a guide to biodiversity assessment a guide to

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The two questions which underpin many biodiversity audits are: 1. What is the impact of a .... Queensland schools can also use Backyard Explorers as a key part of their ...... invertebrates tapped out into a container ..... Photo Movie Theater.
Backyard explorer - Leader’s Guide

queensland museum learning

Introduction

Table of Contents ................................................................................................................................ 45 Method 1 - Very simple ................................................................................................................... 45

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Backyard explorer - Leader’s Guide

queensland museum learning

Introduction

Introduction This leader’s guide is part of the Backyard Explorer package developed by the Queensland Museum and the Queensland Department of Education. This resource will help high schools and community groups to investigate and better appreciate the biodiversity of their schoolyards, backyards and natural environment. This scientifically rigorous and yet easy-to-use tool is designed to support the assessment of biodiversity health and the investigation of environmental issues such as comparing disturbed and undisturbed sites, and changes in biodiversity over time. This guide and the associated data collation tool (Excel spreadsheet) are written for high school and community groups and are available on a shared Google Docs site at . Another version of the leader’s guide and data collation tool. Other resources in the Backyard Explorer 1 package are available on the Wild Backyards: Backyard Explorer page of the Queensland Museum website , and include: A user’s guide, videos demonstrating invertebrate collection methods; and case studies. The original versions of the leader’s guide and data collation tool are also located on the website.

This resource is available to any group or individual who wishes to investigate the biodiversity of a local area. It is particularly useful for: This resource can readily be adapted to support environmental investigations from Upper primary through to senior secondary years and beyond. Students can conduct an assessment of their school yard, nature reserve or even a natural environment on a school field trip. (e.g. Landcare; wildlife associations) Established environmental groups or other community and neighbourhood groups can use Backyard Explorer to assess biodiversity health of disturbed habitats or monitor regeneration areas. Traditional owners can use these resources to collect data on the healtg of country from an Indigenous perspective. These investigations can be used to address environmental concerns and as a way to explore the diversity of life in the local environment. Families could also use parts or all of this resource to explore the biodiversity of their backyard.

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The Backyard Explorer package is available at: .

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Backyard explorer - Leader’s Guide

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In most circumstances the biodiversity audit that is most likely to provide a reliable assessment of biodiversity of a site is one that targets invertebrates. Backyard Explorer is a comprehensive, scientifically rigorous and yet easy-to-use programs that supports school and community invertebrate audits. The methods described in this publication have been tried and tested by dozens of schools and community groups, both in city and remote locations. The package has been developed by a team of experienced teachers and professional entomologists. The program includes a range of supporting material including a Leader’s guide, instructional videos and a data collation tool which automates graphing and analysis of the data. The reliability of the data collected using this program is in part derived from the accurate identification of dead insects. Accurate identification cannot be achieved by examining live insects and there are also increased health risks from stings and bites. The methodology is based on random

Introduction sampling and there is no targeting of large and conspicuous invertebrates such as beetles and butterflies. In fact this is strongly discouraged, since it could add bias to the sampling methodology. The removal of invertebrates via annual audits will not impact invertebrate numbers at a location since the sample collected is a tiny fraction of the population. Here is some feedback from groups that have used the resource and attended Backyard Explorer workshops: “As a Senior in our country I was very interested in gaining the info to pass on to family, grandkids and my country.” “Excellent with great backup online resources. Great having scientists and educator presenting adds scientific validity and good science communication all in one! Needed whole day.” “Really well organised, very interesting. Enjoyed the interactive learning and appreciated how difficult concepts can be so simply explained and applied.” “Fantastic to receive information about identification particularly access to online keys - will be extremely helpful in the future.”

If the biodiversity audit is part of a broader school-wide sustainability analysis, schools might like to consider combining elements of the following publications with Backyard Explorer: • ‘Biodiversity up Close’, developed by the Victorian Department of Primary Industry’s LandLearn team www.landlearn.net.au (go to the resources then to ‘Biodiversity up Close’). • ‘Greening Australia’s Biodiversity Audit Pack’ available at . • Earth Alive: An action-based investigation of local biodiversity, an educational kit developed for National Tree day These packages include additional teacher resources and student activities such as school mapping and surface analysis, and habitat quality assessment.

A list of resources including books, links online material and details of equipment suppliers is provided in Appendix A.

Biodiversity, or biological diversity, is the sum total of life forms on Earth or of a particular ecosystem or habitat. It takes into account the diversity of species of living organisms, the genes they carry and the natural communities or ecosystems they form. Page 4 of 52 – v2 – December 2012

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Backyard explorer - Leader’s Guide

queensland museum learning

Introduction

About 150,000 species are described for Australia so far, but with estimates of over half a million species in total. This maybe a gross underestimate, however, considering the highly diverse invertebrates and microorganisms, such that we may possibly know less than 25% of our all our native species. Even so, Australia is considered one of only nineteen megadiverse countries in the world, with a large proportion of endemic species. These include about 85% of our insects and flowering plants; 84% of mammals; 45% of birds; and 89% of inshore and freshwater fishes unique to the Australian continent and island territories. Biodiversity and endemism is high in Australia because: 2

• It is big (with 70,000 km continental coastline, 8.6 million km 2 continental marine territory; 16.1 million km oceanic jurisdiction). • It spans a broad range of climatic zones and therefore has many ecosystems (60 marine bioregions, all 5 oceanic climatic zones, tropics to polar, intertidal to the abyssal plains). • It is a very old continent, once part of the ancient Gondwanan supercontinent, with a subsequent mixing of species from the Gondwanan and Tethyan faunas following continental split.

Animal zoo exhibit, showing the diversity of species.

! Maintaining biological diversity within whole ecosystems is vital for their health and functionality. It is the fundamental issue we face this new century. Healthy ecosystems are essential to provide the many natural resources we need, such as foods and natural sources of drugs. Functioning ecosystems maintain our essential services to sustain life, such as recycling and purification of water and air, the creation of soils and the break-down of pollution. Pristine and diverse ecosystems provide many immeasurable social, cultural and recreational values, such as those found in our many unique National Parks and World Heritage Areas. Native animals and plants are essential components of Australia’s unique cultural identity. Conserving and managing this biodiversity is a major challenge to the biological sciences. Maintaining biological diversity within populations of species is also important. It ensures that genetic diversity of a species is preserved, giving them survival options. Reducing population sizes and ranges of species distributions—through overuse or environmental degradation—lowers their genetic potential to adapt or survive in rapidly changing environmental conditions. This reduces flexibility in the uses we can make of our biological heritage and in the health and sustainability of the species themselves. Reducing genetic diversity means increasing extinctions and a loss of the rich experience of nature we value today. Museum research contributes significantly to the conservation and management of biological diversity of the species, their ecosystems and genetic diversity. This research is basic to the discovery and documentation of species that form these ecosystems and the range and potential of their genetic resources; and to detect changes in ecosystems through changes in species composition in time and space.

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The content of this section about Australian biodiversity and biodiversity conservation are taken from the website of the Queensland Museum .

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Backyard explorer - Leader’s Guide

queensland museum learning

Introduction

A biodiversity audit is an evaluation or assessment of the numbers and different types of living things in a particular area. It would be impossible to count every species of animal or plant, so instead counts are made from samples collected from within the target area. These audits can include samples of plants, vertebrates and/or invertebrates. The two questions which underpin many biodiversity audits are: 1. What is the impact of a disturbance or environmental issue on bio-health? Since there are no ‘absolute’ measures of bio-health of a habitat, a comparison must be made between sites, such as a ‘disturbed’ site and a relatively undisturbed site. 2. What is the change in biodiversity over time? This question would be raised to assess changes in biodiversity following habitat improvement (e.g. weed clearing or revegetation) or a significant disturbance event (e.g. fire). Note: Comparisons over time must be treated with caution since environmental conditions such as climate (e.g. period of drought) and daily weather (sunny versus rainy) can change substantially from one year to the next. Refer to section ‘Investigating change over time’ on page 17 to see how this impacts research design.

Biodiversity audits provide a wide variety of benefits to a diversity of people and groups: • Increase understanding of what biodiversity is and better appreciate and value the diversity of life in your local area. • It is interesting, engaging and fun! Most participants will be highly engaged as they beat, sweep, catch, sort, and handle all sorts of ‘bugs’. • You cannot effectively conserve or enhance biodiversity, or even effectively manage the land, without knowing what exists in the first place. • The ability to assess the impact of environmental issues, and monitor changes in the health an area, including improvements arising from conservation and rehabilitation initiatives. • Help schools improve the biodiversity health of their school grounds and make them more sustainable (see below). This could include assessing the impact of disturbance, and establishing a practical ‘Action Plan’ to improve the biodiversity health of the school grounds. • An ideal opportunity to target elements within the Australian Curriculum including Science Understanding (Biological Science), Science Inquiry Skills and Science as a Human Endeavour. • Active participation of students in a real science activity, that is, personal engagement in science with a purpose.

