or reflect on the quality of actions observed and to provide guidelines for practice as well’ (Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 20). According to Littlejohn and Foss (2008): Some theorists are content to simply offer concepts and explanations without making recommendations on the basis of their theorizing. For other theorist, generating principles that can be used as the basis of action in the world is the whole purpose for engaging the theoretical enterprise. (p. 20).

7.1.3. Metatheories Metatheory refers to ‘a field that attempts to describe and explain the similarities and differences among theories’(Littlejohn, 2002: 26). Although very complex in nature, scholars tried to classify it into three major themes; viz. epistemology – or questions of knowledge, ontology – or questions of existence, and axiology – or questions of value (See Littlejohn, 2002: 26). It would be worthy, in deed, to take a journey on existing metatheories that exist in non-Western discourse. It would help to get familiar with the borders and move wisely in this mysterious and unknown island. In literal sense they could be some additional sign which is necessary to be mark on the map this research.

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7.1.3.1. Metatheories on dilemmas of non-Western discourse The ‘relative poverty of theory in Asia’, in words of Alatas, has instigated ‘the underdevelopment of the philosophy and sociology of social science’(Cited in Gunaratne, 2010: 477). Nevertheless, he believed ‘non-Western scholars and their sympathizers from diverse disciplines have formulated several metatheories to diagnose the plight of communication/social science’(Gunaratne, 2010: 477). The understandings of these metatheories, particularly, are essential to evaluate the opportunities and limitation of this study. Gunaratne (2010) believed they would be ‘useful guidelines for nonWestern scholars looking for opportunities to develop new communication theories and methods, whether nativistic or autonomous, by avoiding potential pitfalls’ (p. 479). Besides that it could provide the map of overall phenomenon which would guide the researcher in this vast unknown island. The brief of these metatheories is presented below: Figure 7.1.

Source: Alatas (2006) cited in Gunaratne (2010)

According to Gunaratne (2010) ‘Orientalism and Eurocentrism’ which depicted in second vertical row, are among ‘the two fundamental metatheories’ and, respectively, all other metatheories are echoes of these two. Orientalism The core argument of Orientalism, in which the concerns is ‘on the discursive dimension of colonialism,’ centers on ‘the Occident–Orient divide – in terms of axiology, epistemology and

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ontology139’ (Gunaratne, 2010: 477). Being a ‘brainchild’ of Edward Said’s 1978 Orientalism140, this metatheory advocate the idea that ‘the Western societies, culture, religions, languages, and values are presumed to be superior to those of the East’ [Emphasize added] (Gunaratne, 2010: 477). And, for this reason: […] the Western/Judeo-Christian concepts of individualism, libertarian democracy and free press are always superior to the Eastern/Buddhist concepts of no-self, middle-path democracy and socially responsible press. (Gunaratne, 2010: 477).

Eurocentrism The core idea here is that the legitimacy of ‘European expansionism because Europe is unique and superior’ (Gunaratne, 2010: 477). Besides that, as Gunaratne (2010) asserted, ‘Europe inherited a rational philosophy from Greece whereas the Orient was never able to extricate itself from metaphysics’(p. 477). This theory has been seeded by Samir Amin141. Postcolonial criticism This theory dispute the shift from ‘commodity production’ to ‘knowledge production’ (See Gunaratne, 2010: 478) and/or ‘knowledge as property (See Toffler, 1990). The western values are leading societies to be industrial, literate, urban and participant. 142 Rhetorical theories According to Alatas ‘social theories are not only constructed logically and empirically, but rhetorically as well so as to ‘persuade’ the audience to accept a particular version of reality’[Emphasize added] (Cited in Gunaratne, 2010: 478). This idea implies the non-Western scholar should twice think about their choice of terminology. Consequently, as Gunaratne (2010) highlighted, ‘should use rhetorical

Potter (2009) clarified ontological positions as ‘realism to actionalism,’ epistemological position as ‘logical positivist to constructivist’ and put axiomatic under the theoretical position (p. xxii). 140 Gunaratne (2010) claimed that Abdel-Malek (1963), Ashraf(1976) and Tibawi (1979) had addressed the issue earlier (p. 477). 141 Gunaratne (2010) referred to Samir Amin’s 1989 work. 142 See Toffler 1990 and Gunaratne 2010 139

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meta-analysis’ since ‘Rhetorical terms such as ‘Third World’143 and ‘periphery’ by implication confer unsolicited inferiority on the non-West’(p. 478). Captive-mind theory This theory contends that

‘the captive mind trained almost entirely in the Western arts and

sciences’ granted the fact that ‘Western knowledge’ perceived to be ‘superior’ and this scenario, particularly, well suited to developing countries (Gunaratne, 2010: 478). The credibility of this theory is owed to Syed Hussein Alatas. 144 West-struckness (gharbzadegi) theory Gunaratne (2010) demarcated West-struckness theory as ‘a condition that produced cultural forms and mindsets alien to Eastern history and tradition’ (p. 478). This theory is accredited to Jalal Al-e Ahmad145 (1923 – 1969) Iranian activist, writer, thinker, and social and political critic. Colonial critique This ‘colonial syndrome’ refers to the psychological conditions which ‘served the interests of the (colonial and neocolonial) oppressors’ (Gunaratne, 2010: 478). The major critic is considered to be Brazilian social theorist Paulo Freire146. Particularly, Paulo Freire criticized the ‘banking’ thought of education, ‘which viewed the student as an empty account to be filled by the teacher, for imposing narration sickness that minimized the students’ creativity’ (Cited in Gunaratne, 2010: 478). Gunaratne added to his point that:

In this manner, the colonized adopt the ideology of the colonizers, who seek to drive into the natives’ heads the indispensability of the colonizers to prevent social disorder. The very oligopoly of social science control in a handful of Western powers illustrates this colonial syndrome.

Gunaratne, 2010: 478 Alvin Toffler in his 1990’s Powershift: Knowledge, Wealth, and Violence at the Edge of the 21st Century , had similar claim. Gunaratne (2010) referred to Syed Hussein Alatas’ 1974 article, ‘The Captive Mind and Creative Development’, International Social Science Journal 36: 691–9. 145 Al-e-Ahmad is perhaps most famous for coining the term Gharbzadegi - variously translated in English as westernstruck, weststruckness, westoxification and occidentosis - in a book by the same name Occidentosis: A Plague from the West , clandestinely published in Iran in 1962. In the book Al-e-Ahmad developed a "stinging critique of western technology, and by implication of Western `civilization` itself" source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jalal_Al-e-Ahmad 146 Gunaratne (2010) referred to Paulo Freire’s 1970 work. Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: Seabury Press. 143 144

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Intellectual imperialism theory Intellectual imperialism theory argues that ‘the domination of one people by another in the world of thinking’ where ‘The captive mind allows the implantation of intellectual imperialism’ (Gunaratne, 2010: 479). There again this theory is attributed to Syed Hussein Alatas 147. Academic dependency theory This theory has two facets, one internal-institutional form and the other external-institutional form. According to Gunaratne (2010): […] in its internal-institutional form, looks at the dependence of the developing countries on the social science oligopoly of the West for ideas, as well as the media of ideas reflected in the structure and ownership of publishing houses, journals, working paper series and websites.

While in its external-institutional form: […] this theory draws our attention to the dependence on technology of education, training/research, investment in education and the demand for ‘cheap’ academic labor. p. 479

7.2. Communication theories Communication is considered to be a broad filed of inquiry.

As Fiske (1990) succinctly put

‘Probably the most characteristic feature of communication is its diversity: it ranges from the mass media and popular culture, through language to individual and social behavior’ (p xiii). Considering this feature, one may notice the vastness of communication theories, models, paradigms and etc. Consequently, it would be rather inconvenient to keep abreast of all theories with such diversity in a single research. In fact it needs serious of editions of book to keep account of this wide span discussion. In addition, the aim of any given research is to make things comprehensive and narrowing the discussion would seems more empirical. Here the focus is on selected theories related to social aspect of communication.

Gunaratne (2010) referred to Syed Hussein Alatas’ 1969 lecture (‘Academic Imperialism’, lecture delivered to the History Society,University of Singapore, 26 September.) 147

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However, the selection could not be left without logic. Accordingly, the representation of communication theories is based on the logic of attributes versus relations. To put it simply, broadly understood, social related communication theories could be divided into two perspective; one which focus more on attributes and the other those which focus on relations. Monge, et al. (2003) stated that the social science [and related interdisciplinary theories] ‘tended to study “attributes,” the characteristics of people, groups, and organizations’ on the other hand study of ‘Relations are central to network analysis because they define the nature of the communication connections between people, groups, and organizations’ (p. 30). They highlighted that ‘Relations possess a number of important properties, including strength, symmetry, transitivity, reciprocity, and multiplexity’ (Monge, et al., 2003: 30). Considering this insight

this part is divided into two major section; viz.

realm of attributes and realm of relations.

7.2.1. Social communication theories: Attributes As highlighted earlier ‘Communication is essentially a social affair’ (Beck et al., 2004: 266). Social approach to communication is mostly based on Interactionist approaches, and these approaches address ‘the ways our understandings, meanings, norms, roles and rules are worked out interactively in communication (Littlejohn, 2002: 163). Figure 7.2. Interaction to Action model 148

Social Objects FROM:

Interaction

FROM:

Social Objects Symbols Languages Perspectives

148

Source: Littlejohn, 2002: 160

Symbols (a special kind of social object) Languages (a special kind of symbol) Perspectives (a symbolic framework)

Interpretation of a situation

Action

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However, in social approach the emphasis is on ‘the interactional worlds in which people live’ (Littlejohn, 2002: 163). As Littlejohn (2002) highlighted ‘an important intellectual base for this line of work’ is the Social Construction of reality theory (163).Although Social Constructionism has ‘various versions’ the basic set of its assumptions are as following: 1) Communicative action is voluntary 2) knowledge is a social product 3) knowledge is contextual 4) theories create worlds 5) Scholarship is value laden

The core emphasis in this theory is that ‘Persons are socially constructed’ namely the ‘manifestation of being a person is […] a product of social construction’ (Littlejohn, 2002: 165). As mentioned, this theory enjoys sets of variation. For instance, some are constructed on the concept of the Self, the others concepts such as Emotion and Account (See Littlejohn, 2002: 166-170). To provide brief explanation, the former one is ‘Recognizing that self is both individual and social’ in this respect, ‘Personal being is thus two-sided, consisting of social being (person) and a personal being (self) (Littlejohn, 2002: 166). The major contribution to this assumption is credited to social scientist, Rom Harré who emphasized ‘the way individuals account for and explain their own behavior in particular episodes’ (Littlejohn, 2002: 165). The second kind, underlines that ‘emotions are constructed concepts, like any other aspect of human experience, because they are determined by the local language and moral orders of the culture or social group’ (Littlejohn, 2002: 168). The last, but far from least, emphasize that ‘One of the ways people construct social realities is by making accounts, or explaining and justifying their behavior’ (Littlejohn, 2002: 169). This theory, however, is not without critism. There exists ‘a series of thoughtful challenges’ to Social Constructionism (Littlejohn, 2002: 181). One major criticism is that ‘interactionism has either ignored or downplayed important explanatory variables’ (Littlejohn, 2002: 160). Critics believed ‘it leaves out the emotions of the individual on one end and societal organization on the other. These arguments as a whole make the case that interactionism is overly restrictive in scope. To cover as much of social life as

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it believes it does, interactionism must take into account social structures as well as individual feelings. On the other hand, some theories emphasize ‘social construction of emotions, values and morality. For instance, Donald Ellis stated that ‘communication cannot proceed without assuming that we live in a world of a priori realism. We must assume that we are all talking about the same thing, or communication cannot take place149’ (Cited in Littlejohn, 2002: 182). Given these points, interestingly, John Shotter stated that ‘individual and the society are inseparable,’ and ‘Attention is not concentrated upon the supposed relation between people’s ‘outer’ behavior and their ‘inner’ workings , for it is not focused upon individuals at all, but upon the relation between people’ (Cited in Littlejohn, 2002: 171).Consequently he proposed the following figure, Figure 7.3. Social Communication Theory Chain150

(Ground for) (Ground for)

Forms of life Everyday activities

Ways of speaking Common accounting practices Theories

(Work to structure) (Work to structure)

This argument is essentially grounded on two principle; viz. Semantic realism and coherentism (See Littlejohn 2002: 180183). 150 Adopted after Communication – experience loop of Littlejohn 2002: 171 149

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Yet another Social Constructionism is Coordinated Management of Meaning (CMM). The contribution to this theory is attributed to Barnett Pearce, Vernon Cronen and their colleagues. This theory is considered to be ‘the most comprehensive and codified theory of social construction’ and, principally, it ‘integrates work from several fields, including system theory, symbolic interactionism, social construction, speech act, and relational communication’ ( Littlejohn, 2002: 171). Littlejohn (2002) explained that, As a rule theory, CMM states that people interpret and act on the basis of rules. Individuals within any social situation first want to understand what is going on and apply rules to figure things out. They then act on the basis of their understandings, employing rules to decide what kind of action is appropriate. (p. 172)

He highlighted that there exist two types of rules; viz. Constitutive rules and rules of Meaning, and essentially they are operating within context (Littlejohn, 2002: 172). The following figure is illustrating this statement. Figure 7.4. Hierarchy of contexts 151

Archetype

Self-Concept

Episode

Relationship

Act

According to Littlejohn (2002), the relationship context ‘includes mutual expectations among members of a group,’ the episodic context ‘is an event,’ the self-concept context ‘is one’s sense of personal definition’ and the archetype context ‘is an image of general truth’ (p. 172). 151

Source: littlejohn, 2002:172

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Related theories to the social aspect of communication one could furthermore taking to account Habermas thoughts with conditions. In fact, Habermas in his 1981 book, The theory of communicative action: Reason and the rationalization of society, divided social actions into two broad types, viz. Communicative Action, and Strategic Action.

