ADOM SERIES GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART ...

ADOM SERIES

GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR S.H.S.

Frederick Hartt, A History of Italian Renaissance Art, (1970) Fredric Jameson, Foreword to Jean-François Lyotard, The Postmodern Condition, Manchester University Press, 1997, pxvi. ISBN 978-0-7190-1450-5 Gilles, Vincent, Jennifer Mundy and Dawn Ades. Surrealism: Desire Unbound. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005. Giovanni Pinna, The intellectual organization of museums (2005) (unpublished), p. 3 - 4 Gomez-Mejia, Luis R.; David B. Balkin and Robert L. Cardy (2008). Management: People, Performance, Change, 3rd edition. New York, New York USA: McGraw-Hill. p. 19. Harry Rand. Decades of Light, The Poetry/Rare Books Collection, The University at Buffalo, State University of New York, 1990, p. 40, 42. John Elderfield, The "Wild Beasts" Fauvism and Its Affinities, 1976, Museum of Modern Art, p.13, ISBN 0-87070-638-1 Lieser, Wolf. Digital Art. Langenscheidt: h.f. ullmann. 2009, pp. 13–15 Margaret Aston, The Fifteenth Century, the Prospect of Europe, (1979) Michael Baxandall, Painting and Experience in Fifteenth Century Italy, (1974) Mills-Tagoe D. (2007). Information Technology for S.H.S. Isaac books and stationery; Kumasi. Nagle, Thomas and Holden, Reed. The Strategy and Tactics of Pricing. Prentice Hall, 2002. Pages 84-104. Olson, Roberta J.M., Italian Renaissance Sculpture, 1992, Thames & Hudson (World of Art), ISBN 0500202531 Peter Osborne, Conceptual Art: Themes and movements, Phaidon, London, 2002. p. 28 Shearman, John K. G. 1967. Mannerism. Style and Civilization. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Reprinted, London and New York: Penguin, 1990. ISBN 0-14-013759-9 Sporre D.J. (2004). Reality through the arts. Prentice Hall Inc; New Jersey. Stokstad M. (2008). Art History- Third Edition. Pearson Education Inc; Washington D.C.

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PREFACE The study of General Knowledge in Art has taken a slightly new form due to the current teaching syllabus released by the Ministry of Education. The writer, an exponent in the field of art and a skilled tutor in the subject therefore saw the need and more importantly the urgency to assist students with a reading material that exactly meet the requirements of the syllabus. The book is abreast with current information on the various topics in the syllabus. It has content validity and it is written at the proper level of difficulty for students. The book is well illustrated with numerous examples and likely examination questions on all the topics treated. Tutors of the subject especially would find this book as very relevant in carrying out the teaching and learning activities in the classroom. It is the right tool to assist learners and beef them up for the West African Senior High School Certificate Examination in the General Knowledge in Art subject. It is the grand wish of the author that readers would find it very indispensable in their quest to deepen their knowledge and understanding of the subject while excelling in examinations of the subject.

Dickson Kwabena Adom Serwaa Nyarko Girls Senior High School Kumasi

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GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR S.H.S. DEDICATION

I dedicate this book to my dear sons, who though troublesome gives me joy Isaac Henry Adom Gyamfi & Dickson Kwabena Adom

Published by Adom Series Publications Post office Box KS 5281 Kumasi Telephone: 0244568245, 0508149965, 0205720448, 0245706685

ISBN: 978-3-659-34738-2

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted, in any form or by means, without prior permission from the publishers.

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Warm colours: Colours suggesting warmth. These are colours that contain red and yellow. Warp- The yarns which run through the longitudinal or lengthwise section of the woven cloth and on the loom. They are parallel to the selvedge. The individual warp fibres are called ‘ends’. Wash- It refers to a thin layer of water colour applied over a fairly large area of paper. Watercolour: Transparent pigments mixed with water. Paintings done with this medium are known as watercolours. Weavers- These are the finer strips which are woven around the stakes. Wedging- A process of cutting clay into wedges and working them into an even consistency. Weft- They are the yarns which run through the latitudinal or crosswise section of the wovencloth and on the loom. Individually, the weft strands are called ‘picks’, ‘fillings’ or ‘woof’. Wet media: Media in which the colouring agent is suspended in a liquid, such as ink and paints. Woodblock printing: A process that involves transferring and cutting pictures into wood blocks, inking the raised surface of these blocks, and printing. Yarns- They are the threads which are interworked to form the cloth or fabric. They are produced by twisting individual fibres together. REFERENCES Adams L.S. (2006), Art across time-Third Edition. Mc-Graw-Hill companies; New York Amenuke, S.K. et al (1991). General Knowledge in art for S.S.S. Evans Brothers Ltd; London. Ameyaw-Benneh K. (2004). Graphic Design for S.S.S. David Levin, History as Romantic Art: Bancroft, Prescott, and Parkman (1967) Davies et al (2004). Janson’s History of Art. Pearson Inc; New Jersey. Denvir, Bernard (1990). The Thames and Hudson Encyclopaedia of Impressionism. London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-20239-7 Douglas Cooper, "The Cubist Epoch", pp. 11–221, Phaidon Press Limited 1970 in association with the Los Angeles County Museum of Art and the Metropolitan Museum of ArtISBN 0-87587-041-4 Edward Porter Alexander, Mary Alexander (2007-09). Museums in motion: an introduction to the history and functions of museums. Rowman & Littlefield, 2008. ISBN 978-0-7591-0509-6. Retrieved 2009-10-06. Fred S. Kleiner (2006), Gardner's Art through the Ages (12th ed.), Wadsworth Publishing, p. 754 Page 438

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Symbol- It is an object or sign representing something else. Examples include clan symbols, goldweights, kente and stool symbols. Symmetrical balance: A way of organizing the parts of a design so that one side duplicates, or mirrors, the other. It is also known as formal balance. Tactile: Of, or relating to, the sense of touch. Tanning- The method by which hides and skins are processed into leather. Technique: Any method of working with art materials to create an art object. It is the manner in which an artist uses the technical skills of a particular art form. Tempera: A paint made of dry pigments, or colours, which are mixed with a binding material. Tensile strength: The capacity of a material to withstand bending. Terracotta- This is a baked clay which is brownish red in colour. Tertiary colours: They are colours obtained by mixing two secondary colours in their equal proportions. Examples include orange, green and violet. Texture: The element of art that refers to the way things feel, or look as if they might feel if touched. Thong- This is a narrow strip of hide or leather used as a fastening. Throwing- The process of forming or shaping pottery wares with clay on the potter’s wheel. Tie and Dye- This is a method of dyeing in which portions of the fabric are tied or knotted to resist the dye. Triptych: A painting on three hinged panels that can be folded together. Turning- This is the trimming of excess clay from the walls and the base of thrown wares on the potter’s wheel while the clay is leather-hard. Twill weave- This is the interlacing of the warp and weft yarns to create a diagonal lines weave pattern on both sides of the fabric. An example is garbadine. Unity: The look and feel of wholeness or oneness in a work of art. Upsetting- This is a kind of weave pattern where three weavers are used. It is used to weave the bend of a basket. It is also used to strengthen, decorate and finish the bend and rim of a basket. Value: An element of art that describes the lightness or darkness of a hue. Vanishing point: In perspective drawing, it is the point at which receding parallel lines seem to converge. Variety: A principle of art that refers to a way of combining art elements in involved ways to create intricate and complex relationships. Visual arts: Unique expressions of ideas, beliefs, experiences, and feelings presented in well-designed visual forms. Volume: Refers to the space within a form. Waling- This is weaving a basket and at the same time strengthening and decorating it.

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GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR S.H.S. TABLE OF CONTENTS

TOPIC

PAGE(S)

YEAR ONE SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION TO VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION Rationale for Visual arts Education Concepts of Arts Concepts of GKA Art in National Development Functions of Art in the Community

SECTION 2: INTRODUCTION TO BASIC DESIGN AND TECHNOLOGY Elements of Design/Art Colour Theory Principles of Design/Art Design Process Creativity

SECTION 3: DRAWING AND COMPOSITION Drawing as a Means of Communication Exploration of tools, materials and Techniques Composition and Layout Perspective and Foreshortening Perception and Aesthetics Analytical study from objects Figure Drawing Idea development

SECTION 4: PRE-HISTORIC AND ANCIENT ART Pre-historic art Egyptian Art Greek Art Oriental Art Oceanic Art

SECTION 5: ART APPRECIATION AND CRITICISM Art Appreciation Art Criticism

1-15 14-15 15 15-23 23-28 29-37 38-53 53-56 56-57 55-60

61-65 66-79 79-82 82-87 87-90 90-94 94-100 100-102 103-111 112-124 124-132 132-140 141-147 148-150 150-151

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SECTION 6: PROFESSIONAL ETHICS AND ENTRPRENEURIAL PRACTICES - 1 Artist’s Portfolio Business Plan Branding and Packaging Artist’s Statement, Brochure and Business Card Exhibition

YEAR TWO

152-154 155-157 157-159 160-163 163-166

SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION TO LETTERING Block Lettering Broad pen lettering Gothic lettering Roman lettering Italic lettering Decorative lettering Freestyle lettering Spacing

167-170 170-176 176-177 178-180 180 181 181-182 182-183

SECTION 2: AFRICAN ART Philosophy of African Art Indigenous African Art Socio-Economic importance of sub-Saharan art Contemporary/Current African Art

SECTION 3: INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN AND TECHNOLOGY Design and Technology Process (DTP) Computer as a Tool for Art Two and Three Dimensional Composition Printmaking Patternmaking Motif Arrangement Communication Technology SECTION 4: GHANAIAN ARTS AND ARTISTS Indigenous Art Forms and Artists Contemporary Art Forms and Artists Form, symbolism and functions of Art Art and Tourism

184-193 193-199 199-210 210-224 225-228 229-233 233-235 235-248 248-250 250-253 253-256 256-265 266-288 288-304 305-309

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Shuttle- This is the device used for carrying the bobbin that carries the weft yarns through the shed during weaving. Signboard- It is a board which carries information about products and services. Signpost- It is an upright wooden or metal pole on which a board is erected and placed along roads to give information and direction. Silhouette- It is an outline drawing or painting filled entirely or uniformly with black. It is also a dark image outlined against a lighter background. Sizing- The process of rubbing starch or wax on warp strands to make them firm. Sketch: A quick drawing that captures the appearance or action of a place or situation. Sketches are often done in preparation for larger, more detailed works of art. Skins- The outer covering of small animals such as rabbits, sheep, lizards, goats, snakes etc. Skivers- These are thin layers of sheep skin used for lining and book-binding. Skiving- This is the splitting or cutting of leather into thin layers or slices. When two pieces of thick leather are to be glued, the edges are thinned by shaving off some of the thickness. Skiving is also referred to as pairing. Slip- This is clay which is mixed with water to a liquid consistency. It is used for the decoration and joining of leather-hard pieces of clay. Coloured slips are obtained by adding colouring chemicals to slip. Solvent: The material used to thin the binder in paint. Space: An element of art that refers to the distance or area between, around, above, below, or within things. Spinning- This is the process of drawing or pulling and twisting of fibres to make a continuous strand or thread. Stained glass: The art of cutting coloured glass into different shapes and joining them together with lead strips to create a pictorial window design. Stakes- These are the thick upright poles or spokes of a basket around which the finer strips (weavers) are woven. Still life: A drawing or painting of an arrangement of inanimate objects, such as food, plants, pots, and other inanimate objects. Stoneware- Pottery ware which is hard, non-porous and opaque. Suede- This is a type of leather made from sheep or goat skins. A velvety finish is given to the flesh side to make it soft, uniform and pliable. It is used for footwear and many other articles of clothing. Surrealism: A twentieth-century art style in which dreams, fantasy, and the subconscious served as the inspiration for artists. Surrealist manifesto issued in 1924 referred to it as "Pure psychic automatism", by which it is intended to express the real process of thought. In other words, Surrealist works were guided by the supernatural, the unconscious or the spiritual, devoid of formal conscious limitations. Page 436

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interest in humanity and the love of beauty. Renaissance marked a period in European civilization when the domination of society by the church was broken leading to the birth of secularism. The concept of Renaissance was developed around the philosophy of the ‘human’, championed by the historian Burckhardt. Repetition: A principle of art, this term refers to a way of combining art elements so that the same elements are used over and over. Rhythm: A principle of art, it refers to the careful placement of repeated elements in a work of art to cause a visual tempo or beat. Rim- This is the edge of a basket. Rococo art: An eighteenth-century art style that placed emphasis on portraying the carefree life of the aristocracy rather than on grand heroes or pious martyrs. Romanesque: An artistic style that, in most areas, took place during the eleventh and twelfth centuries. The style was most apparent in architecture and was characterized by the round arch, a large size, and solid appearance. Romanticism: A style of art that portrayed dramatic and exotic subjects perceived with strong feelings. Saggers- Fired clay boxes or chambers in which wares to be fired are packed to protect them from direct contact with the gases of the kiln. Salon: An annual exhibition of art held by the academies in Paris and London. Satire: The use of sarcasm or ridicule to expose and denounce vice or folly. Scouring- This is the washing of woven fabrics to remove impurities. It is done before bleaching. Screen printing: Paint is forced through a screen onto paper or fabric. Scroll: A long roll of illustrated parchment or silk. Sculpture-in-the-round- A three dimensional form which is free standing and can be seen from all sides. Secondary colours: The colours obtained by mixing equal amounts of two primary colours. The secondary colours are orange, green, and violet. Selvedge- This is the longitudinal edges of a fabric. The warp is crammed on the selvedges to make the weave firm and compact to prevent fraying. Serigraph: A screen print that has been handmade by an artist. Sfumato- This is a method of achieving a gradual gradation of tones from dark to light. Sgraffito- This is the technique of decorating pottery in which the design is produced by scratching through an overglaze to reveal a ground of different colour. Shape: An element of art referring to a two-dimensional area clearly set off by one or more of the other visual elements such as colour, value, line, texture, and space. Shed- This is the V-shaped opening formed by the raising and the lowering of the warp ends, through which passes the shuttle carrying the weft picks. Page 435

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Sustainable Development in Art

SECTION 5: PROFESSIONAL ETHICS - 2 Maintaining good health Studio Practices (Safety Rules) Daily Work Plan

SECTION 6: MODERN ART TRADITIONS Scope of Modern Art Traditions Renaissance Art Modern Art Movements

310-315 315-324 324-327 327-329

YEAR THREE

329 329-350 350-368

SECTION 1: PRODUCT DESIGN Application of the Design Process

369-373

SECTION 2: ENTREPRENEURIAL SKILLS Establishment of an art industry Managing an art industry Costing, pricing and marketing

SECTION 3: ENTERPRISES IN ART Art related careers Museum and Gallery studies QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

Terms in Art

REFERENCES

374-366 366-379 370-384 389-398 398-406 406-427 427-438

438-439

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YEAR ONE SECTION ONE INTRODUCTION TO VISUAL ARTS EDUCATION General Objectives: The student will: 1. be aware of the concepts of art and the role of Visual arts in national development. 2. acquire requisite vocabulary and understanding for various art disciplines.

UNIT ONE RATIONALE FOR VISUAL ART EDUCATION Specific Objectives: The student will be able to: 1.1.1 explain the concepts of Art and the role of Art in socio-economic development. 1.1.1 analyze and report on Ghanaian concepts of art. 1.1.2 explain the concept of General Knowledge in Art.