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Backyard explorer - Leader’s Guide

queensland museum learning

Introduction

" Australian Curriculum The Backyard Explorer program provides a focused ecological study that targets numerous content descriptions within all strands of the Australian Curriculum Science. Science Understanding—Biological Science While there are links to most years, the strongest curriculum links occur in Years 6, 7 and 9. Year 6 • The growth and survival of living things are affected by the physical conditions of their environment. Year 7 • There are differences within and between groups of organisms; classification helps organise this diversity. • Interactions between organisms can be described in terms of food chains and food webs; human activity can affect these interactions. Year 9 • Ecosystems consist of communities of interdependent organisms and abiotic components of the environment; matter and energy flow through these systems. Science Inquiry Skills Backyard Explorer incorporates all SIS sub-strands for all year levels, primary and secondary. This makes it a relevant and worthwhile activity for all year levels that can be assessed against the curriculum. Students will engage in: Questioning and predicting ; Planning and conducting; Processing and analysing data; Evaluating; and Communicating.

Science as a Human Endeavour Backyard Explorer is all about science in action, science used for a real-life purpose that impacts on the lives of the participants, and can influence decisions and practices such as land management, that impact the environment in which they live. As such, it strongly supports the sub-strand ‘Use and influence of Science’. For example, in Yr 7 it aligns with: • Science and technology contribute to finding solutions to a range of contemporary issues these solutions may impact on other areas of society and involve ethical considerations. • Science understanding influences the development of practices in areas of human activity such as industry, agriculture and marine and terrestrial resource management. The Australian Curriculum–Science can be viewed online or downloaded at . Senior Secondary Curriculum: Biology Biodiversity is one of the units within the Senior Secondary Curriculum: Biology. Backyard Explorer is an ideal tool via which senior students can achieve the proposed learning outcomes.

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Backyard explorer - Leader’s Guide

queensland museum learning

Introduction

Sustainable Schools A biodiversity audit can form a key component of a school’s sustainability program. It can readily address the ‘Biodiversity’ component of AuSSI (Australian Sustainable Schools Initiative) schools. . Queensland schools can also use Backyard Explorers as a key part of their environmental education program to fulfil their Queensland Sustainable Schools commitment . Schools conducting a comprehensive school-wide sustainability assessment might like to consider incorporating elements from ‘Biodiversity up Close’ and the ‘Greening Australia’s Biodiversity Audit Pack’ mentioned previously.

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Backyard Explorer could be used by a wide of community groups, including: Lancare Community farms Catchment networks Waterwatch Bushcare Local councils Land for Wildlife SE Qld Wildlife and conservation associations Most government organisations encourage a risk management approach to managing land and addressing environmental issues such as weeds and pests. Backyard Explorer can be used as a tool to investigate biodiversity as part of a risk management program.

% Health and safety of everyone involved in the audit must be given priority. Health and safety issues that must be considered include: Sun-safe practices Sun-safe practices should be adopted for outdoor activities. Handling insects Reliable identification can only be performed by handling the invertebrates. Since a number of species of invertebrates have the potential to cause harm, such as through bites or stings, safety can only be assured by handling dead insects.

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Backyard explorer - Leader’s Guide

queensland museum learning

Introduction

This guide describes each of the steps in conducting a biodiversity assessment.

STEP 1 Plan the audit

STEP 2 Assess habitat quality and record abiotic features

STEP 3 Collect the data (invertebrates)

STEP 4 Sort and identify the invertebrates

STEP 5 Analyse the results

STEP 6 Communicate and share the findings

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Backyard explorer - Leader’s Guide Step 2 – Habitat assessment

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Step 1 - Plan the audit &'& Biodiversity assessments should be conducted in the context of a local environmental impact issue. It could be: • The effect of animal grazing on the bio-health of creek banks. • The contribution to biodiversity of leaving small pockets of un-cleared vegetation in grazing land. • Local bushland has been overrun with a noxious weed. • Determination of biodiversity improvement as a result of rehabilitation activities (See Change over time below). In many cases an environmental issue of local concern may be immediately apparent. If not, try some of the following strategies: • Walk around your school or neighbourhood and identify areas that receive a high level of disturbance which may affect biodiversity. Examples of disturbance include: -

High level of foot or bicycle traffic

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Dominance of exotic species

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Weed infestation

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Erosion on a slope, or stream bank

• Research the archive of your local newspaper, to find reports on environmental issues • Contact your local community conservation or environmental group, Council or government environmental protection agency to see if they are aware of a local environmental issue that might be suitable.

Identify a local environmental issue, for which the environmental impact can be investigated with a biodiversity audit. Teachers may like their students to identify an issue to explore after walking around the school grounds, or nearby locations.

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The environmental issue can be rephrased as a research question is generally a “what is” question about a significant issue. For example: • What is the effect of animal grazing on the riparian zone of the creek? • What is the impact of human activity (named) on the local forest area? • What is the impact of bike riding on the bio-health of the garden area near the school car park? This can also be rewritten as a hypothesis.

Establish a research question and/or hypothesis

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Backyard explorer - Leader’s Guide Step 2 – Habitat assessment

queensland museum learning Case study An area of the school grounds has received a high level of bicycle traffic. This site has little leaf litter, few ground cover plants, apparent compaction of soil, and evidence of erosion caused by the development of a water course. Research question: Does the high level of foot and associated lack of ground cover and shrubs have a negative affect on invertebrate biodiversity?

Case study A bush area adjacent to the school is infested with the weed Lantana. Bushland with a similar vegetation type is located a few kilometres away. Research questions: What is the impact of Lantana weed infestation on invertebrate biodiversity at this site? What will be the impact of removing the weed and replanting of native shrub species? Example hypothesis: Invertebrate diversity will increase over time following weed removal and a replanting program.

&' * If you are an individual or small neighbourhood group, that has identified a problem, consider finding a partner that can support you in conducting a biodiversity audit. Many organisations would be more than willing to support you in a project to better understand and help the environment. Collaborative research has numerous benefits for schools. School students could partner with scientists or conservation groups to investigate a local environmental issue. In so doing they will engage in real authentic ecological study and readily see how science is used in real life to inform decisions and actions. Here are a few links to organisations that could help you find a partner. National National and local environmental groups . For example: Landcare . Queensland • Outdoor and environmental education centres • Land for Wildlife South East Queensland • Healthy waterways NSW Environmental education centres .

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Backyard explorer - Leader’s Guide Step 2 – Habitat assessment

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Find a partner organisation for support, expertise or shared discovery

&'+ * Find an accessible site that is impacted by the environmental issue being investigated.

* Conducting a biodiversity audit on a single site will not give you an accurate measure of ‘bio-health’. However, indications of bio-health can be made through comparative studies. One method is to compare the biodiversity of the area of interest (the study area) with an area of similar habitat considered to be relatively undisturbed. The assumption here is that the impact of the disturbance on biodiversity can be discerned by comparison with a ‘healthy’ site.

Case study The study site is a patch of open woodland on the school property that receives high level of foot traffic. The comparison or control site, is adjacent bushland. It receives a lot less foot traffic and so could be considered to be relatively undisturbed. It is of a similar vegetation structure (open woodland), also has a north facing aspect and has a similar soil type.

This comparison site should be as similar as possible to the disturbed site in order to eliminate environmental differences such as vegetation or soil type as variables. This will increase the likelihood that differences in biodiversity are due to the environmental issue being investigated.

Find a comparison site which is similar to the study site, but not impacted by the environmental issue being investigated.

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In most cases, state schools do not require any special permission to conduct Backyard Explorer invertebrate biodiversity audits on their school grounds. Performing an audit on privately-owned land would naturally require permission from the land owner. If the study site is on public land (e.g. State forest, council land such as park or river edge), contact the relevant government authority to identify if a permit or some other paperwork is required and if any laws or guidelines need to be adhered to.

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Backyard explorer - Leader’s Guide Step 2 – Habitat assessment

. 1. Give each of your sites a short descriptive name. E.g. Brisbane SHS bushland north boundary. 2. Describe the site in one or two

sentences, including details about it’s location and appearance.