Figure 7.5. Social Actions Types152 Social Actions

Communicative Action

Strategic Action

Concealed Strategic Action

Unconscious Deception (Systematically Distorted Communication)

Open strategic action

Conscious Deception (Manipulation)

Besides this view, he introduced the model of Social Spheres. However, his ideas are in the context of ‘the social system of industrial capitalist democracies’ (Jensen, 2004: 6). He believed that the ‘role of state agencies’ is to provide ‘stable economic and legal frame for social life’ on the other side ‘industrial and other private enterprise or business unfolds in what is termed the social sphere, while the intimate sphere is the domain of family life’ (Cited in Jensen, 2004: 6). He added that ‘The mediating element of the system is the public sphere, comprising the major political and cultural institutions as well as the press as Fourth Estate’ (Cited in Jensen, 2004: 6). Nevertheless, as it will discuss later, the scenario in most countries in Asia is different, especially with reference to west and central parts. Habermas believed that his model serves two purpose: firstly, ‘it locates media on a 152

Source: Habermas (1981)

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conceptual map with the central institutions of contemporary society’ and secondly, it ‘offers an illustrative case how the duality of structure, and of culture, operates’ (Cited in Jensen, 2004: 6). The figure below depicts Habermas model of social sphere. Table 7.1. Habermas Model of social sphere153 Society State Private Sphere Public Sphere Intimate Sphere Cultural Public Sphere Object Institution

Religion, sexuality, emotion, friendship, etc. Family

Social Sphere Object

Private economic activity, production and sale / purchase of commodities, including labor

Institution

Private enterprise and stores

Preaching, art, literature, music, etc Organizations, clubs

Political Public Sphere ‘Politics’ and ‘the economy, including social issue

The (agencies of the) state ensure (s) the material infrastructure, overall economic stability, law enforcement, and regulation of conflicts by economic, coercive, legal, and ideological means

Parliamentary organs, representing political parties, and the press

7.2.2. Network Communication theories: Relations As mentioned earlier, Shelton Gunaratne, made a wise statement regarding the evolution of concerns towards non-Western paradigm and systematic approaches to developing non-Western communication model during 1980s. He stated that ‘the demise of NWICO’ – basis upon the Buddhist principle of dependent co-arising – ‘signified a natural change of course as it occurred parallel to the rise of the network society facilitated by the exponential expansion of global Internet’ [Emphasize added] (Cited in Wang, 2011:34). Communication network, in fact, is a rapidly growing area of interest154, however, less attention has been paid to theories of communication network (Monge et al, 2003: xi). Much network research, as

153

Source: Jensen, 2004: 6

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Monge et al. (2003) claimed, ‘employed some components of social science theories, or utilized the theoretical mechanisms from those theories to develop or test network hypothesis’(xii). The concern here is, if considering what Akhtar has stated about Sufism – viz., ‘What makes sufism distinct from the mystical dimension of all religions and religious philosophies is its basic social character155’ (Aktar, 1991: 89) – can it be an inspiring root for drawing network theories. As Monge et al. (2003) discussed the challenges before the field is lack of ‘a coherent, overarching framework for integrating conceptual, theoretical and empirical work’ (xii). Besides that, as per their observation, there is need in ‘multitheoretical perspective’ and integration of diverse theories’ (Monge et al, 2003: xii). The discourse of non-Western approaches to media and (mass) communication theory, as mentioned earlier, influenced highly by ‘chaos theory / complex dynamical systems theory’ – and ‘cultural and postcolonial studies’ (See Wang, 2011: 28).

In analogy, this field is witnessing

exploration in ‘challenging frontiers in science that are associated with emergent system properties such as complexity, chaos and catastrophe, and coevolution’ (Monge et al., 2003: xii) which this could be an apt platform for non-Western discourse in this area. In the context of this background, therefore, it would be inevitable to highlight existing theories of communication network. According to Monge et al, (2003) Communication networks ‘are the patterns of contact that are created by the flow of messages among communicators through time and space. The concept of message should be understood here in its broadest sense to refer to data, information, knowledge, images, symbols and any other symbolic forms that can move from one point in a network to another or can be cocreated by network members’ (p. 3).

Social theories in communication network Understood broadly, there exist wide-ranging varieties of social theories adopted to identify the relation factor in communication network particularly. The table below is a summary of adopted social theories. ‘popular magazines offer countless articles on the Internet and World Wide Web, corporate intranets and extranets, ecommerce, business-to-business networks, personal and corporate networks, and virtual organizations, to name but a few of many network topics’ (Monge et al., 2003:xi). 155 Emphasize added 154

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Table 7.2. Selected Social Theories and Their Theoretical Mechanisms156 Theory Theories of Self-Interest Social Capital Structural Holes Transaction Costs

Theoretical Mechanism Individual value maximization Investments in opportunities Control of information flow Cost minimization

Mutual Self-Interest & Collective Action

Joint value maximization

Cognitive Theories Semantic/knowledge Networks

Cognitive mechanism leading to

Public Good Theory Critical Mass Theory

Cognitive Social Structure Cognitive Consistency Balance Theory

Inducements to contribute Number of people with resources & interest

Shared interpretations Similarity in perceptual structures Avoid imbalance & restore balance Reduce dissonance

Cognitive Dissonance

Contagion Theories Social Information Processing Social Learning Theory Institutional Theory Structural Theory of Action

Social influence Imitation, Modeling Mimetic behavior Similar positions in structure and roles

Exchange and Dependency

Exchange of value resources

Homophily & Proximity

Choices based on similarities

Social Exchange Theory Resource Dependency Network Exchange

Social Comparison Theory Social Identity Physical Proximity

Electronic proximity Theories of Network Evolution Organizational Ecology NK (C)

156

Exposure to contact leading to

Source: Monge et al, 2003: 23

Equality of exchange Inequality of exchange Complex calculi for balance

Choose comparable others Choose based on own group identity Influence of distance Influence of accessibility

Variation, Selection, Retention Competition for scarce resource Network density and complexity

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Theories of Self- and Mutual Interest157 explain ‘the factors that lead people to act in their own best interest rather than the interest of others, or to act in ways that are for the benefit of entire collective’(Mange et al., 2003: 298) . The logic of Collective Action

158

demonstrates ‘the

communication networks that comprise the collective’ (Mange et al., 2003: 298). Contagion, Semantic and Cognitive Theories examine ‘the emergence of communication networks based on individual’s contact with others as well as their cognitions about others and their relations’ [Emphasize added] (Mange et al., 2003: 299). To delineate,

Contagion theories explain ‘network as a

conduits for contagious attitudes and behavior’ and the ‘network implications of this theory

are

that networks member who are in regular contact with each other should have similar attitudes, opinions, and beliefs’ (Mange et al., 2003: 299). Semantic theories elucidate networks similarities and the its mechanism explains the ‘semantic relation relations among a network of people […] at the individual, dyadic, and the global levels of analysis’ (Mange et al., 2003:300). Cognitive

159

social

structure theories, demonstrate ‘the cognitions people have of “who knows who [/what]” and “who knows who knows who [/what]”. Exchange and Dependency theories suggest that ‘individuals and organization forge network ties based on their need to obtain informational or material resources from others and their ability to provide their own valuable information or material in return’ (Mange et al., 2003: 301). Homophily, Physical Proximity, Electronic Proximity, and Social Support Theories provide answer to the question of ‘why we create, maintain, dissolve, and reconstitute our network ties’ 160 (Mange et al., 2003: 302).

Coevolutionary Theory

explains ‘how networks of organizational

populations and other entities interact with each other in environmental niches to acquire scarce resources’ (Mange et al., 2003: 305). Final note here is that ‘the multitheoritical orientation that is the nature of communication theory’ (Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 14). Since each theory stress different aspects of the observed/non-observed phenomenon (p. 15).

Monge et al (2003) underlined three types of theories of Self-Interest; viz. Coleman’s theory of social capital, Burt’s theory of structural holes, and Williamson’s theory of transaction cost economics. For detail see Mange et al., 2003: chapter 5) 23 158 The umbrella of Collective action shelter Public Good Theory. Monge et al (2003) stated that ‘An important tie between self-interest and mutual-interest theories arises in the case of communication dilemmas’ and ‘These occur when contributing to the collective good is at odds with self-interest’ (p.299). 159 the broad umbrella of Cognitive theories shelter Semantic/knowledge Networks, Cognitive Social Structure, Cognitive Consistency, Balance Theory and Cognitive Dissonance (see Monge et al, 2003). 160 For further details see : Monge et al, 2003: chapter 7 157

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7.3. Alternative non-Western theories of communication In this section, initially, a chain of inter-related concepts would be introduced. Then, an attempt has been made to make a proposal for alternative non-Western theories of communication out of these concepts and thought. Since, as it is understood broadly, theories are nothing but a logical association between interrelated concepts.

7.3.1. Classical Sufism Concepts161 Sufism, in fact, could be considered as a conceptual mysticism. It enjoys the vast and deep concepts and thoughts. One important insight that the researcher of this research gained, was the fact that these concepts, independently, convey no meanings. That is, they only could be meaningful while positioning in a chain of concepts or while represented in a binary or paradoxical manner.

162

In

poems of Rumi and Hafiz, even the style of representing these concepts in a metaphoric way has this characteristics. Some chain of inter-related concepts appears in a single poem, i.e. Rumi, whereas others enjoys different logics of appearance. For instance, in Hafiz poem one can observe that the interrelated concepts may not appear immediately after one another, however, he used the logic of the number seven. That is, one may find inter-related concepts seven poem after the given one. It should be highlighted here that this idea is at the stage of assumption. The basis of this assumption, which claims Hafiz used chain of ideas seven poem afterwards, is the outcome of an observation of common practices by most Sufis in Persia.163

In particular occasion, i.e their

gathering, festivals, Noruz, etc., Sufis are reading Divan-e-Hafiz (Collection of Hafiz poems) and randomly opening one page. This practice is known as Fal, literary means omen/fortune. After reading that poem, interpreting it, and gaining insight, they will refer to seven poems after that to read the proof (Shahed) of that poem. Hafiz’s collection of poems (Divan-e-Hafiz) is considered to be the only literary book for this practice and sometimes the overall practice is called as Fal-e-Hafiz.

161

These concepts contain deep meaning in Persian and the researcher tried to convey them in English. This idea is according to the researcher’s observation and understanding. 163 Nowadays this practice became a cultural/social exercise disregarding any type of class or belief. 162

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Now the question is how to co-relate this logic with our concern, the communication. As mentioned earlier in chapter three, ‘Humans are by nature conceptual beings.’164

That is, in analytical term,

concept is playing an important role in communication. The logic and insight of the chain of concepts seems positively applicable in communication process in general and communication theories in particular. Since, the building block of any theory is its concepts.165 Thus, in theory construction, multi units of concepts may help to develop theory and a thought more comprehensive. It should be noted here that Wimal Dissanayake (2009) in his study used single unit of concept for developing alternative communication theory. He mentioned that, I sought to identify dominant conceptualisations of human communication offered by classical Indian theorists, which to my mind […] The way I have presented these concepts do not claim, or demonstrate any necessary connection among them […]. (Dissanayake, 2009: 8).

Proposing the insightful model of chain of concepts for developing theory, it would be apt at this point to present some of these chains of concepts. The table below is representing a summary of Sufis concepts.

164 165

Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 19 Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 19

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Table 7.3. Sufism Concepts and Communication conceptual integrations166

Concepts Time (Moment) (Vaght)

Communication Conceptual integrations Time-Space relativity

Mystical state (Hal) & Station (Magham)

Mental knowledge vs. sensory knowledge

Contraction & Expansion (Ghabz va Bast)

Non-continuous flow of communication

Plurality and unity (Kasrat va Vahdat)

From collectivity to individuality

Absence & presence (Gheibat va Hozoor)

Silent space in communication/ Non-continuous flow of communication

Joy / ecstasy – drinking - intoxication – satisfaction Sobriety (Zogh, Shorb, Rey, Sokr)

Static-dynamism / Mental knowledge vs. sensory knowledge

Mahv, Mohegh, Sahv

Non-being / being

Khavater

Ideas occurring to the heart in the state of retreat/Mental knowledge

(Heart) self-soul-spirit (Ghalb Ruh, Sar)

-

Time / Moment [Vaght], in Sufis thought is relative concept. The Mystical State, in their view, would occur as a result of particular action – neither imaginative nor after thinking but a actual specific deeds – in particular time. One should notice that the time here do not signify the real chronological time or any related concept that we attach to it today. The Time or Moment here can only be caught or experienced after certain related casual actions or/and situations, otherwise the time will not reach 166

The table is developed by the researcher.