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Art is an area of study that is very broad. Generally, art is defined as a means of self-expression. There is not just one definition widely accepted for Art. Art lends itself to several definitions. Some of these definitions are: Art is a means of expressing one’s ideas through painting, drawing, sculpting etc. Art is any activity in which a person gives order and form to organized ideas to bring out a new creation. Art is a way of life and forms an integral part of life. Art is the production of items with visual tools such as lines, colour, textures etc. guided by design principles to satisfy both the aesthetic and functional needs of the individual and the society. Art refers to the products of human creativity. Art is broadly divided into two. These are i) Liberal Arts and ii) Creative Arts i) Liberal Arts refer to the studies intended to provide general knowledge and intellectual skills such as law, literature, government etc. It is usually referred to as humanities since it is a humanistic discipline that addresses concerns of social living. Page 1

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Plain or tabby weave- The simplest weave structure in which the warp and weft interlace alternately under one and over one pattern. Examples of fabrics produced with plain weave pattern include calico, poplin and gingham (check). Polychrome- This is a picture or drawing in many colours. Pop art: An art style that portrayed images of the popular culture such as comic strips and commercial products. Portraits- It is the likeness of a person, especially the face in drawing, painting, photography or sculpture. Poster- This is a written or printed notice which serves as a means of communication. They inform and educate the public about products, events, services and civic responsibilities. Post-Impressionism: A French art movement that immediately followed Impressionism. The artists involved showed a greater concern for structure and form than did the Impressionist artists. Primary colours: The basic colours of red, yellow, and blue, from which it is possible to mix all the other colours of the spectrum. Priming- It is a preparatory treatment of a surface before painting is done. The treatment provides a good working surface so that the paint does not sink into the material. Principles of art: Refers to the different ways that the elements of art can be used in a work of art. The principles of art consist of balance, emphasis, harmony, variety, gradation, movement, rhythm, and proportion. Proportion: The principle of art concerned with the relationship of certain elements to the whole and to each other. Pyrography or Scotching- This is the process of drawing or making designs on a surface such as wood, calabash or leather using a hot metal tool. Pyrometer- Instruments used for the measuring and recording of the temperature in a kiln. Randing- Weaving with only one weaver. Realism: A mid-nineteenth-century style of art representing everyday scenes and events as they actually looked. Reeding- This is the process of passing the warp yarns through the dents of the reed. The reeding hook is used for this purpose. Regionalism: A popular style of art in which artists painted the American scenes and events that were typical of their regions of America. Relief- A representation of three-dimensional forms on a two-dimensional surface is a way that the forms appear solid but are not free standing. Relief printing: The image to be printed is raised from the background. Renaissance: A period of great awakening believed to be between1400-1600 BC. The word renaissance means rebirth and was largely the product of Italian citystates like Florence. It was the rebirth of Greek classical ideas motivated by the Page 434

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Movement: A principle of art used to create the look and feeling of action and to guide the viewer‟s eye throug hout the work of art. Mural: A large design or picture, painted directly on the wall of a public building. Neoclassicism: A nineteenth-century French art style that sought to revive the ideals of ancient Greek and Roman art and was characterized by balanced compositions, flowing contour lines, and noble gestures and expressions. Nonobjective art: Any artwork that contains no apparent reference to reality. Oil paints: A mixture of dry pigments with oils, turpentine, and sometimes varnish. Old Stone Age: The historical period believed to have lasted from 30,000 B.C. until about 10,000 B.C. It is also known as the Paleolithic period. Op art: A twentieth-century art style in which artists sought to create an impression of movement on the picture surface by means of optical illusion. Open firing- This refers to the type of firing done in the open with the wares exposed to naked flames. This is a traditional way of firing pots. Paint program: A computer art application in which images are stored as bitmaps. Paint programs are capable of producing more lifelike pictures than draw programs. Painterly: A painting technique in which forms are created with patches of colour rather than with hard, precise edges. Pairing- Weaving with two weavers alternately. Pastel: Pigments mixed with gum and pressed into a stick form for use as chalky crayons. Works of art done with such pigments are referred to as pastels. Pattern- It is a purely decorative design based on abstract or geometric forms, plant, animal or human shapes. The unit or design is repeated to give an overall effect. Perspective- This is a way of drawing objects or scenes so that they appear to have depth or distance. Pharaoh: An Egyptian king or ruler, also considered to be a god in the eyes of the people. Photo-Realism: An art movement of the late twentieth century in which the style is so realistic that it looks photographic. Picture plane- It is the area filled by the images in a picture. Picture plane: A flat surface on which an artist creates a pictotial image. It refers to the various starters in a picture. They could be applied patches of colour placed side by side, in which case each one represented a separate plane. Pigment: Finely ground powder that gives every paint its colour. Pinching- The process of hollowing out a ball of clay to form a pottery ware. This is done by pressing the thumb into the clay and thinning out the walls of the ware between the thumb and the fingers until the desired shape is achieved. Page 433

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ii) Creative Arts refer to the arts that employ creative abilities in the production of artefacts that are useful in carrying out our day to day activities. Unlike the liberal arts, creative arts offer self-occupational or practical skills which are manual in nature to its learners. Creative art is the focus as far as the study of Visual art is concerned. Therefore we will centre our discussion on this area of art. It should be noted that when the term ‘art’ is mentioned we are in effect talking about the creative arts. Creative art is divided into two main branches namely a) Visual arts and b) Performing Arts. VISUAL ARTS Visual arts refer to all creative or artistic products that are perceived with the sense of sight (optical sense-eye), sense of touch (skin) and can arouse emotions (heart). Therefore, any creative product you can see, touch and can arouse in you an emotional feeling can be said to be a visual art form. Let’s take a drawing done on a sheet of paper as an example. Since one can see the drawing with the eye and can touch it while this same drawing also arouses an emotional feeling in the person seeing it, we can say with conviction that drawing is a visual art form. Visual arts is sometimes referred to as Plastic or solid arts because of their tangible nature. Visual art is divided into two groups. These are Fine arts and Industrial arts. • Fine Arts also referred to as Decorative Arts are produced to serve as a form of decoration in the interiors and exteriors of homes, offices etc. They are purposely produced to satisfy the aesthetic drive of the viewer. Owing to this, the aesthetic qualities of the works in this area of visual art is stressed or given much emphasis in their creation. Though these arts may play other roles, it should be noted that their main function is for decoration. Examples of fine arts include Painting, Graphic design, Picture making and Sculpture. • Industrial arts also known as Applied arts are the arts that focuses more on the functions or uses of the artistic product not its aesthetic value. They are created to satisfy the utilitarian needs of the individual while carrying out duties in our everyday life. They are purely usable art forms. Examples include Textiles, Leatherwork, Ceramics, Pottery, and Jewellery.

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PERFORMING ARTS Performing arts are the arts that are perceived by the sense of sight and the sense of movement (kinesthetic sense). They are performed or played. They are seen in a stream of time. Examples include music, dance and drama. An aspect of performing arts is Verbal arts which are performances communicated with words and body gestures. They include poetry, incantations, recitations etc. ART

LIBERAL ARTS

CREATIVE ARTS

/ HUMANITIES VISUAL ARTS PERFORMING ARTS

INDUSTRIAL / APPLIED ARTS

FINE ARTS

The table below outlines the differences between Visual arts and performing arts. VISUAL ART

PERFORMING ART

1. These are art that appeals to our 1. These are art forms perceived by our sense of sight and can also be felt by kinesthetic sense and sense of touch. our sense of touch. 2. Visual art are made. 2. Performing art are performed /played. 3. Examples of visual art forms are 3. Examples of performing art forms are painting, sculpture, textiles etc. music, dance, drama, poetry etc. 4. Visual art can be seen and felt thus 4. Performing art cannot be touched making it tangible. thus making it intangible. 5. Visual art is not limited with time.

5. Performing art can be seen in streams of time.

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Layout- It is a plan of a work to be executed. It mat be a sketch in which thbe various units in the design have been arranged. Leather- This is an animal hide or skin treated by tanning and other processes to render them suitable for different uses. Leatherette- This is artificial leather made from the synthetic materials and used for footwear, bags, wallets, upholstery and so on. Leather-hard- Clay that is hard but not dried. Clay in this state can be carved. Line: An element of art that refers to the continuous mark made on some surface by a moving point (pen, pencil, etc.). A painting technique in which importance is placed on contours or outlines. Linear perspective: A graphic system that showed artists how to create the illusion of depth and volume on a flat surface. Lithography: A printmaking method in which the image to be printed is drawn on a limestone, zinc, or surface with a special greasy crayon. It is based on the incompartibility of water and oil or grease. Logo (gram) - This is an adopted symbol skilfully drawn and used by business organisations and institutions as a means of identification. Loom- The device used for weaving a cloth. Luting- This is the process of joining two clay surfaces together with clay slip. The two surfaces are scratched, and then the cay slip is applied and joined. Macrame- A kind of lace or ornamental work made by the knotting of threads or cords in patterns. The knotting process is used for the weaving of baskets. Mannerism: A European art style that rejected the calm balance of the High Renaissance in favor of emotion and distortion. Mastaba: A low, rectangular Egyptian tomb made of mud brick with sloping sides and a flat top, covering a burial chamber. Medium: A material used by an artist to produce a work of art. Mixed media: The use of several different materials in one work of art. Mobile- A form of movable sculpture made from a variety of shapes suspended on thread, wire, iron rods or string. The shapes are moved by the wind or human touch. Modelling- A process of adding soft and malleable materials boit by bit to build a form either in the round or in relief. The process is referred to as the ‘additive process’. Mordant- It is a substance employed in dyeing to fix the dye in the cloth. Morocco- This is tanned goatskin finished by glazing or polishing. It is a firm and fine leather suitable for wallets, bags, book-binding, upholstery etc. Mosaic- This is a method of picture making in which small bits of materials such as glazes, stone and paper are stucked to a surface. Mould- This is a hollow shape into which material is poured so that when it hardens it takes that shape. Page 432

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Grooving- This is a long, narrow and shallow depression made on leather to serve as a guide for sewing. Ground- It refers to the coating of the surface on which a painting is done. For instance, gesso is the ground on a panel while sizing and priming are grounds on canvases. Harmony: A principle of art, it refers to a way of combining similar elements in an artwork to accent their similarities. Hatching- This is shading using one set of parallel lines. Heddling- The process of passing the warp ends through the eyes or loops of the heddle. The heddling hook is used for heddling. Hellenistic: A period of Mediterranean culture influenced by Greece following the conquests of Alexander the Great. The expression of inner emotions was more important than beauty to the artists of this period. Hides- These are the skins of large animals such as cow, ox and bull. They are fairly thick skins used for heavy types of leatherwork. Hieroglyphics: The characters and picture-writing used by the ancient Egyptians. Horizon- It refers to the line where the earth appears to meet the sky. Hue: A colour’s name. It is the purest state of a particular colour. Humanism: An interest in the art and literature of ancient Greece and Rome. In humanism, man was considered the central theme ofcreation and was celebrated in the arts. Illuminations: Manuscript paintings, particularly those done during the Medieval period. Illuminated manuscript: A manuscript, popular during the Medieval period, in which the pages are decorated with silver, gold, and rich colours. Often these manuscripts contain small pictures known as illuminations or miniatures. Imitationalism: A theory of art that places emphasis on the literal qualities. According to this theory, the most important thing about a work of art is the realistic representation of subject matter. Impasto- This is the application of paint thickly on a surface in painting. Impressionism: A style of painting in which artists captured an impression of what the eye sees at a given moment and the effect of sunlight on the subject. Intaglio: A process in which ink is forced to fill lines cut into a metal surface. Intensity: The quality of brightness and purity of a colour. Intermediate colours: Colours produced by mixing a primary colour with its neighbouring secondary colour on the colour wheel. Kiln- It is the furnace or oven for baking or firing pottery or ceramic wares. Kneading- This is the technique used in working clay to remove air pockets. Landscape: A painting, photograph, or other work of art that shows natural scenery such as mountains, valleys, trees, rivers, and lakes. Lawns- Meshes specially prepared to sieve clay to remove foreign materials. Page 431

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SCOPE OF VISUAL ARTS Visual art is an area or field of art that embraces several artistic creations and areas of study. Some of these are listed below. Picture making Graphic Design Textiles Ceramics Basketry Sculpture Leatherwork Jewellery General Knowledge In Art PICTURE MAKING This is the process of making pictures such as the likeness of people, objects and scenes through the application of paint and other colouring media. It involves techniques such as painting, printing, photography, mosaic, collage etc. SCULPTURE It is the art or practice of shaping figures or designs in the round or in relief, as by chiseling marble, modeling clay, or casting in metal. The materials used for the production of sculptural forms include wood, paper, clay, wax, soap, stone, ivory etc. GRAPHIC DESIGN It is the process of using signs, alphabets, symbols, pictures, words etc. to communicate with the general public. Graphic Design products include posters, banners, packages, labels etc.

• •

POTTERY AND CERAMICS Ceramics –It is the art of making objects of clay and firing them in a kiln at very high temperatures. Examples include Wall and floor tiles, vases, water closets etc. Pottery – It is the art of producing clay wares that are fired at low temperatures. Examples include earthenware bowls, flower pots, cups etc. TEXTILES This refers to the production, manufacturing and decoration of fibres which are used in the production of fabrics. It involves production techniques such as weaving, appliqué, knitting, dyeing, printing, crocheting, macramé, etc.

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BASKETRY This is the method of producing articles especially receptacles or containers by the use of pliable materials such as cane, bamboo, reed, raffia, palm rachis, grass stalks etc. It involves the application of production techniques such as coiling, weaving, plaiting or macramé. LEATHERWORK This is the technique of processing hides and skins of animals into leather through a process known as tanning. The leather is in turn used for the production of functional and decorative items. Several processes like thonging, embossing, dyeing, appliqué, embroidery etc. are used. Some of the tools and materials used for the production of leather products are awl, hammer, nail, dyes, leather, glue, scissors, punch etc. Leather products include bags, shoes, wallets, upholstery, belts, furniture, etc. JEWELLERY This is a branch of metal arts that concerns itself with the production and manufacture of items for personal adornment of the individual and also for symbolic, medicinal and other utilitarian purposes. Examples of products in jewellery include brooches, rings, necklaces, earrings, bracelets etc. GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART This is one of the elective subjects studied by Visual arts, Home Economics and sometimes General Arts’ students. It is a compulsory elective subject. It offers core knowledge about all the Visual art subjects. Also inclusive in the syllabus of this subject is the study of art history of various cultures of the world and art appreciation. There is also a practical component in this subject that assists its learners in acquiring the needed skills for the production of various artistic creations. VISUAL ART AS A VOCATION OR PROFESSION The study of Visual arts offers several career opportunities to the learner. These vocations provide life-long employment avenues for learners. In fact, the study of Visual arts equips its learners with theoretical and more importantly practical or manual skills with which they can work with. While the other disciplines offer only theoretical skills thus only the education of the head, Visual arts provides both theoretical and practical skills thereby educating the head, heart and hand (The 3h’s). Some of the career avenues or professions under Visual arts have been discussed below. •

Advertising Consultant: He is an expert in the field of advertisement of products and services. He is usually consulted to give technical advice on Page 5

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Beasts. The Fauves were led by Henry Matisse and took inspiration from Vincent Van Gough. Fauvism: An early twentieth-century style of painting in France. The leader of the Fauves was Henri Matisse. Ferrule- This is the metal part of a brush which holds the bristles together. Fibre- This is a hairlike strand spun into fibres and used for the production of fabrics. Figurine- It is a small carved or modelled figure. Fine arts: Refers to painting, sculpture, and architecture, arts which generally have no practical function (architecture is the exception), and are valued by their success in communicating ideas or feelings. Firing- This is the process by which pottery wares are baked in a kiln or in the open over a period of time to effect both physical and chemical changes. It makes the wares hard and durable. Fitching- This is a weave pattern where the weavers are tightly worked alternately one under the other in an over one under one formation. This technique of weaving is employed for skeleton works such as cages and waste paper baskets. Fixative- This is a kind of finish sprayed on pastel, soft pencil or charcoal drawings to protect them. Foot-trac- This refers to all kinds of containers with a flat wodden base. Foreground- This is the part of a picture or design which is nearest to the viewer. Foreshortening- This is the way of representing an image in a work of art such that parts nearer to the viewer overshasows the other parts. Form: An element of art, it describes an object with three-dimensions. Formalism: A theory of art that emphasizes design qualities. According to this theory, the most important thing about a work of art is the effective organization of the elements of art through the use of the principles. Fresco- This is a painting on a wet plaster or surface. Frieze: A decorative horizontal band running across the upper part of a wall. Glazing (Painting) - This is the covering of the surface of a painting with a thin layer of transparent colour. Glazing (Pottery) - This is the process of covering a pot with a layer of glaze. The glaze is applied in a liquid form and allowed to dry. The pot is then fired in a kiln. The glaze melts and seals the pores in the wares. Glost firing- This is the second firing of a biscuit ware after the application of glaze. Green ware- This is a pottery ware which is bone-dry but not fired. Grog- Hard fired clay ground to powder. It is mixed with clay that is too sticky in order to facilitate drying and reduce shrinkage. Sand, charcoal and sawdust may also be used as grog. Page 430

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Desizing- The process of removing from fabrics starches and lubricants which were applied to the warp before weaving and from batik clothes after dyeing. Digital Painting: It is the use of the computer and its assesaries/ software to produce a painting. Donkey- It is a type of easel used by picture makers in a painting studio. Drawing- It is the art of representing an idea or event in a medium such as pencil, crayon, pastel or brush with colour. Dry media: Those media that are applied dry and include pencil, charcoal, crayon, and chalk or pastel. Dunting- The cracking of fired pots in a kiln as a result rapid or uneven cooling. Dyes- These are coloured substances used in colouring yarns or fabrics. Fast dyes remains in the cloth and cannot be removed by rubbing or washing. Early Medieval: A period that dates from A.D. 476. Earthenware- Articles made in clay. Eclectic style: A style composed of elements drawn from various sources. Elements of art: The basic components, or building blocks, used by the artist when producing works of art. The elements consist of colour, value, line, shape, form, texture, and space. Emblem- This is an object or its symbol adopted by a country, company, club or firm and used as a distinguishing mark or sign of office or honour. One of the emblems in the coat of arms of Ghana is the eagle. Embossing- This is a method of decorating leather by using heated stamps to give the surface a raised or relief effect. Emotionalism: A theory of art that places emphasis on the expressive qualities. According to this theory, the most important thing about a work of art is the vivid communication of moods, feelings, and ideas. Engraving: A method of cutting or incising a design into a material, usually metal, with a sharp tool. A print can be made by inking such an engraved surface. Etching: To engrave a metal plate with acid. A copper or zinc plate is first covered with a coating made of a mixture of beeswax, asphalt, and resin known as a ground. The ground is incised with a sharp tool to produce a drawing. A print can be made by inking such an etched surface. Expressionism: A twentieth-century art movement in which artists tried to communicate their strong emotional feelings through artworks. Expressive qualities: Those qualities having to do with the meaning, mood, or idea communicated to the viewer through a work of art. Art exhibiting this aesthetic quality is favoured by the emotionalists. Eye Stakes- Extra stakes placed on the side of each upright pole to strengthen the body of a basket. Fauves: Artists whose paintings were so simple in design, so brightly coloured, and so loose in brushwork that an enraged critic called the artists Fauves, or Wild Page 429

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the right form of advertisement to choose for a particular product or service. •

Animator: He is a skilled technician in the field of animation who produces animated pictures usually cartoon for advertisement, film making and entertainment.

