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Forum Carpaticum 2012: From Data to Knowledge – from Knowledge to Action. Proceedings. Editor: Martin Boltižiar Published online at: www.forumcarpaticum.org by Institute of Landscape Ecology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Branch Nitra Akademická 2, 94901 Nitra, Slovakia Citation: Author(s) name(s) and title of paper. 2012. In: Forum Carpaticum 2012: From Data to Knowledge – from Knowledge to Action. Proceedings. Boltižiar, M. (Ed.). Nitra: Institute of Landscape Ecology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Branch Nitra, 2012. pp. x-y. ISBN 978-80-89325-24-5 Front page: Elżbieta Laszczak, Dominik Kaim, Katarzyna Ostapowicz, Martin Boltižiar Photos: Martin Boltižiar, Natalia Kolecka ISBN: 978-80-89325-24-5 © Institute of Landscape Ecology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Branch Nitra, 2012

FORUM CARPATICUM 2012: From Data to Knowledge - from Knowledge to Action. Proceedings.

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Table of contents Alexandru BĂNICĂ, Marinela ISTRATE SMALL TOWNS IN THE ROMANIAN CARPATHIANS – PERIPHERAL SPACES SEARCHING FOR THEIR URBAN IDENTITY…………………………...………………………………………………. 3

Amanda R. EGAN, William S. KEETON, Cecilia M. DANKS, Ihor SOLOVIY ASSESSING CAPACITY FOR COMMUNITY-BASED FOREST CARBON PROJECTS IN THE CARPATHIAN REGION, UKRAINE……………………………………………………………... 7 Anna GAZDA, Stanisław MIŚCICKI, Kazimierz CHWISTEK RICH, RICHER, RICHEST?: BIOMASS AND TREE SPECIES DIVERSITY IN NATURAL FOREST OF THE WESTERN CARPATHIANS VERSUS NATURAL LOWLAND FOREST AT BIAŁOWIEŻA……………………………………………………………………………………………. 11 Žiga MALEK, Dagmar SCHRÖTER, Anthony PATT IDENTIFICATION OF CHANGES TO ECOSYSTEM SERVICES IN THE SUBCARPATHIANS OF BUZĂU COUNTY IN ROMANIA……………………………………………………………………..... 15

Alexander MKRTCHIAN RELATIONS BETWEEN LAND SURFACE MORPHOMETRY AND SPECTRAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ECOSYSTEMS IN THE UKRAINIAN CARPATHIANS ……………….…. 19 Jiří NOVÁK, Marian SLODIČÁK, Dušan KACÁLEK, David DUŠEK DECIDUOUS TREE SPECIES AFFECT NUTRIENT CYCLING COMPARED TO NORWAY SPRUCE – A POSSIBLE SOLUTION TO AMELIORATE FOREST SOIL UNDER DECLINING SPRUCE MONOCULTURES……………………………………………………………………………… 23

Maria PAKOZDIOVA, Antonin VAISHAR SOCIAL-GEOGRAPHICAL COMPARISON OF PERIPHERAL REGIONS IN EASTERN MORAVIA (CZ) AND BANAT (RO)……………………………………………………………………...… 27

Anatoliy SMALIYCHUK PRESENT AND FUTURE LAND COVER CHANGES IN THE LANDSCAPES OF THE UKRAINIAN CARPATHIANS ON THE LOCAL SCALE…………………………………..….. 31


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SMALL TOWNS IN THE ROMANIAN CARPATHIANS – PERIPHERAL SPACES SEARCHING FOR THEIR URBAN IDENTITY Alexandru BĂNICĂ, Marinela ISTRATE PhD, scientific researcher, Romanian Academy, Iași Branch, Iasi, 700505, Romania PhD, lecturer, “Alexandru Ioan Cuza“ University, Iași,700505, Romania Corresponding author's email: [email protected]

Introduction In Romania, traditional geographic identities are optimally configured at high and medium altitudes – mainly in Carpathian and Subcarpathian regions (Popa, 2000). Before 1989, the mountains were, on one hand, more or less, far away from collectivization, lacking large cultivated areas, but, on the other hand, they were victims of communist industrialization that exploited local resources beyond their carrying capacity. The Carpathian small towns were highly disadvantaged by a regime that promoted a highly hierarchical settlement system where decisions and financial resources came from the top down (Borsa et al., 2009). The peripheral position made them lose their main territorial role: market places and services providers for the rural area. The only sign of development and centrality, the industrial investments most frequently created „one factory towns” highly vulnerable to environmental degradation and to the later political and socialeconomical turmoil. We can state that, isolated towns generally have lower (economic, infrastructural) performance than those surrounded by other urban localities which benefit from the employment opportunities related to the delocalized activities of the bigger city. On the other hand, isolation in relation to bigger cities is seen by some authors (Zamfir, 2009) as an advantage favoring the manifestation of the relay function between rural and urban settlements, but also the conservation of the local identities and natural heritage. Materials and methods There were taken into account 59 small towns situated in the Romanian Carpathian area and having a population of less than 20,000 inhabitants. The main working hypothesis was that there is a direct relation between the peripheral position of small towns and the current identity crisis they face. We also wondered whether peripheral position can be an advantage for small towns – when it provides conditions for making them local development poles and for keeping their own identity. The first stage in our approach was an extensive literature review and data collecting. It was followed by the establishing of a set of indicators in order to highlight the demographic, social, economic and environmental evolution of


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Romanian small Carpathian towns in the last 20 years. The cartographic representation of these indicators was made using the multi-criteria analysis for drawing urban typologies in population growth and social-economic identities. There were taken into account six indicators available for the reference period 19902009: three illustrating the economic performance (no. of firms/1000 inhabitants, no. of employees/total population and the total turnover of firms), two the housing quality (number of built houses between and percent of modernized streets) and one the general demographic evolution (the population growth rate). Secondly, we made a distinction between isolation from all the other towns and remoteness from higher rank towns (Portnov, 2004). Urban location is a function of remoteness from the major population centers, but the vicinity to other urban localities is also important. It provides the index of isolation which, in our case, takes into consideration the urban population 30 km around the small towns. The report between isolation and remoteness (i.e. the road distance to the closest town having at least 50000 inhabitants) was named the index of clustering. The relation between the peripheralization indexes and the values urban development indicators was assessed using the statistical correlation and standard deviation. Results and discussions Although situated in the centre of Romania, the Carpathians remain the most peripheral area of the country as the accessibility and the connectivity to the rest of the settlement system is the weakest. The most spatially peripheral small towns lie in the mountainous area of the Eastern and Western Carpathians (Borsec, Sovata, Broșteni, Vașcău, Nucet), sometimes at the border (Moldova Nouă, Anina). Meanwhile the position in a “less-advantaged” area is a mark of town's peripherisation. On the contrary the most central seem to be the towns near Brașov (Ghimbav, Râșnov), Baia Mare (Baia Sprie) or Râmnicu Vâlcea (Olănești, Călimănești). However because of this position, they are sometimes absorbed and transformed into large dormitories of the labour forcewith no actual identity, which is also a form of peripheralisation. In this case the territorial competition for attracting population and economic activities is not favorable to small towns. There are also localities integrated in urban networks with different functional profiles such as tourist (Prahova Valley) or mining (Petroşani Depression). The mono-industrial character of the latter and the decline of the mining industry joined to the incapacity of central and local authorities led to a lack of a sustainable solution, and to the profound loss of urban features. Correlating peripheralisation and the socio-economic indicators analysed before, it is obvious that small Carpathian towns that are close to other urban poles are advantaged as their population has access to jobs and benefits from periurbanization - by receiving both firms that relocate their headquarters and population moving from neighbour cities (Fig.1).


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DISTANCE TO THE CLOSEST TOWNS WITH MORE THAN 50000 INHAB. 1-10 km

NO. OF MEAN TOWNS POPULATION

1

ICSD 1

2

ICSD 2

3

ICSD 3

4

ICSD 4

5

ICSD 5

6

ICSD 6

7

ICSD 7

UP30KM

IC

2

10997

31.00

12.76

38.10

15.17

64953.49 58686.65 39.29

10.71

16.14

5.98

-7.02

0.67

0.97

0.05

287200.00

28720.00

11-20 km

5

9486

22.40

5.21

22.31

7.41

11834.26

55.52

25.05

19.67

8.70

-9.27

13.17

18.47

22.16

183301.60

9403.52

21-30 km

9

76423

21.40

10.56

20.97

6.82

10796.57 10350.78 59.84

24.33

34.82

38.10

-13.52

9.04

13.99

21.70

112284.56

4371.27

31-40 km

12

10016

23.03

9.82

24.56

11.50

13879.24 16480.62 50.39

17.18

22.43

8.35

-8.18

8.95

7.73

20.91

28083.42

826.16

41-60 km

13

10187

25.83

10.94

24.57

6.68

13400.85 11144.00 57.49

25.71

32.85

28.76

-12.72

15.25

14.01

20.33

16709.77

326.75

61-80 km

10

8443

20.00

6.95

25.03

11.57

10657.93

9625.19

42.01

21.95

22.03

7.84

-12.13

4.27

0.77

1.01

20018.60

274.98

81-116 km

8

9778

22.17

6.71

27.43

14.50

11083.97

5494.53

58.49

27.70

14.52

5.68

-13.43

13.94

5.53

6.92

11225.25

121.33

7223.61

1 – number of firms/1000 inhab.; 2 – percent of working people from total population; 3- average turnover/inhab.; 4 – percent of modernized streets in 2006; 5 – No. of houses built 1990-2007/total population; 6 - population growth rate 1990-2007; 7 – tourist function rate 2007; ICSD – intra-class standard deviation; UP30 – urban population on a radius of 30 km; IC – Clustering index