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by its own continuous logic. In other words, the concept of time here is chaotic in nature, in contrast to orderly nature of todays’ concept of time.

The concept of Time could be meaningful by

numerous related causes. Even a single factor may change the whole logic and tenor from Time to Time. For this reason, one of the doctrines of Sufism is valuing the time. A very close related concept of valuing time exists in literature of Latin known as Carpe Diem – seize the day. M. H. Abrams (2005) in his glossary of Western literary terms noted that Carpe Diem is ‘a very common literary motif’ which emphasizes that ‘life is short and time is fleeting’ thus one should ‘make the most present pleasure’ (p. 32). Although seems similar, the Sufis concept of valuing time is not identical with the concept of the carpe diem. Abrams (2005), in his explanation about this term, hinted upon an issue that there exists a ‘set of variation on carpe diem motif in The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam ’– a prominent mystical Persian poet, (p. 32) however he left this idea without further explanation. Returning back to the discussion, an important and common repeated motif in Persian poem, in general, and the poem under study, in particular, is time. Sometimes it referred to as moment [Dam], time [Vaght], on the spot pleasure [Eish Naghd], etc.. For example Rumi said, ‫صوفی ابن الوقت باشد ای رفيق‬ ‫نيست فردا گفتن از شرط طريق‬ O’ Friends! The Sufi is the child of the time Postponing is not the manner for a journey167 In Hafiz poem, the concept of time is the most common theme. Some instances from Hafiz poem are as following, ‫دوش وقت سحر از غصه نجاتم دادند‬ ‫و اندر آن ظلمت شب آب حياتم دادند‬ I was survived from grief last night in the time of dawn They gave me eternal water during that dark night168 167 168


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*** ‫من اگر باده خورم ورنه چه کارم با کس‬ ‫حافظ راز خود و عارف وقت خويشم‬ If I shall drink what work do I have with others I shall be the keeper of my secret and the master of my own time169 *** ‫قدر وقت ار نشناسد دل و کاری نکند‬ ‫بس خجالت که از اين حاصل اوقات بريم‬ If the heart do not value the time and do nothing O sham on what we take from passage of this time170 Understood broadly, time is among the most repeated motif in Hafiz poem. Mystical state and Station are two correlated concepts. Mystical state refers to a sudden intuitive uncontrollable insight to the heart of Sufi/Aref171 at particular moment/time. The Mystical state is considered to be ephemeral/short-lived. As Hafiz said, ‫برقی از منزل ليلی بدرخشيد سحر‬ ‫وه که با خرمن مجنون دل افکار چه کرد‬

One sparkle shined from the adobe of Leili (beloved) in dawn O’! What it did it do to the stack of the heart of Majnoon (Lover)172

My translation My translation 171 Aref is singular form of Urafa and Sufi is singular form of Sufis 172 My translation 169 170

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Station is referring to the (spiritual) degree, which the Sufi has gained. This considered to be a prolonged/long-lived state. It is believed that the durability of the Mystical state is correlated with the level of Station of Sufi/Aref. Contraction and Expansion is two spiritual state of the Sufi/Aref. The former one refers to the time when Sufi/Aref’s spiritual state is clogged/closed and the latter refers to the state of openness and wonder/astonishment. On Plurality and Unity is considered to very important concept within Sufism. It is believed that all human are originated from Allah but when they come to this world they become separated. And the aim is to be united again with that One Sprit again. Rumi said, ‫کز نيستان تا مرا ببريده اند‬ ‫در نفيرم مرد و زن ناليده اند‬ From the reedbed cut away just like a weed My music people curse, warn and heed ‫سينه خواهم شرحه شرحه از فراق‬ ‫تا بگويم شرح درد اشتياق‬ Sliced to pieces my bosom and heart bleed While I tell this tale of desire and need ‫هرکسي کو دور ماند از اصل خويش‬ ‫باز جويد روزگار وصل خويش‬ Whoever who fell away from the source Will seek and toil until returned to course

Similarly Hafiz said, ‫ز فکر تفرقه باز آی تا شوی مجموع‬ ‫به حکم آنکه چو شد اهرمن سروش آمد‬ Stay away from thinking of separation to get united The order of becoming Satan, the messenger comes instead173 173

My translation

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Absence and presence are another interrelated concepts. Absence is referring to unawareness [BiKhabari] (no news) about the anything except Allah and Presence is awareness. Hafiz said, ‫چو هر خبر که شنيدم رهی به حيرت داشت‬ ‫از اين سپس من و ساقی و وضع بی خبری‬ Since each news which I heard had a way to wonderland From now on this the wine and me and the unaware (no news) state 174 *** ‫حضوری گر همی خواهی از او غايب مشو حافظ‬ ‫متی ما تلق ما تهوی دع الدنيا و اهملها‬ If u want the presence, don’t be absent Hafiz175 …. Joy / ecstasy, drinking, satisfaction and Sobriety are chain of interconnected and metaphoric concepts. Joy [Zogh] refers to direct experience – in metaphoric sense it connote tasting – of the ecstasy/pleasure. The belief is that intellect cannot reach to this state and only instant experience/intuition of presence resulted from spiritual manifestation/revelation and divine presence/spiritual contemplation can lead to Joy. The continuity of Joy is leading to drinking [Shorb]. The next steps are satisfaction [Rey], and Sobriety [Sokr] respectively. These concepts are widely represented with metaphors such as wine, opium, etc. Rumi said, ‫همچو ني زهري و ترياقي کي ديد‬ ‫همچو ني دمساز و مشتاقي کي ديد‬ Who has borne deadly opium like the reed? Or lovingly to betterment guide and lead?

174 175


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Mahv, Mohegh, Sahv carry deep meaning. Mahv is a state of non-being-ness. Mohegh is one level more that non-being-ness (non-non-being-ness). Above of these two state is being-ness, but far and wide different from initial being. Rumi said, ‫تن زجان و جان ز تن مستور نيست‬ ‫ليک کس را ديد جان دستور نيست‬ Body and soul both unveiled in trust Yet sight of soul for body is not a must Khavater refers to ideas occurring to the heart of Sufi/Aref in the state of retreat, also known as revelation. Urafa/Sufis believe that these revelations are not essentially divine. Thus, the Sufi/Aref must be aware to distinguish between divine and non-divine (stannic) revelation. self-heart-spirit is another chain of interrelated concepts. Urafa believe self is imprisoned in his/her own desires. If one reaches to the divine understanding, and disregarding the desires, it is called heart. When love of Allah brightened Sufi/Aref heart, it said to be sprit. The upper level of this state is Mystery when Sufi/Aref is reached to divine vision / direct intuition.

7.3.2. Alternative theories of communication Almost half a century ago, McLuhan proposed his controversial statement that the medium is the message. Rethinking about this statement one may notice that, in one way or the other, the way we represent an idea is at least half of the overall thought. Accordingly, it seems challenging to represent the alternative theories base on orthodoxy style of Western scholarship. However, to the researcher’s understandings, one may need to follow the conventions, until and unless new resolutions about style / representational mode found it legitimacy in academia. Accordingly, the thoughts here would be crystalize base on the intellectual scholarship of West. As delineated earlier in this chapter, a theory is consist of three prerequisite parts and one complementary one; viz. Philosophical assumptions – which is the ‘basic beliefs that underlie the theory’, Concepts – which is ‘building blocks’ of the theory, Explanation – which is the ‘dynamic connections made by the theory’ and Principles – which is ‘guidelines for action.’176

176

See Littlejohn and Foss (2008, p. 15)

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# Theory A: Second space (being and non-being space) Dimensions of the Theory: 1) Philosophical assumptions A bird’s-eye-view on the overall (social) communication theories shows that most theories are essentially constructed base on the constitutive elements involved in communication process.177 Consequently, the question one may put is that: does the communication is principally shaping with its elements? Or to put it in illustrative way, if consider communication as a four dimensional graphical design – 3 dimensions plus the dimension of time/space – is it only the elements which create the overall picture or the spaces between the elements also play an important role? As it was mentioned in review of communication theories, some are considering non-element space such as Social Construction of reality theory. However, there again, it explains the influence of social space correlated with the elements. Or the non-element is defined primarily as an element. The argument here is that communication is much larger phenomenon to be theorized merely base on its elements. Interestingly the Persian mysticism in general and in Sufism in particular emphasizes the notion/factor of non-beingness. Grippingly, a Persian graphic designer, Maziar Zand, translated this notion to the realm of visual arts. His major concern is ‘Using the spaces between the objects as Object’ that is ‘non-being, when nothing is the main part of the thing.’178 He explains that this particular notion has been widely used in Persian architecture and Persian miniature – in which mysticism is the dominant theme/motif.

The basic philosophical assumption here is that

theorization should consider non-element factors as a part of overall process of communication. However, the elements factors should not be disregarded. 2) Concepts As mentioned in the introductory part of the Traditional Sufism Concepts the basic feature, which stands out, is interconnectedness and inter-relational chain of concepts in Sufism thought. Accordingly, this logic will be used here. The basic insightful concepts from Sufism thought are: Mahv, Mohegh, Sahv. As mentioned earlier these chain of concepts carry deep meaning. Mahv is a

177 178

(See chapter , section about convention of theorization) Source: http://www.mzand.blogspot.com/ retrieved on 15 April

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state of non-being-ness. Mohegh is one level more that non-being-ness (non-non-being-ness). Above of these two states is (new) being-ness. The highlighted concepts, in simple terms, are being and nonbeing. 3) Explanation Understood broadly, communication before its rise was considered as secondary/background phenomenon.

After its upsurge, it considered primary/foreground phenomenon, where its

absoluteness overweighed to its relativeness. In doing so, the communication constitutive elements become grossly important and human senses considered as dominant players in this process. If consider the pervious elements as first being space – in its broadest sense – the idea here is to introduce second space (non-being space) which is a part of being space. Another point to highlight is that being (space) and non-being (space) concepts should be considered as an adjective not a noun, since they are not refer to an absolute defined space.

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Figure 7.6. Non-being spaces as a part of being space179

Level

BEING Content

& Situ atio n

Context & Situation

Non-Being Spaces

179

The figure is developed by the researcher.

106


# Theory B: Chaotic communication flow/pattern Dimensions of the Theory: 1) Philosophical assumptions Communication, as we know today, could be called, metaphorically, the official child of the West. It gained its identity, primarily, based on Western thought, which its worldview advocate the idea that the perfection of Man is in gaining power. Interestingly, Hsia (1988) defined communication as ‘control’ (p. 3). Further he believed that the importance of communication to our life is identical to air we breathe and stated that ‘We need communication as much as we need air’ (p. 5). This idea echo the view that communication is viewed essentially as continuous flow which without it life is meaningless. He underlined the point that ‘The absence of sound is a horrifying experience’ and ‘Absolute silence in a deep cavern is unbearable’ (Hisa, 1988: 3). The given view however is only an instance of related views about communication. Rethinking about the majority of communication models, one may notice how continues flow of communication is an important factor in Western theoretical approach. The endeavor to reduce noise, building effective continuous communication and etc., to name a few, seems to advocate the idea that communication is seen basically as constant flow and order. In fact, one may notice that systemization and computerization of communication network was due to such logic, however; the outcome was disorder out of their order. The philosophical assumption here is that (social) communication is not essentially a continuous flow and order. The idea advocate here is noncontinuous flow of communication – however the term non-continuous has its shortcoming, there again it is in context of continuity. 2) Concepts The two major interrelated concepts are Contraction / Expansion and Absence / presence. As mentioned earlier Contraction and Expansion is two spiritual state of the Sufi/Aref. The former one refers to the Sufi/ Aref’s spiritual state is clogged/closed and the latter refers to the state of openness and wonder/astonishment. Absence is referring to unawareness [Bi-Khabari] (no news) about the anything except Allah and Presence is awareness. Another relevant idea here is that Sufis attempts to minimize the self or individual identity. Understood broadly, a Sufi is one who is not. Rumi said:

107


“When you are with everyone but me, you're with no one. When you are with no one but me, you're with everyone. Instead of being so bound up with everyone, be everyone. When you become that many, you're nothing.” 3) Explanation Communication, which is understood as an instance flow in Western thought, may root its origin in the scientific definition of time and space. Although new theories of physics have introduced new realm of thought, it seems less influenced this field. Fritjof Capra (1975) mentioned that ‘Throughout Eastern mysticism, there seems to be a strong intuition for the ‘space-time’ character of reality. The fact that space and time are inseparably linked, which is so characteristic of relative physics, is stressed again and again’ (p. 179). However, as he added, ‘Talking about an experience of timeless present is almost impossible, because all words like ‘timeless’, ‘present’, ‘past’, ‘moment’, etc. refer to the conventional notions of time’ (Capra, 2975: 188). In Sufism the belief is that whatever exist in sky could be found on Earth as well. If one look critically at the very characteristic of the space an interesting phenomena may be observed. And that is Black Holes. These holes absorb everything. No information could be received from these holes, however, no answer is the answers of these holes. As Capra (1975) put it, As the star collapses and becomes more and more dense, the force of gravity on its surface becomes stronger and stronger, and consequently the space-time around it becomes more and more curved. Because of the increasing force of gravity on the star’s surface, it becomes more and more difficult to get away from it, and eventually the star reaches stage where nothing – not even light – can escape from its surface.