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Architect: He designs layout of buildings and other construction projects before the actual projects are executed.

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Cartoonist: He designs satirical or humorous pictures and scenes (cartoons) for use in magazines, journals, newspapers etc.

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Costumer: He is a textile artist who designs dresses or costumes for individuals, groups and associations to be worn as apparels on the body.

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Curator: An art historian who serves as a custodian in charge of an art museum or centre where there is a great collection of artefacts.

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Environmental Artist: This is an artist who specializes in the designing of layouts of the environment. He also decorates the environment especially vantage points of towns and cities, roundabouts etc. with artistic creations such as ceramic wares and sculptural figures.

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Florist: This is an artist who uses flowers and other ornamental plants for the decoration of homes, public buildings and venues for special events or ceremonies.

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Interior Decorator: He is an artist who decorates the interiors or inner parts of buildings such as homes, offices, churches and other public buildings in an artistic fashion especially during occasions like weddings etc.

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Package Designer: He designs packages or containers for products of firms and industries.

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Sculptor: He models figures in either clay or wax and carve out figures from stone, wood and other materials.

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Jeweller: He designs and makes jewelleries in the form of necklaces, bangles, wristlets etc. Page 6

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Book illustrator: He makes illustrations in books to explain the printed text.

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Photographer: He is an expert in the field of photography. He takes shots or pictures of people, scenery at important occasions to record events for the purposes of remembrance.

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Sign writer: He engages in the designing of communication tools in the form of signs such as signboards, signposts, billboards, banners etc.

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Visual Art teacher: He instructs or teaches students in the various disciplines in art at educational institutions.

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Art Critic: An expert in the critiquing or evaluation of works of art for competitions and examinations. He also reviews various works of an artist and writes detailed commentaries on each of them for publication in journals and leading newspapers.

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Calligrapher: A graphic artist who is skilled in the writing of stylistic inscriptions with special pens on certificates and other official documents.

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Screen Printer: A master in the use of screens for carrying out several projects in printing such as T-shirts, clothes, cups etc.

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Book Binder: He binds or produces books for commercial purposes such as exercise books, notebooks, writing pads, diaries etc.

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Portrait Designer: He draws and paints the exact likenesses of people and other sceneries. Usually such works are laminated or encased in wood or plastic frames with a glass plate to be hanged in rooms and offices as a form of decoration.

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colour, e.g., bright red or dull red; and value, the lightness or darkness of a colour. There are tree basic groups of colour; primary, secondary and tertiary. Complementary colours: Colours that are directly opposite each other on the colour wheel, such as red and green, blue and orange, and violet and yellow. When complements are mixed together in the right proportions, they form a neutral gray. Cones- These are small coned shaped clay specially treated and used to determine the temperature in a kiln when firing. They melt at a given temperature. Contour drawing: A drawing in which contour lines alone are used to represent subject matter. It is an outline drawing. Contour line: A line or lines that surround and define the edges of an object or figures. Contrapposto: A way of sculpting or drawing a human figure in a natural pose with the weight of the body balanced on one leg while the other is free and relaxed. This was introduced by Michelangelo in the renaissance period to actualize the forms he desire to glamorise. Contrast: Closely related to emphasis, a principle of art, this term refers to a way of combining art elements to stress the differences between those elements. Cool colours: Colours often associated with water, sky, spring, and foliage and suggest coolness. These are the colours that contain blue and green and appear on one side of the colour wheel, opposite the warm colours. Cornice: A horizontal element positioned across the top of the frieze. Cross-hatching- This is shading with two layers of parallel lines, one layer crossing the other at an angle. Cubism: A twentieth-century art movement in which artists tried to show all sides of three-dimensional objects on a flat canvas. Led by Pablo Picasso (18811973) early cubists were inspired by African sculptures. They had two schools – namely, the analytical and synthetic cubism. Curator: The museum employee responsible for securing and exhibiting artworks for the general public and scholars to view. Dada: An early twentieth-century art movement that ridiculed contemporary culture and traditional art forms. The "Dada" movement started in Zurich, Switzerland by a group of loosely knit group made up of both visual and literal artists in 1916. This group and their activities were later christened neo-dada movement in the 1960s. Their "nonsensical" name "dada" meaning "hobby horse" in French was chosen to symbolize their "nihilist" stance of defiling conventional western values and tradition. They argued that, the world had gone mad, and its art must equally follow. Design: A skillful blend of the elements and principles of art. In simple language, it is the arrangement of the elements of Art according to the Principles of Art.

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Bust- This is a sculpture showing the upper part of a figure, generally the head and the shoulders. Byzantine art: The art of the Eastern Roman Empire. Byzantine paintings and mosaics are characterized by a rich use of colour and figures that seem flat and stiff.These art works were influenced by the Christian religion at the time. Calligraphy- This is the art of writing beautiful handwriting or penmanship at an angle of 45 with a specially prepared pen. Caricature- The drawing or painting of a character in which some features are overemphasized to create fun or for the purpose of ridicule. Cartoon- A full scale brush or pencil drawing on paper to be used as a model for easel, panel or wall painting. In modern usage, cartoons refer to the drawings of figures in an amusing or satirical manner. Carving- This is a sculptural technique of cutting away material bit by bit to achieve a desired form. This process is known as the ‘subtractive process’ of sculpture. Carving may be done in relief or in the round. Casting- This is the pouring of a liquid substance such as cement, clay, bronze, lead and plaster of Paris into a mould to produce the copy of the form. Catacombs: Underground tunnels in which early Christians met and buried their dead. Some catacombs also contained chapels and meeting rooms. In these catacombs the earliest forms of Christian paintings were found usually based on biblical themes. Centring- The act of placing the lump of clay in the centre of the revolving disc of the potter’s wheel for throwing. Chamois- Soft, fine and pliable leather from the skin of the chamois-a goat-like mountain antelope. It can also be made from the skins of sheep, goats and deer. Chiaroscuro- This is the science of light and shade. It is the treatment or general distribution of light and shade in a picture. It is achieved by indicating the source of light, how it falls upon objects, the shadows it casts, the reflected light and the soft tonal changes in the area of shadows. Clay- This is a type of earth material which is sticky when wet and harden when dried and fired. Coiling- The technique of building clay objects using clay in a rope or coil-like form. Collage: A technique that involves pasting materials such as straw, plantain bark, wood shavings, newspaper clippings, wallpaper pieces, or photographs and other materials to the surface to form a picture. In collage objects could be pasted over another. Colour: To the artist colour is pigment. It is the effect of light reflecting from an object onto the eye. It is an element of art made up of three distinct qualities: hue, the colour name, e.g., red, yellow, blue; intensity, the purity and brightness of a

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A comprehensive list of the careers in art is provided below.

1) Advertising Consultant 2) Aerial Photographer 3) Animation Artist (Animator) 4) Anthropologist 5) Archaeologist 6) Architect 7) Archivist 8) Art Administrator 9) Art Collector 10) Art Consultant 11) Art Critic 12) Art Director 13) Art Educator 14) Art Historian 15) Art Therapist 16) Bookbinder 17) Book Illustrator 18) Calligrapher 19) Cartoonist 20) Ceramic Artist 21) Cinematographer 22) Colour Psychologist 23) Comic Strip Artist 24) Computer Animator 25) Computer game designer 26) Computer-aided designer 27) Computer Scientist 28) Costumer 29) Criminal Investigator 30) Curator 31) Digital Imaging 32) Editorial Cartoonist 33) Engraver 34) Environmental Artist 35) Event Promoter

36) Exhibition Designer 37) Exterior Decorator 38) Fashion Designer 39) Film Editor/maker 40) Floral Designer 41) Forensic Sketch Artist 42) Furniture Designer 43) Gallery Owner 44) Graphic Designer 45) Industrial Designer 46) Interior Designer/decorator 47) Jewellery Designer 48) Landscape Architect 49) Layout Artist 50) Leather Artist 51) Legal Practitioner

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THE ROLE OF ART IN PERSONAL LIFE AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT Art plays a vibrant role in the personal life of the individual as well as in the social and economic development of the nation. The study of visual arts encourages personal development and the awareness of both our cultural heritage and the role art plays in the society. The learner acquires personal knowledge, skills and competencies through activities in the visual arts. When one studies visual arts, he/she would come to appreciate and understand that art is an integral part of everyday life. The role art plays in the personal development and in the socio-economic development of the nation have been explained below. 1. It fosters creativity: Visual art education helps the learner to develop the ability to think, feel and act creatively with visual materials. The student also develops the ability of bringing something new into existence. This desirable quality is acquired when the learner engages in practical lessons such as the designing and creation of an artefact in solving a problem or satisfying a need. 2. It offers total education to the individual: Visual art education offers holistic education to learners. Such education comes about when the learner produces an artefact in satisfying a particular need in the society. He engages in the organization and exploration of art materials, tools and techniques. Moreover, he gathers varieties of ideas, selects the key ideas, simplifies and analyse them as well as combining and separating ideas. These problem solving activities helps in educating the head (mental faculties) of the learner. Also, when the artist uses the tools and materials he had explored and the techniques acquired in producing the artefact, he develops manual or practical skills. This caters for the education of the hand. Visual art education helps learners to appreciate works of art. When we see these artistic creations, they arouse certain feelings in us. Appreciation for the work would move us to talk intelligently and knowledgeably about it. This educates the heart. Owing to these, we can say that the study of Visual arts provide creative education of the head, hand and heart. 3. It helps in learning about our cultural heritage: Visual art education helps the learner to build an appreciation for our cultural heritage handed down to us by our forefathers. This appreciation is acquired through the learning of the various histories of art and the study of art appreciation and criticism. These studies help the artist to understand the Page 9

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Applique- These are pieces of clothes or leather of different colours and textures stitched or affixed onto a background as a form of decoration or picture. Aquatint: A print making process that includes etching and that permits broad areas of black and gray tones. Armature- The metal or wooden framework around which the sculptor models so that the forms can stand firmly and not collapse. Materials that need the support of an armature include clay, plaster of Paris and cement. Art criticism: A special concentrated way of looking at a piece of art with a purpose to recieve maximum enjoyment and meaning from it. Art Deco: A popular art and design style of the 1920s and 30s, and characterized by its intergration of organic and geometric forms. Art: The special expression of ideas, feelings and values in visual forms. Asymmetrical: A type of balance where elements are arranged differently on each side of the composition. Balance: A principle of art, it refers to a way of combining art elements to create a feeling of equilibrium or stability in a work. Banner- This is a printed or painted fabric with a message. The sides are supported with strings or wooden props. Baroque art: An art style characterized by movement, vivid contrast, and emotional intensity. Base- The flat bottom of a basket. Batik- It is a method of dyeing whereby resistant materials such as wax, cassava or corn starch to prevent the dye from penetrating into some areas of the cloth. Batt- These are thin slabs of fired clay, plaster or asbestos on which pots are dried. Billboard- Large drawing or painting specially prepared and erected at vantage points such as besides the road for the purpose of advertising products and services. Binder: A liquid that holds together the grains of pigment in paint. Biscuit or bisque- This is the forst firing of pottery and ceramic wares without glaze. An example is the water cooler. Bleaching- It is the process of treating fibres and fabrics with chemicals auch as hydrogen peroxide to make them white. Body- This is a mixture of pottery and ceramic materials such as combining kaolin, ordinary clay and sawdust together. Border- This is a way of binding the edge of a basket or making with a weaver as a finishing. Burin- It is a steel engraving tool. Burnishing- The process of polishing or rubbing the surfaces of wares with any suitable tool to make them smooth or shiny. Page 426

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201. B 202. B 203. C 204. B 205. C 206. A 207. B 208.C

211. C 212. B 213. C 214. C 215. B 216.A 217. A 218. C

221. A 222.D 223. B 224. A 225. D 226. D 227. B 228. C

231. A 232. B 233. A 234. A 235. D 236. C 237.D 238. B

241. C 242. A 243. B 244. D 245. B 246. B 247. A 248. A

251. D 252. C 253. B 254. A 255.A 256. A 257. A 258. B

261. A 262. C 263. D 264. B 265.D 266. C 267.A 268. B

271.B 272. B 273. D 274. B 275. A 276. B 277. B 278. B

281. A 282. B 283. D 284. A 285. D 286. A 287. A 288. C

291. D 292. C 293. B 294. D 295. A 296. B 297. D 298. B

209. C 210. C

219. B 220. D

229. C 230. A

239. C 240. A

249. B 250. A

259. A 260. A

269. B 270.C

279. C 280.B

289. B 290. B

299. A 300. C


meanings and usefulness of our arts which embodies our set of beliefs and ideologies. Thus, works of art are used in maintaining the ideas, knowledge and beliefs of a society as handed down from one generation to another. In this way we learn about our cultural heritage. 4. Provides knowledge about aesthetics: The study of Visual arts helps learners to develop keen ideas about beauty (aesthetics). Since the learner is taken through a lot of appreciation and criticism of various artistic creations, he/she develops ‘good taste’. He is able to distinguish between art works that are aesthetically pleasing and those that are not. This helps the learner to take good decisions and make good judgements.

TERMS IN ART Abstact: Purposefully invented, distorted or arranged forms and colour presented in contrast to reality. It is also non-objective or non- Representational. Abstract Art: Art in which the subject matter has been simplified or distorted to the point that it may or may not be easily descended. Abstract Expressionism: A twentieth-century painting style in which artists applied paint freely to huge canvases in an effort to show feelings and emotions rather than realistic subject matter. Acrylic: Resin that, when mixed with water and pigment, forms an inorganic and quick drying medium. Acrylic paint therefore is a fast drying synthetic paint made from acrylic resin. Action Painting: The technique of dripping and splashing paint onto canvases stretched on the floor. Aerial perspective: Aerial, or atmospheric, perspective is the behaviour of colour and tone with distance. The closer the colour is the brighter it is, while the furtherer it is the more pale it will become. This effect is achieved by using hue, value, and intensity to show distance in painting perspective. Aesthetic value: The impact of a work of art on our senses, intellect, and emotions. Aesthetic: Pertaining to the appreciation of the beautiful as opposed to the functional or utilitarian, and, by extention, to the appreciation of any form of art. Air brush: Atomizer operated by compressed air used for spraying on paint. Air Bubbles- These are the small pockets of air trapped in clay. These when not removed will cause the ware to expand and break during firing. Analogous colours: Pairs of colour such as yellow and orange that are adjadscent to each other on the colour wheel. Page 425

5. Projects personal and national identity: Visual art education helps learners to build self-respect and personal ego. When an artist produces works of art in and outside the society or country, it projects his identity or makes him known to his own countrymen and foreigners. This largely comes about when the artist exhibits his artistic creations during art exhibitions, fairs and bazaars. When an exhibition is organised outside the country and the artist partakes in it, it assists greatly in projecting his/her nation. Also, since the themes or subjects of works from Ghana lavishly talks about our culture, it helps in making our culture known to other people of the world. 6. Helps develop subjective thinking for cordial human relationship: Skills needed in building a healthy family and human relationships are reflected in art activities. Through the organisation of various opposing elements of design such as lines, shapes, texture, tone, pattern and colour into pleasant relationships, the artist is able to develop peaceful and cordial relationship with people of various characters and cultural identities. The study of art appreciation which teaches learners to develop the ability of seeing ‘good’ in every artistic creation also builds in learners the ability to accept people as they are. This subjective thinking helps in the development of cordial human relationships. 7. Promotes cognitive, psychomotor and affective modes of development: Visual art education promotes the cognitive mode of development in learners. Skills in thinking and reasoning are developed by the organisation of materials into art forms and critically appreciating them. This critical thinking helps in the cognitive development of learners. Practical activities in Visual art help to exercise the muscles and keep the body healthy. This promotes the psychomotor development of learners.