3. Take photographs of the sites.

Case study Control site name: ‘Native woodland reserve’ Description: Woodland reserve adjacent to school grounds. Receives some foot traffic along paths. Study site name: Garden - mix natives and non-natives Description: Garden established in 2004. Mixture of Australian natives and non-native plants. Includes small trees, shrubs and ground cover.

Accurately recording the site location will help future review and analysis of the audit results, and is important if future audits are to be conducted at the same locations. It is also an essential aspect of sharing the audit results online (see Step 6). Latitude and longitude can be derived from printed maps, mobile device Apps, the native compass App on 3 the iPhone and GPS devices. They can also be obtained from Google Maps by zooming in and right clicking on the site location, then selecting What’s here? The (latitude, longitude) pair will automatically be displayed in the Address search bar at the top of the Google Maps page. Coordinates in the format of degrees, minutes, seconds can be formatted into decimal coordinates using the convertor in the Backyard Explorer 4 data collation tool .

Record the latitude and longitude of the audit sites.

&'/ # It is recommended that the audit be conducted in spring, summer or autumn since invertebrates are more abundant during the warmer months of the year. Teachers will also need to plan ahead if choosing to integrate an audit into a relevant unit of the Science curriculum.

Time of year Many more invertebrates will be collected in warmer weather. So it is recommended that the audit be conducted during the warmers months. Terms 1 or 4 of the school year would be most appropriate.

Decide on the time of year to conduct the audits.

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Note: if using the native compass App on the iPhone— 1. Ensure Settings Location settings is ON, 2. In the list of apps under Location Services, ensure ‘Compass’ is ON 3. Open the Compass app; the coordinates at your location are displayed 4 There are also numerous free online conversion tools available (e.g. ) if required. Page 13 of 52 – v2 – December 2012

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What faunal groups will you target?

A focus on invertebrates, which includes insects and spiders, will in most cases provide you with a more accurate assessment of biodiversity. Advantages include: • they are much more numerous than vertebrates • a range of collection methods can be used to collect them over a period of time, including night time • they will provide specimens for the students or group members to sort and identify (that is, classification skills can be applied) and they can be identified with a high degree of certainty 5

• permits are not required for invertebrate collection . For these reasons Backyard Explorer supports an invertebrate focussed audit.

1 Targeting vertebrates can be problematic. Issues to consider include: • Many vertebrates are nocturnal (come out at night) and/or travel widely and so may not be in the area at the time of survey, or are hard to see (cryptic). It would not be unusual to not see any vertebrates, except maybe for an occasional lizard or bird. Since the animals are usually observed at a distance and may disappear quickly, reliable identification can be problematic. The small amount of data collected will in most cases not be sufficient to draw reliable conclusion. • In most states, including Queensland, permits are required to capture, handle, and in some cases even record observations of, vertebrates. It is recommended that groups seeking to record vertebrates should 6 contact the relevant State authority . Indirect observations, such as the trace evidence of tracks and 7 scats can be used to collect some data, but once again these records would be inconclusive .

Choose whether you will be recording the biodiversity of invertebrates, vertebrates or both.

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Check the legislation for your state. In Queensland, invertebrates can be collected under the Animal Care and Protection Act 2001, available at: . 6 In Queensland, visit the permits webpage of the Department of Environment and Heritage Protection website . Resources on the website include the information sheet: ‘Scientific research and educational purposes permits‘ and the guideline ‘Terrestrial Vertebrate Fauna Survey Guidelines for Queensland’. 7 See the ‘Monitoring vertebrates’ and ‘Research design’ sections below. Page 14 of 52 – v2 – December 2012

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&'2 # Invertebrates inhabit a wide variety of habitats and exhibit a wide range of behaviour patterns (e.g. flying insects, light-seekers, etc.). As a result there are a wide variety of collection methods that can be used in order to effectively collect these different groups. • Netting

• Light sheets

• Observation

• Beating trays

• Pyrethrum knockdown

• Leaf litter

• Pitfall traps

• Malaise traps

• Intercept traps Descriptions of each method are provided in Section 3. Note that each method traps some invertebrate orders more than others (refer to Table 1 in Section 3). You should consider carefully which collection methods you will be using that will best help answer your research 8 question .

3 Many of the traps can be DIY using recycled material or purchased cheaply from a department or discount store. For example, an effective pitfall trap can be created using a plastic ice-cream container. However, some traps (such as malaise traps) are best purchased from specialty suppliers. Refer to Appendix A.

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Beating, netting, leaf litter collection and pan collection methods should be performed on the day of the audit. The length of time in which the traps should be left can vary, depending on a number of variables— Variable

Explanation

Disturbance

Areas which are open to the public may be susceptible to disturbance, and so you may choose to have the traps set up only during the day. Light traps may not be appropriate in these locations.

Rain

It is recommended that traps be emptied if rain is expected.

High wind

Empty traps if there is a forecast for high wind, since many of the net traps are susceptible to damage in windy conditions.

Time of year

Leave the traps out for longer during the cooler months since there is likely to be fewer invertebrates collected. In summer months a shorter time would be appropriate since lengthy collection periods can result in the traps becoming overfull and the quantity of invertebrates collected becomes unmanageable.

You can test for an appropriate length of time by testing prior to the audit using one or two traps. In general, the following time period can be adopted for light, malaise, and pitfall traps: •

Mid summer: 2 days - 1 night



Autumn and spring: 3 days - 2 nights (or longer if required and possible).

Traps left for more than one night should be checked each day, if feasible, to ensure they remain correctly set up and have not been disturbed. Empty and replace any collection jars that are full.

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For example, if your goal is to investigate the diversity of a particular order in different habitats, then choose the collection methods that are most suited to collecting your target group. Or, if the audit plan involves a broad-scale assessment of invertebrate biodiversity of the site, then use as many of the methods described below as possible.

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Backyard explorer - Leader’s Guide Step 2 – Habitat assessment

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Complete audit on one day Active collecting and the emptying of traps should be conducted on the same day wherever possible. This is because variable weather conditions can affect invertebrate behaviour and thus significantly affect collection results.

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Decide the duration at which passive traps will be left. 9

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If the audit is to have any reliability, it is essential that you use methods that will allow fair comparisons to be made between different areas. The basis for such methods should include verifiable evidence and repeatable methodologies.

# In scientific studies, data must be verifiable. For data to be verifiable there must be evidence that can be viewed by people other than the collector of the data. You should try to ensure that you collect evidence for each species recorded. Verifiable evidence can be in the form of: • Specimen with label

• Tracks either collected or photographed

• Photographic image

• Scats, pellets

• Video • Sound recording Verifiable data must also include labelling information (covered later). Non-verifiable evidence examples: • Catch and release methods that do not record verifiable evidence

• Observations by one person that are recorded as sightings

• Second hand reports of sightings

All methods of recording the presence of species by direct observation are subject to varying levels of reliability. In some cases identification can be a near certainty such as with a visual sighting of highly recognisable animal (e.g. Koala). However in many cases there will be a high level of uncertainty (e.g. a bird in the top of a tree, a lizard scurrying off a rock), in which case the data should be treated with caution. You will need to decide how, or if, to record these sightings. Options include noting that the identification is uncertain, simply recording them at a higher taxonomic level, e.g. ‘bird’, ‘duck’ , skink, etc., or to exclude the data entirely. This reliability issue is particularly relevant to vertebrate monitoring, since they cannot be collected and can only be recorded using sightings and observation.

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Test a single trap of a few of the collection methods that you are considering using—for example, a single pitfall and beating. This will give you an idea of the expected number and diversity of invertebrates. You can use this information to indicate how many of each collection method might be appropriate. (See section ‘Replication’ below).

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Backyard explorer - Leader’s Guide Step 2 – Habitat assessment

Uncertainty is addressed by collecting insects and preserving them so that they can be safely examined using hand lenses as required. Identification of live insects is prone to a much higher level of misidentification.

The reliability of the audit will increase with the number of samples collected. Replication helps address the issue of population variation and problems with the method. For example, in the case where a single pitfall trap is used: • It is not unusual for a trap to be disturbed (e.g. by people, animals, wind or rain). Multiple traps of the same type will enable samples to be collected even if one or two traps are disturbed. • There is considerable natural variation in the distribution of invertebrates within all sites. A single trap may by chance be placed in densely populated or unpopulated location. By spreading a large number of traps around the site, the impact of within-site variation is reduced. The more times a collection method is replicated the more likely the trap sample will reflect the actual diversity at the site. However too many traps will make sorting and identification too onerous, so a balance should be reached. The recommended minimum number per site for each collection method is provided in Section 3.1 ‘Collection methods’.