Keep this insight in mind; the notions of Contraction and Absence appear more meaningful and relevant. Capra added to his previous point that At that stage, we sat that an ‘event horizon’ forms around star, because no signal can get away from it to communicate any event to the outside world. The space around the star is then so strongly curved that all the light is trapped in it and cannot scape.

108

[Type the company name] We are not able to see such a star, because its light can never reach us and for this reason it is called a black hole. (Capra, 1975:186).

As emphasized earlier this mechanism highlights the fact that communication must not be theorize on a priori condition of continuity. For example in Social Support theories, which introduced briefly in theories of network communication, established itself primarily on view that communication is essentially a continuous phenomenon. According to Monge and Contrator (2003) there exists three broad perspectives on function of social support interrelated with communication ties (236-7). They noted that a primal form suggests ‘the social support for person i is increased if the individual is densely connected via communication ties, Cij, with all other js [Emphasize added].’

180

Here as it is

emphasized, the communication ties primarily is seen throw the window of continuity. Nonetheless, fairly sophisticated form indicates that ‘social support is only enhanced when others in the communication network share common interests, say A, and thereby a common understanding of their problem [Emphasize added].’181 Given these perspectives, to explain more, their mechanism can be depicted respectively as182

Even the second theoretical mechanism of social support embedded two criteria with more or less similar viewpoint to aforementioned discussion: ‘material resources’ (MR) and ‘informational resources’ (IR). 183 Consequently, the social supports can be available to person i either in these two forms. 184 Thus185:

Monge & Contrator, 2003: 236 At this juncture, the degree of social support offered to person i would be weighted towards attribute A (See Monge & Contrator, 2003: 236). 182 Ibid 183 See Monge & Contrator, 2003: 236 184 Ibid 185 Ibid 180

181

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The last mechanism, to provide the complete discussion over this theory, concerns the mobilization of additional resource in social support to an individual. According to Monge and Contrator (2003) there exist ‘multiple’ approaches to ‘operationalize actor j’s ability to mobilize resources’ and, in fact, a ‘high degree centrality’ may be lead to better mobilization of resources (236-7). Thus, the equation can be expanded as186 :

Here the high degree centrality is essentially could be gained by more flow of continuous communication. The less the flow, the person i, may suffer from less degree of centrality. This insight of non-continuous or chaotic communication flow in quite valuable, since many social relations is going under a big question mark if continues flow do not desirably attain. Especially with emergence of new ubiquitous media and communication technologies, if this view on communication does not alter, we would see its negative effects on societies quite soon. Especially mystical and traditional societies, which the mode of non-continuous flow, has been practiced so far, and this ubiquitous culture and continuous communication may not well suited their social life.

# Theory C: static-dynamism interplay Dimensions of the Theory 1) Philosophical assumptions It seems after introduction of post-modernistic view on science especially physics, the notion of dynamism has been added to lexicon of other field as well, and communication is not an exception. However, the philosophy advocating here is that there is an interplay between static and dynamic state. That is one cannot exist without the other. Identical to the fact that night cannot exist without the day. 2) Concepts Seir-va-soluk (Spiritual journey) is the unique way, that Sufis believe a person could reach to perfection. This journey is static and at the same time dynamic. Sufis believe that the journey of 186

Ibid

110


human to perfection happening in circular mode and dynamic and at the same time it reaches to its initial stage there again which could be said as static. Their general principle is that Payan /Nahayat (End) is identical to the Aghaz (Beginning). The static state is inherent in dynamism.

Figure 7.7. Seir-va-Soluk (Spiritual journey)187 End = Start A

Ghose So’ud (Ascending bow)

A’

Ghose Nosul (Descending bow)

The belief is that the spiritual journey is similar to as above illustrated figure. That is the seven cities of love have circular map. It reaches where it was at the beginning. The first bow is descending and most difficult stages of journey, the second half bow is ascending and easier stages. Another interesting metaphor, which is used in mystic text, is comparison of human to compasses. Analogy of these two insight is that human being are like compasses that at one side are static at the center of the circle and dynamic at the other pair of the leg.

187


111


Figure 7.8. Static-dynamism188

Dynamic leg Static leg

3) Explanation The idea that static and dynamic states are co-exist with each other can be traced in the structure of the representation of poems, especially Rumi. That is his books of Masnavi Manavi is dynamic journey in a static mode. Interestingly the idea of dynamism can be conceptualized in the context where time-space has, more or less, contemporary meaning. Whereas in static state time-space could not be understood by such connotation. For example Dance’s helical model, which is a recent model, considers ‘the circular analogy’ as ‘manifestly erroneous’ approach.189 This model ‘directs one’s attention to the fact that the communication process [continuously] moves forwards,’ in other words, it ‘underline the dynamic nature of communication.’ 190 As it is manifested here, the element of dynamism has been become the integrated part of communication. MCQuail and Windahl (1981) elaborated that ‘The communication process, like all social process, contains elements, relations and

The figure is developed by the researcher. MCQuail & Windahl, 1981: 15 190 Ibid 188 189

112


environments that are continuously changing’ (p. 16). They underlined the element of time in the model and added that ‘The helix describes how different aspects of the process change over time.’ 191 Figure 7.9. Dance’s Helical Model (Showing the dynamic nature of communication process)

It seems that the element of the dynamism is overestimated, while the static state is doubly underestimated. The view here is that both should be considered equitability.

# Theory D: From Plurality to Unity Dimensions of theory 1) Philosophical assumptions Western theories, commonly, consider the individual important player in the communication practices and theories. The basic philosophical assumption here is that in spite of the Western view, which consider initiation of communication from individual nodes to masses (plurality) end, the Sufis view is vise a versa, that is from plurality to unity. The very significant practice of Sufis, which is singing and dancing together to reach to certain unity, the journey from plurality to unity, is one of such indication. Another common practice, which is nowadays widely injected to other levels of

191

Ibid, p. 16

113


social life, is Moshaere (Poetical contest/capping versus). If narrowing analytical lenses more to this practice, one may notice the unique effort to achieve unity from plurality.

Figure 7.10. From Plurality to Unity192

2) Concepts The concepts associated to this theory are Plurality-Unity and Togetherness-Separation (Jam’ and Feragh) which are inter-related notions. 3) Explanation – the ‘dynamic connections made by the theory’ In Western theories, according to its ideological factors, as it mentioned earlier, the emphasize and angle of communication is viewed from individual to the plural. in similar vein, many theories considered self as the core/central stage of communication. As Windahl et al. (2009) explained ‘Communication traditionally has been assigned different function. By mastering of these functions, individuals and group of individuals may gain certain objectives like empowerment’ [Emphasize added] (p.103). As it highlighted, the major focus is essentially on individual, a journey from individuality to collectivity. They cited the communication functions from Thunberg and colleges, as followings: 1)

‘ The expressive function. Individuals express themselves effectively in order to create an identity for themselves (and their group).’

192


114


2)

‘ The social function. By communicating together, people develop a sense of community.’

3)

‘ The information function. Through communication, individuals can share information and thereby increase their knowledge’

4)

‘ The control activation function. Communication leads to joint action, modify the environment and improving the situation of individuals and their groups’

As seen above, more or less, these functions highlight the centrality of individual. As the line of comparison, the bridge would be made to the theory of the Spiral of Interaction.. Windahl et al. (2009) discussed that the Spiral of Interaction is a network approach. They explained ‘A fundamental characteristic of some network approaches is that communication and shared information may lead to collective action.’193 Interestingly, they highlighted that, The conditions under which interaction spirals come into being vary. For example, in a working group, an interaction spiral may emerge when individuals

share a common

background and frames of reference, the work situation affords opportunities to communicate, members of the group have access to information about their concerns, and others who are in a similar situation are identified [Emphesize added]. 194

This explanation, there again is proofing the aforementioned claim of centrality of individualism. Figure 7.11. The Spiral of Interaction Model 195

Windahl, 2009: 103 Ibid, p. 103-104 195 Ibid, p. 103 193 194

115


The proposed idea here is that according to the thoughts of Sufism, the communication can be viewed from collective perspective rather than individualistic one. The emphasize here is on depluralization. There exist a revenant discussion on Exchange and enhancement of meaning of Rogers and Kincaid which emphasize mutual understandings in an ongoing interaction and communication. However, they believe ‘Mutual understanding does not have to be complete. In some cases the tolerance for misunderstanding is greater than in others.’ 196

196

Ibid, p. 99

116


Figure 7.12. Exchange and Enhancement of Meaning197

As it seen here, the unification is not at the central stage. The mutual understandings and act of tolerance is the core discussion. As highlighted by Windahl et al. (2009) ‘In a model like this […] the single individual is the unit of analysis’ (P. 99). A comparative view on Sufism and Western theory could be depicted as flowing. Figure 7.13. Comparative view between Sufism and West on core standpoint of communication198

Western Theories perspective: Centrality of Individual

197 198

Source: Windahl et al. 2009: 99 The figure is developed by the researcher.

Sufism Perspective: From Plurality to Unity

117

& Bewilderment

Part VI - The City of Astonishment



CHAPTER 8 FINAL NOTE

O Shams-e Tabrizi, you Compassionately blend and renew East and west through and through And so we say, may it be so… This Chapter provides inferences and discussion of the research.

119


CHAPTER 8 FINAL NOTE ‘The formation of a theory is not just the discovery of a hidden fact; the theory is a way of looking at the facts, of organizing and representing them.’ Abraham Kaplan199

 Inferences  Discussion

199

cited in (Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 15)

120


8.1. Inferences Without difference, there is no meaning 200

As highlighted in the above, an idea could be best understood with other counter ideas that is not. A colour of particular object could be distinguished by reflection of all light particles except the hue of that object. Similarly, understanding of the nature and variety of existing theories in contemporary scholarship was very significant to this research, both theories of attributes and relations. In fact, the alternative non-Western theories, which proposed here, are best could have been explained to what the Western theories are not. According to this research, the overall understandings and common features of Western theories include: constructing theories base of constitutive elements of communication; among these elements, the centrality of self/individual at the core axis of theories of communication – particularly social communication theories; viewing communication as a continuous, uninterrupted, ordering flow; considering communication purely as a dynamic phenomenon – recent theories – or solidly static – primary theories; perceiving the general gravity and stream of communication from individual to plural (collective/mass) perspective. With this insight, four alternative non-Western theories, based on the inspiring ideas/thoughts and practices of Sufism has been represented. The first one is Second Space (being and non-being space) theory, which emphasized the idea that theories need not necessarily be constructed on constitutive elements of communication and introduced a second space which may shape the communication. The second one, Chaotic Communication Flow/Pattern, underlined non-continuous pattern of communication. This considered being very important theory especially for most Asian countries where mystical non-continues pattern has been exercised so far and with proliferation of ubiquitous communication technology and new media some fundamental social problem may occur 201 The third alternative theory, Static-Dynamism Interplay, explained how communication is static as well as dynamic. Finally, theory of From Plurality to Unity explicated an alternative perspective to communication gravity and stream that is from collectivity/plurality to individuality/unity in contrast to Western theories.

200 201

(O’Sullivan et al. (1994) p. xii For more details see the Chaotic Communication Flow/Pattern in chapter seven.

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Given this brief inferences, besides that, the general insight was the fact that theories are construction of reality and not the reality itself. The other point is that this construction are influenced by ideology, worldview and many other factors. In fact, ‘In the world of scholarship, formal theories and intellectual practices are inseparable.’202

As Littlejohn and Foss (2008)

emphasized, it is of identical importance to clarify how theories are ‘generated’ and ‘the kind of research used’ as well as ‘the style in which they are presented’ and ‘the aspect of communication they address’(p. 14). This idea again leads us to the previous point that most theories of communication are mostly representation of Western ideological viewpoints. The Japanese Scholar, Ito, believed that: American models are basically individualistic models that consider individuals to be independent of each other and to form their attitudes without being influenced by the attitudes of people around them. 203

Besides that they mostly based on casual and logical relationships. While ‘What counts in many Asian philosophies is intuitive insight gained from direct experience.’

204

Besides that, ‘In many

Eastern traditions, relationships are more complicated and contextualized, evolving out of differences in the social positions of role, status, and power.’205 Another interesting insight was the fact that Sufism particularly was highlighted more mental knowledge involvement in communication rather than senses involvement in communication. If Marshall McLuhan said half a century ago that media is the extension of human senses, a Sufi scholar may say media is the extension of mental knowledge. Martin Lings (1975) likewise highlight the point that, Nearly 1000 years ago a great Sufi defined Sufism as ‘taste’, because its aim and its end could be summed up as direct knowledge of transcendent truths, such knowledge being, insofar, as its directness is concerned, more comparable to the experiences of the senses than to mental knowledge. (p. 7)

202 203

204 205

(Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 15). (Cited in Gunaratne, 2010: 481) (Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 5). (Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 5).