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The affective or emotional development of learners is nurtured through the appreciation of works of art. Practical lessons in art help the learner in cultivating desirable qualities like patience, long suffering and tolerance which helps the heart to be always healthy. 8. Art is used to correct physical, psychological and emotional growth deficiencies: Practical activities in visual art can help reduce tension and emotional stress in people. The lives of physically challenged persons and social misfits are reorganised or changed when they engage in practical lessons in art. Those who have deficiencies in their physical and psychological growths are corrected gradually when they explore with art tools and materials in the creation of art works. Art therefore serves as a therapy or medical aid for those with growth deficiencies. 9. Provides avenues for the development of cottage and small-scale industries: The Visual arts programme provides a creative base for the setting up of smallscale industries. Students are taught how to produce quality products that would meet the taste and demands of the market. In addition, learners are instructed in entrepreneurial skills and on factors to consider in the setting up of their own enterprises in the field of art. This training assists the learners in setting up their own small scale industries. 10. Promotes the tourism industry of the nation: Works of art are sold to tourists to earn foreign exchange. Art souvenirs are exported to foreign lands to earn substantial funds for the artist and the nation as a whole. This helps in the promotion of the tourism industry. 11. Art reduces poverty: Art is an income generating venture that provides employment for several Ghanaians. It helps its practitioners in earning money to fend for themselves and their families reducing the poverty ratio of the nation.

DESIRABLE QUALITIES TO BE DEVELOPED THROUGH THE VISUAL ART PROGRAMME There are several good and relevant traits or qualities that a senior high school student who has studied the Visual Art programme is expected to cultivate. Some of these qualities are discussed below. Page 11

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a. The artists were alienated from their own arts b. The production of art forms became regimented c. Artists produced more artworks d. Sculptors carved forms that represented Christian themes 296. The African woodcarver emphasizes the breasts and buttocks because a. They enhance the beauty of the carved figure b. The buttocks and breasts symbolise fertility c. The carver has skills in depicting them d. Men in Africa are fascinated to see these forms 297. Which method was used to produce the Ashanti gold weights? a. Glazing b. Moulding c. Carving d. Cire-perdue 298. Africans celebrate festivals and ceremonies mainly to a. Exhibit material culture b. Venerate ancestors c. Count their natives d. Meet partners for marriage 299. African art forms are described as functional because a. They are used for various purposes b. Society loves to see them c. Everybody can produce them d. Society respects the carver 300. Which of the following Ghanaian artists is a sculptor? a. Akpo Teye b. R.C. Ekem c. Saka Acquaye d. E.C. Nyarko ANSWERS TO OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS 1. A 2. D 3. A 4. A 5.C 6 B 7. C 8. A 9. C 10. D

101.B 102. D 103. B 104. C 105. D 106. C 107. C 108. D 109.C 110. D

11. D 12. C 13. D 14. D 15.A 16. B 17.B 18 A. 19. B 20. C

111. B 112. C 113. D 114. A 115. C 116. C 117. D 118. D 119. D 120. B

21. A 22. B 23. D 24. A 25. D 26. B 27. B 28. A 29. D 30. D

121. C 122.B 123. D 124. D 125. A 126. C 127. D 128. D 129. B 130. D

31. B 32. B 33. D 34.C 35.D 36. A 37. B 38. A 39. B 40. D

41 A. 42 D. 43. C 44. B 45. D 46. A 47. B 48. B 49. C 50. B

131. C 132. A 133. A 134. D 135. C 136. C 137. A 138. C 139. D 140. A

141. D 142. B 143. A 144. D 145. D 146. B 147. B 148. C 149. B 150. D

51. D 52. C 53. A 54. B 55. D 56. A 57. B 58. C 59.D 60.B

151.D 152. D 153. A 154. B 155. C 156. B 157. D 158. B 159. B 160. A

61. A 62.C 63. A 64. C 65. D 66. D 67. B 68. D 69. D 70. B

161. A 162. B 163. B 164. C 165. A 166. C 167. C 168. D 169. D 170. C

71. A 72. C 73. A 74. C 75. C 76.C 77. D 78. A 79. B 80.C

171. C 172. B 173. B 174. D 175. A 176. A 177. B 178. B 179. C 180. B

81. C 82. C 83. A 84. D 85. A 86. B 87.B 88. D 89. C 90. C

181. C 182. C 183. B 184. A 185. D 186.D 187. D 188. D 189. B 190. D

91.B 92. C 93. B 94. D 95. C 96. A 97.C 98. B 99. A 100. B

191. D 192. A 193. C 194. D 195. B 196. C 197. D 198. A 199. C 200. D

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276. The technique of treating dead bodies and wrapping it in white linen cloth is termed as a. Shredding b. Embalmment c. Mastaba d. Tombing 277. Egyptian paintings were done mostly on a. Papyrus paper b. Walls of the Pyramids c. Wooden Panels d. Upper Chambers 278. Which material was used in the construction of the Egyptian Pyramids? a. Marble b. Stone c. Cement d. Bricks 279. The new form of art introduced by the Greeks to the Egyptians was a. Carving b. Collage c. Mosaic d. Montage 280. Which line suggests stability? a. Diagonal b. Horizontal c. Vertical d. Spiral 281. Which line suggests something falling? a. Diagonal b. Vertical c. Spiral d. Horizontal 282. Which of these refers to volume and weight? a. Rhythm b. Form c. Line d. Colour 283. The sensation created on the eye by rays of decomposed light is a. Form b. Texture c. Design d. Colour 284. Priming and glazing are associated with a. Oil painting b. Watercolour works c. Ceramics d. Leatherworks 285. Prismatic colour in the following is a. White b. Black c. Brown d. Indigo 286. The main characteristic of gouache colour is its a. Opacity b. Transparency c. Coarseness d. Translucency 287. A harmonious arrangement of elements of art is referred to as a. Composition b. Painting c. Architecture d. Graphics 288. Which of these is a three-dimensional work? a. Collage b. Drawing c. Sculpture d. Painting 289. Learning of skills become possible by a. Studying b. working with tools and materials c. Drawing d. Painting 290. Which of the following processes can be used for assemblage of soft metals? a. Enamelling b. Soldering c. Sgraffito d. Etching 291. Which of the following is a planographic process? a. Messotint b. Gravure c. Acquatint d. Lithography 292. Metal casting is done in a a. Workshop b. Studio c. Foundry d. Furnace 293. Beadmaking is a major craft of the a. Akwapims b. Krobos c. Brongs d. Fantis 294. The Chiwara mask symbolises a. Royalty b. Strength c. Peace d. Fertility 295. One major effect of Christianity on West African art was that

1. RESOURCEFULNESS: A resourceful person is able to utilise fully the resources available in his environment in achieving greater things. Through the visual art programme, the learner is trained on how to rely on the available art tools, materials and equipment in his environment to produce creative and useful products. They learn to understand the need to be self-sufficient. Even when resources are scarce, they try to rely on the few ones that are available for the production of artefacts that addresses the needs of the society.

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2. PRACTICAL ORIENTED: The visual art programme is practically based and therefore assists its learners to acquire practical skills needed in solving most of the challenges that faces the job market today. These practical activities also help in exercising the body and always keeping it healthy. 3. GOOD CITIZEN: The visual artist is trained to produce works of art for the benefits of his or her society and the nation at large. This helps the artist in exercising his civic rights and responsibilities making him a good citizen. 4. IMAGINATIVE: A visual art student is supposed to be highly imaginative, being able to generate a lot of new ideas from his environment both from animate and inanimate objects. 5. OBSERVANT: For the artist to be able to depict drawings of sceneries as accurately as they are he has to be observant. He is expected to produce works of art to communicate his observations to the general public. He should be alert to changes in his environment so that he can communicate them clearly in his works. 6. MANAGEABLE: The need to manage personal resources to achieve optimum satisfaction in life can be met by acquiring practical skills in planning and organisation through art. Through the application of such skills to his personal resources, the learner is better able to manage his or her resources. 7. SCIENTIFICALLY AND TECHNOLOGICALLY KNOWLEDGEABLE: The learner is trained on how to apply scientific knowledge in life. This comes about as the learner works with tools, materials and processes. He applies basic scientific knowledge in their use, handling and care. The learner also applies technological knowledge in the production of his artefacts. This enables him to

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produce his artefacts at a faster rate and in mass quantities. Learners are taken through how to use modern technological tools and machinery for their artistic productions. 8. PEACEABLE: Skills needed to build a healthy family and human relationships are reflected in art activities. Contrasting elements of design such as line, shape, texture etc. are well organised into pleasant relationships. This enables the learner to be able to live in peace with people of diverse cultures.

9. CREATIVE: The student is expected to develop the ability of bringing something new into existence. This can be acquired through organization and exploration of art materials, tools and techniques in achieving varied effects. Also, creative thinking is developed when the learner engages in systematic problem solving activities such as identifying, selecting, composing and analysing of ideas for the creation of artefacts. 10. SOCIABLE: The student is expected to be friendly with people that he/she interacts with in the society. This can be achieved if the student engages in leisure and recreational activities like visiting art exhibition, galleries, museums, national parks etc. 11. APPRECIATIVE: The student should appreciate the nation’s cultural heritage. This can be done through acquiring knowledge in art history, appreciation and criticism of artefacts. These activities will help the student in understanding the meanings and usefulness of the arts so as to better appreciate them. 12. SELF-DISCIPLINE: Preliminary designing and planning are given special importance in the visual art programme. This quality is very relevant since it help artists to be truthful, always meeting deadlines for the completion of projects and appointments. 13. PATIENCE: The need to be tolerant and longsuffering is emphasised in the visual art programme. Through the careful organisation of art forms and precise depictions of works of art, the learner cultivates a waiting attitude or patience. This helps him to cope with the stress and strains of life. Page 13

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261. The prehistoric man used tools made of a. Bone, wood and stone b. Ivory, iron and wood c. Stone, shells and iron d. Wood, iron and asbestos 262. Paleolithic art is mostly associated with a. Figures found in temples b. Paintings and reliefs in tombs and graves c. Engravings and paintings in the caves d. Paintings seen in the tents of Pastoralists 263. The belief that there is a close link between an object and its image is a. Animism b. Toteism c. Black magic d. Sympathetic magic 264. The Mesolithic period is also referred to as a. Ice Age b. Middle Stone Age c. New Stone Age d. Old Stone Age 265. The prehistoric painting of a standing bison was discovered in the Altamira cave in a. China b. France c. Mozambique d. Spain 266. The prehistoric men used simple tools such as a. Gun and cutlass b. Knife and chisel c. Bows and arrows d. Spears and gouges 267. The strongest contribution by primitive man to the study of art is his a. Cave painting b. Hunting prowess c. Music d. Stone implements 268. The cave man invented his own colours by the use of a. Pastels b. Earth colours c. Petrol d. Leaves 269. Superposition is a prehistoric composition technique which means a. Done over b. Placed over c. Roll over d. Done at either sides 270. The standing sculptural figures of the ancient Egyptians were characterized by a. Symmetry of form b. Flexibility of joints c. Left foot placed in a forward direction d. Muscles showing in the upper part of the body 271. The sphinxes served as a. Decoration of the tombs b. Guardian of the tombs c. Frontal part of pyramids d. Representatives of the gods 272. Egypt became the first great centre of civilisation in a. 30,000 BC b. 5,000 BC c. 80,000 BC d. 10,000 BC 273. Egyptian civilization influenced all these African states except a. Chad b. Ethiopia c. Morocco d. Ghana 274. Egyptian painting was done in a. Cool colours b. Bright colours c. Neutral coloursd. Complementary colours. 275. The ancient Egyptians believed that dead souls reside in a. Same body b. Another body c. Heaven d. Hell

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245. The first discoveries of prehistoric art were made by a. Canadian tourists b. French army officers c. School children d. British missionaries 246. The female figures discovered in Western Europe were referred to by scholars as a. Magico dolls b. Venuses c. Figurines d. Mascaras 247. An expert with a discriminating taste in an area of fine art is known as a. Connoisseur b. Critic c. Curator d. Speculator 248. An artist exercises his civic responsibility when he a. Creates artefacts for the society b. Sharpens tools after pouring libation c. Has knowledge about tools and materials d. Observes taboos of his society 249. Visual Art Education is useful for a. Technological advancement b. Aesthetic development c. Political development d. Agricultural development 250. Which of the following clearly identifies plastic art? a. Sculpture and metal work b. Music and architecture c. Sculpture and textiles d. Textiles and architecture 251. The art which depicts recognizable natural forms is referred to as a. Abstract b. Calligraphic C. Geometric d. Figurative 252. The subject matter of a work of art is its a. Caption b. Style c. Theme d. Title 253. Prehistoric art is mainly associated with a. Fishing b. Sympathetic magic c. Agriculture d. Fetishism 254. The caveman had to create artefacts in order to a. Meet necessities of life b. Beautify his cave c. Improve his art skills d. Frighten his enemies 255. Prehistoric man’s first means of communication is a. Sympathetic magic b. Pouring libation c. Visual images d. Puberty rites 256. Cave art is mainly a. Murals b. Fresco c. Collage d. Mosaic 257. Prehistoric art made little influence because they were made a. Independently at different times b. For ritual purpose c. With materials from the environment d. With earth colours and animal fat 258. The main support for cave painting was a. Tree bark b. Rock surface c. Magic d. Pleasure 259. The Venus of Willendorf is a a. Prehistoric female sculpture b. Prehistoric painting in the caves c. Fertility doll found in the caves d. The image of the goddess of beauty 260. Prehistoric art has survived till today because a. They were made deep inside caves b. They had magical backing c. They were inspired by creativity d. They had portfolios Page 421

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GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR S.H.S. THE GHANAIAN CONCEPT OF ART

Concepts are the body of ideas or attitudes that a group of people have toward something. Ghanaian concept of art refers to the ideas that Ghanaians have about art. These ideologies that they have greatly influence their attitudes toward the Ghanaian arts. The Ghanaian concepts of art are similar to the concepts that African in general have about the arts. Some of these concepts are: 1. All crafts are considered as art and all arts are crafts. There is no distinction between art and craft. They are all viewed as creative activities that require practical skills and the application of aesthetic knowledge. 2. Several forms of art can be combined for a common purpose. For example, sculpture, pottery, textiles, music and dance may be used simultaneously. A man may wear a mask (sculpture) and a special costume (textile). He dances to tunes from a drum (music and dance) while he carries a ceremonial pot (pottery) in his hands. 3. The value of art is in the function or use of the artwork and not necessarily in its aesthetic qualities. 4. The arts are a necessity or an integral part of life. It forms an active part of living. Art is viewed as life. 5. There are taboos associated with the arts. These taboos are followed and a breach of them is believed to incur the wrath of the gods and ancestors. For example, a blacksmith is not suppose to strike a person with his bare hands; a weaver is not suppose to destroy an old loom; a carver should not work when he is annoyed; trees for carving shouldn’t be cut down if the appropriate rites and rituals have not been performed etc. 6. A particular work of art may be destroyed or discarded after it has served the purpose for its creation whether it is expensive or beautiful. 7. There is no appropriate Ghanaian word for art. However, there are some Ghanaian words for ‘design’ (adbu-Ewe, adwini- Twi), craft man (dwumfo) etc. 8. Mediums, materials, tools and equipment for creating art forms must be revered and respected. They have to be treated with honour and special care as if they were human to propel them to work efficiently for the artist.

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9. There is the division of arts among the sexes. Thus, some art activities are exclusively for men or women. For instance, carving, masonry, smithing, casting, leatherwork are men’s work while spinning and pottery are women’s work. In some cultures like the Asantes, Dagombas and Ewes, weaving is done by only men while in other cultures weaving can be done by both men and women.