! The validity and reliability of scientific results is largely dependant on whether the methodology can be repeated. Thus it is important that you clearly describe the methods you will use. This is particularly important if annual audits are planned, so that future audits can be performed in an identical fashion.

Make sure that you record details of the collection methods used. This can be recorded in the data collation tool.

# As far as possible try to ensure that only the difference between study sites is the variable that is the subject of the research questions (e.g. presence of weeds, comparison of native and non-native garden). This is an important element to conducting a fair test. Variables that should be controlled include: •

Abiotic features of the environment (e.g. soil type, aspect, etc.),



Vegetation structure (e.g. both sites are open woodland). However, many school studies might be interested in comparing the bio-health of a number of vegetation types in and around the school; in which case vegetation structure is the experimental variable.



Collection methods. Participants should take care during planning and while performing the audit, that each collection method is conducted in the same way at each site (e.g. the same number of pitfall traps used, or the same time spent sweep netting). Further detail on standardisation is provided in Section 3.1 below.

Ensure that as much as possible the controlled variables such as abiotic features and collection methods, are kept constant between sites.

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In subsequent years a site can be investigated to assess whether biodiversity has changed over time. In most cases this would be an annual comparison, ensuring that the time of year and weather conditions are as similar as possible. Page 17 of 52 – v2 – December 2012

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Backyard explorer - Leader’s Guide Step 2 – Habitat assessment

Comparisons between years must be treated with caution, since environmental conditions such as climate (e.g. period of drought) and daily weather (sunny versus rainy) can vary substantially from one year to the next, and these conditions can affect invertebrate activity levels and thus the number collected. To address this issue, an audit must also be conducted in an undisturbed site at the same time that acts as a control. The difference between the diversity of the two sites at each year (or sampling period) can be used to assess change over time at the study site. For example, does the diversity of a revegetated site gradually match more closely the diversity of the undisturbed control site over time? Implications for schools The same school year level could continue the study each year, or a specific year level conduct the study and compare with previous year’s results and the results shared with the whole school.

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Backyard explorer - Leader’s Guide Step 2 – Habitat assessment

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Step 2 - Assess habitat type, quality and abiotic features In order to answer the research question and to help interpret the invertebrate audits, habitat assessment must be carried out at each site. This assessment should include the: • identification of vegetation structure and vegetation type • measurement of the abiotic (non-living) features, such as weather, soil type, aspect, of each site • habitat quality assessment, which is a useful component of a school ground sustainability project • activity he assessment of the habitat vegetation

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Vegetation structure can have a major influence on the type and diversity of invertebrate and vertebrate species that inhabit that environment. Vegetation layers add complexity and provide microhabitats to a site. In most cases a higher level of habitat complexity supports greater diversity of fauna. These layers are frequently affected by human and natural (e.g. fire) disturbance. Name vegetation structure Group members can determine the name of the vegetation structure on the day of the audit by estimating the height of the tallest plants and then estimating the percentage cover of the canopy of that layer. The method, as well as links to websites that can support vegetation identification, are provided in Appendix B - Vegetation structure. Draw vegetation profile Vegetation structure can be also described by drawing a vegetation profile, in which the layers of the vegetation are drawn from a side-view. Profile drawings can help comparisons to be made between the vegetation of two or more sites or habitats.

10

Comparison of habitat profiles Vegetation profiles can help illustrate differences in vegetation structure between sites. For example, vegetation profiles will readily highlight the reduced level of ground-cover and shrubs in an area of high foot and bicycle traffic compared with a fenced off area.

Vegetation type is also referred to as ‘habitat’ in this document and in the data collation tool (spreadsheet).

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' 3

5

!6

7

The non-living or abiotic features of a habitat play a central role in determining the type and diversity of species. This part of the study is most strongly linked to the Biological sciences sub-strand for Years 6 and 9 that addresses the association between life and the physical conditions of the environment.

Case study Climate statistics for study area (Site 1) from 1999 to 2011

Climate statistics The climate and weather conditions of the area in which the sites exist will affect animal biodiversity both directly (e.g. availability of water) and indirectly by determining the type of vegetation (e.g. rainforest only occurs where there is sufficient rainfall). Where possible the following annual average 11 climate statistics should be noted : • • • •

Mean maximum temperature (°C)

26.4

Mean minimum temperature (°C)

16.2

Mean annual rainfall (mm)

964.7

Mean number of days of rain >= 1 mm

86.8

Mean minimum and maximum temperatures Mean annual rainfall Mean number of days with rain Mean daily hours of sunshine

You could also consider noting the means for rainfall and temperature for the particular month of the audit. Other abiotic features of land and soil Other abiotic features that can measured or recorded at the sites include: •



Slope—influences: plant species and vegetation structure, water flow and water availability, and exposure to sunshine Aspect (if the site is on a slope, this is the compass direction in which the slope is facing)—affects the amount of sunlight of the habitat and exposure to hot western sunlight

Case study Other abiotic data for study area Site 1 Disturbed site

Site 2 Control site

Aspect

NNE

N

Soil type

Clay

Clay

7

7



Type of soil—influences: plant species and vegetation structure;, water flow and water availability



pH of soil—influences plant species and vegetation structure. This usually varies from neutral to slightly acidic. Compaction of soil—influences: plant species, water flow and water availability, and ground dwelling invertebrates.



Soil pH

Try to ensure that the comparison (control) site has the same, or as similar as possible, abiotic features as the study site (unless one of these features is the focus of the research question). This will help control the variables and help conduct a fair test.

11

Australian climate data can be obtained for most populated areas of Australia where weather stations are present. Visit the Climate Data Online page of the Bureau of Meteorology website . Select Type of data > Statistics (monthly). Page 20 of 52 – v2 – December 2012

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Methods for measuring a number of abiotic features are provided in Appendix C.

Measure the abiotic features such as slope, aspect, soil type and pH, at all sites.

Weather and other abiotic features that affect the behaviour and activity of animals can vary on a daily basis, and so should also be recorded on the day of the audit. For example, extremes of rain, wind and temperature can cause many invertebrates to seek shelter or limit movement, thus influencing abundance and measures of diversity. Taking note of these details can assist in the interpretation of the results. A list of abiotic features that could be recorded include: • Air temperature • Soil temperature • Level of rain for that day • Humidity • Light level • Wind • Compaction of soil • Moisture content of soil

Photo of thermomemter or data logger

The influence of these factors is another reason why the two sites should be sampled on the same day where possible. Also, if a comparison over time is being conducted, an attempt should be made to conduct subsequent audits on days with weather conditions similar to those on the day of the initial audit. This reinforces the concept of conducting a fair test and discussed previously.

Decide which abiotic features you will measure. Obtain the equipment required to make the measurements.

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An assessment of habitat quality complements and supports biodiversity audits. The diversity of organisms is influenced by ‘quality’ of the habitat, such as number of trees, vegetation structure, amount of organic litter, weed level, presence of rocks and so on. An excellent series of activities that support student assessment of habitat quality is contained within Part 2 of the ‘Biodiversity up Close’ audit package developed by the Victorian Department of Primary Industry’s LandLearn team (go to Resources then to ‘Biodiversity up Close’). This section (pp. 25-41) can be integrated with the Backyard Explorer package. The assessment involves measuring eight different variables: • Number of trees • Habitat trees • Understorey and Vegetation Structure • Environmental Weeds (also see next page) • Organic Litter • Logs and Rocks • Soil Management • Habitat Extras Page 21 of 52 – v2 – December 2012

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Habitat quality assessment chart from the Landlearn Biodiversity up Close audit package.

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Backyard explorer - Leader’s Guide Step 2 – Habitat assessment

The resource includes a colour coded record sheet in which each of the attributes are given a score. Adding the individual scores produces a total habitat quality score for the area. While school focused, the resource can readily be adapted for a community project.

Decide if you will be incorporating habitat assessment as part of the biodiversity audit. If so, download the ‘Biodiversity up Close’ package and print Part 2 as well as the associated student worksheets.

The activities mentioned above can be supplemented with additional activities as outlined below. Weeds can have a significant impact on a native ecosystem. Activities that could form part of weed assessment include: • Identify if the weed is a declared plant. There are three classes of declared plants under the Land Protection (Pest and Stock Route Management) Act 2002. These plants are targeted for control because they have, or could have, serious economic, environmental or social impacts. Declaration under state legislation imposes various legal responsibilities for control by landowners on land under their management, including all landowning state agencies. • Identify if the weed is a weed of national significance (WONS). • Make use of online weed identification tools, such as the one produced by Weeds Australia or the identification tool located at . Other activities and resources are available at: • Weed warriors: . Weed Warriors is a free, innovative schools education program that aims to increase school and community understanding of, and involvement in, local weed issues. • Queensland Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry educational resources about weeds, includes Weed Warriors, Weed detectives and Weedbusters: and can be accessed by choosing the following the path: Home > Plants > Weeds, pest animals & ants > Educational resources & careers > Weeds and pest animal education > Weed educational resources. • The Weed Society of Queensland http://www.wsq.org.au/.