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Another understanding was, despite the difference in view of West and East, one should not underestimate one in favor of the other. Each may address one dimension of human aspect, one logics, secularity and individuality, the other intuition, mysticism and collectivity. If these two extremes get well balanced and blended both in theory and practice it would be more near to humanistic perfect ideal. Besides that communication is multi-dimensional phenomenon. Simple story of the blind man and the elephant, there again, would reminds us of that any complex subject can be approached in multiple ways

206

and that is certainly true for a complex subject as human

communication. The additional point to highlight is Gunaratne (2010) view. He argued that the contribution of Asian scholar to the ‘the seven traditions of communication’207 (p. 483) was a key to the gate of the city of hope for other scholars. Among them, he believed:

The cybernetics tradition offers the greatest opportunity for Asian scholarship to make a lasting impact on communication science because the foundation of systems-thinking involved in this tradition is the natural arena of axial Asian philosophies. In comparison, social psychology, sociology and anthropology – which signify the sociopsychological and sociocultural traditions – are more recent creations of the Western academic system.

Gunaratne, 2010: 483

In approaching the cybernetic tradition, Gunaratne, 2010 suggested, ‘Asian scholars should re-examine their own axial philosophies and develop a powerful alternative to the dominant Cartesian– Newtonian paradigm’(483). He exemplified the fact that: When the researcher leaves the experimental ceteris paribus mode (or the reductionist paradigm of ‘old science’) to examine how networks of factors interact in a never-ending process of producing ephemeral outcomes,5 he/she enters the ‘new science’ of complexity whose origins could well be traced to Eastern philosophy, much disparaged by Orientalism.

(see Steven Pinker, 2011) ‘Three of these traditions – cybernetic (studies underlying information and systems theories, complexity science and sociocybernetics), sociopsychological (studies underlying social psychology) and sociocultural (studies underlying sociology and anthropology) – belong to the category of communication science. The other four traditions – rhetorical, semiotic, phenomenological and critical – belong to the category of communication arts. Gunaratne, 2010: 481 206 207

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Understood from these ideas, one can notice how Asian communication theories can contribute to very important scholarship of network communication. This is particularly of high importance, since the realization toward network societies has been proliferated over pas decades. Especially with spread of new network virtual space – such as social media as Facebook, Twitter, etc. which is flourishing in most Asian countries and around the globe.

8.2. Discussion: Beyond the Bermuda Triangle A very interesting point that we understood from Sufism and it discussed in chapter seven, was the use of binary or chain of concepts to reach out to certain much larger understanding and thought. Here in this section the same logic has been used. However, rather being a chain of concepts, some concerns – and interrelated concerns – have been highlighted, although chaotically, then again, a synthesis and order has been discussed out of them. The brief of concerns is as following: 

Current scenario analysis



Fundamental philosophical East-West argument



Nature, function and importance of theories



Nature of communication with reference to theorization



Extremes of East-West dichotomy



Psycho-social context of most Eastern countries



Pyramid of interrelated concerns over modernity, tradition, communication and development



The synthesis of the above concerns

The first concerns is that the Western civilization ‘has lived for more than four centuries and has made great strides in’ all aspect however ‘we must accept that the West today faces an acute crisis, a crisis in its thought and all other spheres’ (Khatami, 2003: 102). It is no wonder to realize that the non-Western discourse has gained remarkable attention. Similar to Katami’s idea, Wallerstein believed that ‘the modern world economy is facing “difficulties that cannot be resolved within the framework of the [capitalist] system”’ (cited in Wang, 2011: 30). Although it is not in the domain of

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this argument, it is very important to consider one issue as a scholar. Since a scholar feels a responsibility to unfold untold stories behind issues. The concern here is that any attempt towards alternative non-Western discourse must not ruin the wealth and sprit of heritage where the idea is excavating. Khatami believed that the so-called ‘new world order’, a ‘sophisticated neocolonialism’, is the new stratagem of the West in order to handle ‘a crisis that has shaken it at the core’ (Khatami, 2003: 103). The cornucopia of recent upsurge ideas of de-weternization, accordingly, may underlines the controversy inherent in the topic under discussion. On the other hand, one should not exaggerate any dichotomy between West and East. The controversy over the issue that institution of East is higher level of reason of West or vise a versa would bring the vessel of scholarship to destructive whirlpools. In fact, it would not be wise to much concern about two relative poles of East-West. Pondering in every profound ideology or principle from Sufism, Hinduism, Buddhism to principle of yin-yang and the like, one concerns stands out; that is human must keep the balance and diversity exist within unity.

In this vein,

communication theories are not an exception. The question that one should keep on asking is that what is exactly the role of theories in our life? Theories, as discussed earlier, is alike an organism which the logics between its concepts determine its life. The basic function of theories, then, could be considered as an organism, which has the potentiality of predictability, since it works as a system, for enlivening the life. Particularly, theories become more important in social related science. Since human being is the least predictable creature of the universe. Accordingly, the theories itself should be wise identical to the unique potential attribute of human being, that is wisdom. Another concern which may rise here is that, the theory, itself, is abstraction and by nature it is reductionism phenomenon. This may signify the ‘inadequacy’ of any one theory.208 Littlejohn and Foss (2008) stated that, ‘No single theory will ever reveal the whole “truth” or be able to totally address the subject of investigation. Theories function as guidebooks that help us understand, explain, interpret, judge, and communicate. 209

Another issue about theories is that they are selective in nature. They interestingly pointed out that: 208 209

Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 14 Ibid

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[Type the company name] When scholars examine something in the world, they make choice – about how to categorize what they are observing, what to name the concepts upon which they have focused, how to name the concepts upon which they focused, how broad or narrow their focus will be, and so on. Thus theories represent various ways observers see their environments more than they capture reality itself . 210

In other words, theories are ‘less a record of reality than a record of scholars’ conceptualization about that reality. 211 So it stand to reason that theories may crystalized according to a certain feature and dimension and ignore other factors, intentionally or unintentionally. This is a core challenge before theorization, let alone to Western or non-Western paradigmatic discourse on this issue. The interrelated concern may rise here is that ‘Communication is so broad that it cannot be essentialized or confined within a single paradigm.’ 212 Progressively more, ‘the theories in the discipline [of communication] are cognizant of cultural and contextual factors of all kinds, suggesting a greater integration of diverse theories from many communication perspectives.’213 As Robert T. Craig argued: … communication will never be united by a single theory or group theories. Theories will always reflect the diversity of practical ideas about communication in ordinary life, so we will always be presented with a multiplicity of approaches. Our goal cannot and should not be to seek a standard model that applies universally to any communication situation. If this impossible state of affairs were to happen, communication would become “a static filed, a dead filed.” 214

The additional concern is the extreme drawbacks between West and East dichotomy. According to observation of Youichi Ito, a prominent Japanese in field of de-westernization of communication theory, Japanese scholars, at one extreme, ‘translated Western social theory intoJapanese for direct application’215 This, in light of metatheories (See chapter 7) demonstrate that aforementioned

Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 14 Ibid 212 Ibid, p.5 213 Ibid, p.6 214 Ibid 215 Ibid, p.5 210 211

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scholars described by Ito are diagnosed victims of Orientalism and Eurocentrism theories.

216

He

further elaborated that, on the other side of the extreme, were Japanism (nihon shugi) intellectuals ‘who contended that no Western theory was applicable to Japan because of the differences in basic values and assumptions of the two cultures.217 Gunaratne (2010) described that group of scholars as: the nihonjinron tradition in Japanese sociology […] which holds essentialized views of Japanese society – in short, Orientalism in reverse or autoOrientalism. p. 479 The ‘auto-Orientalism’, in Gunaratne belief, is a ‘syndrome’ which ‘has been documented in other cultures (e.g. Indian, Filipino, etc.) as well’ (2010: 480). Alatas (2006) ‘the logical consequence of this syndrome is nativism or indigenization’ and respectively could ‘ extend to the nativist alignment with the nation-state – [therefore] social science becoming a tool for government manipulation.’218 Thinking about the most pressing concerns of our age, especially in most non-Western countries, one more concerns may stands out that is the pyramid shape debate over the inter-relationship between concepts of ‘tradition,’, ‘modernity,’ ‘development’219 and communication. Although it seems super desirable to excavate the Asian thought/practice in order to propose alternative (social) communication theories than of the Western, the fact that non-Western civil society extremely is developing in Western fashion must not be underestimated.

(Cited in Gunaratne, 2010: 479). Ibid 218 Ibid, p. 480 219 These three concept is introduced by Khatami (2003), however the forth one is added by the researcher. 216 217

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Figure 8.1. Pyramid of Modernity, tradition, communication and development220

Development

Modernity

Tradition Communication

A superficial glance at the overall picture, Khatami (2003) believed, may lead to a premature conclusion that ‘modernity is a Western phenomenon, built through the dismantling and breaking of tradition’ (p. 75). Then ‘development’, he further elaborated, may ‘viewed as the upshot of modernity, which has become a paramount strategic goal of those outside the Western sphere of thought and values’ (Khatami, 2003: 75). The justifiable idea, as Gunarantne hinted, was the fact that ‘the attainment of “modernity” was possible only through the advanced European “Civilization”’ (See Wnag, 2011: 29). In other words, ‘In the phenomenal world of everyday relationships of power, Europe was projected as the scene of the birth of the modern’ and this by and large is supporting the notion of ‘European universalism.’ 221

The figure is developed based on Khatami (2003) ideas. According to Shelton Gunaratne ‘This argument, going back to the so-called Sepulveda-Las Casas debate on the sixteenthcentury Spanish conquest of the Americas, is so fundamental to Western axiology (study of values) that it has resurfaced in the contemporary world in the guise of the responsibility to protect (R2P) human rights, and the relentless attempts to transform the world to a nirvana of liberal democracy, media freedom, and individual rights’(Cited in Wang, 2011:29-30). 220 221

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The sturdiest manifestation of ‘European universalism,’ in Gunarantne phrase, gained credibility while ‘Western Christian values transmuted onto Enlightenment values’ by the close of eighteenth century, which accordingly paved the way for ‘Scientific universalism.’222

For this reason, he

believed that ‘the discourse of Orientalism tied to “the certainty of essentialist particulars” was “replaced by the certainties of science, as incarnated in the Newtonian premises about linearity, determinism, and time reversibility”’ 223 Discussing these several points in this section; viz. the condition and scenario of today’s world, the basic function, nature and importance of theories in our life, the nature of communication, the Western dominated paradigm, the psycho-social context in East countries and the pyramid of modernity-tradition-communication-development, the synthesis out of them would be an attempt toward making theories as a prism to create a rainbow of different colours, a contextual and sociocultural centric theories. This is the necessity of the age of glocalization. Besides that as Craig stated, much wiser steps in this field one must take are seeking, a) A ‘common understanding of the similarities and differences, or tension points, among theories’ b) A ‘commitment to manage these tensions through dialogue’ An additional step would be building the bridge between the contextual and socio-cultural centric theories and make these passage more comprehensive, understandable and practicable.

222 223

(Cited in Wang, 2011: 30). Ibid

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130

CHAPTER 9 EVOLUTIONS AND LIMITATIONS

A research metaphorically can be depicted as a glass of pleasing water, which may remove a thirst from a dry throat. As it is a glass, to its value and amount of water there would be various controversy. The focus of this chapter is regarding this concern. It initially discusses evaluations criteria of a theory and limitations/challenges of this research.