Fig.1 Correlation between peripheral position and actual socio-economic identity in the case of Romanian Carpathian small towns Being close to a big city (1-10 km) without having a good quality of urban facilities does not ensure a high level of social welfare. They are often peripheries from the viewpoint of technical infrastructure and they do not have the capacity of competing against big centers considering tourist structures’ attractiveness. Meanwhile, the isolated (61-80 km) and very isolated (80-116 km) small towns are often confronted with great economic issues (although they sometimes have high employment rates) and disadvantaged by depopulation and weak local capacity for investments in housing, but some try to compensate this by investing in transport infrastructure. When it comes to the urban infrastructure the most dynamic are the towns situated at small-medium distances (20-30 km) from other urban poles, being also those with the greatest number of recently built houses and the greatest percentage of modernized streets. Carpathian small towns situated at medium-long distances from bigger towns (40-60 km), sometimes important tourist resorts, with competitive firms employing an important share of the population, are dynamic when considering the number of recently built houses. Local authorities have to take into account both the possible outcomes of peripheralization and the importance of balancing the benefits of the newly acquired affiliation to European Union space and the preservation of


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their own identity, whether it refers to cultural and historical features, urban-like image, ethnography or natural environment. Conclusions The peripheral situation of the Carpathians and the low accesibility of the small mountain towns are important factors that shape urban identities. Our hypotheses were partially confirmed: the Carpathian small towns are sometimes disadvantaged because of their peripheral position as they are far from other towns or cities and therefore poorly connected to the general flows of the urban system. The fact is transposed in small budgets, a certain lack of opportunities, unemployment, emigration, ageing population, decline of small local business and service activities, lack of investments in houses and urban utilities, poverty and environmental degradation. The lack of capital resources transforms decentralization from an opportunity to affirm one’s own identity into a heavy burden that deepens the peripheralization of small mountain towns by distancing even more the least integrated territories. Nevertheless, sometimes isolation from other urban localities preserves urban identity, helps keeping a clean environment, sustainably valuating the tourist potential and transforming small towns in true development centers by coagulating rural energies. Especially when former traditions exist, small towns can take the lead in a supra-local context when being a part of local action groups or coordinating natural and human heritage protection.

References Borsa, M (coord.), 2009. Visions and Strategies in the Carpathian Area (VASICA), Carpathian Project, UNEP, Vienna Gál, Z.,Rácz (ed.), 2008. Socio-Economic Analysis of the Carpathian Area (discussion papers), Centre for Regional Studies of Hungarian Academy of Science, Pécs Popa, N., 2000. Identitate, teritorialitate și prestigiu cultural in spațiul românesc in “Regionalism si Integrare. Cultura. Spatiu. Dezvoltare” A IV a Conferința regionala de geografie, Timișoara, 12-14 mai 2000, Timișoara-Tubingen-Angers, Brumar Portnov, B, 2004. Long-term growth of small towns in Israel. Does location matter? The Annals of Regional Science, Springer-Verlag, 38 (4), pp. 627-653 Turnock, D, 2006. The Romanian Carpathians under Communism: The Changing Significance of a mountain region, Review of Historical Geography and Toponomastics, vol. 1, no. 2, 2006, pp. 157-206 Zamfir, D., Talângă, C., Stoica I. V., 2009. Romanian small towns searching for their identity. Journal of Urban and Regional Analysis, 1(1), pp. 41-53 ***AALFE (Accesul autoritaților locale la fondurile europene), Research made by ICCV, INS si CERME, 2009


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ASSESSING CAPACITY FOR COMMUNITY-BASED FOREST CARBON PROJECTS IN THE CARPATHIAN REGION, UKRAINE Amanda R. EGAN1, William S. KEETON1, Cecilia M. DANKS1, Ihor SOLOVIY2 1 Rubenstein School of Environment and Natural Resources, University of Vermont, USA 2 Institute of Ecological Economics, Ukrainian National Forestry University, Ukraine Email: [email protected] Introduction In recent years forest carbon projects have increasingly been used as marketbased tools to mitigate climate change under the voluntary carbon market and the Kyoto Protocol’s flexible mechanisms (Clean Development Mechanism and Joint Implementation). Forest carbon projects can help defray the costs of forest conservation and protection by paying for carbon storage. While the primary goal of forest carbon projects is to offset and decrease carbon dioxide emissions, there are many co-benefits, such as maintenance and enhancement of biodiversity, watershed protection, trans-boundary cooperation, and community development. Since forest carbon projects are often implemented in rural resourcedependent areas (Boyd, Gutierrez, & Chang, 2007), it is important to understand how they will affect neighboring communities to ensure that issues of equity and livelihood are properly addressed. Forest carbon projects have tended to be topdown initiatives (Boyd, et al., 2007; Petheram & Campbell, 2010); however, experience from previous forest conservation schemes has shown that local communities should have a voice in projects to ensure long term success. Projects that do not incorporate local participation in the decision-making process can lead to a feeling of mistrust of the project developer among local communities (Asquith, Vargos Rio, & Smith, 2002), putting the project goals at risk. Moreover, studies have shown that forest management and protection by local communities can be effective, while simultaneously providing greater social benefits than strictly protected areas that exclude communities (Bray et al., 2008; Gibson, Williams, & Ostrom, 2005). Robust consideration of community impacts and benefits in a forest carbon project could also provide access to a different segment of buyers who are interested in such co-benefits (Diaz, Hamilton, & Johnson, 2011), increasing the project’s competitiveness on the market. In order for forest carbon projects to be equitable, the full range of costs and benefits to communities must be considered. This includes costs and benefits related to forest tenure and access, livelihoods, traditional forest use, well-being, and cultural identity. Proper institutional mechanisms should be in place to facilitate public participation in the project design phase to take into account community


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preferences. Project benefits must exceed costs and be acceptable to local communities. Perceived inequity in benefit distribution can affect the long-term sustainability of projects, as those who perceive themselves as disadvantaged may resist implementation (Pagiola, Landell-Mills, & Bishop, 2002, p. 282). The Ukrainian Carpathian region’s post-socialist, transitional economy has strong potential for forest sector investment, yet there is little experience with forest carbon projects or public participation in forest management planning. The forests of western Ukraine are currently a carbon sink, absorbing more carbon dioxide than they are emitting, primarily due to abandonment of agricultural land and recovery from a history of intensive forest use (Kuemmerle et al., 2011). Carbon sequestration rates in the Carpathian region can be maintained and possibly increased with improved forest management practices (Keeton et al., In press; Kuemmerle, et al., 2011). Protection of high conservation value forests, restoration of endemic species composition, extended rotations, and structural retention offer opportunities for continued accumulation or maintenance of high levels of aboveground biomass and carbon (Keeton et al., 2010). Farmland abandonment in the post-socialist transition period offers opportunities for reforestation (Kuemmerle et al., 2008) and further increases in carbon sequestration and storage. Developing forest carbon projects in the Carpathian region could provide opportunities to mitigate carbon emissions, incentivize restoration and sustainable forest management, and produce revenue in an economically depressed rural area (Kuemmerle, et al., 2011). To assess the capacity of community-based forest carbon projects in this region, this study seeks to answer the following questions: 1. How might forest use and tenure rights for community members in the Ukrainian Carpathian Mountains change with forest carbon projects? 2. How can local communities and forest administrative units share in project benefits? Materials and methods Data were collected through triangulation of interviews, and direct and participant observations to inform two case studies. The first study area is located in the Skole district of Lvivs’ka oblast, where a project to maintain and perhaps increase carbon sequestration rates through improved forest management techniques would be appropriate. The second study area is in the Tyachiv district of Zakarpatts’ka oblast, near currently unprotected high conservation value forest, appropriate for a reduced deforestation and degradation project. One-on-one, semi-standardized interviews were conducted with community members, forestry professionals, and academics. Interview questions were open-ended and focused on forest uses and tenure rights; how communities access the forest; changes in forest use, tenure, and access over the past several generations; interactions between community members