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Ghana as a country is a storehouse of several artistic creations. In fact, there are several small-scale industries that produce majority of indigenous arts. Indigenous arts refer to the arts designed, arranged or composed by the people (indigenous

a. Violet b. Brown c. Pink d. Orange 229. To prevent rusting, carving tools should be a. Sharpened b. Washed c. Oiled d. Cleaned 230. Which of these is not an element of design? a. Rhythm b. Form c. Line d. Colour 231. A drawing material which is sometimes bound with oil is called a. Pastel b. Plasticine c. Charcoal d. Poster 232. The kick wheel is used in a. Textiles b. Ceramics c. Sculpture d. Graphics 233. Which of these is used for protecting paintings and plaster models? a. Fixative b. Thinner c. Varnish d. Turpentine 234. A tool for spreading ink through a mesh for printing is called a a. Squeegee b. Tjanting c. Roller d. Brayer 235. The awareness of all the good qualities in art is termed a. Judgement b. Criticism c. Creativity d. Appreciation 236. The time when one faces difficulties in one’s creative activity is termed a. Evaluation period b. Period of meditation c. Incubation period d. Period of preparation 237. Which of the following is not a quality of a creative person? a. He is hopeful and self-disciplined b. He is ready to explore new situations c. He accepts new challenges d. He panics when confronted with new situations 238. To show perspective in a painting, colours near the horizon should be a. Intense b. Pale c. Dull d. Bright 239. In passing judgement on the work of art, one is moving into the realm of a. Evaluation b. Aesthnetics c. Criticism d. Interpretation 240. A suitable way to promote the sale of artefacts is to a. Ensure good finishing of products b. Retain cultural identity c. Place emphasis on exhibitions d. Develop creative skills 241. What tool did the prehistoric people use to draw on rock surfaces? a. Bodkin b. Saw c. Flint d. Chisel 242. The prehistoric period started and ended in a. 30,000BC- 5,000BC b. 80,000BC-5,000BC c. 40,000BC-5,000BC d. 50,000BC- 5,000BC 243. The first prehistoric arts were discovered in which country? a. Spain b. Mozambique c. United States d. Britain 244. The oldest prehistoric art works were discovered in all these countries except a. Namibia b. Spain c. Morocco d. France

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10. The arts are not for a few selected people in the society but for all members of the society. It should however be noted that some of these concepts are indigenous in nature since they are no longer in force due to civilisation, trade, religion and education.

CONCEPT OF GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART General Knowledge in Art (GKA) is a composite subject made up of Art History, Appreciation and general art concepts. This subject is teased out from all the Visual arts subjects studied at the Senior High School (SHS) level. The rationale is to provide the student of visual art with broad based knowledge and skills in the theory and practice of visual art. The theory component of GKA is to broaden the student’s scope of vocabulary and to equip him/her with the requisite communication skills that would enable him/her to talk knowledgeably in the subject. The practical component has been designed to reinforce the skills that the visual art student learns in the individual elective subjects of study. Collectively, the objective is to assist the senior high school student to develop love for the appreciation of the cultural and aesthetic values of Ghanaian arts. UNIT TWO ART IN NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT Specific Objectives: The student will be able to: 1.2.1 explain the role or relevance of indigenous Art in national development. 1.2.2 analyze Ghanaian attitudes to Visual arts. 1.2.3 suggest how to develop positive attitudes to Ghanaian arts.

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a. Proportion b. Balance c. Value d. Dominance 214. Visual tension is created by a. Dominance b. Transition c. Opposition d. Balance 215. The two forms of colour are a. Light and artificial b. Pigment and light c. Cool and bright d. Pigment and neutralised 216. Two categories of texture are a. Actual and tactile b. Simulated and rough c. Spotted and smooth d. Actual and simulated 217. Which of the following refers to volume and weight? a. Form b. Shape c. Space d. Value 218. Shading brings about three feelings which are a. Beauty, flexibility and tonation b. Joy, peace and tranquillity c. Recession, solidity and depth d. Solidity, balance and texture 219. The ceremonial swords of the Akan people decorated with the eagle signifies a. Power and might, strength and watchfulness b. Greatness, superiority and determination to succeed c. Warlike attitude, independence and self-sufficiency d. Cunning, wisdom, power and protection 220. One of the following is a notable Ghanaian painter a. W.N. Sackey b. F.T. Mate c. O.Ampofo d. A. Kotei 221. The belief that plants and animals have special powers is known as a. Animism b. Sorcery c. Magic d. Necromancy 222. In ceramic-sculpture, carving is best done when the clay is a. Washed b. Grogged c. Wedged d. Leatherhard 223. A precise shape is repeated throughout a print by using a a. Camera b. Stencil c. Pantograph d. Rapidograph 224. The lost wax process of casting is termed a. Cire Perdue b. Tritik c. Dewaxing d. Sizing 225. In a poster, the written material is called a. Draft b. Passage c. Lesson d. Text 226. A picture made from uniformly broken pieces of glass glued onto the support is known as a. Collage b. Batik c. Montage d. Mosaic 227. The term hue is synonymous with a. Paint b. Colour c. Tone d. Texture 228. Which of these pigments is a tint of red?

artists) for the people (society) using their ideas, local ingenuity, technology, tools and materials. They form an integral part of the everyday life of the people. These works are highly valued, cherished and protected. Examples of these arts include sculpture, pottery, bead making, basketry and textiles. These art forms play vibrant roles in the nation.

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SculptureIndigenous sculptural forms include the Akuaba doll, stools, drums, Adinkra patterned figures, gold weights, etc. PotteryIndigenous pottery wares include vases, vessels, bowls, cups etc. Bead makingVarious kinds of beads are used in making jewels for playing roles such as personal adornment, protection, identification etc. Examples include necklaces, bracelets, anklets etc. BasketrySeveral containers and interesting articles are produced with cane, raffia, grass. Examples include baskets, furniture, flower vases etc. TextilesIndigenous textile products include Kente, Fugu, Batakari, Adinkra cloth, Tie and dye cloth, Batik cloth etc. LeatherworkIndigenous leather products include bags, necklaces, belts, slippers, etc. PaintingVarious sceneries are painted on canvas as indigenous wall paintings. Village scenes that depict the cultural life of Ghanaians are usually painted by indigenous artists.

THE ROLE OF INDIGENOUS ART IN NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT The indigenous arts of Ghana play an important role in the development of the nation. The roles they play are discussed below.

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• JOB CREATION/EMPLOYMENT: The indigenous arts offer various employment avenues to majority of people especially the rural folks. This helps them in providing for themselves and their families thereby reducing the unemployment ratio in the country easing the government of the burden of unemployment. • REDUCTION OF RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION: Most of the indigenous arts of the country are done by rural folks in small villages and towns. Owing to the fact that they offer jobs for the masses of people there, it prevents them from moving to the urban centres to seek for greener pastures placing a lot of pressure on the limited resources and social amenities allocated for the cities in the urban areas. • SOURCE OF REVENUE FOR THE NATION: The small scale and cottage industries which are in the production of the various indigenous arts pay tax revenues to the government. The money generated from these taxes can be used by the government in solving some of the pertinent problems confronting the nation. • OFFERS TRAINING IN THE FORM OF APPRENTICESHIP: The indigenous art production centres offer training in the form of apprenticeship to the young ones in the society. These young ones may not have had the privilege of formal education and may have ended up being social deviants. Because the indigenous industries absorbs these young ones, it helps in minimising or eradicating social vices like stealing, alcoholism and others which are mostly as a result of unemployment. • PROMOTES THE TOURISM INDUSTRY: The indigenous industries are viable tourist industries that generate a lot of income for the nation. The indigenous art works are well patronised by these tourists who pay substantial amounts in their purchase. Sometimes, some of their works are exported to other foreign lands to earn income for the artist and the nation. • SERVES AS AVENUES FOR CULTURAL EDUCATION: The indigenous arts are like ‘history books’ of our rich cultural heritage. It helps the younger generation in knowing much about their rich cultural traditions handed down to them by their ancestors. These arts do not just inform them of their material culture but also the rich philosophies, body of beliefs and the way of life of their forebears. Page 17

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a. Firing pots with twigs b. Creating patterns on pots c. Polishing with stone d. Smoking wares 200. African arts are functional because they a. Belong to the past b. Are made by women c. Cannot be exported d. Serve specific purposes 201. Beliefs, ideas and practices of a society may be collectively referred to as a. Modern civilisation b. Cultural heritage c. Visual education d. National development 202. Compositors and engravers are a. Literary artists b. Graphic artists c. Fine artists d. Static artists 203. One of the prominent Renaissance artists was a. Pablo Picasso b. Edouard Manet c. Michelangelo d. Paul Cezanne 204. Renaissance art was unique because a. It made people co-operative b. It promoted individuality c. It encouraged group discussions d. It forced down the prices of artworks 205. Most Ghanaian traditional art are a. Paintings of chiefs b. Dancing figures c. Symbols of ideas d. Carvings of ivory 206. Identify the tribe associated with the carving of the milk pots a. The Swazi b. The Baule c. The Fulani d. The Sherbo 207. Cave and rock arts were relevant in a. Portraying early man’s study of aesthetics b. Providing basic necessities of life c. Revealing man’s ignorance d. Promoting traditional medicine 208. The Nigerian artist known for wood carving is a. Chinua Achebe b. Josy Ajiboye c. Lamidi Fakeye d. Wole Soyinka 209. Egyptian art was static because a. Art was only made for tombs b. Materials used were similar c. A set of strict laws were followed d. Art was made to attract tourists 210. The main elements of Chinese vase decoration were a. Horticultural b. Botanical c. Zoomorphic d. Geomorphic 211. A three-dimensional form which gives the effect of bulk, density and weight is a. Shape b. Mass c. Statue d. Silhouette 212. A moving point describes a a. Horizon b. Line c. Rhythm d. Repitition 213. The contrast between light and dark tones in a picture is known as Page 418

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187. The Greeks built temples to a. Show their wealth b. Exhibit their skills c. Accomodate their kings d. Protect their gods 188. How was Egyptian art different from Chinese art? a. Egyptians mostly used rigid angular forms b. Egyptians preferred swerving curves c. Egyptians painted slaves bigger than their masters d. Egyptians used bright colours 189. The main attribute of the Renaissance was to a. Create pigments for painting b. Develop individuality c. Establish art schools d. Promote watercolour painting 190. The arts of North Africa were influenced by the Greeks because a. The Greeks forced them to learn art b. Africans wanted to be influenced c. Africans had no knowledge of art d. They had contact with the Greeks 191. In leatherwork, cutting to thin the edges of thick leather is known as a. Thonging b. Punching c. Tooling d. Skiving 192. The framework which supports a figure when modelling is known as a. Armature b. Stand c. Metal d. Tripod 193. One of the following advantages in designing a product is to a. Capture the whole market b. Make people curious about the product c. Get an overview of the finished work d. Enhance the texture of the product 194. Perspective in drawing is achieved by a. Ruling different angular lines b. Using dominance and colour c. Drawing objects at the same level d. Showing distance and relative sizes 195. Two colours can be harmonised in painting by a. Adding white to the colours b. Placing their mixture between them c. Adding black to the colours d. Mixing the two colours 196. Grey baft can be made white through the process of a. Scouring b. Mercerizing c. Bleaching d. Sizing 197. Ife in Nigeria is noted for a. Wood carving b. Leatherwork c. Cultural dances d. Bronze heads 198. A step in art appreciation is a. Identification b. Criticism c. Judgement d. Creation 199. In pottery, burnishing means

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• ATTRACTS FOREIGN INVESTORS: The activities of the various indigenous small scale industries attract the attention of foreign investors. Because this industry is very lucrative, these foreign investors invest their resources in the business by providing expansions of the industry in the provision of durable raw materials, modern technologies, as well as tools and machinery. This booms the activities of the industry earning more revenue for the workers and the nation as a whole. GHANAIAN ATTITUDES TO VISUAL ARTS Ghanaians have differing attitudes toward the Visual arts. While a fraction of Ghanaians have positive attitudes of the arts, others have negative feelings about them. Whether the attitude is negative or positive is dependent on the meanings, uses and functions of the arts in the everyday life activities of each Ghanaian. To enable us to critically analyze these attitudes, we are going to discuss them under various categories or fractions of the Ghanaian populace. These are the Government, the Ministry of Education, Intellectuals, Art Dealers, General Public, Heads of Schools, Tutors and Students. THE GOVERNMENT The various successions of governments that have wielded authority over the Ghanaian populace ranging from the military regimes to the democratic governments have immensely contributed and promoted the arts. The Government does that through its ministries and their numerous agencies. For example, the Ministry of Education promotes the arts through the various activities it organizes such as photo exhibitions, films and publications. Moreover, the ministry ensures that documentaries of the arts are broadcasted on radio and television. Also, the Museum and Monumental Board has also shown its commitments to the arts by purchasing some of the works of Ghanaian artists and also organizing various art exhibitions for the Visual arts. In addition, the government established the Ghana Arts Council, a body set up with the sole aim of promoting the arts of the country. Among their activities is the organization of various art exhibitions and cultural festivals in and outside the country. It also organized several national art contests notable among them were those held in 1968 and 1972. The various centres of National Culture in all the regions of the country are promoters of the arts. They organize various programmes, workshops, seminars and exhibitions of art in their quest of ensuring the sustenance of the arts. Other corporate bodies and associations such as the National Film Institute (NAFTI), the Symphony Orchestra and the Ghana Dance Ensemble all promote the Visual arts through their numerous activities. The government holds various Page 18

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fairs to acknowledge, reward and market the works of artists. Examples of these fairs include The International Trade Fair (1966), the International Tourism Fair (1986), the Ghana International Furniture Fair (GIFEX) and the Pan African Festival of Music (PAFAM 1990). The thought of uniting all visual art teachers in the country came to light when the Ghana Association of Visual Art Teachers (GAVA) was set up in October 1990. The association also ensures the preservation, transmission and promotion of the Visual arts. These attempts made by the Government are very impressive and we can say with conviction that its attitude to the Visual arts is positive. THE MINISTRY OF EDUCATION The Ministry of Education is one of the agencies that have spearheaded the study of the Visual arts in the educational programmes at various levels of the academic calendar. It’s Curriculum Research and Development Division (CRDD) oversees the preparation of syllabuses for art. At the basic level, the ministry has introduced the creative arts subject to develop creative talents of students at the primary school level. In the Junior High Schools, Basic Design and Technology with an option for the study of Visual arts has been included in their curricula to assist learners in developing and promoting the arts in the country. In the various Senior High Schools, the Ministry of Education provides some monetary funds to support practical lessons in the Visual arts programme. The ministry has also sponsored the establishment of visual art studios with the needed resources for the study of art. In the new Educational Reform programme, much emphasis has been placed on the study of vocational programmes especially the Visual arts which have been seen to eradicate the problem of unemployment in the country. The Ministry of Education’s attitude toward the study of Visual arts is positive and must be applauded. INTELLECTUALS The elite class in the country looks down on the study of art and artists in general. They have the notion that students who opt for the study of art are academically dull that is why they did not choose to study the so-called more difficult subjects like mathematics, science, engineering and medicine. Literate parents would persuade their children not to study the arts even though some of these children have excellent talents in art. Majority of the elite society think that art should not be sold but rather should be given as gifts. Few, however, patronize the purchase of artworks and they use them as a form of decoration in their homes and offices. The negative attitude of some of the elite members are as a result of the old Educational system that provided little knowledge and

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a. Tertiary colour b. Neutral colour c. Secondary colour d. Complementary colour 174. Which of the following techniques will produce actual texture? a. Drawing b. Colour c. Shading d. Collage 175. Frottage is a process in a. Printmaking b. Bronze-casting c. Basketry d. Pottery 176. The Nok terracotta was named after the a. Culture of the people at the time b. Ruler of the town at the time of the first find c. Man who found the first piece d. Town where the first piece was found 177. The cave of Altamira is located in a. South Africa b. Spain c. France d. Australia 178. The ethnic group associated with the Poro and Bundu societies is the a. Mandinka b. Mende c. Baule d. Dogon 179. A meaningful evaluation of the qualities of a work of art is known as a. Assessment b. Criticism c. Appreciation d. Creativity 180. The outstanding philosophy that links the ancient Egyptian to the Indian is that both a. Have Buddhism at the center of their beliefs b. Believe in life after death c. Build pyramids to preserve their leaders’ d. Consider the Pharaoh as a supreme being 181. The Chiwara is essentially used for a. Puberty rites b. Entertainment c. Agricultural rites d. Initiation rites 182. Human figures were represented in accurate proportions during the a. Archsic period b. Geometric period c. Classical period d. Hellenistic period 183. Impasto could best be described as a. A large rural painting on canvas b. The thick application of colour in layers on a format c. A watercolour painting based on everyday activities d. A painting on a freshly plastered wall 184. African carvings are mainly a. Distorted b. Naturalistic c. Largely painted d. Highly polished 185. Venetian painters were noted for a. Drawing b. Colour c. Shading d. Chairoscuro 186. The ancient cave paintings clearly depicted a. Festivals b. Poverty c. Farming d. Animals Page 416