CHAPTER 9 Evaluations and limitations ‫هرکه او از مه زابين شد جدا‬ ‫يب زابن شد گرچه دارد صد نوا‬ Whoever away from those lips himself found Lost his music though made many a sound (Rumi)

 Evaluation  Limitations

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9.1. Evaluations Saher (1970) points out that in Western philosophy an idea is not accepted unless proved to be correct. What is not proved is to be treated as false. In Eastern philosophy an idea is not rejected unless proved to be false. What is not proved may be accepted as true until proved to be false (pp. 204-205). Thus, scholars should adopt a degree of flexibility in developing a humanocentric theory of communication (cited in Gunaratne 2002). Since ‘theories are construction’ in words of Littlejohn and Foss (2008), ‘questioning a theory’s usefulness is wiser than questioning its truthfulness. Any given truth can be represented in a variety of ways, depending on the theorist’s orientation’ (P. 15). Evaluating Communication theory Evaluation of research is an inherent feature of a research. There is, of course different terminology for such evaluation in terms of nature of the research, or any other possible criteria – which is not of concern to dealt with at this point. evaluation of communication theories, therefore, is not an exception. While the terms reliability and validity and their approach may not seems apt practically and theoretically to evaluate this study, there are several criteria which introduced by Littlejohn and Foss (2008) which can be used as touchstone for evaluation. However, as discussed in earlier chapters (see chapter 1 and 5), due to the nature of a theory itself, it would not appear wise to put a judgmental gutin on the head of each new born theory as such. Moreover, Littlejohn and Foss (2008), who introduced such touchstones for evaluation, put the critical figure on that criteria itself and claimed that ‘All have limitations, so you will not find a theory for which each of these criteria holds “true” with equal weight’ that is they could be viewed at ‘a starting point from which you can begin to assess the theories’ (p. 26). With this introduction, the criteria could be found as follow:      

Theoretical scope Appropriateness Heuristic value Validity Parsimony Openness

Theoretical scope The theoretical scope is reefing to a theory’s ‘comprehensiveness or inclusiveness’ and criticality (Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 26). According to Littlejohn and Foss (2008)

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Theoretical scope relies on the principle of generality or the idea that a theory’s explanation must be sufficiently general to extend beyond a single observation. When an explanation is a mere speculation about a single event, it is not a theoretical explanation. To be theoretical, an explanation must go beyond a single instance to cover a range of events. (p. 26) However, as understood broadly, there should be balance between the narrowness and broadness of a theory. Stanly Deetz succinctly stated that ‘Few theories are failures in regard to specific situations, and all theories ultimately fail if applied far enough outside of the specific conditions for which they were developed’ (Cited in (Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 26). According to Littlejohn and Foss (2008) there are two types of generality; one concerns with ‘the extent of coverage’ to various events and the other one, on the other hand, concerns with ‘a narrow range of events’ with comprehensive explanation and application to ‘a large number of situations’ (p. 26). To elaborate more, the former one would ‘explain a variety of communication related behaviors usually confined to a specific context224’ while the latter one cover only one topic but can explain various situation thoroughly 225’ (See Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 26). Appropriateness Appropriateness refers to compatibility of ‘the theory’s epistemological, ontological, and axiological assumptions’ with the theoretical questions and the research method which is used (Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 26). In other words, appropriateness is ‘a kind of logical consistency between a theory and its assumption’ that is ‘whether their claims are consistent with or appropriate to their assumptions’ (Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 27). Heuristic value The heuristic value refers to the capability of the theory to ‘generate new ideas for research and additional theory’ (Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 27). This simply may refer to the nature of knowledge

The example of the first type of generality could be ‘ communication apprehension, relationship initiation, or group consensus making’ (see Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 28). 225 The example of second type of generality could be ‘theories of relationship breakups’ they cover only ‘one topic, but they are powerful because they explain many instances of relationship dissolution, whether between intimate partners, work colleagues, or parents and children’ (see Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 28). 224

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wchich has to be in progress and dynamic. However, the degree of heuristic value and its way may vary base on the nature of theory. Validity Validity, understood broadly, ‘is the truth value of a theory,’ where the truth is not considered to be ‘absolute unchanging fact’ (Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 27). According to Littlejohn and Foss (2008) there are three kinds of validity; viz. value – or worth, correspondence – or fit, and generalizability (p. 27). The first type emphasize ‘the importance or utility of a theory’ (Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 27). Stanly Deetz believed that: The problem with most theories is not that they are wrong or lacking in confirming experiences but that they are irrelevant or misdirect observations that are important to meeting critical goals and needs. (Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 27) The second type emphasize the explicitness of specified relations and concepts acclaimed by the theory (Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 27). The last, but far from least, kind is similar to ‘theoretical scope’ which discussed earlier. Parsimony Parsimony refers to ‘logical simplicity’ that is ‘If two theories are equally valid, the one with the simplest logical explanation is said to be the best’ (Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 27). However the parsimony must always be in analogy with other criteria and there should be care in not oversimplification of the issue. Openness This important criterion refer to openness to other possibilities that is ‘tentative, contextual and qualified’ (Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 27-28). Littlejohn and Foss (2008) believed that : ‘The theorist recognizes that a construction is a way of looking rather than a reproduction of reality. The construction admits to diversity and invites dialogue with other perspectives. It acknowledges its own incompleteness. (p28)

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In general, given all these points, a theory, above all, should make sense, not necessarily a new invention or something purely considered by one’s own but an introduction to new ideas which may help out to see things in new different ways ( See Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 28). And the point that one need to consider about theories is their evolving nature. That is ‘The leading theory of today is an evolution of earlier theoretical ideas that have grown, combined, and expanded through research and careful thinking’ and hardly a single contributor is attributed for a major theory (Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 28). Maybe this study be an attempt in this wide spectrum of theory evolution and be a “grandparents” or “great grand parent” to next generation of communication scholars. In a nutshell, ‘When u read a really good theory, you have an “aha” reaction’ (Littlejohn & Foss, 2008: 28). This theories are constructed based on the available understandings of the researcher. It seems that they enjoy more or less the criteria mentioned above.

9.2. Limitations Limitations can be view both as a glass half empty or half full. It can be viewed as noise to the research or leading adjusting factors. Leaving these views without comments and making space for more virtual dialogue, the researcher’s motivation while facing any challenges and limitations throughout the research was the poem of Hafiz who said: ‫در بيابان گر به شوق کعبه خواهی زد قدم‬ ‫سرزنشها گر کند خار مغيالن غم مخور‬ ‫گرچه منزل بس خطرناکست و مقصد بس بعيد‬ ‫هيچ راهی را نيست کان را نيست پايان غم مخور‬226

This study positioned itself as an attempt toward an alternative view on communication theories other that Western view. As Gunaratne (2010) succinctly stated the second central question before non-Western discussion is: ‘what are the limitations, if any, for such efforts to achieve greater contributions [to the development of communication/social science research]?’ following subsections are a gist of limitations for this study particularly. 226

These verse literary means if you want to reach to your goal u have to deal with challenges.

(p. 482). The

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9.2.1. Conceptual, epistemological and methodological limitations As Shelton Gunaratne succinctly asserted ‘the global academic/scholarship structure based on the Eurocentric notion’ of two ‘bifurcated’ cultures humanities and science. He believed that ‘humanist universalism’ and ‘scientific universalism’ are ‘an integral manifestation of the modern capitalist world economy (i.e., world-system

227

) and they are ‘on the edge of historic/evolutionary

bifurcation’ – viz., ‘the choice between (a) the chaotic disintegration of the current system, or (b) its self-organization into a more complex system to rectify structural problems that cannot be resolved within the existing system’ (See Wang, 2011: 29). Indeed, this is considered to be the first considerable challenge before non-Western discourse. As one Persian poet said: ‫خشت اول چون رود معمار کج‬ ‫تا ثريا می رود ديوار کج‬ If architect put the first block of building wrong Till the end the building goes curved and wrong By the close of the eighteenth century,

Gunaratne explicated, ‘The ensuring epistemological

revolution created and consolidated the concept of the two cultures – scientific and humanist – with in the modern capitalist world economy (i.e., world-system).’

228

According to Wallerstein’s world-

system analysis, ‘the global academic/scholarship structure’ can be divided into three divisions: ‘the center representing the culture of science; the periphery, the culture of humanities; and the semi-periphery, a sunstantial mixture of both.

229

As mentioned in the backgrounder, the very nature of atomized nature

of media and communication studies, which was ‘consistent with the positivistic approach of reductionism’ stood ‘in sharp contrast to the emphasis on unity or the whole in Eastern philosophy’230 (See chapter 1). As clearly stated here, the scenario of non-Western discourse is similar to constructing a building with Western architectural merit, method and material. The initial limitation and challenge for this research was finding appropriate epistemology, methodology and concepts for discussion. Besides that translating some ideas from Persian to English, it was difficult world-system analysis, ‘the global academic/scholarship structure’ can be divided into three divisions: ‘the center representing the culture of science; the periphery, the culture of humanities; and the semi-periphery, a sunstantial mixture of both (Cited in Wang, 2011: 30). 228 ( Cited in Wang, 2011: 30). 229 ( Cited in Wang, 2011: 30). 230 Wang, 2011: 30 227

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to find equivalent meaning for the deep collective and culturally bound associated meanings. Accordingly, in translation of poems or some thought much of the intricacies are lost.

9.2.2. Structural constraints As Gunaratne put it there is a ‘structural constraints’ for ‘the current world-system’ and there is need for evolution into ‘more universal universalism during its self-organization into a more complex system.’231 If considering the structure as a part of the meaning itself, or if truly a medium is the message, it was quite challenging to present the alternative non-Western thoughts in medium and structure which is Western in nature. Although the attempt has been made to design this book rather different in structure, it overall structure could not be reconstructed.

9.2.3. Limitation of resources Being far from Iran, it was quite challenging to access to Persian text under study. Besides that there is no reference of study into Sufism communication as far as the researcher’s knowledge. Thus, the researcher had to draw connections between texts and communication. Some references for nonWestern approaches to communication study were only could be accessed online. However, due to copyrighted material rules all pages could not be accessed.

9.2.4. Time constrains This topic is considered to be extremely controversial and substantial our subject. In order to articulate comprehensive theory, one need years of thinking and rethinking in this field. Particularly it demands years of reading available scholarship and vast – and at the same time deep – knowledge about issues in order to propose theories. Limitation of topic was quite challenging accordingly. A huge amount of time has been spent on understandings of available theories and Sufism thought.

231

(Wang, 2011: 29).

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138

CHAPTER 10 SCOPE FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

The allusion of The Blind Man and The Elephant is used to excuse the existence of this space of description, however, with no pretension to consider the whole research as The Elephant. This only could be a potential seeds for implementation of much larger research both in sprit and in scope. Thus, the last chapter, but far from least, would provide a suggestive remark for further research.


CHAPTER 10 SCOPE FOR FURTHER RESEARCH ‫من چگونه هوش دارم پيش و پس‬ ‫چون نباشد نور ايرم پيش و پس‬ How can I be aware, see what’s around, If there is no showing light or telling sound?

 Scope for further research

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It is almost impossible, at least with today’s mode of expression and medium, to keep abreast of all dimensions of an argument at a single episode. Truly, not all issues could be addressed in one shot, yet as Wang (2011) believed ‘a clearer picture of the situation could help locate the problem areas and settle some key issues to pave the way for the next level of discussion’ (p. xv). Understood broadly, a piece of academic work ‘is meant to provoke thoughts and ideas and to stimulate further debate.’ 232 Base on thoughts that this research provoke, there is a need for further study into social communication of Sufism with inter-cultural perspectives. As hinted upon earlier, Sufism is considered to be multi-continental phenomenon. It is gaining popularity in Africa, United States of America and European Union countries. According to Marin Lings (1975) ‘the rapidly expanding interest in Sufism increase still further the need for reliable’ research in this area (7). Besides that there is need to excavate Sufism (social) communication patterns, thoughts, and perspectives from their practices besides their body of discourses. This research primarily focused on the poetic texts of Sufism, due to its logics, nature and limitations. However, as Harold Innis explicate in his Bias of Communication, each medium has its own bias in reflecting thoughts/ideas and messages. Accordingly, research into their practices and other body of discourses is desirable. Another interesting research could be done on comparative base among different culture where the Sufism communication is traced. This would provide thorough understandings into the dynamics of communication, culture, social practices. Similarly, a comparative research could focus on the thoughts of Sufism and their actual practices among different cultures and societies. In addition, one need to re-evaluate and ruminate over the Western communication theories and try to synthesize comprehensive understandings of its shortcomings, strength and the like in holistic way. Although dichotomy is not a preferred aim, one could drew a comparison line out of that, since without the paradox and opposition, the understanding is less. The other point to highlight here is that, Western communication theories could not simply be underestimated. They considered to be in scholarship of this field from its early stage. Consequently, it is desirable to keep balance and try to look for alternatives communication theories with thorough understandings of the Western 232

(Wang, 2011: xv)

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theories in empirical and objective manner.

Lastly, but not least, non-Western discourse should

essentially concentrate on apt alternative methodologies and methods of representation.

141


142


Rumi, commenting about al-'Attar

'Attar passed through seven cities of love, While we are yet in the bend of a single lane.

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E-Books Alatas, Syed Farid. (2006). Alternative discourses in Asian social science: responses to Eurocentrism Retrieved from http://books.google.co.in/books?id=3eGxfVh7aY4C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Alternativ e+Discourses+in+Asian+Social+Science+:+Responses+to+Eurocentrism+by+Syed+Farid +Alatas,+Farid+Alatas&hl=en&ei=UtSrTfvbOIbXrQfWjvmnCA&sa=X&oi=book_result &ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false 18 April 2011

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Corbin, Henry. (1998). The voyage and the messenger: Iran and philosophy. Retrieved from http://books.google.co.in/books?id=A8PzaQZwzZQC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Henry+ Corbin&hl=en&ei=QuBgTc_hMYnQrQfwu2lAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resn um=2&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false 19 Feb 2011 Littlejohn, S. W. & Foss, K. A. (2008). Theories of Human Communication. Retrieved from http://books.google.co.in/books?id=r3Fk0aRpJM4C&printsec=frontcover&dq=theories+ of+human+communication&hl=en&ei=btGuTff9G4jkrAfFvfWSCg&sa=X&oi=book_resu lt&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false on 20 April 2011 Park, Myung-Jin, & Curran James. (2000). De-Westernizing media studies. Retrieved from http://books.google.co.in/books?id=Afn_EOEnWjsC&pg=PA123&dq=de+westernizing+ communication+model&hl=en&ei=iVemTb2GY_qrQfR0oXnCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result &ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CDUQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=de%20westernizing%20c ommunication%20model&f=false 19 Feb 2011 – 14 April 2011 Wang, Georgette. (2011). De-Westernizing Communication Research: Altering Questions and Changing Frameworks. Retrieved from http://books.google.co.in/books?id=XuDSS4tP08UC&pg=PA1&dq=de+westernizing+co mmunication+model&hl=en&ei=iVemTb2GY_qrQfR0oXnCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&c t=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=de%20westernizing%20com munication%20model&f=false 19 Feb 2011 – 14 April 2011 Zhukovski, V. (1930). Trans. By Bogdanov, L. The idea of man and knowledge in the conception of Persian mystics. Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies. London: University of London. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/pss/607302 on 24 April 2011.