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and State Forestry Enterprise representatives; knowledge of the role of forests in climate change; potential for forest carbon projects in the region (benefits, obstacles); revenue distribution mechanisms; and forestry-related organizations and organizational networks. Results and discussion While this research is still in progress, preliminary results indicate that forest carbon projects could be compatible with current tenure rights and forest uses; however, efforts should be made during the project design phase to ensure that traditional forest uses may continue. Forests in Ukraine are over 95% state-owned (Soloviy & Cubbage, 2007) with open access on those forests not under protective status. It is prohibited for community members to cut trees, though collection of nontimber forest products (NTFP) for personal use is allowed. A forest ticket must be obtained in order to collect NTFP for sale. Local communities are dependent on local forest resources for a variety of needs, such as fuel wood, timber and other wood products, food, household uses, and recreation. The forest also contributes to many community members’ sense of identity. If community members are completely restricted from the project area and cannot continue their traditional forest activities, particularly the collection of mushrooms, berries, and other food products that contribute to dietary needs year round, they are unlikely to support the project. Based on our results, the most significant challenge to a forest carbon project is local fuel wood needs. Many forest communities in Ukraine do not have access to natural gas and must use fuel wood for heating and cooking. Currently, fuel wood must be purchased from the local State Forestry Enterprise, though interview participants report the cost is expensive and it can take a long time to receive the wood. This prompts some to turn to illegal fuel wood procurement. A forest carbon project must be able to provide fuel wood to local community members in an inexpensive and efficient manner to eliminate the attractiveness of illegal procurement. Many interview participants see potential benefits from forest carbon projects, including forest protection, possible employment, and the strengthening of a nascent green tourism industry. There is no current mechanism that would equitably distribute revenue from a forest carbon project to local communities, but one could be developed. Interview participants were skeptical that community members would receive direct payments from a project and believed it is more likely that payments would go to the local forest administrators or to village budgets to be used for sustainable development. For this to happen, however, the details of benefit distribution must be explicitly stated in the project contract. Transparency and monitoring of benefit distribution will be important for stakeholders to believe that the revenue is distributed as stated. While local communities are typically not actively engaged in forest management decision-making in Ukraine, they are concerned with the condition and


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future state of their local forests and the resources that they provide. There is some practical experience of community involvement in forest management land use planning around nature reserves and in several areas in Zakarpatts’ka oblast that could be used to inform community-based forest carbon projects. Integrating communities into forest carbon projects in the Ukrainian Carpathians would not only increase the likelihood of project success, but could also assist in creating a cultural shift in how communities are involved in forest management more broadly. Acknowledgement Funding provided by the United States Fulbright Program, the Trust for Mutual Understanding, and the University of Vermont. References Asquith, N. M., Vargos Rio, M. T., & Smith, J. (2002). Can forest-protection carbon projects improve rural livelihoods? Analysis of the Noel Kempff Mercado Climate Action Project, Bolivia. Mitigation & Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, 7, 323-337. Boyd, E., Gutierrez, M., & Chang, M. (2007). Small-scale forest carbon projects: Adapting CDM to low-income communities. Global Environmental Change, 17, 250-259. Bray, D. B., Duran, E., Ramos, V. H., Mas, J.-F., Velazquez, A., McNab, R. B., et al. (2008). Tropical deforestation, community forests, and protected areas in the Maya forest. Ecology and Society, 13(2), 56. Diaz, D., Hamilton, K., & Johnson, E. (2011). State of the forest carbon markets 2011: From canopy to currency. Washington, D.C.: Ecosystem Marketplace. Gibson, C. C., Williams, J. T., & Ostrom, E. (2005). Local enforcement and better forests. World Development, 33(2), 273-284. Keeton, W. S., Angelstam, P., Baumflek, M., Bihun, Y., Chernyavskyy, M., Crow, S. M., et al. (In press). Sustainable forest management alternatives for the Carpathian Mountain region, with a focus on Ukraine. Forum Carpaticum: Integrating nature and society toward sustainability: Springer-Verlag. Keeton, W. S., Chernyavskyy, M., Gratzer, G., Main-Knorn, M., Shpylchak, M., & Bihun, Y. (2010). Structural characteristics and aboveground biomass of old-growth spruce-fir stands in the eastern Carpathian Mountains, Ukraine. Plant Biosystems, 144, 1-12. Kuemmerle, T., Hostert, P., Radeloff, V. C., van derLinden, S., Perzanowski, K., & Kruhlov, I. (2008). Cross-border comparison of post-socialist farmland abandonment in the Carpathians. Ecosystems, 11, 614-628. Kuemmerle, T., Olofsson, P., Chaskovskyy, O., Baumann, M., Ostapowicz, K., Woodcock, C. E., et al. (2011). Post-Soviet farmland abandonment, forest recovery, and carbon sequestration in western Ukraine. Global Change Biology, 17(3), 1335-1349. Pagiola, S., Landell-Mills, N., & Bishop, J. (2002). Making market-based mechanisms work for forests and people. In S. Pagiola, J. Bishop & N. Landell-Mills (Eds.), Selling forest environmental services: Market-based mechanisms for conservation and development (pp. 261-289). London: Earthscan. Petheram, L., & Campbell, B. M. (2010). Listening to locals on payments for environmental services. Journal of Environmental Management, 91(5), 1139-1149. Soloviy, I. P., & Cubbage, F. W. (2007). Forest policy in aroused society: Ukrainian postOrange Revolution challenges. Forest Policy and Economics, 10(1-2), 60-69. FORUM CARPATICUM 2012: From Data to Knowledge - from Knowledge to Action. Proceedings.

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RICH, RICHER, RICHEST?: BIOMASS AND TREE SPECIES DIVERSITY IN NATURAL FOREST OF THE WESTERN CARPATHIANS VERSUS NATURAL LOWLAND FOREST AT BIAŁOWIEŻA Anna GAZDA1, Stanisław MIŚCICKI2, Kazimierz CHWISTEK3, 1 Department of Botany and Nature Conservation, Forest Biodiversity Institute, University of Agriculture, Krakow, 31-425 Poland; 2 Department of Forest Management, Geomatics and Forest Economics, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Warsaw, 02-787 Poland; 3Gorce National Park, Niedźwiedź, 34-735 Poland; E-mail: [email protected] Abstract: The relationship between above-ground biomass and tree diversity is the most important question studied by a great many scientists, with respect to the carbon accumulation that the forests are capable of achieving, and also in regard to global climate changes (Szwagrzyk and Gazda 2007a, b). The work described here involved a comparison of the diversity and above-ground biomass of natural forests present in the Poland's Gorce Mountains (and specifically in the National Park of this name located in the Western Carpathians) to comparable data for the world-renowned lowland natural forest that is present in the Białowieża National Park. Specifically, the study sought to determine: (1) whether the above-ground biomass in natural forests correlates with tree-species diversity irrespective of the kind of forest (montane or lowland) (2) whether the relationship in question is positive or negative. Data were collected within 200-square-metre sample plots. The diameter at breast height (dbh) of all trees with girths of or exceeding 12 cm, was measured, as well as the tree heights. We calculated the number of tree species and Simpson’s index of tree species diversity and set values against the above-ground biomass for each plot of these natural forests. The number of tree species on a plot ranged from only one (mainly in spruce stands) to six (in mixed deciduous lowland forest stands). The above-ground accumulated biomass ranged from 6 to 1155 Mg ha-1 (average 251±13) within the Białowieża Forest, and from 2 to 849 Mg ha-1 (average 242±8) within the forest in the Gorce Mts. A positive relationship was found between above-ground biomass and tree species diversity in both the Białowieża Forest and the Gorce forest. In the latter, the curve describing this relationship started from a lower value and demonstrated more rapid increase than that for the Białowieża Forest. It is to be concluded from this study that there is a positive relationship between tree species diversity and above-ground biomass in natural forests both in the Western Carpathians and on the Polish Lowland.


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Introduction The issue of the relationship between the above-ground biomass and species diversity has been discussed for many years. Some researchers have regarded this as an inverse relationship, while others have found a positive relationship in the case of tree species, humped-back shaped processes, or at least U-shaped (unimodal) ones, or simply no relationship at all (Mittelbach et al., 2001, Szwagrzyk, Gazda 2007b, Whittaker 2010). Research conducted in Central Europe by Szwagrzyk and Gazda (2007a), relating to 24 mainly montane, lower montane and lowland natural forests, showed that the mean biomass per unit area in the Białowieża National Park (BNP) was one of the lowest, even as the diversity was the highest of all. This allowed us to advance the hypothesis, set out in the cited paper (Szwagrzyk and Gazda 2007a): that biomass in montane forest is bigger than in lowland forest. In line with the above hypothesis concerning bigger biomass in montane forest, it was suggested that the biggest biomass in the BNP is associated with the presence of pedunculate oak, and that in montane forests with the presence of silver fir. The aim of the present study was thus to test the several-element hypothesis that: the above-ground biomass in natural forests is correlated with tree-species diversity irrespective of the kind of forest, this relationship is a negative one, the above-ground biomass is bigger in montane forests than in lowland ones. Materials and methods Study areas To verify the above hypothesis we decided to compare natural forests in the BNP (area 4600 ha) and in the Gorce Mts NP (GNP; area 7000 ha). The lowland forest in the BNP (at an average altitude of 158 (range 148-171) m a.s.l.) is dominated by hornbeam, while the montane forest in the GNP (at an average altitude of 974 m a.s.l., in the range of 690-1270 m), which is located in the Western Carpathians, is dominated by European beech (at lower altitude) and Norway spruce (at higher altitude). In both objects dominate rich forest sites – in the BNP occupied mainly by neutral or alkaline brown earth originating from loamy sands and moraine clay, in the lower forest zone of the GNP occupied mainly by alkaline brown earth, and in the upper forest zone occupied mainly by podzolic or cryptopodzolic soils originating from the Carpathians flysch. Methods In the BNP 160 permanent sample plots were established, these forming a rectangular grid with a size of 267 × 1067 meters, with the shorter side oriented roughly to an 86° azimuth. The GNP in turn featured 398 permanent plots in a grid of 400 × 400 metres. Within each sample plot (of 200 square metres) the diameters at breast height were measured in the case of all trees with dbh values of 12 cm or more, along with tree heights. Dry masses for each tree were calculated using information on volume and average dry-wood weight (Krzysik 1974). The amount of dry mass