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Stinking Roger (Tagetes minuta) an introduced weed near Toowoomba, Queensland. Source: Arthur Chapman

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Step 3 – Collecting data

Step 3 – Collect the data +'& # 8 The collection methods can be grouped as passive or active. • Passive collection methods: e.g. malaise (intercept) trap, pitfall, coloured pan, light trap. These methods involve laying out traps for at least one day. Invertebrates collect in sample jars containing a preservative. Recommended preservatives include: propolyene glycol, methylated spirits (advantage of being readily available). The advantage of passive methods is that they more easily standardised. This contributes to more reliable data. Passive methods should be used if the data is to receive statistical analysis. • Active collection methods: e.g. sweep netting, beating, leaf litter, hand collecting and insecticide knockdown. Live invertebrates are collected directly from the environment. Two recommended methods for gathering the invertebrates include using a fine paint brush, carefully picking up the specimen with forceps or a using a poota. A poota is an easily constructed device composes of two tubes inserted through the lid of a plastic specimen jar. Table 2 below lists the various collection methods. Each method includes the following details: • Photograph of the collection method • Habitat: the behaviour that the collection method targets • Orders: the groups of invertebrates most commonly captured by that specific collection method • Equipment: A list of equipment required for the particular method. Standard equipment required for invertebrate biodiversity audits is listed in Section 3.3. • Standardise: a list of aspects of the methods that should be kept consistent between sites. The techniques for setting up and collecting invertebrates from each trap type are summarised in Step 3 and 12 outlined in more detail in Appendix D . Videos on collection methods are also available on the Backyard Explorer website. Other videos include: • Minibeast mission leaf shake (Macquarie ICT) - • Minibeast mission leaf litter (Macquarie ICT) - • Collecting bugs, SCOPE video (CSIRO)

One of the principles of scientific investigations is to eliminate all variables other than the variable you are investigating. Many research projects will explore the differences between the type of vegetation at two sites, or between a disturbed and undisturbed site. In these cases, vegetation type at each site is the experimental variable. IN order to conduct a fair test, all aspects of the collection methods at different sites should be kept the same. This includes attributes such as time, effort and/or number for each collection method.

12

Collection methods are also described in the ‘Invertebrate Collection Manual’ published by the Australia Museum , and ‘Earth alive: an action-based investigation of local biodiversity’ .

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Step 3 – Collecting data

For example, do not sweep or beat more in one site simply because you are not appearing to collect as many invertebrates. After all, a difference in relative abundance is one of the results that will tell you assess if there is a difference in biodiversity between the two sites. Collection should be conducted on the same day, or traps set out for the same time period at the same time where possible. This is because changes in weather such as wind, rainfall or temperature can significantly affect invertebrate behaviour which can affect the likelihood of being collected. •

Beating, pitfall, netting, coloured pans: 5



Malaise, light trap, insecticide knockdown: 1



Pitfalls: 21



Beating: 100 beats



Netting:

Table 1 - Collection methods and behaviour patterns

Netting

Photo: J. Wright, QM.

Beating

Photo: J. Wright, QM.

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Habitat: Grass and ground-cover, as well as foliage of shrubs and trees. Behaviour: Invertebrates that fly off when the foliage is disturbed. Non-flying invertebrates are also collected using this method.

Suggested equipment:: • Sweep net. Net should be tough fine mesh. Medium to long handle Standardise:

• Net size and handle length • Netting duration or length of Orders: Most orders would be fixed path along which collected, including butterflies and sweeping occurs moths (Lepidoptera), bugs Recommended: (Hemiptera), beetles (Coleoptera), 30 people minutes (e.g. 2 nets x spiders (Acarina) and dragonflies 15 min OR 6 nets x 5 min) and damselflies Odonata.

Habitat: Foliage of shrubs and trees. Behaviour: Invertebrates that drop from foliage as a response to avoid predation (simulated by beating the foliage with a stick). Immature insects can also be caught by beating, while other insects fly away. Orders: Hemiptera (true bugs); Arachnids (spiders); Phasmatodea (stick insects); Coleoptera (beetles); Mantodea (praying mantid)

Suggested equipment:: • A piece of solid dowel (a broom handle is good) or sturdy stick • Large sheet of white paper, beating trays or a sheet of calico Standardise: • Size of tray • Number of beats or time spent beating and trays • Height at which plant is beaten and force applied. Recommended: 100 beats

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Malaise (flight intercept) trap

Light sheet

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Step 3 – Collecting data Description: A container is placed in a hole dug into the soil. The open top is level with the soil surface. Insects fall into the container. Habitat: Ground dwellers, forest floor. Behaviour: Invertebrates that walk on the ground foraging for food or prey, and some burrowing species. They fall into the pitfall trap and cannot escape. Orders: Blattodea (cockroaches); Hymenoptera (Ants); Coleoptera (beetles); Isopoda (slaters)

Description: Flying insects are intercepted by the vertical net. They fly to the top and are funnelled into a container. Collection trays may also be placed along the bottom edge of the net. Habitat: Flight paths between vegetation. Behaviour: Invertebrates that fly up at obstruction. Orders: Diptera (flies); Hymenoptera; (bees, wasps) Description: Flying insects are intercepted by the vertical net. They fly to the top and Habitat: Flight paths between vegetation. Behaviour: Nocturnal invertebrates attracted to light sources. Orders: Most flying insects including: Lepidoptera (moths); Neuroptera (lacewings); aquatic insect order is near freshwater (e.g. Trichoptera—caddis flies); Blattodea (cockroaches)

Suggested equipment:: • 1 or 2 L ice cream container with lid with large central hole cut (see images below) • Trowel • Lid )e.g. polystyrene tray or piece of Perspex • Water with a little detergent (makes trapped insects sink) • Sieve Standardise: • Net size and handle length • Netting duration • Team size Recommended: • 5 pitfall traps per site Suggested equipment:: • Flight intercept (e.g. malaise) trap Standardise: • Size of trap • Number of traps • Spacing of traps Recommended: Minimum of one trap over 1 night (though more nights and traps is preferable).. Suggested equipment:: • White sheet • Light source • Methylated spirits Standardise: • Size of sheet • Wattage and light type of light source • Trapping duration Recommended: Minimum of one collection night.

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Step 3 – Collecting data Description: Habitat: Forest floor/ground cover Behaviour: Invertebrates attracted to colour. This is one of the cheapest and simplest collection methods. Flying insects will be attracted to the colour of the bowel and once they alight on the detergent solution, they become trapped. Orders: Diptera (flies), Hymenoptera (bees and wasps)

Suggested equipment:: • Yellow plastic bowls/pans. Can also have set of other colour(s). At least 5 of each colour per site. • Saline (salty) water and detergent (to break the surface tension). • Flour sieve, or mesh Standardise: • Number of pans of each colour • Spacing of pans • Trapping duration Recommended: 2 rows of 3 pans left for 24 hours.

Leaf litter

Description: Grab a handful of litter and spread out over a white sheet. It is recommended that gloves be worn to prevent stings and bites. Collect invertebrates using forceps or an aspirator (poota). Habitat: Ground dwellers, forest floor. Behaviour: Invertebrates that walk on the ground foraging for food or prey, and some burrowing species. They fall into the pitfall trap and cannot escape. Orders: Blattodea; Hymenoptera (ants); Hemiptera (bugs); Arachnids (spiders); Coleoptera (beetles); Phasmatodea;

Insecticide (Pyrethrum) knockdown

Description: Large volume of organic insecticide sprayed into the vegetation. Large collection sheets, and/or collection funnels, are spread out under the sprayed vegetation. Collect invertebrates about 20 min later. Habitat: Trees (including bark) and tall shrubs. Behaviour: Invertebrates that cling to tree bark and live in foliage of shrubs and trees.