Dictionary and Encyclopedia Donsbach, W. (Ed.) (2008). Acne. The international encyclopedia of communication. USA: Blackwell. Gavahi, A. (1995). Dictionary of religion: A concise edition of religious and mystical terms. (2nd ed.). Iran: Daftar Nashr Farhang Islami.

Dissertation Bolouri, M. E. (1997). “Andisheye Azadi az didgahe Mirza Melkam, Sheikh Mohammad Esmaeil Qravi, Sheikh Fazl-Allah Nouri” [Freedom thought from Mirza Melkam, Sheikh Mohammad Esmaeil Qravi, and Sheikh Fazl-Allah Nouri’s point of view](Persian). Diss. Tehran: University of Tarbiat Modares (TMU). Udernani, Bhumika. (2006). “Once upon a time: Towards a richer understanding of popular fairy tales”. Diss. India: University of Pune.

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Jensen, H. B. (2006). “From economic to sustainable development: Enlarging the concept of law”. Florence: European University Institute.

Websites Akhtar, S. W. Biography 2011)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waheed_Akhtar (retrieved 19 February

Library and Archives Canada - Old Messengers, New Media: The Legecy of Innis and McLuhan http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/innis-mcluhan/030003-1010-e.html (retrieved on 2 January 2011) Maurice

Duverger.

(2011).

In

Encyclopædia

Britannica.

Retrieved

from

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1084689/Maurice-Duverger on 28 March 2011 The New World Information and Communication Order http://madanmaniadhikary.blogspot.com/2008/10/new-world-information-andcommunication.html (retrieved 14 April 2011)

(NWICO)

Reynold Alleyne Nicholson. (2011). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved from http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/414211/Reynold-Alleyne-Nicholson on 19 Feb. 2011 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideal_type retrieved on 20 January 11 http://muslim-canada.org/sufi/introductionsufism.htm retrieved on 20 January 11 http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~db=all~content=a917794417 retrieved 16 April 2011 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jalal_Al-e-Ahmad retrieved 18 April 2011 http://www.rumionfire.com/mathnavi/index.htm http://www.mzand.blogspot.com/ retrieved on 23 April 2011 http://www.mzand.blogspot.com/ retrieved on 15 April

Video Pinker, Steven. (2011). ‘The Stuff of Thought: Language as a window into human nature’. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5S1d3cNge24&feature=player_embedded on 20 April 2011

149


APPENDICES

150


APPENDIX A On Molana Jalal-e-Din Mohammad Molavi Rumi

233

Molavi Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Balkhi, who is known as Rumi in the west, is one of the greatest poets of the East and may be the whole history. He lived in the thirteen century in the greater Persia (now named as Iran). He was Born in Balkh (now in Afghanistan which was part of greater Khorasan of elder Iran) and died

in

Ghonie

(now

in

modern

Turkey).

He is mainly talking about the concept of unity and union from beloved one in which he has been cut and fallen apart and continuously seeking for reunification. ‘Rumi believed passionately in the use of music, poetry and dancing as a path for reaching God. For Rumi, music helped devotees to focus their whole being on the divine, and to do this so intensely that the soul was both destroyed and resurrected.’ It's important to note that Molavi’s lyrics are the great asset to the Persian Language. His great masterpiece, Masnavi Manavi (Spiritual Couplets), contains 6 main parts which transforms one from the lower level of the self up to the near end in the hierarchy of self-soulspirit. The last stage, as he claims, supposed to be the stage of perfection for human beings that he had left for the one to reach by herself/himself. He also founded the order of the Mevlevi, the "whirling" 233

The original source of this text is available on http://www.facebook.com/group.php?gid=2408598405 retrieved on 23 April 2011 (Privacy Type: Open: All content is public)

151


dervishes, and created the "Sema", their "turning", sacred dance. In the Mevlevi tradition, Sema represents a mystical journey of spiritual ascent through mind and love to Perfect. In this journey the seeker symbolically turns towards the truth, grows through love, abandons the ego, finds the truth, and arrives at the "Perfect"; then returns from this spiritual journey with greater maturity, so as to love and to be of service to the whole of creation without discrimination against beliefs, races, classes and nations. The world of Molavai (Rumi) is neither exclusively the world of a Sufi, nor the world of a Hindu, nor a Muslim, nor a Jew, nor a Christian; it is the highest state of a human being —a fully evolved human. A complete human is not bound by cultural limitations; he touches every human being.

Brief note on Divan-e Shams234

Divan-e Shams is a masterpiece of wisdom and eloquence of Rumi. It is often said that Rumi had attained the level of a "Perfect Master" and as such, he often dwelled in the spiritual realms that were rarely visited by others of this world. He attained heights that were attained by only a few before him or since. In Divane Shams, he has used many images from the mundane world. Images such as the wine and the wine bearer, the pearl and the ocean, the sun and the moon, the night and day, the caravan, pilgrimage and many more. However, he has always expressed spiritual wisdom of the highest level through this imagery.While many other poets have a mystical vision and then try to express it in a graspable language, Rumi has never attempted to bring his visions to the level of the mundane. He has […] demanded the reader to reach higher and higher in his or her own spiritual understanding, and then perhaps be able to appreciate what Rumi was saying. […]

The original source of this text is available on http://www.rumionfire.com/shams/index.htm retrieved on 23 April 2011 (Privacy Type: Open: All content is public) 234

152


While many of the translations of Rumi’s poetry have tried to convey the immense wisdom contained therein, often they overlook the musical and artistic beauty that they contain. Particularly in Divan-e Shams, Rumi has created such level of beauty through the use and mastery of musical rhythm and rhyme, that the reader not only can appreciate its wisdom, but also reach levels of ecstasy and mystical energy that is seldom found in other poems or any translations of his poetry. The mastery of rhyme and rhythm is such that he often creates a new vocabulary, using the same old words, yet creating new feelings that are associated with them. Furthermore, often he has such mastery of play on words and puns, or at other times he uses the same word with a different accent or vowel twice or even thrice in the same verse, with a different meaning each time. One cannot help but marvel at the linguistic mastery he displays. In any case, the end result is the same… the experience of artistic beauty, musical genius, rhythm and ecstatic energy, all in conjunction with the mental understanding of the wisdom conveyed. This is as close as one can get to the mystical experience itself, without actually being there with Rumi. In other words, His presence pervades his poetry, and one cannot help but be touched by such powerful and loving presence.

153


APPENDIX B Selected Scholars of Non-Western Discourse235

Alatas, Syed Farid is a Malaysian Professor of Sociology at the National university of Singapore. One of his main areas is sociology of religion. He is specifically interested in the issue of the Muslim revival and the study of extremism. Within this field he involves himself with Sufism as well because he thinks it could be the right force to tackle the problem of extremism. He believed: ‘Rumi should be basic reading in all the schools, just like Shakespeare is in the West.’236

Alatas, Syed Hussein (September 17, 1928 – January 23, 2007) was a Malaysian academician, sociologist, founder of social science organizations, and former politician. He was once Vice-Chancellor of the University of Malaya in the 1980s, and formed the Parti Gerakan Rakyat Malaysia (Gerakan). Syed Hussein wrote several books on corruption, multi-racialism, imperialism, and intellectual captivity as part of the colonial, and post-colonial, project, the most famous being The Myth of the Lazy Native. 237

Beltran, Luis Ramiro (b. 1930) is a Bolivian communication scholar who, together with colleagues like Juan E. Dias Bordenave and Alfonso Gumucio Dagron, contributed much to the Latin American school of development communication. He applied dependency theory to demonstrate the negative aspects of the development paradigm associated with Rogers, Schramm, Lerner, Pye, and Rostow. 238

Chen, Guo-Ming is Professor of Communication Studies at the University of Rhode Island. Currently, Chen is the executive director of the International Association for International Communication Studies and the coeditor of China Media Research. His research interests are in international/organizational/global communication. 239

Dissanayake, Wimal teaches at the Academy for Creative Media, University of Hawaii. He is also the Director of the Cultural Studies Program at the East-West Center, Hawaii. Dissanayake is the author and editor of a large number of books on communication, cinema and cultural studies. 240

In Alphabetical order – irrespective of chronology and their degree of contribution Source: http://www.yunusnews.com/node/27 237 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syed_Hussein_Alatas 238 Gunaratne (2010) 239 Wang (2011) 240 Wang (2011) 235 236

154


Fals-Borda, Orlando , a Colombian sociologist, gave Participatory Action Research (PAR) its worldwide recognition by organizing the first PAR conferences in Cartagena, Colombia from 2006. Based on his research with peasant groups in rural Boyacá and with other under-served groups, Fals- Borda was able to effectively incorporate the ‘Community Action’ component into the research plans of many traditionally trained researchers. 241

Feliciano, Gloria (b. 1929) is credited with coining and defining the term ‘development communication’ in 1971. She was the dean of the College of Mass Communication, University of the Philippines, from 1965 to 1985. She pioneered development communication in the Philippines together with colleagues like Roger Cuyno, Alexander Flor, Ely Gomez, Juan Jamias, Felix Librero and Crispin Maslog. 242

Gunaratne, Shelton is Professor of mass communications emeritus at Minnesota State University Moorhead, USA. He was the first to establish a perfect sketch by linking communication theories with Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism. He is the author of The Dao of the Press: A

Humanocentric Theory (Hampton Press, 2005) and the editor of the Handbook of the Media in Asia (Sage, 2000). His earliest monograph was The Taming of the Press in Sri Lanka (1975) and his latest monograph is Public Sphere and Communicative Rationality: Interrogating Habermas’s Eurocentrism (2006). He won the International Communication Association’s Best Article Award in 2003. A firm believer in systems theory and Buddhist philosophy, he has written numerous essays on de-Westernizing the communication/social science field. 243

Nagarjuna (CE 150–250) was a renowned Buddhist philosopher who wrote the classic Mulamadhyamakakarika, which deftly unravels the complexities of space, time and causality. ‘This text contains many intersecting concepts such as emptiness or devoidness, relativity, dubious linkages between cause and effect, and misconceptions of the idea of time that can prove to be of inestimable value in advancing modern communication theory’ (Dissanayake, 2007: 34).244

Roy, RamMohan (1772–1833) was the founder of the Brahmo Samaj, one of the first Indian socio-religious reform movements. His remarkable influence was apparent in the fields of politics, public administration and education, as well as religion. He ismost known for his efforts to abolish the practice of

sati. 245 241 Gunaratne (2010) 242 Ibid 243 Wang (2011) and Gunaratne 2010 244 Gunaratne (2010) 245 Ibid

155


Sarkar, Benoy Kumar (1887–1949), a pioneer of Indian social thought and sociology, ‘systematically critiqued various dimensions of Orientalist Indology.… He was also critical of the methodology of the prevailing Indology of his times’ (Alatas, 2006: 26). Other pioneer Indian social thinkers include K.P. Chattopadhyay, B.N. Dutt, G.S. Ghurye, S.V. Kicker, D.P. Mukerjee, R. Mukher, and B.N. Seal. 246

Ugboajah, Frank (1945–87) headed the department of mass communication, University of Lagos, Nigeria, in the 1980s before his untimely death. He was an advocate of the use of oramedia in African development: and he pointed out the irrelevance of Euro-American theory and research for Africa. His doctoral dissertation was titled ‘Communication of Development Issues in the Nigerian Media: A Sociological Perspective’ (University of Minnesota, 1975). His books included Communication Policies in

Nigeria (1980) an Mass Communication, Culture, and Society in West Africa (1985). 247 Wang Anshi (1021–86) was a Chinese economist, statesman, chancellor and poet of the Song Dynasty, who attempted some controversial, major socioeconomic reforms. 248

Yanagita, Kunio (1875–1962) was often known as ‘the father of Japanese native ethnology’. He depicted some facets of Japanese society by analyzing the famous folk tale Momotaro. His methodology was followed by many ethnologists and anthropologists. 249

246 247 248 249

Ibid Ibid Ibid Ibid

156


APPENDIX C Selected Persian Text

The Reed Flute

250

‫بشنو از ني چون حاکيت يم کند‬ ‫از جدايي ها شاکيت يم کند‬ Pay heed to the grievances of the reed Of what divisive separations breed ‫کز نيس تان ات مرا بربيده اند‬ ‫در نفريم مرد و زن انليده اند‬ From the reedbed cut away just like a weed My music people curse, warn and heed