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accumulated by each species within a sample plot was then estimated. We calculated the number of tree species and Simpson’s index of tree species diversity as set against the above-ground biomass for each plot. On the basis of the proportional presences of different species, the Simpson’s index of species diversity D was calculated, using the formula: S

D  1   ( p i2 ) i 1

(where: pi is the proportion of species i within a sample plot and S is the number of species). Results and discussion The numbers of tree species on given plots ranged from just one (mainly in spruce stands) to six (in mixed deciduous lowland forest stands). Tree species composition on sample plots thus varied from the mono-specific (in 30% of cases in the case of GNP; 7.5% BNP) to multi-species (GNP – maximum five tree species; BNP – maximum six tree species). It was most typical for mono-specific stands in the GNP to be formed by spruce (19%) and beech (9%), while in the BNP the rather few plots with just a single species had hornbeam (in 2.5% of cases), birch (2%), spruce (2%), lime (0.6%) or black alder (0.6%). In the GNP 3 species out of 11 were abundant while in the BNP 8 out of 12. The latter sites were thus characterized by higher evenness between species, there being considerable diversity both within and among stands. The two forests were of similar significance as for the species richness (measured within all the plots). Above-ground biomass (dry mass) accumulations ranged from 2 to 849 Mg ha-1 (average 242±8, median 223) in the GNP and from 6 to 1155 Mg ha-1 (average 251±13, median 209) in the BNP. Values for Simpson’s index of species diversity varied from 0 (on 115 plots in the GNP and 12 in the BNP) to 0.66 (GNP) or 0.77 (BNP). The bigger the biomass, the higher the share of European beech Fagus sylvatica on sample plots in the montane forest, and of oak Quercus robur in the lowland forest. Species diversity was higher in the lowland natural forest than in montane forest, though biomass was only slightly bigger (Fig. 1). In the montane forest, the higher the altitude, the lower the species diversity. In parts of the forest located at highest altitudes, this was influenced by above-ground biomass mostly. Our work confirmed our first hypothesis, and failed to sustain the second and the third ones. This is to say that the above-ground biomass in natural forests is correlated with tree-species diversity (therefore irrespective of the kind of forest), but the relationship is a positive one, in contradiction to what we had anticipated. To understand much better the relationship between tree-species richness and productivity we should study the effects of different component variables (Körner 2007, Whittaker 2010, Zhang et al., 2012).


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Acknowledgements This work gained partial support from the Polish National Scientific Centre (grant NCN 2011/01/B/ST10/07615 to Anna Gazda and Kazimierz Chwistek), as well as the Ministry of Science and Higher Education (grant N N309 111937 to Stanisław Miścicki).

Simpson's species diversity index

0,45 0,4 0,35 0,3 0,25 0,2 biomass 50 Mg/ha

0,15

biomass 300 Mg/ha

0,1

biomass 500 Mg/ha biomass 700 Mg/ha

0,05

moving average (GPN)

0 0

200

400

600

800 1000 1200

Elevation (m a.s.l.)

Fig. 1. Relationship between values for Simpson's species diversity index, aboveground biomass and altitude; (moving average for Poland’s Gorce Mts National Park using 40-observation-series). References Körner Ch., 2007 The use of ‘altitude’ in ecological research, TREE 22: 569–574. Krzysik F., 1974. Wood science. PWN, Warszawa. (In Polish) Mittelbach G.G., Steiner C.F., Scheiner S.M., Gross K.L., Reynolds H.L., Waide R.B., Willig M.R., Dodson S.I., Gough L., 2001. What is the observed relationship between species richness and productivity? Ecology 82: 2381–2396. Szwagrzyk J., Gazda A., 2007a. Above-ground standing biomass and tree species diversity in natural stands of Central Europe. Journal of Vegetation Science 18: 555562. Szwagrzyk J., Gazda A., 2007b. Species diversity of trees and productivity of forest ecosystems. Wiad. Ekol. 53: 123-133. Whittaker R.J., 2010. Meta-analyses and mega-mistakes: calling time on meta-analysis of the species richness–productivity relationship. Ecology 91: 2522–2533. Zhang Y., Chen H.Y.H., Reich P.B., 2012. Forest productivity increases with evenness, species richness and trait variation: a global meta-analysis. Journal of Ecology 100: 742–749.


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IDENTIFICATION OF CHANGES TO ECOSYSTEM SERVICES IN THE SUBCARPATHIANS OF BUZĂU COUNTY IN ROMANIA Žiga MALEK1,2, Dagmar SCHRÖTER1, Anthony PATT1 1 International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, Laxenburg, 2361, Austria; 2 University of Vienna, Vienna 1010, Austria E-mail: [email protected] Introduction Human activities are diverse, with complex consequences that are sometimes hard to be explained. Applying the ecosystem services concept to describe the interactions in the human–environment system, helps us to identify human dependence on ecosystems, and also the role humans play in altering the environment. We depend on ecosystems for their services: benefits we obtain from them; like food, fuel and materials, but also a choice of other not so obvious services, such as formation of soils and water supply (Millenium Ecosystem Assessment 2005). The ecosystem services concept offers clear language to describe human-environment interactions in the case study of the Carpathians of Buzău County in Romania. The most important local ecosystem services in this mountain area are slope stabilisation and regulation of hydro-meteorological hazards, provided by forest cover (Swift et al. 2004; Körner et al. 2005). The interplay between constraining physical geographic characteristics and complex socio-economic development however resulted in complex land use changes that affected these ecosystem services. These have been manipulated to maximise one particular service, which can lead to unsustainable management and risks reducing other services (Schröter 2009). It can reduce their value for other uses and leads to conflicts between different stakeholders and degradation of multifunction landscapes (De Groot 2006). Materials and methods An analysis of past land use changes, together with proposing future land use scenarios, will enable us to examine the possible consequences to the provision of ecosystem services. The assessment of the current human-environment links in the Buzău County case study is our primary step and the aim of this submission. To successfully identify the changes to ecosystem services at the area, the link between the socio-economic setting and the physical-geographic characteristics needs to be established. The identification of main driving forces of land use changes follows. They are considered as one of the most important (past and future) changes to ecosystem services provisioning in Europe (Schröter et al. 2005).


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Physical and socio-economic setting of the case study area The case study area lies in Buzău County in the South-east of Romania. It is situated in the Buzău mountains, a part of the Carpathian Arch. It is characterized by a young and very dynamic relief of mountains, hills and depressions. The area is also defined by a dense river network, extensive flysch zones and steep slopes (the majority over 30 degrees). Forests cover around 70 % of the area. The yearly amount of precipitation in the area is between 630-700 mm, with torrential heavy summer rainfalls and spring showers overlapping snow melt in the Carpathians. Landslides cover large areas in the case study site, sometimes greater than two-thirds of the total area (Muică and Turnock 2009). One of the important characteristics of the case study area is the long history of intensely populated (from 90-150 pers/ km2) and cultivated areas, including large deforested areas. Hillslopes offered support for the spread of subsistence communities, as they are covered with relatively fertile landslide material (Muică and Turnock 2009). More intensive agriculture has developed on the Buzău terraces, as well as dense urban areas and important communication and transportation corridors (national road DN10 and railroad). Agriculture is an important part of the local economy, in some areas having a 40 % share; however it is declining in the share of local and national economy (MARDR 2010). Wood harvesting is also important, not only for processing, but also for fuel; as also mineral extraction (sulfids, iron…) and energy production (reservoir in Siriu). The steep and unstable slopes have always posed a risk for humans, their settlements and agricultural lands in form of various hazards: landslides, mudflows, flashfloods etc. This has forced the people to “living with the landslides” besides living on and near them. The fact, that they had to rebuild their houses almost every generation, suggests they were aware of the risk to landslides, however could not manage the land differently due to the natural limitations of the area. 30-40 % of agricultural land is subject to landslides, mudflows and erosion, however due to investments in housing and infrastructure, and the following rapid increase in elements at risk, the risk became more significant and a different approach to managing the land use pattern has become needed. Profound changes in land use due to socio-economic development and changes in property ownership in the area are expected in the next 30-40 years, and together with the effects of climate change the vulnerability of the area to hydro-meteorological hazards is about to increase (Micu 2011). Identification of drivers of changes to the provision of ecosystem services Main drivers of change are connected with the collapse of socialism, following profound changes in policy, economy and land management; these were exacerbated by Romania’s entry into the European Union, and the implementation of new agricultural and environmental policies with the access to European markets. According to Bălteanu and Popovici (2010) one of the most significant change in the period of transition was the extension of private property over agricultural and forest