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Suggested equipment:: • Gloves and/or trowel to pick up leaf litter • White tray or sheet on which to place the litter. • Optional: Berlese funnels. Leaf litter is placed in the top and natural sunlight or artificial light heats and dries the litter. The invertebrates head down the funnel ending in a collection jar filled with preservative. Standardise: • Number of pans of each colour • Spacing of pans • Trapping duration Recommended: Minimum of 3 samples.. Suggested equipment:: • Fast-acting insecticide. Do not use surface spray. Fast-acting insecticide is quick acting and breaks down quickly. Look for ‘less harmful’ brands. • Stick or dowel for beating the shrub/tree • Collecting sheet (white) or trays. • Clear plastic sheet to cover plant

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Step 3 – Collecting data Orders: Blattodea (cockroaches); Coleoptera (beetles); Thysanoptera (silverfish); Arachnida (spiders); Mantidae (mantids)

Standardise: • Duration of spraying Recommended: • Minimum of 2 separate shrubs

Hand collecting

Description: Collecting insects from a surface such as a tree trunk or the ground. This can be performed using a pair of forceps, or an aspirator (poota). Habitat: Ground, tree trunks and shrubs. Behaviour: Predominantly nonflying invertebrates that walk on the ground or cling to tree trunks and shrub branches. Suitability: Can be conducted by Orders: Various

Limitation: Has potential for bias, since there is the tendency to artificially target ‘interesting’, large, and/or slow-moving insects. Data would be inconclusive if this is the primary method used. Better to do a combination of pitfall, beating and netting.

Observation or ‘capture & release’

Description: Visual observation of an invertebrate in the environment without collection; or collection via one or more of the methods described above, and where the invertebrates are identified alive, sometimes with a magnification lens. Habitat: Ground, tree trunks and shrubs. Behaviour: Various. Orders: Various

Limitations: There is a high likelihood of misidentification even at order level (i.e. the level of: ants, wasps, butterflies, etc.). Also increased risk of stings and bites. This method is not recommended.

Decide which methods you will be using. Target those orders that will give the most useful data to answer the research question

! Transfer the collected invertebrates from the traps into small plastic containers or vials. The invertebrates should be stored in preservative such as methylated spirit or an 80% ethanol solution. The transfer methods are outlined in the Pitfall Trap section of Appendix D. The contents of traps of the same type (e.g. all pitfall traps) from the same site can be combined. Direct transfer—invertebrates are individually picked up using tweezers or a paint brush (experts may also use their finger tips wetted with some preservative) and placed directly into a vial. Sieving—Pitfall, coloured pans will contain a large amount of liquid. The contents of the containers can be poured through a fine mesh sieve (such as a flour sifter), large leaves removed, and the remainder including the invertebrates tapped out into a container

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Invertebrates being placed in vials.

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Step 3 – Collecting data

, Without a label the specimen has no scientific value. The following details should be written on all labels and placed in the phials with the collected invertebrates: •

Location



Date



Collector’s name



Habitat details



Collection method

Use HB pencil on normal white copy paper.

! "#

Labels must also be placed in all traps (e.g. pitfall and malaise traps) that are left out for one or more days. Labels must also be written on the day of collection since the dates will be different, and so these vials will have two labels in the phial.

+'

!

!

! Sorting and identification should be conducted indoors. Samples can be sorted in a number of different ways. One of them is for groups to sort through all the samples from a particular collection method. This has the advantage that group members will gain familiarity with particular types of invertebrate that are common, and so make identification easier and quicker. This approach also decreases the chance of samples being mixed up and data entry confused. A disadvantage is that members of that group may not have the opportunity to identify a wide diversity of species. Another option is for group members to sort and identify individual trap samples from a variety of different trap types (e.g. one each from pitfall, netting and beating). The advantage of this method is that the participants will have the opportunity to identify a wider diversity of invertebrate species, however this may be take more time and there is s light increase in risk that data from particular samples will be confused.

! CSIRO Key to Invertebrates An excellent key to use is the Key to Invertebrates (CSIRO), available at . This can be used online or it can be downloaded for use offline and printed. Note that 13 there is a minor error in the printable key . Queensland Museum resources • A single page insect identifier is provided in Appendix E. This is a useful reference sheet. • Videos of tips for identifying insects and how to use the CSIRO key are provided on the QM website • Vertebrate and invertebrate field guides are also available from the Queensland Museum bookshop . • Find out about the animals of Queensland

13

The step for sorting insects states the two options as ‘One pair of membranous wings’ and ‘Two pairs of membranous wings’. The latter should read ‘Two pairs of wings’, since otherwise it would exclude beetles whose first pair of wings are not membranous.

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Step 3 – Collecting data

• Spider Identification Chart Other invertebrate identification charts and guides •

Bugwise Quick Invertebrate Guide (Australian Museum) http://www.bugwise.net.au/files/resources/pdf/quick_invert_guide.pdf



Bugwise Invertebrate Identification Guide (Australian Museum) http://www.bugwise.net.au/files/resources/pdf/invertebrate_guide.pdf



Spider Gallery (Museum Victoria) - http://museumvictoria.com.au/spiders/gallery.aspx



Backyard Bugs Guide (CSIRO) - http://www.csiro.au/files/files/p8m0.pdf

, The specimens will be identified to order level. Identification to order is well within the capabilities of students and community members. The techniques required are very accessible. It is neither necessary nor reasonable to classify to any further detail. Why don’t we identify down to species level? There are over 61 thousand species or different types of insects described for Australia. However only around a quarter are described. Therefore no-one can tell you the species for nearly 75% of the insects collected, as they have not yet been named. Order level identification is all that is required of University students doing first year entomology. Identification down to Family level requires further specialist training. It is possible to identify down to species level for some groups such as butterflies, dragonflies, stick insects, and praying mantids. If you choose to do this, refer to available field guides.

% To identify Invertebrates such as insects, spiders and centipedes: 1. Do you have an adult? If you have a caterpillar or larva of an insect that undergoes abrupt or complete metamorphosis (eg butterfly, wasp, ant, beetles, flies) most keys will not work. If you have a nymph of an insect that undergoes gradual or incomplete metamorphosis (eg grasshopper, true bug, and stick insect) some keys will work to at least order. Nymphs may be recognised by the wing buds, or developing wings present in later instars.

2. Not all insects are bugs— There is a group of insects called bugs. Therefore we call the members of the Order Hemiptera ‘True bugs’ including aphids, leafhoppers, cicadas. They are characterised by the sucking mouthparts, the rostrum, a strong straw like structure usually held between the front pair of legs. Page 29 of 52 – v2 – December 2012

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3. Does your insect have wings? Can you see segments of the abdomen from above? If so, you may have an adult insect as many insects never have wings. If not, there may be wings covering the abdomen. The forewings may be hardened to form elytra that meet in a straight line down the back. That’s a beetle characteristic.

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+'+

Step 3 – Collecting data

(

Create a checklist to ensure you have all necessary equipment to carry out the chosen collection methods and for collecting and sorting the specimens.

+'+'& #

! (

The following items will be required for most invertebrate audits. Refer to Table 1 above for the required equipment specific to each collection method. •

Preservative: 80% ethanol is a commonly used preservative. This can be prepared by diluting pure ethanol. If you do not have access to ethanol, methylated spirits can be used as a short-term substitute. It is useful if the preservative is in a squeeze bottle.



Plastic vials: Invertebrates are placed these small plastic vials with the labels. The vials should contain the preservative.



Collecting jars: They are jars with screwtop lids. These are used to kill moth and butterflies whose wings can be damaged by liquid, and large insects that would not fit in the vials. Add a small amount of nail polish remover on to a piece of absorbent paper such as tissue or paper towel and place in the bottom the jar. Close the lid. Prepare the jar only when it is required.



Forceps/forceps and paint brushes: live insects can be picked up using:



o

Fine (artist’s) paint brushes dipped in the preservative. They can then be transferred to the vials.

o

Tweezers or forceps can be used, however care must be taken since the specimens are easily squashed making identification difficult.

o

Pooters which are used to suck-up the invertebrates.

Paper labels to be placed in sample vials.

+'+'

(

!

!



Magnification lens. There are a range of options to consider, from hand lenses to hands-free head mounted lenses and also magnifying glasses with a high-magnification spot (probably the cheapest option). The minimum level of magnification recommended is 10X. USB and stereo microscopes can also be used.



Paper-towel to absorb some of the preservative liquid.



Forceps or tweezers, which might be required to hold and examine some of the smaller invertebrates.



Note-book to record counts. The counts can be recorded in the tally sheet attached in Appendix F. If creating your own, make sure that all the details shown on the attached form are included. In most cases group members will record on a handout and then enter the data into the spreadsheet.



Data collation tool - Excel spreadsheet, available on the Backyard Explorer webpage.

+'/ 3

!