250

Rumi’s first poem in Masnavi Manavi

157


‫سينه خوامه رشحه رشحه از فراق‬ ‫ات بگومي رشح درد اشتياق‬ Sliced to pieces my bosom and heart bleed While I tell this tale of desire and need ‫هرکيس کو دور ماند از اصل خويش‬ ‫ابز جويد روزگار وصل خويش‬ Whoever who fell away from the source Will seek and toil until returned to course ‫من به هر مجعييت انالن شدم‬ ‫جفت بدحاالن و خوش حاالن شدم‬ Of grievances I sang to every crowd Befriended both the humble and the proud ‫هرکيس از ظن خود شد اير من‬ ‫از درون من جنست ارسار من‬ Each formed conjecture in their own mind As though to my secrets they were blind ‫رس من از انهل ي من دور نيست‬ ‫ليک چشم و گوش را آن نور نيست‬ My secrets are buried within my grief Yet to the eye and ear, that’s no relief ‫تن زجان و جان ز تن مس تور نيست‬ ‫ليک کس را ديد جان دس تور نيست‬ Body and soul both unveiled in trust Yet sight of soul for body is not a must ‫آتش است اين ابنگ و اني و نيست ابد‬ ‫هرکه اين آتش ندارد نيست ابد‬

158


The flowing air in this reed is fire Extinct, if with passion won’t inspire ‫آتش عشق است اکندر ين فتاد‬ ‫جوشش عشقست اکندر يم فتاد‬ Fire of love is set upon the reed Passion of love this wine will gladly feed ‫ين حريف هرکه از ايري بريد‬ ‫پرده هاش پرده هاي ما دريد‬ Reed is match for he who love denied Our secrets unveiled, betrayed, defied ‫مهچو ين زهري و تراييق يک ديد‬ ‫مهچو ين دمساز و مش تايق يک ديد‬ Who has borne deadly opium like the reed? Or lovingly to betterment guide and lead? ‫ين حديث راه پر خون يم کند‬ ‫قصه هاي عشق جمنون يم کند‬ Of the bloody path, will tell many a tale Of Lover’s love, even beyond the veil. ‫حمرم اين هوش جز بهيوش نيست‬ ‫مرزابن را مشرتي جز گوش نيست‬ None but the fool can hold wisdom dear Who will care for the tongue if not ear? ‫در مغ ما روزها بيگاه شد‬ ‫روزها اب سوزها مهراه شد‬ In this pain, of passing days we lost track Each day carried the pain upon its back

159


‫روزها گر رفت گو رو ابک نيست‬ ‫تو مبان اي آنکه چون تو پاک نيست‬ If days pass, let them go without fear You remain, near, clear, and so dear ‫هر که جز مايه زآبش سري شد‬ ‫هرکه يب روزيست روزش دير شد‬ Only the fish will unquenchingly thirst, Surely passing of time, the hungry curst ‫در نيابد حال پخته هيچ خام‬ ‫پس خسن کواته ابيد والسالم‬ State of the cooked is beyond the raw The wise in silence gladly withdraw ‫بند بگسل ابش آزاد اي پرس‬ ‫چند ابيش بند س مي و بند زر‬ Cut the chain my son, and release the pain Silver rope and golden thread, must refrain ‫گر بريزي حبر را در کوزه اي‬ ‫چند گنجد قسمت يک روزه اي‬ If you try to fit the ocean in a jug How small will be your drinking mug? ‫کوزه ي چشم حريصان پر نشد‬ ‫ات صدف قانع نشد پر در نشد‬ Never filled, ambitious boy, greedy girl, Only if satisfied, oyster makes pearl ‫هرکه را جامه زعشقي چاک شد‬ ‫او زحرض و عيب لکي پاک شد‬

160


Whoever lovingly lost shirt on his back Was cleansed from greed and wanton attack ‫شاد ابش اي عشق خوش سوداي ما‬ ‫اي طبيب مجهل علهتاي ما‬ Rejoice in our love, which would trade Ailments, of every shade and every grade ‫اي دواي خنوت و انموس ما‬ ‫اي تو افالطون و جالينوس ما‬ With the elixir of self-knowing, chaste With Hippocratic and Galenic taste ‫جسم خاک از عشق بر افالک شد‬ ‫کوه در رقص آمد و چاالک شد‬ Body of dust from love ascends to the skies The dancing mountain thus begins to rise ‫عشق جان طور آمد عاشقا‬ ‫طور مست و خر مويس صاعقا‬ It was the love of the Soul of Mount Sinai Drunken mountain, thundering at Moses, nigh ‫اب لب دمساز خودگر جفمتي‬ ‫مهچو ين من گفتنهيا گفمتي‬ If coupled with those lips that blow my reed Like the reed in making music I succeed ‫هرکه او از مه زابين شد جدا‬ ‫يب زابن شد گرچه دارد صد نوا‬ Whoever away from those lips himself found Lost his music though made many a sound ‫چونک گل رفت و گلس تان درگذشت‬

161


‫نش نوي زان پس زبلبل رسگذشت‬ When the flower has withered, faded away The canary in praise has nothing to say ‫مجهل معشوقست و عاشق پرده اي‬ ‫زنده معشوقست و عاشق مرده اي‬ All is the beloved, the lover is the veil Alive is the beloved, the lover in death wail ‫چون نباشد عشق را پرواي او‬ ‫او چو مرغي ماند يب پرواي او‬ Fearless love will courageously dare Like a bird that’s in flight without a care ‫من چگونه هوش دارم پيش و پس‬ ‫چون نباشد نور ايرم پيش و پس‬ How can I be aware, see what’s around, If there is no showing light or telling sound? ‫عشق خواهد کني خسن بريون بود‬ ‫آينه غامز نبود چون بود‬ Seek the love that cannot be confined Reflection in the mirror is object defined ‫آينت داين چرا غامز نيست‬ ‫زانک زنگار از رخش ممتاز نيست‬ Do you know why the mirror never lies? Because keeping a clean face is its prize

162


Rumi’s selected poem

163


164


Translation of the above poem 251 : Beloved reached desired glow And so we say, may it be so All doubts towards faith did grow And so we say, may it be so The devil’s plot caused perturbation And the nation faced agitation; Once again was Solomon’s nation And so we say, may it be so Beloved who put my heart in pain Closed doors on my face once again Friends would console and entertain And so we say, may it be so You drank wine on your own Lusted after all, alone Now lead the drunk upon a throne And so we say, may it be so From your majestic bright face The flame lighting my place Each corner, a well-lit space And so we say, may it be so From your fake anger and rage And the sweet turning of the page The world is a sugary stage And so we say, may it be so Night replaced by the morrow Joy has conquered every sorrow

251

Shahriar Shahriari Vancouver, Canada July 21, 1998

165


Sun light, pervasive and thorough And so we say, may it be so From mendicant generosity And lovers’ pertinacity Revival and vivacity And so we say, may it be so Celebrate this festivity Restored to compatibility Festivals abound in our city And so we say, may it be so O masterful wise minstrel In the underworld do not dwell Finally Venus in Libra fell And so we say, may it be so The mendicant reached kingly might In wealth attained unimagined height Partaking of courtly delight And so we say, may it be so Consider the wind in the air Sweet lips’ bewitching flair Wailing windpipe will not spare And so we say, may it be so The Pharaoh with much hardship Misfortunes his life grip Of suffering, Moses strip And so we say, may it be so Evil looking and ugly wolf Drowned in ignorance’s deep gulf By Joseph’s goodness now dwarf And so we say, may it be so O Shams-e Tabrizi, you Compassionately blend and renew

166


East and west through and through And so we say, may it be so From submission to Satan’s will Your prophetic soul emerged through this mill Satan himself, God’s will fulfill And so we say, may it be so When the moon was shining its light Both worlds were garden of delight All souls for home then took flight And so we say, may it be so The ignorant and the blind With insight are now wise and kind Surpass Jesus, put him behind And so we say, may it be so It was all for souls to grow May it always have been so Thy splendor brightly aglow And so we say, may it be so All thy wrath was thy mercy Thy poison, sweet clemency Like dark clouds’ sweet potency And so we say, may it be so In his temple, colors remain Pulling by the horns will not disdain When this bull’s blood floors stain And so we say, may it be so Silence! I am drunk, you know My hands are tied in this earthly show My disheveled mind moves to and fro And so we say, may it be so

167

‫‪168‬‬

‫]‪[Type the company name‬‬

‫‪Attar’s Seven Cities of Love‬‬ ‫هفت شهر عشق عطار نيشابوري‬

‫گفت ما را هفت وادي در ره است‬ ‫چون گذشتي هفت وادي‪،‬درگه است‬ ‫وا نيامد در جهان زين راه کس‬ ‫نيست از فرسنگ آن آگاه کس‬ ‫چون نيامد باز کس زين راه دور‬ ‫چون دهندت آگهي اي ناصبور؟‬ ‫چون شدند آن جايگه گم سر به سر‬ ‫کي خبر بازت دهد اي بي خبر؟‬ ‫هست وادي طلب آغاز کار‬ ‫وادي عشق است از آن پس ‪ ،‬بي کنار‬ ‫پس سيم وادي است آن معرفت‬ ‫پس چهارم وادي استغنا صفت‬ ‫هست پنجم وادي توحيد پاک‬ ‫پس ششم وادي حيرت صعبناک‬ ‫هفتمين وادي فقر است و فنا‬ ‫بعد از اين روي روش نبود تو را‬ ‫در کشش افتي روش گم گرددت‬ ‫گر بود يک قطره قلزم گرددت‬

‫طلب‪:‬وادي اول‬ ‫ملک اينجا بايدت انداختن‬ ‫ملک اينجا بايدت درباختن‬

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‫]‪[Type the company name‬‬ ‫در ميان خونت بايد آمدن‬ ‫وز همه بيرونت بايد آمدن‬ ‫چون نماند هيچ معلومت به دست‬ ‫دل ببايد پاک کردن از هرچه هست‬ ‫چون دل تو پاک گردد از صفات‬ ‫تافتن گيرد ز حضرت نور ذات‬

‫عشق‪:‬وادي دوم‬ ‫کس درين وادي بجز آتش مباد‬ ‫وان که آتش نيست عيشش خوش مباد‬ ‫عاشق آن باشد که چون آتش بود‬ ‫گرم رو و سوزنده و سرکش بود‬ ‫عاقبت انديش نبود يک زمان‬ ‫درکشد خوش خوش بر آتش صد جهان‬

‫معرفت‪:‬وادي سوم‬ ‫چون بتابد آفتاب معرفت‬ ‫از سپهر اين ره عالي صفت‬ ‫هر يکي بينا شود بر قدر خويش‬ ‫بازيابد در حقيقت صدر خويش‬ ‫سر ذراتش همه روشن شود‬ ‫گلخن دنيا بر او گلشن شود‬ ‫مغز بيند از درون نه پوست او‬ ‫خود نبيند ذره اي جز دوست او‬

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‫]‪[Type the company name‬‬ ‫استغنا‪:‬وادي چهارم‬ ‫مر اينجا بود‬ ‫ش َ‬ ‫هفت دريا يک َ‬ ‫هفت اخگر يک شرر اينجا بود‬ ‫هشت جنت نيز اينجا مرده اي است‬ ‫هفت دوزخ همچون يخ افسرده اي است‬

‫توحيد‪:‬وادي پنجم‬ ‫رويها چون زين بيابان درکنند‬ ‫جمله سر از يک گريبان برکنند‬ ‫گر بسي بيني عدد‪ ،‬گر اندکي‬ ‫آن يکي باشد درين ره در يکي‬ ‫چون بسي باشد يک اندر يک مدام‬ ‫آن يک اندر يک ‪ ،‬يکي باشد تمام‬

‫حيرت‪:‬وادي ششم‬ ‫مرد حيران چون رسد اين جايگاه‬ ‫در تحير ماند و گم کرده راه‬ ‫مستي يا نه اي؟"گر بدو گويند‬ ‫نيستي گويي که هستي يا نه اي؟‬ ‫در مياني يا بروني از ميان؟‬ ‫برکناري يا نهاني يا عيان؟‬ ‫فانيي يا باقيي يا هردويي؟‬ ‫"يا نه اي هردو ‪ ،‬تويي يا نه تويي؟‬ ‫اصال مي ندانم چيز من"‪:‬گويد‬ ‫هم ندانم نيز من "ندانم"وان‬

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‫]‪[Type the company name‬‬ ‫عاشقم اما ندانم بر کيم‬ ‫نه مسلمانم نه کافر پس چيم‬ ‫ليکن از عشقم ندارم آگهي‬ ‫"هم دلي پر عشق دارم هم تهي‬

‫فقر و فنا‪:‬وادي هفتم‬ ‫بعد از اين وادي فقر است و فنا‬ ‫کي بود اينجا سخن گفتن روا‬ ‫عين وادي فراموشي بود‬ ‫گنگي و کري و بيهوشي بود‬


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