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lands, which followed decollectivisation. Land reforms restored forest and agricultural land ownership in three phases, where the last one (following the 247/2005 restitution law) potentially enables to returning all the collectivized land to former owners (Parlamentul Romaniei 2005). While the agricultural land has mostly found its former owners (95.3% of all agricultural land in private ownership), the restitution of forests is still in progress (34.1% of all forests are private) (INSSE 2011). Decollectivisation resulted in the emergence of numerous small holdings, over 4,25 million farms nationwide with an average size of a private farm of 2,15 ha (MARDR 2010). The transition era in Romania was characterized by poor socio-economic conditions. Together with forest restitution this has resulted in the increase of pressure to forests. Large-scale clear-cutting is present although the government defines harvesting limits and the 1996 Forest Code promotes multifunctional forestry (Parlamentul Romaniei 1996). Illegal logging takes place mainly in smaller private forests, as the control there is not as successful as in the forest owned by the state (Kuemmerle et al. 2008). One of the consequences of the land ownership transfer and poor economic conditions is the increase in subsistence farming. Subsistence farms are usually owned by elderly and uneducated individuals (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development of Romania 2010). Whereas it can help maintaining the high biodiversity value in the Subcarpathians, it can also result in an increased pressure on landslide prone areas. On the other hand, land has been abandoned as there were no ownership taxes and due to emigration and the remoteness of hilly areas (Kuemmerle et al. 2008; Bălteanu and Popovici 2010). Discussion Recent socio-economic and political changes in Romania resulted in forests and agricultural land fragmentation, land abandonment and large deforested areas (Kuemmerle et al. 2008; Bălteanu and Popovici 2010). These can have multiple consequences for ecosystem services provisioning: e.g. negative effect on regulation of hydro-meteorological hazards or gradual loss of habitats. Analysing and modelling environmental changes, in this case land use changes, can provide researchers and decision makers with the information on how past land use changes could have resulted in negative effects. The question however remains, what type of information do the stakeholders need in order to prevent future negative consequences. We suggest that considering ecosystem services in land use management could lead to more successful maintenance of biodiversity levels and coping with hydro-meteorological hazards. Acknowledgement This work is a part of the CHANGES project (Changing hydro-meteorological risks – as Analysed by a New Generation of European Scientists), a Marie Curie Initial Training Network, funded by the European Community's 7'th Framework Programme FP7/2007-2013 under Grant Agreement No. 263953.


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References Bălteanu D., Popovici E-A., 2010. Land Use Changes and Land Degradation in Postsocialist Romania. Romanian Journal of Geography 54 (2). De Groot, R. 2006. Function-analysis and Valuation as a Tool to Assess Land Use Conflicts in Planning for Sustainable, Multi-functional Landscapes. Landscape and Urban Planning 75 (3-4): 175–186. INSSE. 2011. Institutul Naţional De Statistică, Romanian National Institute of Statistics Data Portal. http://www.insse.ro/cms/rw/pages/index.en.do. Körner C., Spehn E., Baron J., Ohsawa M., 2005. Mountain Systems. In Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Current State and Trends: Findings of the Condition and Trends Working Group of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, by Hassan R.M., Scholes R.J., Ash N. 681–716. Kuemmerle T., Müller D., Griffiths P., Rusu M., 2008. Land Use Change in Southern Romania After the Collapse of Socialism. Regional Environmental Change 9(1) Micu M., 2011. Landslide Assessment: From Field Mapping to Risk Management. A Case-Study in the Buzău Subcarpathians. Forum Geographic X (June 30) Millenium Ecosystem Assessment. 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: Synthesis. Washington, DC: Island Press. MARDR. Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development of Romania. 2010. National Rural Development Programme 2007-2013. Bucharest: Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development of Romania. Muică N., Turnock D., 2009. Historical geography of settlements in the Pătârlagele depression: The cartographic evidence from the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Romanian Journal of Geography 54 (1). Parlamentul Romaniei. 1996. Law No. 26/1996. The Forest Code. Monitorul Oficial. Official Journal of Romania. Parlamentul Romaniei. 2005. Law No. 247/2005 on Restitution of Properties. Monitorul Oficial. Official Journal of Romania. Schröter D., Cramer W., Leemans R., Prentice I.C., Araújo M.B., et al. 2005. Ecosystem Service Supply and Vulnerability to Global Change in Europe. Science 310, 1333 –1337. Schröter D. 2009. Our vulnerability to changes in ecosystem services. Vulnerability to changes in ecosystem services. In: Assessing Vulnerability To Global Environmental Change, Patt, Schröter, Klein, de la Vega-Leinert (eds.), Earthscan, UK and USA, pp. 258. Swift M.J., Izac A.-M.N., van Noordwijk M., 2004. Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services in Agricultural Landscapes—are We Asking the Right Questions? Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 104 (1) (September): 113–134.


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RELATIONS BETWEEN LAND SURFACE MORPHOMETRY AND SPECTRAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ECOSYSTEMS IN THE UKRAINIAN CARPATHIANS Alexander MKRTCHIAN I. Franko National University of Lviv, Lviv, 79000, Ukraine E-mail: [email protected] Introduction Spatial planning in mountainous areas requires the careful consideration of relations between abiotic conditions and various ecosystem properties. While detailed spatial databases of abiotic factors, as well as detailed ecological databases built on field data are still lacking for many regions, satellite data are the indispensable source of the spatially distributed detailed ecological information. Satellite data have a set of advantages, among which is the availability and accessibility of timely datasets and their low costs. However, satellite data mostly provides only indirect indicators and clues, posing a problem of correct and effective interpretation of data to derive ecologically meaningful and valuable information. Two major types of satellite data are of particular interest for the ecological studies: digital elevation models (DEMs) and multispectral images. DEMs are used for the characterization and analysis of land surface morphometry, allowing the calculation of topographic variables that make efficient predictors of habitat characteristics (Guisan, Zimmermann, 2000). The multispectral images allow analyzing the spectral characteristics of landscape that imply the vegetation cover structure, the composition and state of forest stands, as well as the land use structure. While there are plenty of studies concerning digital relief morphomerty analysis as well as the interpretation of multispectral image data, there is the lack of researches that aim at combined analysis and integration of these two types of data. Such an analysis will give insight into the spatial relations between the properties of land cover and vegetation and their abiotic environment. The aim of the present study is an analysis of these relationships for the study area, based on DEM and multispectral image data. Materials and methods The case study area is a 90*70 km rectangular region in the central part of the Ukrainian Carpathians. The diagonal of the rectangle roughly matches with the axis of the Carpathians arc, the study area encompassing parts of its northern and southern macroslopes and the surrounding foothill planes. The two freely available geospatial datasets have been used for the study: 90 m resolution SRTM v. 4.1 DEM (available on http://srtm.csi.cgiar.org) and LANDSAT 7 ETM+ image set with 8 spectral bands (available on http://glovis.usgs.gov). Landsat images were acquired FORUM CARPATICUM 2012: From Data to Knowledge - from Knowledge to Action. Proceedings.

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on May 02, 2000 and have been terrain-corrected (for the detailed metadata, look at glovis website). Upon downloading, the data were preprocessed to bring them into the common resolution and coordinate system. The analysis of the data consisted of two steps. In the first step, the principal component analysis has been applied to the set of LANDSAT 7 ETM+ image bands to isolate the three independent spatial components that together reveal the structure in the relationships between the land surface reflectance values in different wavelength ranges. The second step in analysis consisted in applying the canonical correlation analysis to analyze the relationships between these components and the set of topographic characteristic and indexes. The latter included the values of elevation, slopes, curvatures, as well as some process-related topographic indices: the Compound topographic index (CTI) introduced by Beven and Kirkby (1979) and related to the water drainage and redistribution in the landscape, the index of relief erosion potential (Mitasova et al. 1996), and the index of solar energy redistribution by local topography (Kumar et al. 1997). Results and discussion The first two principal components produced by the the principal component analysis together explain almost 94% of the total variance of the 8 spectral bands of the LANDSAT 7 ETM+ multispectral image. The first principal component shows pretty strong negative correlations with the most of the spectral bands, thus corresponding to the overall “brightness” of the surface. It also strongly correlates with elevation values, thus the increase in the surface elevation in the area is often accompanied by the decrease in its reflectivity. Visual analysis of its spatial structure and comparing it with the topographic maps reveal its strong positive relations with the presence and density of forest stands. It is also positively correlated with the slope values. The second component also negatively correlates with the elevation values, but its relations with other topographic characteristic and indexes are very different from the first component. This component appears to discriminate well between deciduous and coniferous forests. It also shows strong (r = 0.95) correlation with the well-known Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (Rouse et al., 1973), often used to indicate plant productivity and biomass. The second component also better differentiates between different anthropogenic land uses and land cover types. The third component shows very weak linear correlation with the topographic characteristic and indexes, yet the visual analysis has revealed that its high values strongly associate with the subalpic meadows. Canonical correlation analysis was used to analyze the relations between these components and the set of topographic characteristic and indexes. Most of the common variability in the two sets of variables has been explained by the first canonical root, strongly correlated with the elevation values. The second root positively correlates with the slope values and the mass movement potential and FORUM CARPATICUM 2012: From Data to Knowledge - from Knowledge to Action. Proceedings.