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a. Angle of view of the artist b. Station point of the artist c. Relative sizes of objects d. Direction of light 158. Which of the following art forms requires the use of odds and ends? a. Cartoon b. Collage c. Fresco d. Mosaic 159. Which of the following masks is used in rituals connected with the Simo society? a. Bundu b. Nimba c. Gelede d. Kanaga 160. In printing fabrics, dyes are fixed to prevent a. Bleeding b. Blotting c. Creeping d. Running 161. Tonal value offers the opportunity to a. Grade colours b. Mix colours c. Identify achromatic colours d. Identify tertiary colours 162. Planography is a process in a. Sculpture b. Printing c. Jewellery d. Ceramics 163. Which ethnic group in West Africa is versatile in bronze work? a. Ewe b. Igbo c. Krobo d. Baule 164. Which of the following lines is used to indicate lightning? a. Horizontal b. Thick c. Zig-zag d. Curved 165. One of the major art forms of the Polynesians is a. Weaving b. Pottery c. Jewellery d. Modelling 166. In which of the following countries was the human figure painted in profile? a. China b. Ghana c. Egypt d. Crete 167. Masks are worn during ceremonial dances to instil a. Indiscipline b. Greatness c. Fear and awe d. Instability 168. Which of the following is a principle of design? a. Line b. Texture c. Colours d. Rhythm 169. The technique wet-in-wet is associated with a. Poster colour b. Oil painting c. Tempera painting d. Water colour 170. What is an outstanding characteristic between painting and sculpture? a. Illusion of depth and actual depth b. Pigments and plastic materials c. Two dimensions and three dimensions d. Frontal view and multi-view 171. A multi-coloured painting is termed a. Dichrome b. Trichrome c. Polychrome d. Monochrome 172. Randing, slewing and upsetting are terms in a. Sculpture b. Basketry c. Leatherwork d. Ceramics 173. A mixture of three primary colours will produce a Page 415

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understanding of our own arts. Therefore, the attitude of the elite society is partly positive and partly negative. ART DEALERS Art dealers are people who trade in artefacts. They directly purchase the art works from the artists and sell it for profit. Because their business is the selling of artefacts, they help in its promotion and preservation. This attitude is positive. However, some art dealers deliberately buy the artworks from artists at relatively low prices and sell them to buyers at exorbitant prices. This diminishes the zeal of artists to create more works of art since what they earn is not due their toil and effort. This bad attitude must stop to help artists have the inner joy to create more artefacts for the preservation of the arts. THE GENERAL PUBLIC In the indigenous societies, art played a vibrant role in the everyday life of the people. Works of art served religious, economic, personal or political purposes. The general public at that time understood the arts and the role they played in the cultural life of the people. This deepened their appreciation and value of the arts. Unfortunately today, a greater section of the public does not fully understand the arts that are done today which has strong foreign influence. This vague in their understanding of the arts and their philosophical meanings have made them lose patronage for the arts. The general public sees the formal Western type of education together with their styles of art as alien to the cultural life of Ghanaians. This is making their attitude negative to the arts. To be able to correct this, the general public should be educated to see how the arts done today fit into our society. They must be well informed about the meanings and relevance of the arts in the contemporary life of the Ghanaian. This would help them to develop positive towards the arts done today. HEADS OF SCHOOLS, TUTORS AND STUDENTS Heads of schools have been given the legal mandate to control the affairs of the school they have been put in charge. This includes which, how and when developmental projects should be done in the school. Unfortunately, majority of heads of schools especially second cycle institutions have relegated the study of art to the background. Due to this they channel funds earmarked for the provision of resources for the Visual arts department to other seemingly ‘overly important subjects’. No wonder some funds generated for the establishment of visual art studios and the purchase of equipment for practical lessons in Visual arts have been directed to the setting up of science laboratories and the purchase of science equipment in most second cycle institutions. Page 20

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Some tutors of second cycle schools have negatively influenced students to desist from the study of the Visual arts. They say that the study of art is for average and academically less endowed students. Therefore when brilliant students desire to study art they shatter their dreams with derogatory comments about the arts. However, the study of art has an upper hand than other subjects in that it offers both theoretical and practical knowledge to students at the expense of the other programmes of study. Such teachers who are not well informed about the arts should desist from this habit. Students who study the so-called difficult subjects also look down on students of art in their various schools. They rate themselves higher than students who undertake the study of vocational programmes. This has caused some students of art not to come all out to be at par with them in general school activities. Students of art should be proud of themselves knowing that if they excel in their chosen programme of study they would have a more secured future.

ART ASSOCIATION AND ART INDUSTRIES An art association is a group of artists, art patrons, art teachers etc. who have come together with the sole aim of promoting, preserving, promoting and transmitting the artistic cultural heritage of the nation through its organised workshops, seminars, talks, durbars, exhibitions, fairs etc. On the other hand, an art industry is a firm or company set up with the aim of producing art related products and services. They largely do this to promote and preserve the artistic cultural heritage of the nation. The art associations and industries play various roles in the building of the nation. Some of these roles and how it enhances and builds the nation have been discussed below. i. They help in offering training to several unemployment youth as well as less endowed artists in the nationThe art associations and industries through the organisation of workshops and training on the various art disciplines help unemployed youths in the nation in acquiring workable skills and techniques for artistic productions. The acquisition of the skills are utilised into the setting up of small-scale industries or enterprises thereby eradicating or reducing to a minimal degree the unemployment ratio in the nation.

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143. Tonal drawing is used to define a. Form b. Rhythm c. Silhouette d. Style 144. The ancient Egyptians painted beautifully on wooden panels, walls of temples and a. Canvas b. Leather c. Marbles d. Papyrus 145. Which of the following ethnic groups is noted for terra cotta sculptures? a.Asante b. Dogon c. Mende d. Nok 146. Rites of passage mark the transition through a. Adulthood, adolescence and old age b. Birth, marriage and death c. Ancestorship, chieftaincy and kingship d. Infancy, motherhood and parenthood 147. In architecture, the Greeks invented the a. Pyramid b. Doric style c. Sphinx d. Sanchi stupa 148. Taking inventory of a work of art means stating a. The technical qualities b. The title, date and size of the work c. All the items seen in the work d. Methods used by the artist 149. In the practice of animism, snakes, crocodiles, frogs and birds are linked with a. Abundance b. Fertility c. Growth d. Twins 150. Ancient Egyptians painted women differently from men by making the women a. Gorgeous and elegant b. Fat and round c. Slim and tall d. Smaller and lighter 151. Bleaching is a process of rendering a fabric a. Dark b. Strong c. Hard d. White 152. Lino is the most suitable medium for a. Engraving b. Etching c. Marbling d. Print making 153. A mixture of clay and other ceramic materials is called a. Body b. Batt c. Biscuit d. Grog 154. All the following are complementary colours except a. Red and green b. Blue and red c. Orange and blue d. Red-orange and blue-green 155. Passing judgement on a work of art after considering its qualities is termed a. Appreciation b. Creativity c. Criticism d. Value 156. The sculptor who executed the discus thrower was a. Kritios b. Myron c. Phaidas d. Praxiteles 157. When shading a drawing, consideration should be given to the Page 414

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129. The three Egyptian systems of writing which remained until the Christian era were a. Hieroglyphic, hieratic and demotic b. Hieroglyphic, hieratic and Coptic c. Hieroglyphic, demotic and Coptic d. Hieratic, demotic and Coptic 130. Benin court art usually takes the form of a. Sculpture b. Textiles c. Painting d. Pottery 131. Which of the following techniques in picture making does not involve sticking of materials onto a surface? a. Collage and montage b. Applique and mosaic c. Frottage and marbling d. Mosaic and collage 132. An expert with a discriminating taste in an area of fine art is known as a. Connoiseur b. Critic c. Curator d. Speculator 133. Direct prints are prints from a. Textured surfaces b. Lino-cuts c. Wood-cuts d. Relief blocks 134. The ideal wood for making frames for screen printing? a. Ebony b. Mahogany c. Odum d. Wawa 135. Which of the following represents multiple views of objects drawn? a. Futurism b. Pointillism c. Cubism d. Fauvism 136. The subject matter of a work of art is its a. Caption b. Style c. Theme d. Title 137. Early Greek paintings that have survived till today are those made on a. Walls and panels b. Vases and jugs c. Jugs and walls d. Vases and panels 138. Sympathetic magic was prompted by the caveman’s a. Belief in spirits b. Spiritual powers c. Belief in the relationship between animals and their images d. Insecurity among wild and dangerous animals 139. How are elements of design identified in nature? a. Dots, shapes, weight and lines b. Unity, form, harmony and shapes c. Colours, hues, polychrome and monochrome d. Pebbles, trees, rivers and fruits 140. By what means is illusion of distance created with colour when drawing objects and scenes? a. Tonal gradation b. Converging lines c. Overlapping d. Isolation 141. A printed notice which serves as a means of communication is termed a. Cartoon b. Emblem c. Pattern d. Poster 142. In indigenous art, there is no distinction between a. Verbal and visual art b. Art and craft c. Fine and commercial art d. Painting and sculpture

ii. They ensure the promotion and preservation of artistic cultural heritageThe activities of the various art associations and industries assists in the preservation and promotion of our rich traditional arts such as Adinkra clothes, Akuaba dolls, Stools, ceremonial swords, etc. These arts identify us as a Ghanaian people.

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iii. They earn foreign exchange for the nation- The various works or products of the art industries and art associations which are sometimes exported to foreign lands helps in earning foreign exchange for the artist and the nation as a whole. iv. Production of useful articles for the performance of activities in the nation- The articles that the art industries produce help persons in the nation in the carrying out their everyday life activities such as cleaning, storing, domestic chores, industrial activities etc. v. They assist in the dissemination of information that keeps the nation functioning- Artistic products such as poster, billboards, flyers, signboards, handbills etc. help in the spreading of health, economic, political, sports, agricultural issues to the members in the nation. Without these artistic communication tools information dissemination would have been a difficult problem. vi. Generation of revenue through the paying of taxes by the art industries and associations- The various art industries and associations in the country pay taxes to the government through the various district assemblies for the development of the nation. These funds are used for the construction of hospitals, roads etc. vii. Empowering art teachers with current technologies, skills and techniques for teaching- The various workshops and seminars organised by the art associations and industries for teachers in schools and colleges abreast them with current or modern technologies and skills for artistic productions. They in turn relay or impart the skills to the students who are the future leaders of the nation. This would invariably preserve and sustain the artistic heritage of the nation.

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viii. Promotion of vocational education – The various art associations and art industries promote vocational education which is seen as a tool for poverty eradication in the nation. This education offers training of the head, heart and hands. This endows them with the requisite skills for the production of articles. ix. Promotes the sales and patronage of art in the nation- The activities of the various art associations and industries have heightened the relevance or importance of art in the nation. This has increased the value of art in the nation. Many people purchase art products because of the enlightenment they have on the importance of art. x. Organisation of programs, seminars and talks to enhance the study and practice of art in the nation- The study and practice of art has raised the value of art in the country which was formerly seen as not so relevant in comparison to areas of study such as science, mathematics and law. Several people allow their wards to opt for the study of art. Business men, financial and technical institutions now invest heavily in the trading of art products and services. This awareness has been created as a result of the numerous exhibitions, seminars, talks and workshops organised by the various art associations and industries.

UNIT THREE FUNCTIONS OF ART IN THE COMMUNITY Specific Objectives: The student will be able to: 1.3.1 identify art forms and their functions in the community 1.3.2 explain the use of art in the development of the community There are various art forms that play vital roles in the activities carried out in the community. Some of these art forms are Painting, Sculpture, Basketry, Textiles, Architecture, Graphic design, Leatherwork, Jewellery etc. • Painting: Painted works of art on supports such as paper, canvas etc. are used in the decoration of homes, offices, hotels, schools and other public places. Body paintings are also done during festivities, election seasons and for spiritual purposes to protect the individual. Painted works are also used to communicate Page 23

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115. The production of tapa is associated with the a. Indians b. Chinese c. Polynesians d. Japanese 116. Islamic art is mainly a. Ceremonial b. Decorative c. Figurative d. Religious 117. Who were the exponents of cubism? a. George Braque and Paul Cezanne b. Pablo Picasso and Edgar Degas c. Paul Cezanne and Pablo Picasso d. Pablo Picasso and George Braque 118. Which of the following typefaces is referred to as Roman? a. Cursive b. Gothic c. Italic d. Serif 119. An outstanding characteristic that distinguishes one colour from the other is a. Chroma b. Shade c. Tint d. Value 120. The peak of Greek art was referred to as the a. Archaic period b. Classical period c. Greko-Roman period d. Hellenistic period 121. Fixatives are usually sprayed on pictures made in a. Chalk and gouache b. Graphite and watercolour c. Pastel and charcoal d. Acrylic and oil colour 122. The area in a picture that seems to have the greatest visual appeal is the a. Central point b. Focal point c. Colour area d. Shaded area 123. What does the prevalence of animals in the prehistoric cave paintings reveal? a. The caveman’s ability to draw animal forms b. The caveman’s desire to domesticate wild animals c. The caveman’s inability to draw human forms d. The importance of animals in those societies. 124. The art which depicts recognizable natural forms is referred to as a. Abstract b. Calligraphic c. Geometric d. Figurative 125. Islamic art has always been restricted to a. Geometric ornament and calligraphy b. Text writing and sculpture c. Calligraphy and block lettering d. Figurative ornament and calligraphy 126. Who is the exponent of cubism? a. Michelangelo b. Paul Cezanne c. Pablo Picasso d. Vincent van Gogh 127. The sphinx is a colossal stature with a human head and the body of a a. Leopard b. Jackal c. Camel d. Lion 128. The artist sharpens his creative ability if he produces a. Airport art b. Stereotyped art c. Mechanically produced art d. Inspiration triggered art

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a. Sacrificial bronze vessel b. Silk screen printing c. Bronze jars d. Birdshaped vessel 101. In basketry, fitching is done to a. Decorate and finish bend b. Strengthen and decorate a basket c. Weave alternately d. Form a skeleton of a new basket 102. The kneeling woman on the Shango staff symbolises a. Puberty b. Sterility c. Maturity d. Fertlity 103. In bookbinding, a folio consists of a. 2 pages b. 4 pages c. 6 pages d. 8 pages 104. Which of the following processes will remove impurities from woven fabrics? a. Heddling b. Reeding c. Scouring d. Spinning 105. What material was used in the construction of temples and houses in ancient Japan? a. Clay b. Metal c. Stone d. Wood 106. A surface quality that is created by the imagination of the artist is referred to as a. Actual texture b. Simulated texture c. Abstract texture d. Invented texture 107. A technique of painting that employs the use of violet and shade is a. Chairoscuro b. Sfumato c. Tenebrism d. Trompe l’oeil 108. Three point perspective is employed when viewing a. A flat surface b. into the distance c. from an exaggerated position d. A leading edge on the horizon 109. The Nomoli figure is executed in a. Terra-cotta b. Wood c. Soapstone d. Granite 110. A balance with a central focus is a. Vertical balance b. Asymmetrical c. Horizontal balance d. Radial 111. An optical illusion which suggest distance is a. Horizon b. Perspective c. Background d. Sky 112. The subject matter for prehistoric painting was mainly a. Tools and weapons b. Rivers and animals c. Animals and human figures d. Mountains and human figures 113. A hue created by mixing green and orange is a. Complementary b. Primary c. Secondary d. Tertiary 114. What emotion is evoked by the use of Sombre colours? a. Depression b. Dignity c. Excitement d. Serenity Page 411

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information to the general public on how to address challenging problems confronting the country such as the spread of HIV/AIDS, drug abuse and so forth. • Sculpture: Two and three dimensional sculptural figures are produced to serve several purposes. Some of the sculptural figures are placed at vantage points of the society and in institutions to remember important personalities and events. Others are used in decorating homes, offices and other public squares. Statues of the dead are made and placed on graves as memorial of the dead. Sculptured fountains are used in decorating hotels and beaches. Deities and holy persons in shrines and churches serve as mediums of worship and reverence. • Basketry: Various kinds of receptacles and containers are fashioned in interesting shapes and used for all kinds of storage. Some are used in storing farm produce and other items. Furniture made with cane and other pliable materials in basketry are used as seating in several homes, offices, hotels and other social centres. Small floral vases in cane are used in decorating centre tables. Room dividers, Television stands, and Dressing mirrors made with bamboo and cane are used in decorating the interiors of homes. • Textiles: Textile products in the form of fabrics such as Kente, Fugu, Tie and Dye and Batik are sown into dresses and apparels and are worn on the body. Curtains are hanged in the interiors of rooms. Table mats laid on tables are used as a form of decoration. In the automobile firms, textiles is used in providing furnishes, upholstery and general seating in vehicles. In the medical sector, apparatus, aprons, gloves and other equipment used in medical treatments are produced as a result of textiles. • Architecture: Architectural structures are used as shelter for individuals and families. Some are used as offices for business activities of companies and places of meeting for educational institutions, religious bodies etc. Other architectural structures are used as learning centres or libraries. Other public buildings and social centres assist in maintain law and order in the community. • Graphic Design: Products in Graphic design such as posters, banners, billboards, signpost and boards, flyers etc. serve as communication tools in the dissemination of information to the general public. Health issues, political issues etc. are made Page 24