As previously mentioned the physical collection of vertebrates is not appropriate for the purposes of a school or community biodiversity audit. If a permit is desired, the local State Environmental Department or National Parks and Wildlife service should be contacted. This limitation leaves opportunistic observation as the most appropriate method for recording vertebrate species. A variety of methods can be used:

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Step 3 – Collecting data Description

Resources

Visual

• Identification of species based on shape, size and distinctive features such as colouration, and distinctive behaviour including the pattern of movement (e.g. the flight pattern of particular birds).

• Field guides (books, printouts of local species, mobile phone apps.) • Binoculars can aid in identification

Auditory

• Can be reliable for a small number of species, however not definitive. • More likely to be useful in helping identify species of frog and bird.

• Digital recordings of bird and frog calls; mobile phone apps.

Indirect evidence

• This includes tracks, scats, fur, feathers, nests, egg shells and other physical remains or impressions on objects in the environment. • Reliability in identification varies.

• Recommended book is B. Triggs (1984). Mammal Tracks and Signs. A Field Guide for South-Eastern Australia. Oxford University Press, Melbourne.

Vertebrate audits can also be conducted on a single day. However, as mentioned in section 1, it is difficult to accurately record the diversity present in a habitat, particularly in a single day. For example, on a cloudy cool day many reptiles will be less active and thus less likely to be observed. In light of this consider recording visual sightings over a period of time such as a number of days.

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Step 5 – Develop an action plan

Step 4 – Collate and analyse the data . .

6

7

The data collation tool is a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet in which all the details about, and data collected is entered. This includes— •

details about the school organisation



location and description of the site(s)



abiotic measurements from the habitat



the counts of invertebrate orders and vertebrate 14 species. The data from up to four sites can be entered into the spreadsheet



drop-down menus to simplify data entry



separate worksheets for each group.

The spreadsheet also automatically— •

collate the counts from each group worksheet and combines them to produce a summary table of counts for each site of the audit.



graphs the counts for each site, both individually and combining all sites



calculates statistical measures of diversity.

Standardised format Data needs to be organised and presented so that interpretations can be made. The spreadsheet has been developed to facilitate data and standardise data collation. A standardised format for collating and presenting data provides an easier basis for comparison studies of different audits. The Data Collation Tool and the Data Collation Tool User Manual are available for download from the Backyard Explorer website.

Each group should enter the numbers for each insect order from the samples they have collected.

3

!

It is not uncommon for one or more traps to be damaged or disturbed (e.g. a pitfall trap is dug up by an animal overnight) or for a sample is accidentally unlabeled. If this occurs, the invertebrate counts for the affected trap type will need to be adjusted, since equal trap numbers are essential for a fair test in comparison studies. For example, a comparison is not valid if site A has 5 pitfall trap samples, but at site B two traps were disturbed so that only 3 samples were collected. In this case, multiply the numbers of each invertebrate order in site B by the ratio 5/3 (i.e. multiply by 5 and divide by 3).

Standardise the results if comparing between sites and the number of samples (traps) differs between the sites.

14

Modify the existing spreadsheet or use an additional one if more than four sites are included in the audit.

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Step 5 – Develop an action plan

. #

!

A comparison study with a more disturbed area, or with data collected in other areas by other schools or community groups, would improve understanding of factors that affect biodiversity. As mentioned above, the Data Collation Tool can accommodate the invertebrate counts from up to four sites. The vast majority of audits will only sample two or three sites, however the spreadsheet can be edited to add more than four sites if required. The summary graph compares the invertebrate counts from all sites. Graphs for each individual site can also be calculated and printed.

! For most groups, the focus of data analysis will be on the summary sheet, which displays the counts of invertebrate orders from all sites, as well as graphs of those counts. The graphs provide a visual comparison of the invertebrate order abundance both within and between sites. The summary sheet and graphs support assessment of biohealth and/or the formation of conclusions about the research questions.

Case study: comparing graphs The graph bellow combines the invertebrate order counts from two sites. This enables a visual comparison of the number of orders that are collected at each site.

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Step 5 – Develop an action plan

3 The invertebrate order abundances are a sample of the diversity of life that exists at the site. From this data we can calculate the following measures which can be used to compare the biodiversity of different sites and assess biodiversity health: • Richness is the number of different orders or species that are present in a sample. It does not take into account the abundance of each order. • Evenness is a measure of how equally abundant each of the orders or species is— it combines abundance and richness. It takes into account relative abundance, that is, how abundant an order is compared with the counts of the other orders at the site. • Diversity is a mathematical number that combines richness and evenness. Note: diversity is sometimes used as a synonym of richness; this should be avoided. It is important to take both richness and evenness into account when measuring diversity. Consider the following graphs:

Abundance

Abundance

Orders Graph A

Orders Graph B

Graph A: Total abundance is high and richness is relatively high; however, it is obvious that the site is dominated by a single order, which contributes about 90% of the individuals. The other orders are extremely rare and contribute around 10% of the individuals collected. The dominance of one order (or species) is often associated with a disturbed habitat in which an opportunistic species takes advantage of the disturbed community. Graph B: Richness may be slightly less, however evenness is much higher— the abundance of each order is quite similar. Statistical diversity measures may be higher for this site. For many ecosystems, high evenness is a sign of ecosystem health. Disturbed habitats frequently have lower evenness. This may be due to: •

the dominance of a few, possibly invasive, species such as some ant species



absence or low numbers of some predatory species



a reduced diversity of plant species— the reduced number and diversity of food and microhabitat sources can result in fewer invertebrate species.

The spreadsheet includes a number of automatically calculated statistical measures. These can be used to analyse the data in greater depth and add weight to conclusions made about the research questions and assessments of biodiversity health. In so doing the audit can also link to the Australia Curriculum: Mathematics, and in particular the strand Statistics and Probability. These indices are useful since they simplify assessment of diversity by producing a single number. However, as with all statistics, they should be used cautiously and with an awareness of underlying assumptions. For example: Page 34 of 52 – v2 – December 2012

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Step 5 – Develop an action plan



Richness does not take evenness into account



Shannon-Weiver is somewhat sensitive to evenness, whereas Simpson diversity is more sensitive to evenness and less sensitive to richness.

Bioindicators are used by professional environmental assessment groups and scientists as a targeted means of assessing biodiversity health. Ants in particular have been shown to be quite reliable bioindicators. However, accurate assessment requires substantial expertise in ant identification and in the interpretation of the biodiversity data, and so would be beyond the scope of most groups.

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Step 5 – Develop an action plan

Step 5 – Develop an Action Plan Following the analysis and evaluation of the audit, the study group could develop an action plan. This involves developing a strategy and identifying an activity or activities that could help improve biodiversity. The nature of the activities will obviously depend on the context and particular issues associated with the site. Examples of an Action Plan include: •

Establish a weed removal program



Implement a native plant revegetation program



Establish fencing and plant some trees to protect a sensitive area and help natural rehabilitation Where appropriate, develop an action plan that will address one or more issues identified by the audit, with the goal of improving biodiversity health.

The following steps should be incorporated into an action plan developed by the students. 1. Assign priorities (high, medium, low) to the environmental issues identified from the audit. 2. Identify which of these issues would likely be of the greatest benefit in improving biodiversity health and habitat quality, and which are achievable and appropriate for the school or group. 3. Identify partners in implementing the action plan 4. Outline the short, medium and long-term actions that will be undertaken. Specify ownership, dates and details of the activities (including resource requirements and expenses). 5. Identify strategies for assessing the success of the action plan. E.g. schedule annual biodiversity audits, re-assess habitat quality assessment score sheets. 6. Identify ongoing maintenance requirements (e.g. maintaining mulch levels, hollow legs as shelter for small mammals, fence maintenance, revegetation program). Reinforce commitment by including the action plan in forward planning documents, such as operational plans, year level programs, future building plans, etc.

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Step 5 – Develop an action plan

Step 6 – Communicate the data 8 Communicating the findings and evaluation of the results is a key component of the audit. It addresses the Science Inquiry Skills sub-strand Communicating of the Australian Curriculum: Science. For example: • Year 7 & 8: Communicate ideas, findings and solutions to problems using scientific language and representations using digital technologies as appropriate • Yrs 9 & 10: Communicate scientific ideas and information for a particular purpose, including constructing evidence-based arguments and using appropriate scientific language, conventions and representations The audit findings can be communicated in a variety of ways that demonstrate an understanding. Suggested formats include: •

Scientific report



Digital story



Poster presentation



Slide presentation



Movie / documentary

15

These methods are a good way for students to demonstrate their understanding of issues of local biodiversity. Students can make their own digital story about the area they studied. Some examples of digital stories created about Backyard Explorer audits can be seen on the Queensland Museum Backyard Explorer (1 above) website . Decide the format of presentations and/or reports.