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negatively with the solar radiation influx. Each of the canonical roots can be conceived as describing some underlying "latent" variable that represents a kind of relationship reflected in an independent common spatial variation between the two sets. The correlations of canonical roots with topographic characteristic and indices are given in the Table. The analysis of the spatial distribution of the canonical factors scores and residuals can indicate the state of vegetation, the degree of its correspondence to abiotic factors and conditions, the character and degree of anthropogenic disturbances. Table 1. Canonical factor loadings Canonical roots Root 1 Topographical variables

Root 2

Root 3

Root 4

ELEVATION

-0.98

-0.023

0.194

-0.016

SLOPE

-0.523

-0.729

0.405

0.03

PLAN CURVATURE

-0.143

-0.135

-0.336

0.386

PROFILE CURVATURE

0.19

-0.012

0.224

0.583

CTI

0.256

0.268

-0.127

-0.084

EROSIVITY FACTOR

-0.226

-0.419

0.418

-0.271

SOLAR FACTOR

-0.06

0.649

0.632

0.034

The results of these study prove the existence of rather strong relations between the land surface morphometry and its spectral characteristics. These relations imply the more fundamental relations between ecosystem distribution and properties and abiotic conditions. The availability of spatially detailed satellite data makes it a useful tool for analyzing these relations, as well as the analyzing and monitoring of anthropogenic changes and disturbances in mountain ecosystems. While the present study mostly analyzes local dependencies, the inclusion of non-local measures (e.g., the averages and variances of variables calculated inside moving windows of variable sizes) and also texture measures can possibly provide more insights onto the spatial relations and structures in mountainous landscapes. References Beven K., Kirkby M.J., 1979. A physically based, variable contributing area model of basin hydrology. Bulletin of Hydrologic Sciences 24(1): 43–69. Guisan A., Zimmermann N.E., 2000. Predictive habitat distribution models in ecology. Ecological Modelling 135: 147–186. Kumar L., Skidmore A.K., Knowles E., 1997. Modelling topographic variation in solar radiation in a GIS environment. Int. J. for Geogr. Information Science 11(5): 475–497. FORUM CARPATICUM 2012: From Data to Knowledge - from Knowledge to Action. Proceedings.

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Mitasova H.J., Hofierka M., Zlocha R., Iverson L., 1996. Modeling topographic potential for erosion and deposition using GIS. Int. J. of Geogr. Information Science 10(5): 629–641. Rouse J.W., Haas R.H., Schell J.A., Deering D.W., 1973. Monitoring vegetation systems in the Great Plains with ERTS. Third ERTS Symposium, NASA SP-351(I): 309–317.


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DECIDUOUS TREE SPECIES AFFECT NUTRIENT CYCLING COMPARED TO NORWAY SPRUCE – A POSSIBLE SOLUTION TO AMELIORATE FOREST SOIL UNDER DECLINING SPRUCE MONOCULTURES Jiří NOVÁK, Marian SLODIČÁK, Dušan KACÁLEK, David DUŠEK Forestry and Game Management Research Institute, Opočno Research Station, Opočno, CZ 51773, Czech Republic E-mail: [email protected] Introduction Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) monocultures show symptoms of decline in health condition in the Moravsko-slezske Beskydy Mts. (Western Carpathians, Czech Republic). These monocultures were planted in the 4th (beech) and 5th (beech with fir) forest vegetation zones with prevailing beech and fir. In the natural species composition in these zones, Norway spruce was only admixed species. Main factors of spruce decline are nutrient disturbances (low values of base saturation), change of climatic conditions (higher temperature and lower precipitation during the vegetation period) and massive occurrence of fungi and bark beetle. There are several measures to change current status. For instance, the conversion of species composition is the most important of them. Techniques of stand conversion and thinning (for increasing stability before conversion) have been recommended (Slodičák et al., 2012). Recently recommended species compositions are oriented on soil-improving function. This study is focused on experiments with comparison of different tree species (lime – Tilia cordata Mill., larch – Larix decidua Mill., beech – Fagus sylvatica L.) and Norway spruce on the localities of the 4th and 5th forest vegetation zones. The aim was to analyse possible differences in soil characteristics (pH, Ca, Mg, base saturation) under stands of tested species. Materials and methods In total, three localities were included in the study (Tab. 1). Analysed stands were planted on former agricultural land which ensures homogeneous conditions and eliminates the effects (litter and humus) of previous stands. Forest-floor (L - litter, F – fermentation, and H - humus) and top-mineral-soil (A) were sampled using a square iron frame (625 cm2) under stands of tested species (3–6 samples per plot) in 2009 and 2010 (Tab. 1). In experiment Vítkov, horizons H and A were mixed because it was impossible to separate individual horizons. All samples were analysed in a laboratory. In the presented study we used the results from analysis of plant available nutrient element concentrations (Ca, Mg) by the Mehlich III method and base saturation V (by Kappen method). Data were analysed by FORUM CARPATICUM 2012: From Data to Knowledge - from Knowledge to Action. Proceedings.

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simple descriptive statistics because variants are not replicated. The comparison was done between the species on the same locality (adjacent forest stands). Tab. 1: Basic characteristics of experimental localities. Tested species

Bedrock/soil

49°50´22´´ lime/ 17°35´25´´ spruce 50°29´46´´ larch/ Machov 16°18´32´´ spruce 50°19´41´´ beech/ Bystré 16°14´57´´ spruce

slate/ cambisol sandstone/ luvisol metabasites and phyllites/ cambisol

Locality Location Vítkov

Age of Forest type group Year of Elevation stands (according to Viewegh sampling (m) (years) et al., 2003) Abieto - Fagetum 46 2009 600 humidum (fraxinosum) Abieto - Fagetum 45 2010 700 illimerosum acidophilum 12

2009

517

Fagetum acidophilum

Results Practically in all cases, we observed lower content of plant-available Ca and Mg and lower base saturation under spruce stands compared to stands of other investigated species (Tab. 2). Under spruce stands these horizons were investigated individually. In spite of this fact, determined values under lime stand were higher for all investigated variables. Tab. 2: Content of plant-available Ca and Mg (mg.kg-1) and base saturation V (%) under stands of different tree species in horizons of forest-floor (L, F, H) and topmineral-soil (A). pH KCl 3.7 3.3

Ca Mg (mg.kg-1) (mg.kg-1) 2393 165

A

pH H2O 4.1 3.7

1228

95

44

Lime

H+A

5.5

5.0

2831

259

81

Spruce

H

3.1 3.3

1557

168

20

A

3.7 3.7

398

60

8

H

3.5

3.0

2089

282

20

A

3.7

3.4

354

56

15

L+F+H

4.9

4.2

2626

380

53

A

4.4

3.6

285

73

31

L+F+H

5.4 4.9

4.6 3.9

4959

691

71

666

104

42

Locality

Tree Species

Horizon

Vítkov

Spruce

H

Machov

Larch Bystré

Spruce Beech

A

V (%) 44

Broadleaves (lime, beech) produce less acidic humus compared to spruce. In horizon H+A under lime stand, content of plant-available Ca was 18% and 131% higher compared to horizons H and A under spruce stand. Similarly, content of plantFORUM CARPATICUM 2012: From Data to Knowledge - from Knowledge to Action. Proceedings.

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available Mg under lime (horizon H+A) was 57% and 173% higher compared to horizons H and A (spruce), respectively. Base saturation was higher under lime stand about 84% compared to spruce stand in both investigated horizons. In experiment Machov, results showed higher amount of plant available Ca (about 34%) and Mg (about 68%) and the same base saturation (difference 0%) in horizon H under larch stand compared to spruce stand. On the other hand, content of plantavailable Ca and Mg was lower (about 11% and 7%) in horizon A under larch stand compared to spruce one. However, base saturation was higher about 88% under larch stand in this horizon. In experiment Bystré, we found higher amount of plant-available Ca (about 89% and 134%) and Mg (about 82% and 42%) under beech stand compared to spruce stand in mixed humus horizon (L+F+H) and upper soil horizon (A), respectively. Consequently, base saturation was also higher (about 34–35%) under beech stand in both investigated horizons. Values of pH (in both H2O and KCl) showed the similar trend as other investigated variables, i.e. under spruce pH was lower compared to adjacent species (mostly under lime and beech). Discussion and conclusion We found higher base saturation under canopy of lime compared to spruce on former agricultural land. Lime showed soil slightly higher in magnesium and calcium compared to spruce. These results are in accordance with Hagen-Thorn et al. (2004). Some authors found larch to have worse (Podrázský, Štěpáník, 2002) or the same (Menšík et al., 2009) effect on soil compared to spruce. Our results, however, show a different situation. We found larch forest-floor humus higher in calcium and magnesium while concentrations in topsoil did not differ practically between larch and spruce. Podrázský and Štěpáník (2002) found more acidic humus and soil under larch. Our results show also slightly more acidic larch humus compared to spruce. The use of larch in the process of conversion is, however, supported by its important stabilizing function. Mixtures of spruce and larch showed significantly lower wind damage compared to spruce monocultures (Vicena, 1998). European beech is able to get more calcium from deeper soil layers (Bagherzadeh et al., 2008). Similarly Berger (2001) confirmed better soil conditions under beech (including mixtures with spruce) in flysch-derived soils. Our results show higher concentrations of base nutrients and higher pH in both forest floor and soil under beech canopy compared to adjacent spruce. In conclusion, our results support the theory about the soil-improving function of lime, larch and beech on the localities of the 4th (beech) and 5th (beech with fir) forest