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known to the general public as a result of these products in Graphic design. In commercial and business related activities, products in Graphic design such as packages help in the marketing of products of firms and industries. • Leatherwork: Products in leatherwork are used for personal adornment such as apparels, bangles, shoes, necklaces etc. Leather is used in producing bags and other containers for storage purposes. Leather products such as football, trophies help greatly in recreational and sporting activities. Its products such as drums, fly whisk, leather plaited stools are immensely used in chieftaincy and culture. • Jewellery: Jewellery products like necklaces, bracelets, wristlets and anklets are worn on the body to serve decorative, protective and identification purposes. Jewellery in the form of beads is worn on the body of young girls who have reached the puberty stage during their initiation rites. All these art forms offer countless employment avenues to the masses of the general public in the community. THE USES OF ART IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE COMMUNITY Virtually all the activities carried out in the community in one way or the other employ the services of artefacts. In this section, we will look at some major activities done in the community and discuss the roles of works of art in them. Again, we will see how these artworks harnesses the development of the society in these areas: • • • • • • • • • •

Religion Commerce Agriculture Politics Chieftaincy Tourism Education Information Technology Cottage Industries Gifts

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86. Placing paper on a coin surface and rubbing with a pencil is termed a. Montage b. Frottage c. Marbling d. Dabbing 87. Preliminary designing of a product is done immediately after a. Definition of the problem b. Idea development c. Possible solutions d.Investigation of the problem 88. Which of the following is most appropriate for making models? a. Plaster b. Plasticine c. Cement d. Bronze 89. Rainbow colours are arranged in a similar pattern as rays of light passing through a. The sky b. The window c. A glass prism d. Water in a bucket 90. The following are ancient Greek art periods, except a. Archaic period b. Hellenistic period c. Rose period d. Classical period 91. Which of the following hindered the development of true Egyptian art and sculpture? a. Men were painted darker than women b. Artists followed Hellenistic art styles c. Art was used to worship gods d. Glazes were used for tiles 92. The open-hearth process is used to cast bronze in moulds made of a. Clay or iron b. Tin or stone c. Stone or clay d. Wax and plastic 93. Pecking the outlines of figures is a technique of a. Painting b. Engraving c. Appliqueing d. Etching 94. Egyptian inventions included a. Hieroglyphics, papyrus reed, glazes b. Calligraphy, calendar, paper c. Pyramid, paper-mulberry, sphinx d. Calendar, paper, picture-writing 95. Oriental Art comprises a. Melanesian and Polynesian art b. Chinese and Melanesian art c. Indian and Chinese art d. Polynesian and Indian art 96. Greek statues were mostly carved in a. Marble b. Ebony c. Sandstone d. Limestone 97. Neolithic man a. Lived on wild fruits and grains b. Was at the mercy of the weather c. Lived in caves d. Built houses 98. Which of the following is suitable for an appliqué support? a. Shetmetal b. Fabric c. Wooden panel d. Plywood 99. The earliest paintings of a civilised people are those of the a. Egyptians b. Greeks c. Italians d. Romans 100. The art form of the ancient Japanese was Page 410

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a. Sculpted human figures were in correct proportions b. Human figures were given movement and flexibility c. Sculpted naked sportsmen were in different postures d. Forms of statues were stiff and symmetrical 70. Pecking the outline of figures is a technique of a. Painting b. Engraving c. Appliqueing d. Etching 71. Colours that tend to advance in a painting are a. Bright b. Cool c. Dull d. Weak 72. The Indians preserve sacred relics in the a. Palace b. Shrine c. Stupa d. Temple 73. Which of the following is a direct print? a. Frottage b. Wood-cut c. Lino-cut d. Screen 74. An egg yolk is used as a binder for a. Acrylic b. Gouache c. Tempera d. Watercolour 75. The absorption of dyes into fabrics is enhanced when the fabric is a. Bleached b. Sized c. Soaked d. Washed 76. In silk screen printing, the ink is forced through the mesh by the use of a. Brayer b. Pliers c. Squeegee d. Roller 77. The process of preparing hides and skins into leather is a. Embossing b. Scrapping c. Skinning d. Tanning 78. Fixative is a preservative for drawings done in a. Chalk b. Ink c. Postercolour d. Watercolour 79. The purity of a colour is its a. Hue b. Intensity c. Opacity d. Value 80. Which of the following ethnic groups produced the nomoli? a. Baule b. Dogon c. Mende d. Senufu 81. The caveman used skins of hunted animals to satisfy a. Spiritual needs b. Magical needs c. Defensive needs d. Domestic needs 82. The art movement which draws upon dream imagery is a. Humanism b. Dadaism c. Surrealism d. Illusionism 83. In which of the following periods were all artists anonymous? a. Paleolithic b. Renaissance c. Classical d. Impressionist 84. Modelling in picture making is done to achieve a. Sculptural form b. Form in relief c. Form in the round d. Solidity of form 85. Which colours appear to advance in a painting? a. Warm colours b. Cool colours c. Secondary colours d. Complementary colours Page 409

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Art for religious purposes Religious activities of the various religious bodies in the community are effectively carried out by the help of works of art. For instance, members of the religious groups meet in architectural structures where the religious activities do take place. Leaders and servants of the church are easily recognized by the textile cloth, costumes and special apparels that they wear. Deities and holy ones are either sculpted, painted, carved or modeled in clay and other materials to serve as mediums of worship. The religious activities make use of various forms of performing art forms such as music, singing, drumming, miming, incantations, prayers and sometimes drama in carrying out their teachings and worship of their deities. In some religious denominations, special books which are believed to be ‘holy’ such as the Bible and the Koran are used for teaching and disseminating the doctrines of the religious bodies. Commerce Artworks are traded to earn income. People invest in the collections of works of art. The field of art also offers various employment avenues for artists. More importantly is the role art plays in the success of other trades. Art helps in the marketing of products and services. Locations and other relevant information of firms and companies as well as the products they produce are nicely depicted on signboards and billboards. Posters, handbills and flyers assist in the promotion of sales of products. Agriculture Artefacts help in the promotion of agricultural activities such as fishing, farming, hunting and harvesting. Agricultural tools and implements such as cutlasses, hoes, wellington boots etc. are artistic products. Farm produce are stored in receptacles or containers like baskets. In indigenous societies, art forms such as music, dance, costumes all help in the carrying out of agricultural activities. Deities and gods believed to control agricultural activities are invoked through incantations, special songs and dance performances. Nicely designed packages are used in packaging produce from the various agricultural activities. They help in maximizing the sales of the products. Politics The activities of the various political parties in the country are made possible by the use of works of art. For instance, the emblems and colours that help us to distinguish one political party from the other are as a result of art. Moreover, each of the parties make the general public know of their plans for the nation as well as

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their campaign messages through the use of posters, banners, signboards signposts, flyers, handbills and billboards which are all works of art. In addition, the various T-shirts, caps, and other paraphernalia that party activists and supporters put on during political rallies and meetings are all products of art. In fact, without art political activities cannot be carried out. Chieftaincy In the traditional system of governance where a chief and his council (body of elders and other sub-chiefs) exercises authority over his subjects or members of the society, works of art are greatly at work. The stool that denotes the office of the chief is an artwork. His entire regalia as well as that of his council are all works of art. How would someone know that someone sent to him or her is the spokesman of the chief? It is the staff that he holds which makes his identity known and that staff is an artwork. Festivals, ceremonies and rituals that are done in the society rely extensively on artefacts. The palanquins, ceremonial swords, state umbrellas etc. that you see during these occasions are all works of art. Tourism The tourism industry owes its existence to art. Why do a great number of tourists visit our country? It is because they want to learn of our culture which is seen in its entirety in the various works of art. The various Centres of National Culture are their favorite spots because they are rich in works of art. Our indigenous clothes like Kente, Fugu and Batakari, beads, leather articles, Akuaba dolls and other sculptural figures, ceramic and pottery wares that these tourists purchase to their countries are artworks. When they are sold to these tourists, it helps in earning foreign exchange for the artist as well as the nation. Education Teaching and learning activities in the various educational institutions are effectively carried out by the use of artefacts. The teaching and learning materials such as papers, books, pens, desks, Chalkboards, drawing boards etc. are products in art. The delivery of lessons is also a verbal art. The architectural structures such as classrooms and lecture halls where the teaching and learning activities take place are also artworks. The uniforms and costumes that help us to identify students of various educational institutions are made possible through textiles, an art form. The numerous teaching aids that assist greatly in teaching and learning activities are all works of art. School programs and locations of schools are broadcasted and made known to the general public through artefacts such as banners, signboards, posters and billboards. Page 27

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54. Artists create caricatures to depict a. Beauty and elegance b. Humour and satire c. Confusion and rage d. Peace and harmony 55. Round hog bristle is to in-laying as flat hog is to a. Outlining b. Detailing c. Filling-in d. Blocking-out 56. The technique of placing new painting on either side of the old is a. Juxtaposition b. Superimposition c. Superposition d. Transposition 57. A green shape placed on a red background will create a. Balance b. Contrast c. Dominance d. Harmony 58. The ancient Chinese executed sculptures of animals mainly in a. Clay b. Metal c. Stone d. Wood 59. The minsereh figure is the art form of the a. Baule b. Dogon c. Kissi d. Mende 60. How many intermediate triads are contained in the tweleve-point colour wheel? a. One b. Two c. Three d. Four 61. Pottery making was prevalent in Greece during the a. archaic period b. Geometric period c. Classical period d. Hellenistic period 62. Ancient mosaics were mainly done in a. Glass b. Terra-cotta c. Tessarae d. Wood 63. A suitable medium for outdoor sculpture is a. Bronze b. Clay c. Plaster d. Plasticine 64. Akuaba is to fertility as Ibeji is to a. Ancestral veneration b. Agricultural rites c. Dead twin d. Water spirit 65. The most suitable support for intaglio printing is a. Wood b. Lino c. Glass d. Metal 66. The Polynesians based their artworks on a. Everyday activities b. War and conquest c. Foriegn cultures d. Beliefs and practices 67. Which of the following countries produced soapstone sculptures? a. Cote d’Ivoire b. Sierra Leone c. Ghana d. Guinea 68. Which of the following is based on the principle of repulsion of grease and water? a. Lino cut b. Intaglio c. Woodcut d. Lithography 69. A characteristic feature of Greek sculpture in the Archaic period is that Page 408

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a. Acrylic b. Plasticine c. Putty d. Wax 40. The caveman combined a. Painting and sculpture b. Drawing and painting c. Sculpture and engraving d. Engraving and painting 41. Which of the following is the art form of the Japanese? a. Sacrificial bronze vessel b. Silk screen printing c. Bronze jars d. Birdshaped vessel 42. The process of attaching a board cover with glue to the spine of a book is termed a. Padding b. Wapping c. Sabbing d. Backing 43. Who are the outstanding artists of the high renaissance period? a. Giotto, Caravaggio and Van Gogh b. Cezanne, Monet and Rembrandt c. Leonardo, Raphael and Michelangelo d. Picasso, Michelangelo and Braque 44. Which of the following is not a physical property of colour? a. Hue b. Form c. Value d. Intensity 45. Select an element of design from the following: a. Balance b. Variety c. Harmony d. Shape 46. An object that absorbs all the colours of the spectrum will appear a. Black b. Brown c. Grey d. White 47. Burin is a tool for a. Batiking b. Engraving c. Etching d. Printing 48. The most suitable binder for watercolour is a. Lacquer b. Gum Arabic c. Vinegar d. Carpenter’s glue 49. In an art studio, a donkey is a. A model for figure drawing b. An animal for landscape painting c. A combined stool and a drawing board d. A dummy on which a model sits 50. The appearance of grey-baft is enhanced by a. Bleaching b. Mercerizing c. Scouring d. Sizing 51. Which of the following helps to identify a style of lettering? a. Length b. Size c. Texture d. Typeface 52. Visual art education fosters creativity by a. Promoting citizenship qualities in artists b. Creating an awareness of the role of art c. Helping artists to think and act uniquely d. Encouraging the appreciation of cultural heritage 53. Which of these ancient civilisations wrote on papyrus? a. Egyptians b. Greeks c. Indians d. Romans Page 407

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Information Technology This is the branch of engineering that deals with the use of computers and telecommunications to retrieve, store and transmit information. In the designing of posters, greeting cards, labels and packages on the computer with art related computed programmes such as CorelDraw, Photoshop etc. art looms high. For instance, skills and knowledge in art is very necessary in making correct choices of colours, font styles, illustrations, layouts and the general appeal of all computerized graphic art. Cottage Industries Cottage industries that help in reducing the unemployment numbers in the country are promoted and preserved through productions in art. In setting up a cottage industry in the area of art does not require a lot of capital when compared to other sectors like medicine, agriculture etc. With the acquired manual skills, together with few locally manufactured tools and raw materials, an artist can produce several creative works that he can sell to make a living in his own house. Areas in art such as basketry, pottery, textiles, and leatherwork do not require huge capitals to start. Therefore, art help in the development and establishment of cottage industries in the country. LIKELY EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 1. State and explain five (5) desirable qualities a senior high school visual art graduate is expected to have. 2. List and explain five (5) career opportunities in Art. 3. (a) What is Art? (b) Give five (5) examples of both Visual arts and Performing art forms. 4. State the differences between Visual arts and Performing arts. 5. Write short notes on the government’s attitude towards Ghanaian Arts in the society. 6. Discuss five (5) functions of Art in the community. 7. (a) What are concepts of art? (b) Discuss five (5) Ghanaian concepts of art. 8. Outline four (4) roles of indigenous arts to the development of the society. 9. Outline ten roles of art associations and industries in nation building.

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SECTION TWO INTRODUCTION TO BASIC DESIGN General Objectives: The student will: 1. understand elements and principles of design. 2. develop elements of design and organize them into a design. 3. develop critical and creative thinking skills and perceptual awareness necessary for applying media, techniques and processes

UNIT ONE ELEMENTS OF DESIGN Specific Objectives: The student will be able to: 2.1.1 identify and define elements of design 2.1.2 create elements of design with ideas derived from the natural and manmade environment. 2.1.3 explain the term colour as applied to art. 2.1.5 mix colours and state the outcomes through exploration 2.1.6 investigate the psychological effects of colour on the behavior of people. 2.1.7 state the symbolisms of colour 2.1.7 explore and describe the various types of pigment available to the artist 2.1.8 explain colour terms Design is a planned organization, composition and arrangement of elements of design. This planned organization of the elements of design is guided by the design principles to achieve desired results. Design is viewed as the roadmap or strategic approach that helps an artist to achieve a unique creation.There are various definitions for elements of design. These are some of the accepted definitions: 1. Elements of design are the basic units of a work of art like painting, drawing or any other visual piece. 2. Elements of design are the basic visual symbols an artist uses to create a work of art. 3. Elements of design are the basic visual tools used for artistic creations. 4. Elements of design are the building blocks used to create a work of art.