8

!

Sharing scientific information is very important in building knowledge and awareness of important issues in our community. Consider communicating the biodiversity audit to a wider audience, such as school and community newsletters or the local newspaper. Identify to whom the findings should be communicated. For example, are their particular stakeholders (e.g. land owners, environmental management organisations, local government) that should be informed.

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Digital stories are mini-documentaries., such as the need for habitats for animals. Free software can be downloaded from: Microsoft Photo Story 3 . An alternative program is Photo Movie Theater. Page 37 of 52 – v2 – December 2012

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Step 5 – Develop an action plan

! The results of your biodiversity audit may be useful to other groups, since they could compare the data from their audit with yours. For example, a nearby school might be researching a similar habitat or similar research question, or a group may be studying the same site at a later time and a change over time could be investigated. The audit spreadsheets will be available for review and download on the web2.0 document sharing site Google Docs at . You can also view where audits have previously been conducted by viewing the Google map . Each of the place markers contains a summary of information about the audit, and a link to the Excel data file.

Google map displaying location of Bayard Explorer audits

Popup box displaying audit summary revealed after clicking on a place-marker on the BE Google map. Page 38 of 52 – v2 – December 2012

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Step 5 – Develop an action plan

To share the data: 1. Save your data collation tool spreadsheet using the following naming convention: ‘YYYY-MM-Location-Organisation for example: 2012-10-Mytown-SchoolnameSS.xls’ 2. Send this email to: [email protected].

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Glossary

Glossary Bio-indicator Often called bio-indicator species. An animal or group of animals that are sensitive to changes in ecosystems e.g. certain frogs. Carnivore An animal that eats another animal e.g. spider. Consumers Living things that feed on other living things. Ecosystems Observing ecosystems is the main way the environment is studied. Ecosystems are groups of living things, the physical factors that affect their survival and any interactions, and can be as small as puddles. Food chain Diagram of relationships in an ecosystem as a single pathway e.g. leaves (tree) bug spider. Food web Diagram of feeding relationships in an ecosystem as interconnecting food chains. Shows animals often have many food sources, e.g. leaves (tree) spider bird bug grasshopper Habitat Place of a living thing. Contains all an organism’s requirements and factors that affect survival

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e.g. insects live in schoolyard habitats.

Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths), Coleoptera (beetles).

Herbivore An animal that eat plants e.g. grasshopper.

pH A scale from 1–14, measured using universal indicator. Acids have a low pH (1–6). Bases have a high pH (8–14). Water is neutral, pH 7.

Humus Pieces of decayed animal and plant matter in the soil that affect the soil’s physical factors including water-holding capacity, nutrients and pH. Microhabitat A specific part of a habitat e.g. leaves of a tree. Niche Role of an organism in an ecosystem e.g. seed-eating ground-living parrot. Producers Plants are producers, not consumers. They make food in a chemical reaction called photosynthesis, which uses the energy of the sun, and carbon dioxide and water. Pyramid of numbers A graph of the numbers of living things in a food chain or web. It resembles a pyramid because the numbers of living things decrease at high trophic levels. Omnivore An animal that eats plants and animals e.g. Honeyeater. Order Classification group widely used in insect identification e.g.

Physical factor A non-living factor that affects the survival of living things e.g. temperature. Able to be measured. Quadrat A plastic or wire square, area 2 2 from 100 cm –10 m . Size used depends on the size of the habitat to be sampled e.g. 100 cm to count crab holes. 2

Transect A rope line marked at regular intervals, such as every 5 m. Used to sample an ecosystem e.g. for the number and type of plants.

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Appendices

Appendix A - Resources Traps - Australian Entomological Supplies Available at: . - Malaise Traps from Sante Traps Available at:

Insect specimens - Australian Insect Farm. Available at: - Mt Glorious Butterflies

Recommended books - Brisbane City Council (2005) Terrestrial Invertebrate Status Review: Brisbane City. Queensland Museum: Brisbane. Available at: . - Queensland Museum (2007) Wildlife of Greater Brisbane: A Queensland Museum Wild Guide. Brisbane: Queensland Museum. - Department of the Environment and Water Resources (2007) About Australia’s Native Vegetation. Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia. Available at: . - Garden, J.G. et al. (2006) Review of the ecology of Australian urban fauna: A focus on spatially explicit processes. Austral Ecology, 31, p126–148 - Garden, J.G. et al. (2007) Habitat structure is more important than vegetation composition for locallevel management of native terrestrial reptile and small mammal species living in urban remnants: A case study from Brisbane, Australia. Austral Ecology, 32, p669–685. Queensland Museum Guides: • Ants of Brisbane • Backyard Insects of Brisbane • Birds of Brisbane • Freshwater Fishes of the Greater Brisbane Region

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• Frogs of South East Queensland • Raptors of Southern Queensland • Snakes of South East Queensland • Spiders of the Greater Brisbane Region • Wild Plants of Greater Brisbane • Wildlife of Tropical North Queensland Available at: .

Invertebrate identification - CSIRO Key to Invertebrates (Identification key to orders of Australian insects). Available at: (Accessed on 12 July 2012). - What Bug is That? (TRIN/ CSIRO). Keys to families of Australian insects. Available at: (Accessed on 12 July 2012). - Bugwise Invertebrate Identification Guide (Australian Museum)

Recommended websites - Atlas of Living Australia. Repository of biodiversity and species information in Australia. Includes tools to map, analyse and visualise biodiversity and environmental data and trends, and access tools to help track changes in biodiversity and the environment. (Accessed on 12 July 2012). - Forests Australia. Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics and Sciences. Information on Australia' s forests: publications, maps and tools, including an online tool that displays the distribution of major vegetation cover types in Australia. . - Conservation of Australia’s Biodiversity. Information about biodiversity from the Commonwealth Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and

Communities Conservation of Australia' s biodiversity. (Accessed 12 July 2012). - Department of the Environment and Heritage (2006) Major Vegetation Groups in Australia: information for natural resource managers, schools and researchers. Available at: .

Queensland Museum Learning Resources: - Backyard Explorer available at: (Accessed 6 July 2012). - Shared data from other biodiversity audits: Google Docs at . Location of these audits sites on public Google map: . Each of the place markers contains a summary of information about the audit, and a link to the Excel data file. - All about Queensland Animals. Available at: (Accessed 6 July 2012) - Loan kits to support onject-based and inquiry-based learning. - Teaching resources - Queensland Museum (2007) Science Skills: How to name habitats. Available at: - Queensland Museum (2007) Science Skills: How to sample mangrove habitats. Available at: .

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Appendices

Appendix B - Vegetation structure (habitat type) Method: Mark out a 10 m x 10 m quadrat, and within that area: 1. Identify the structure of the vegetation (also referred to as habitat in this document) by: a. Estimating the height of the tallest tree or shrub. Use the person as a reference to estimate tree height by having a person of known height standing next to the tree. Record the data. b. Estimating canopy cover. Canopy cover is equal to the percentage of your quadrat under shade. For example, 70% shade means 70% canopy cover. This method works well in Queensland when the sun is directly overhead from 10am to 2pm. Record this data. 2. Use Table 2 to identify the vegetation structure. Table 2 Types of vegetation structure

3. The vegetation type can also be described in more detail by including the dominant land cover genus of the uppermost or dominant vegetation layer. In this case, identify the common plant group genus (for example, Avicennia or Eucalyptus) using a key or handbook. 4. Combine this with the structure (point 2) to name the habitat. For example, vegetation in which the most common tall plant is Avicennia, growing to at least 10 m high, with a 60% canopy, can be described as— ‘Avicennia open forest’. Also refer to the National Vegetation Information System (NVIS) information 16 framework for a standardised classification system for describing structural patterns of Australian plants , and the Victorian Department of Sustainability and the Environment for a list of 20 ‘Simplified Native 17 Vegetation Groups’ .

16

On the Australian Natural Resources Atlas website , follow the navigation path— Natural resource topics » Vegetation and biodiversity » NVIS framework. 17 ON the DSE website , follow the navigation path: DSE Home > Conservation & Environment > Native Vegetation Groups for Victoria > Simplified Native Vegetation Groups. Also refer to page 16 of Biodiversity up Close. Page 42 of 52 – v2 – December 2012

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Layer Medium to tall tree (10-20m) Low trees (2-10m) Tall woody shrubs (multi-stemmed shrubs). Low shrubs (