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vegetation zones. These tree species contribute to higher content of Ca and Mg and consequently higher base saturation in forest-floor and topsoil. Recommendations for forest practice should be supported by exact results. This is not always fulfilled. Some ameliorative tree species are supported in the process of forest subsidies to planting on forest sites where their function is disputable. For example, soil-improving function of beech on the highest mountain sites and on waterlogged sites. On the other hand, positive effect of birch on soil conditions is disregarded in the frame of forest subsidies. Our results contribute to the better understanding of this issue. Conversion of spruce monocultures into mixtures with lime, larch and beech on appropriate sites can improve forest soil condition. Forest soil condition is essential for future long-term productivity and forest health in the Moravsko-slezske Beskydy Mts. in the frame of Western Carpathians. This study was funded by Ministry of Agriculture of the Czech Republic - project MZE0002070203 Stabilisation of forest functions in anthropically disturbed and changing environmental conditions. References Bagherzadeh A., Brumme R., Beese F., 2008. Impact of tree species on nutrient stocks in the forest floors of a temperate forest ecosystem. Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences 11: 1258-1262. Berger, T.W., 2001. Impact of species composition on forest soil properties of secondary spruce forests and mixed spruce-beech stands. Centralblatt für das gesamte Forstwesen 118: 193-216. Hagen-Thorn A., Callesen I., Armolaitis K., Nihlgård B., 2004. The impact of six European tree species on the chemistry of mineral topsoil in forest plantations on former agricultural land. Forest Ecology and Management 195: 373-384. Menšík L., Fabiánek T., Tesař V., Kulhavý J., 2009. Humus conditions and stand characteristics of artificially established young stands in the process of the transformation of spruce monocultures. Journal of Forest Science 55: 215–223. Podrázský V., Štěpáník R., 2002. Vývoj půd na zalesněných zemědělských plochách – oblast LS Český Rudolec. Zprávy lesnického výzkumu 47: 53-56. (in Czech with English summary). Slodičák M., Novák J., Dušek D., 2012. Management of Norway spruce stands in Western Carpathians. In: Kozak J et al. (Eds.), Integrating Nature and Society towards Sustainability, Springer Berlin Heidelberg, (in press). Vicena I., 1998. Modřín zvyšuje odolnost porostů proti vichřicím. Lesnictví-Forestry 44: 230-234. (in Czech with English summary). Viewegh J., Kusbach A., Mikeska M., 2003. Czech forest ecosystem classification. Journal of Forest Science 49:85–93.


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SOCIAL-GEOGRAPHICAL COMPARISON OF PERIPHERAL REGIONS IN EASTERN MORAVIA (CZ) AND BANAT (RO) Maria PAKOZDIOVA, Antonin VAISHAR Department of Applied and Landscape Ecology, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 1, 61300 Brno, Czechia E-mail: [email protected]

Introduction Peripheral regions are the result of geographical polarization of the space. Such polarization is a nature consequence of geographical organization in the sense of core - periphery. Naturally, the attention was paid firstly to the cores in the science. The periphery takes a turn in the last time in connection with efforts of limitations of their economic backwardness. Do we have enough information to confirm or disprove some trends of improvement the situation? The paper is aimed at the comparison of databases and possibilities of their utilization for the purposes of the regional development. Two relatively similar regions were selected in Czechia and Romania. Zlín region represents the Czech case, Bojkovice micro-region forming the detail for the analysis. In Romania, the region Caraş-Severin with the micro-region Clisura Dunării is the case study. The similarities of both the regions consist in the natural character (preliminary mountain), economic level (the second worst in the country according to the GDP per capita), border position (the border is formed by the natural barrier in both the cases), protected landscape. There is also ethnographic contact between both the regions: a part of the population of Moravian Wallachia allegedly came from Romania whereas inhabitants of some Banat villages have originated from Czechia. The settlement of the mountain villages in both of regions is relatively young, being partly a result of the planned colonization in 16th (Moravian Walachia) or 18th (border regions of Banat) centuries (of course some settlements existed already earlier). Both the regions are remote from the economic and political centres of gravity of their countries. The remoteness is given not only by distance but also by the configuration of the terrain and partly also by the quality of roads. Materials and methods The investigation was made with the knowledge that the paradigm of regional research moves from quantitative to the qualitative one. The combination of qualitative and quantitative approaches is generally considered for optimum in sociological research. The quantitative approach is represented mostly with statistical data about population and its development. In Czechia, there are data from population censes from 1869 to 2011 on the local level free accessible. The data from FORUM CARPATICUM 2012: From Data to Knowledge - from Knowledge to Action. Proceedings.

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last censes contain not only population numbers but also relatively detailed information about population structure, flats and houses per communes. In Czechia there are also other data at disposal on the level of individual communes, e.g. population balances since 1970 (Czech Statistical Office), unemployment (Ministry of Labour and the Social Affairs), data from communal statistics including land use etc. It means that the Czech databases enable relatively deep statistical analysis of any territory. On the contrary, the Romanian databases do not allow any comparable research. Firstly, National Institute of Statistic in Romania does not publish statistical data on communal level on its web page. It is possible to gain some data about ethnical and religious structure from other sources. But such data do not provide much information about regional development. Moreover, Romanian communes are larger than Czech ones usually covering more settlements. So, if it were a communal basis for Romania, it would be hardly comparable with the Czech one. That is why rather qualitative approach had to be used for evaluation of the Romanian territory under study. It consists of the field research including observations and interviews. Also historical and ethnographical approaches were applied. Due to practical (language and other) reasons, mostly Czech villages in Banat were visited and their inhabitants contacted. It also corresponds to the focus of the project within which the investigation was made. Villages Hostětín in Moravia and Sfanta Elena in Banat were chosen as cases. Precedent investigations both on Romanian and Czech parts concerned mostly either general situation in larger territories (in national or regional scales) or very specific problems. It is the case of Czech villages in Banat which are a frequent object of the study in the Czech and Romanian literature. Results and discussion The economy of the regions under study contains a relatively big part of primary branches (agriculture, forestry). But both the regions are preliminary industrial. Original industries (weapon industry in Eastern Moravia and mining and heavy industry in Banat) lost their importance and have been transformed after 1990. The present industrial production is not able to substitute original branches neither in the number of jobs nor in level of incomes. Developing service sector is not able to balance the situation in the labour market – especially in rural parts of the regions because the qualification structure of rural people responds more to productive branches and service jobs are concentrated in cities and towns. Table 1 states main economic aspects of the development in both the micro-region under study. Similarities and differences are generalized based on historical sources, literature and own observations.


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Tab. 1 Main aspects of economic development in areas under study BOJKOVICE MICRO-REGION

CLISURA DUNĂRII

Colonized as a borderland against Hungary in 16th century

Colonized as a borderland against Turkey in 18th and 19th centuries

Agriculture, Forestry, Castrating of animals

Mining, agriculture, forestry, port activities

Weapon industry since 1930s

Heavy industry based on the copper mining

Some downturn after 1990 but activities continue

Mining decline, environmental problems after 1990

In such a situation, the tourism is generally considered to be the promising branch in the literature. Its potential is seen in a combination of natural, cultural, religious, balneological activities or nostalgic tourism. But their development is hindered by important characteristics: an expressively seasonal character, insufficient tourist infrastructure (or infrastructure for modest visitors only), weak preparedness of the people to serve, unsatisfactory cooperation among providers of tourist services, incomplete (or one-sided) offer. Next question is whether landscape protection could help the tourist development. From it follows that tourism could be only one of a wide spectrum of branches ensuring future development of the micro-regions. On the other side, negative consequences of some attempts to improve the situation were observed. To create infrastructure for challenging tourist is not only expensive but it could lead to the deterioration of the regional image as a relatively intact territory. So the future development has to be based on a balanced relation among different branches: extensive agriculture directed partly to the landscape maintenance and connected with tourism, industry based on elaboration of local sources or on some industrial tradition, tourism using a collaboration between its providers and offering a relatively complex activities, services for local people, for tourists and special services. The problem is that various aspects of regional development could be contradictory. For example, massive construction of wind power plants in Banat could disrupt the image of the territory especially for Czech nostalgic tourist. Next question is how to use the possibilities of the cross-border collaboration e.g. within existing Euroregions. Both the micro-regions under study are parts of euroregions (White Carpathian Mts. in the case of Czechia and Danube-Kris-Mures-


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Tisa – DKMT - in the case of Romania). In general, the euroregions played an important political role within the process of approximation before accession to EU and the Schengen space (such a role survives in the case of the DKMT region). But the euroregions usually cover territories deeply to the inland including big and medium cities. Collaboration among such cities is economically more profitable than eventual collaboration just on the peripheral borderland. Again, lack of local and micro-regional data for Romania does not allow make more detailed view. To conclude, the attempt to compare Czech and Romanian cases using statistical data has not been successful. Soft data, completed by some statistics in cases in which they are available, seem to be more promising. Acknowledgement The paper was elaborated within the project “Creation and Development of Multidisciplinary Team on the Basis of Landscape Ecology”, number CZ.1.07/2.3.00/20.0004 of the Operational Programme “Education for Competitiveness”. References Bako, D., Varvari, S. (2010): Regional acttractiveness in Romanian development regions. Revista economică 50, 59-66 Bulzan, C. (2007): Problema identităţii în spaţiul frontierei. Reflecţii asupra interdependenţelor culturale româno-sârbe în Clisura Dunării. Sociologie Românească 5(2), 130-148 Gräf, R., Lumperdean, I. (2011): Vorzeichen wirtschaftlichen Denkens. Die Erneuerung der siebenbürgischen und Banater Landwirtschaft (1711-1847). Transylvanian Review 20(1), 111-128. Havlíček, T., Chromý, P. (2001): Příspěvek k teorii polarizovaného vývoje území se zaměřením na periferní oblasti. Geografie–Sborník ČGS, 106(1), 1–11. Iordache, C. (2007): Gârnic: The specifity of a Czech comunity in Romania. Analele Universitarii din Craiova – Serie Geografica 10, 206-216. Jonáš, M. (2008): Analýza potenciálu realizace cykloturistiky v oblasti Rumunsko – Banát [bachelor thesis], Brno: Masaryk University Klvač, P., Buček, A., Lacina, J. (2011): Příroda a krajina v okolí Svaté Heleny. Drnovce: Civic Association Drnka Knappe, E., Benedek, J., Ilieva, M. (2011): Periphere Regionen in Südosteuropa and ihr Potential. Geographische Rundschau 63(4), 28-33. Kučera, P. (2010): Valašsko-Kloboucko a Luhačovicko. Regionálně geografická studie [diploma thesis]. Brno: Masaryk University. Novotná, M., ed. (2005): Problémy periferních oblastí. Praha: Charles University. Pileček, J., Jančák, V. (2011): Theoretical and methodological aspects of the identifaction and delimitation of peripheral areas. Acta Universitatis Carolinae Geographica 46(1), 43-52.


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PRESENT AND FUTURE LAND COVER CHANGES IN THE LANDSCAPES OF THE UKRAINIAN CARPATHIANS ON THE LOCAL SCALE Anatoliy SMALIYCHUK Geographical Faculty, Ivan Franko National University of Lviv, Lviv, 79000, Ukraine E-mail: [email protected] Introduction The goal of the study was to detect and analyze land cover changes (LCC) on fine scale with respect to the environmental and socio-economic features in five model municipalities. As the data there were used 1:50,000 soviet topographic maps, 3-arc second SRTM data, recent fine scale satellite images from the Google Earth and 1:10,000 cadastral maps which provide land use/owner structure data. All selected key areas are rural and situated in different part of Ukrainian Carpathians: 1) foothill – Naguevychi (2,513 ha) and Stara Sil (3,179 ha); 2) low mountain – Yamelnytsya (2,061 ha), Boberka (6,797 ha) and 3). middle mountain – Yasenytsya (4,314 ha). Materials and methods At first a mosaic of natural geoecosystems (GES) are delineated using landforms as the primary component (feature), which reflects distribution of other hydroclimatic and biotic components (Kruhlov et al., 2008). The landforms were manually delineated from topographic maps and characterized by average slope and mean elevation representing altitudinal bioclimatic belts using statistical overlays with SRTM data. Then, the potential natural vegetation (PNV) and soil were established as a function of surface drainage and elevation within the landforms. The actual land cover and LC of Soviet period were manually delineated using topographic maps and satellite images respectively. The field data collected during own summer campaigns was used for accuracy assessment of actual LC. After LCC were distinguished, this data was overlaid with the natural GES data. Also transportation accessibility and marginality was included into the analysis as additional economic parameters. They were calculated as a cost-distance surface from the settlements and roads using terrain slope value as a cost surface. Cadastral maps were used to investigate the relation between land use/owner structure and recent LCC. To perform the quantitative analysis of recent LCC, namely secondary succession, and to model potential secondary succession we used logistic regression. It could be expressed in form: 1 Р= (1) 1  e z


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where, Р – probability of the event (in our case LCC) which ranges from 0 to 1; e – is the base of the natural logarithm and approximately equal to 2.72 and z – linear combination of the factors (x1 - x8): z = b0 + b1 x1 + b2 x2 +…+b8 x8

(2)

In statistical analysis we included 8 factors: elevation, slope, aspect, landform, location in an ecotone, transport accessibility and marginality, land use/owner structure. The values of these factors were aggregated in several groups and thereby expressed in nominal scale. Inside and outside the areas with succession LCC in past three decades an equal number of regular located points were generated in GIS. Then they, overall 2542 points, were overlaid with 8 selected factors for further analysis. Results and discussion The important intermediate result of the study is a geo-dataset of natural geoecosystems (GES) embracing 41 types with attributes on topographic location, average altitude, mean slope, type of bioclimatic altitudinal belt, soil and dominant PNV. Overall, 11 types of PNV were distinguished. In Naguevychi and Stara Sil, Carpineto-Querceta and Fageto-Querceta PNV types dominate. However, in Yamelnytsya and Yasenytsya Abieto-Fageta PNV type cover more than 60% of the area. In Boberka, the shares of Abieto-Fageta and Fageto-Abieta PNV types are almost equal. The only municipality where the Norway spruce (Picea abies) is present in PNV is Yasenytsya, situated in middle mountains. Five classes of actual LC were interpreted on satellite images: coniferous forest, deciduous forest, succession area, grassland and settlement. For two forest classes also the plant communities were distinguished using information from regional literature and own field data. The actual forest cover is rather different from potential natural because of more abundance of coniferous communities, above all with Norway spruce presence. Verification showed that the accuracy of actual LC mapping is more than 70 % in all model areas. This result was influenced by the time variance when satellite images were done (2005-2008) and when majority of field data was collected (summer 2011). Three land cover classes that were used in further analysis (forest, succession area and grassland) allowed distinguishing 6 types of the LCC. Three of them can be aggregated in a group with secondary succession changes. In these areas, which were formerly extensively used by agriculture, land cover was replaced by shrubs and young forest. Another three types of LCC are the result of the human disturbance. In Stara Sil and Boberka replacement of grassland with forest dominates, but in Yasenytsya the occurrence of forest on the place of shrubland estimates in more than 30% of overall LCC. In Yamelnytsya these two types of LCC are almost equal and they share more than 60% of LCC (Tab. 1).


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Table 1 Distribution of land cover change types (in %) Types of land cover changes Secondary succession Forest disturbance Municipalities Grassland − Succession Succession Forest − (study period) Grassland Forest − succession area − area − succession – forest grassland area forest grassland area Naguevychi 8.6 1.3 69.6 20.5 (1989−2005) Stara Sil 50.1 10.0 14.1 23.6 2.2 (1989−2005) Yamelnytsya 31.4 16.2 31.5 0.3 15.7 4.9 (1976−2006) Boberka 82.1 8.6 0.5 4.0 4.8 (1983−2008) Yasenytsya 10.4 24.8 35.5 0.2 26.2 2.9 (1976−2005) The total area with LCC is: for Naguevychi and Stara Sil estimates 57.6 ha (2.3 %) and 133.8 ha (4.2 %) respectively. However, LCC area reaches for: Yamelnytsya – 581 ha (28.2 %), Boberka – 718.8 ha (10.6%) and Yasenytsya – 622.9 ha (14.4 %). A common tendency in four of five model areas, except Naguevychi, is the increase of the area with forest or shrubland owing to degradation of former agricultural lands. These results is the similar to findings of LCC research performed on medium scale in Ukrainian Carpathians using Landsat TM/ETM+ data (Kuemmerle et al., 2008). The LCC more often occurs on moderate and moderate-to-steep slopes. In general, our results showed that the LCC occurs with more or less the same intensity in all PNV types. Areas with LCC are not remote far from roads and settlements. But in Boberka and Yasenytsya about 40% of LCC occurs on area with high marginality of location (>4500 conditional meters from settlements and paved road). In Naguevychi and Stara Sil, situated in foothill, LCC more often took place in state forest lands. However, in the low mountain municipalities, Yamelnytsya and Boberka, LCC was observed more often on agricultural land outside the settlements, but in Yasenytsya – within state and communal forest lands. Results of logistic regression analysis, regression coefficients b1 - b8 of the equation (2), showed that land use/owner type, landform, allocation within an ecoton and slope have the most influence on occurrence of secondary succession. Hence, the probability of secondary succession on the land of forest enterprises, within ecotones and steeper slope is higher. At the same time, according to our results, on the south


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and well drained slope the probability of succession is lower. Unexpectedly the transport infrastructure parameters do not have significant influence on LCC. The quality regression parameters indicate a fairly good model: 75.3 % of overall points were correctly classified by created model. Logistic regression coefficients were used for modelling potential secondary succession for the next 20-30 years. The results of performed modelling show that succession potential is much higher in low and middle mountain research areas than in foothill municipalities. Findings of the accomplished study allow making some conclusions: 1) A common tendency for four of five model areas, except Naguevychi, is the increase of the area with forest or shrubland owing to degradation of former agricultural lands; 2) During the last decades the increase of forest areas was estimated at 0.08 - 0.09 % a year for Stara Sil and Yasenytsya. For Boberka and Yamelnytsya it estimated at 0.31 and 0.39 % a year respectively; 3) Results of statistical analysis showed that land use/owner type, landform, allocation within an ecoton and slope have the strongest influence on occurrence of secondary succession. At the same time, the economic location does not have essential influence on recent succession LCC; 4) Findings of this study about present and potential LCC have been already used in our further research concerning the design of local ecological corridors. Also our results about structure of natural GES and recent LCC could be used for creation of municipality’s master plan. References Kruhlov I, Mukha B & Senchyna B., 2008. Natural geoecosystems. In: Roth M., Nobis R., Stetsuk V. & Kruhlov I. (ed.) Transformation processes in the Western Ukraine. Concepts for sustainable land use. Weissensee Verlag, Berlin, pp. 81–97. Kuemmerle T., Hostert P., Radeloff V. C., van der Linden S., Perzanowski K., Kruhlov I., 2008. Cross-border comparison of post-socialist farmland abandonment in the Carpathians. Ecosystem 11: 614-628.


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