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c. Planning, organizing and directing d. Buying, selling and making profits 25. The operation that gives a book its convex back and its concave fore edge is termed a. Bending b. Constructing c. Curving d. Rounding 26. Which of the following is a type of print? a. Collage b. Frottage c. Montage d. Splash 27. Which of the following pictures are produced without making preliminary sketches? a. Collage b. Marbling c. Portrait d. Scenery 28. The cire perdue technique involves the use of a. Clay, wax and bronze b. Cement, clay and wax c. Wax, bronze and wood d. Bronze, wax and ivory 29. The mastaba of ancient Egypt was made of a. Brick and iron b. Wood and clay c. Sand and stone d. Stones and bricks 30. Which of the following colours symbolises prosperity? a. Blue b. Green c. Violet d. Yellow 31. The caveman’s paintings were mainly to a. Show his drawing skills b. Facilitate his magic c. Experiment with drawing media d. Keep records of hunting 32. In which period did the Greeks study human form to perfection? a. Archaic b. Classical c. Geometry d. Hellenistic 33. Which of the following ethnic groups is found in Sierra Leone? a. Baule b. Dogon c. Kissi d. Mende 34. In perspective drawing, scale is interpreted as a. Balance b. Contrast c. Distance d. Nearness 35. Which hue is common to green and orange? a. Blue b. Red c. Violet d. Yellow 36. The two characteristics of a line are a. Magnitude and direction b. Direction and straightness c. Thinness and magnitude d. Quality and size 37. Which of the following is usually built around armature? a. Bronze b. Cement c. Marble d. Silver 38. Paleolithic period is a. Old stone age b. New stone age c. New bronze age d. Old bronze age 39. Water and oil are used on Page 406

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10. Which of the following is based on the principle of repulsion of grease and water? a. Lino-cut b. Intaglio c. Wood cut d. Lithography 11. Colours that appear to recede in a painting are a. Bright b. Cool c. Strong d. Warm 12. Egyptians produced paper from the a. Mulberry tree b. Black-berry tree c. Papyrus reed d. Rubber plant 13. Pointillism gives a similar shading effect as a. Dabbing b. Hatching c. Rubbing d. Stippling 14. The most suitable plate for etching is a. Copper b. Gold c. Iron d. Silver 15. Applying a rubber stamp on a support will produce a a. Low-relief print b. Reverse print c. Direct print d. High relief print 16. The most important feature on the label of a product is the a. Ingredients b. Name c. Producer d. Quantity 17. Which of the following takes the longest time to dry? a. Cement b. Clay c. Plasticine d. P.O.P 18. Wild Beasts refers to a. Fauvist painters b. Expressionist painters c. Impressionist painters d. Post-impressionist painters 19. Which of the following is considered last in painting? a. Drawing b. Evaluation c. Production d. Prototype 20. The following colours on the 12-point colour wheel are intermediary except a. Red and violet b. Blue and green c. Blue and yellow d. Yellow and orange 21. A characteristic feature of Greek art in the classical period is that a. Landscapes are painted b. Sculptured images were mainly of gods and goddesses c. Statues had symmetrical stiff forms d. Temples were built in the Doric style 22. Goods are packaged to increase their a. Cost b. Quality c. Value d. Weight 23. Fine art is valued for its beauty rather than its a. Decoration b. Styles c. Suitabability d. Usefulness 24. Basic marketing strategies in art include a. Advertising, exhibition and attractive packaging b. Costing, pricing and selling Page 405

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The elements of design used in art include dot, line, shape, plane, colour, space, texture, weight, and value. However, the vocabulary of art is made up of six visual elements which are considered to be the most important components of a work of art. They are line, form, shape, colour, space and texture. The artist puts the visual elements together to make a statement in art the same way we put words together to form a sentence. LINE The moving point of a marking tool such as a pencil creates a path of connected dots on a paper. This path of connected dots or mark left by a moving point is referred to as a line. Line is defined as the path of a dot through space. This indicates that it takes movement to create a line. Examples of lines in the natural and manmade environment include leaves and branches of trees, rivers, the contours of a bird, outlines of electrical gadgets like Television set, speakers, computers etc. A skilled artist uses lines to control the movement of the viewer’s eyes. Lines lead the eye of the viewer into, around and out of visual images in an artwork. QUALITIES OF LINES Every line has a length, width, and direction if it is straight. Lines may appear smooth or rough, continuous or broken, sketchy or controlled. Every line has a unique character and this is largely dependent on the tool or medium used to produce the mark and the particular motion of the hand of the artist. This is referred to as Line quality. Lines are also varied. Line variation describes the thickness or thinness, lightness or darkness of a line. Thick and dark lines appear to be visually heavier than thin and light lines. KINDS OF LINE There are five main kinds of line. These are vertical line, horizontal line, diagonal line, curved line, zig-zag line, spiral line, thick line, broken line, converging and diverging lines, wavy line, and parallel line. • •

Vertical lines- These lines move straight up and down. They appear to be in attention and are therefore used in showing dignity, formality or strength. Horizontal lines- These lines run parallel to the ground and they do not slant. Horizontal lines seem at rest. They carry the sensation of quietness and peacefulness. Horizontal lines make viewers feel comfortable, calm and relaxed. Page 30

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Diagonal lines- They are lines that slants. They symbolize action and excitement. Diagonal lines make viewers feel tense and uncomfortable. Curved lines- These lines change direction gradually. Its amount of movement depends on the tightness of the curve. Spiral line is a type of curved line. They are used in expressing graceful movements. Zig-Zag lines- They are created by combining several diagonal lines in various directions. The diagonal lines form sharp angles and change direction suddenly. Zig-Zag lines create confusion. They suggest action and nervous excitement.

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LIKELY EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 1. a) What is a career? b) Outline two essential factors that one needs to consider before choosing a career. c) List and explain five (5) vocations or careers in art. 2. a) What is a museum? b) Outline five (5) socio-economic importance of museums. c) Give five examples of museums and their locations. d) Briefly describe the administrative structure of a museum. e) State and discuss any two (2) types of museums.

USES OF LINES • • • • • • • •

Lines are used in creating linear shapes and patterns used for designing a work of art. Lines are used for rendering a shade on an object such as hatching and cross- hatching. Lines are used as the elementary means of communication. Lines are used in representing ideas. Lines are used in measuring distance. Lines are used in indicating directions. Lines are used in giving character to a form etc. Lines are used to separate columns, rows of type, or to show a change in document type.

Kinds of Lines

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CURRENT OBJECTIVE PAST QUESTIONS 1. The ancient Egyptians used sarcophagus as a a. Support for mummies b. Store for mummy cases c. Repository for the dead king d. Store for treasures 2. Linen and jute are classified as a. Protein fibre b. Animal fibre c. Synthetic fibre d. Vegetable fibre 3. African traditional art was made mainly for a. Religious purposes b. Commercial purposes c. Aesthetic purposes d. Recreational reasons 4. Which of the following are the earliest forms of art? a. Engraving, paintings and sculpture b. Painting, ceramics and engravings c. Sculpture, textiles and etching d. Beadmaking, basketry and ceramics 5. Byzantine art was mainly in a. Collage b. Frescoe c. Mosaic d. Sculpture 6. Religious buildings in India were constructed with a. Clay and wood b. Wood and stone c. Stone and ivory d. Clay and metal 7. The prominent art forms of the Dogon were the a. Terra cottas b. Ritual tools c. Ancestral figures d. Gelede masks 8. Joyfulness and upliftment are evoked by the use of a. Warm colours b. Cool colours c. Dark, sombre colours d. Light, bright colours 9. The oldest printing process is a. Roller printing b. Frottage printing c. Block printing d. Screen printing Page 404

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communities, and to track those patterns in relation to natural or human-induced changes in the environment such as climate change, landscape alteration, etc. 2. Museum specimens form the basis for research on evolution, speciation and distribution, and also provide an important baseline for studies on conservation and emerging diseases. 3. The museum as an institution tells the story of man the world over and how humanity has survived in its environment over the years. 4. The museum houses the cultural soul of the nation. It holds the cultural wealth of the nation in trust for all generations and by its function and unique position, it has become the cultural conscience of the nation.

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DOT It is a small round spot. It is usually created from the nibs of writing tools such as pencil, pen, crayon, etc. Pebbles, fruits, human heads are examples of dots in nature. USES OF DOT • • •

Dots are used for shading. This form of shading is called pointillism/stippling/dotillism. Dots are used in creating visual texture. Dots are used in making sketch drawings.

5. Museums enrich the educational process by exposing children and indeed the public to their history in a positive way. They assist our future generations to understand and appreciate their history and culture and take pride in the achievements of their forebears. 6. Museums are also centres for recreation and entertainment that helps in releasing tensions and stresses in people. SHAPE 7. Museums improve the school curriculum by supplying it with the material culture that are used as teaching aids to improve teaching and learning activities in the classroom. For example, if children are learning about the Romans and they go to an exhibition full of armour and weapons dating from that period, they are more likely to find the lesson more interesting and want to learn more about it. 8. Museums promote unity and ensure peaceful relations among members in the society by using their resources to ensure understanding and appreciation for the various groups and cultures that exist in the society. 9. Museums are also a significant factor in attracting tourists to the country and thereby improving the tourism industry and earning foreign exchange for the country. 10. Museums help in improving the local economy in terms of supplying a trade as well as offering local people employment.

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A shape is defined as an enclosed area. It is an area that stands out from the space next to or around it due to a defined or implied boundary. This area is clearly set off by one or more of the other five visual elements of art. It is the artist’s unique way of representing ideas in two dimensions. Shapes are flat. They are limited to only two dimensions: length and width. A shape may have an outline or boundary around it. Examples of shapes in the natural and manmade environment include shapes of human head, stones, fruits, rectangles, squares, circles etc. TYPES OF SHAPE There are two types of shape. They are regular and irregular shapes. • Regular shapes also referred to as Mechanical Shapes or Geometric Shapes are the shapes that can be drawn using a ruler or compass. Regular shapes, whether simple or complex, produce a feeling of control or order. Examples include square, circle, triangle, rectangle and oval shapes.

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Irregular shapes also referred to as Organic Shapes are freehand drawn shapes that are complex and normally found in nature. Organic shapes produce a natural feel. Examples include the shapes of seeds, fruits, leaves etc.

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1. Curator – research the collection and most often write the text labels for exhibitions. The responsibility of the curator is limited to the taking in charge of the museum in smaller museums. In larger institutions, there may be a curator assigned to each collection of objects that the museum holds. Examples include Curator of Modern Art, Curator of Natural History, Curator of History, etc.

USES OF SHAPE • • • •

Shapes are used to define space in a design. Shapes are used in holding interest in a design. Shapes assist us in differentiating forms from each other in a given area. Shapes when well organized helps in achieving figure-ground relationship.

2. Collections Manager/Registrar – responsible for the care and maintenance of all objects in the museum’s collection, tracks movement of objects in and out of the museum on loan or on exhibition, records information about objects in databases-such as an object’s place of origin. Registrars oversee the accessioning process, which formally accepts objects into the museum’s collection with an accession number and detailed record. Collections Managers and Registrars uphold the Collections Policy, which guides what is and is not accepted into the museum collection. 3. Public Programmer/Educator – creates programs for the public and designs interactives for exhibitions. This position also oversees volunteers and docents or teachers at the museum. Depending on the institution, educators may also research the collections and write text for exhibitions. Educators work with the Board, Director, and Curator to ensure that the needs of the public are met as laid out in the institution’s mission statement.

Varieties of Shapes FORM

4. Exhibition Designer – designs and installs the exhibition under the supervision of the curator and collections manager. They have the vital role of creating exhibition space that is navigable by the visitor.

A form is an object with three dimensions thus length, width (breadth) and depth (height). It is the shape of volume or mass. Forms can be grouped into two namely geometric forms and organic forms. Geometric forms include tables, pots, statues etc. while examples of organic forms are stones, trees etc. The only difference between form and shape is that shapes do not have depths but forms do.

5. Building Operators – oversee security and maintenance of the museum. In larger museums, building operators will work with Collections Managers to maintain appropriate levels of temperature and humidity which can affect the stability of the objects. SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF MUSEUMS Museums have several social and economic importance to individuals and the nation as a whole. Generally, museums have historically been centres of research, education, and public outreach. Some of the roles that museums play in the society have been discussed below.

USES OF FORM • •

It is used for communication. It is used for composition.

SPACE Space is considered as a boundless area. It is the distance between, around, above, below and within shapes and masses. It is a measurable distance between preestablished points. A void or vacuum in which other elements are actualized or Page 33

1. The botanical history and objects at the botanical museums furnishes researchers with the relevant documents in knowing the presence of particular species of plants and animals at a particular place and time. This allows us to examine geographic and temporal changes in animal populations, species, and Page 402

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history museum is a living museum. A living museum is where people recreate a time period to the fullest extent, including buildings, and language. It is similar to historical reenactment.

seen is space. Spaces can be seen in both two and three dimensional forms. There are two kinds of space thus positive space (the space occupied by the objects in a picture) and negative space (the space around objects in a composition or picture.

Science museums Science museums and technology centres revolve around scientific achievements, marvels and their history. To explain complicated inventions, a combination of demonstrations, interactive programs and thought-provoking media are used. Some museums may have exhibits on topics such as computers, aviation, railway , physics, astronomy, and the animal kingdom.

USES OF SPACE • • • • •

It helps objects to exist in three dimensional- space. It helps to define shapes. It is used to create relationships between figures and their grounds. Spaces are used in creating distance (perspective) in a design. It helps us in the organization of types or fonts in a design.

Zoological parks and botanic gardens Although zoos and botanic gardens are not often thought of as museums, they are in fact “living museums”. They exist for the same purpose as other museums thus to educate, inspire action, and to study. They are also managed much like other museums and face virtually the same challenges. Notable zoos include the Bronx Zoo in New York, the London Zoo, the Los Angeles Zoo, the Philadelphia Zoo, the Saint Louis Zoological Park, the San Diego Zoo, Berlin Zoological Garden. In Ghana, the Kumasi Zoological gardens is also a ‘living’ museum that attracts visitors every day and the numbers increases during public holidays. THE ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURE OF A MUSEUM The management and administrative structure provide the coordination required to successfully run a museum, and are ultimately held accountable for its operations. The administration and management of a museum largely depends on the size of the institution, but every museum has a hierarchy of governance with a Board of Trustees serving at the top. The Director is next in command and works with the Board to establish and fulfill the museum’s mission statement and to ensure that the museum is accountable to the public. Together, the Board and the Director establish a good system of governance that is guided by various other documents such as an institutional or strategic plan, institutional code of ethics, bylaws, and collections policy. The American Alliance of Museums (AAM) is the body that has formulated a series of standards and best practices that help guide the management of museums. Their set standards are the yardstick for most museums across the world. There are various positions within the museum and persons who hold these positions are mandated to carry out the policies established by the Board of Trustees and the Director. These positions include curators, collections managers/registrars, public programmers/educators, exhibition designers, and building operators. These positions and all other employees work together to ensure that the museum’s institutional goals are met. Page 401

Negative Space Positive Space

Positive and Negative Spaces TEXTURE `This is the surface character or quality of materials. It refers to how things feel or look as though they might feel if touched. This may be smooth, rough, coarse, hard or soft. Texture can be experienced particularly through two of our senses thus the sense of sight and the sense of touch. However, texture can be perceived in the mind. Texture comes in four basic forms: actual, simulated, abstract and invented. Actual/Tactile texture This texture can be seen and felt through the sense of touch. It is the actual three dimensional feel of an object. Examples include sandpaper, glass, a block of concrete etc. Page 34

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Visual/Simulated texture This is texture perceived by the sense of sight. It is sometimes called optical or descriptive texture since the texture is seen and described. It is said to be deceptive in that the texture can be seen as smooth but it may be rough in a real sense when touched or it can be seen as rough though it is smooth when touched in a real sense. Any texture shown in a picture is a visual texture, meaning the paper is smooth no matter how rough the image perceives it to be. Other examples include marbled stone, roofing tiles, and terrazzo. Abstract texture This form of texture is perceived by the mind. It is based on the general concepts or ideas of people concerning what is smooth or rough. For instance, surfaces of trees are generally believed and accepted to be rough. The individual trained with this mindset may make a mistake in judging all surfaces of trees as rough. However, there are some plant species that have smooth surfaces. Therefore, abstract texture like the visual texture can be deceptive. Invented texture This is the texture deliberately created on a surface. Artists especially create textures in their works of art. For instance, a painter may use the impasto technique (applying paint thickly on a surface) in building peaks in a work of art to create or invent rough texture on a smooth canvas or paper. Examples of invented textures can be seen in collage and mosaic works. USES OF TEXTURE • • • • • •

It is used in giving character to surfaces. Textures are created by an artist to produce decorative effect or pattern. Natural textures are used in creating designs in picture making. Textures are used in creating tactile effect in compositions in painting. It is used in creating unity between objects and their negative spaces in a composition. Textures are used as patterns in printing.

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history, aviation history, philately(collection of postage stamps), agriculture or geology. There is another type of museum commonly referred to as encyclopedic museum which is a universal museum. It has collections representative of the world and typically include art, science, history, and cultural history. Some of the types of museums have been discussed below. Archaeology museums Archaeology museums specialize in the display of archaeological artifacts. Many are in the open air, such as the Agora of Athens and the Roman Forum. Others display artifacts found in archaeological sites inside buildings. Some, such as the Western Australian Museum, exhibit maritime archaeological materials. These appear in its Shipwreck Galleries, a wing of the Maritime Museum. Art museums An art museum is a space for the exhibition of art, usually in the form of art objects from the Visual arts, primarily paintings, illustrations, and sculpture. Collections of drawings and old master prints are often not displayed on the walls, but kept in a print room. There may be collections of applied art, including ceramics, metalwork, furniture, artist’s books and other types of object. Video art is often screened. Encyclopedic museums Encyclopedic museums are large, mostly national institutions that offer visitors a wide range of information on a variety of subjects that tell both local and global stories. Encyclopedic or universal museums play an especially important role in the building of civil society because they help individuals who though natives of a land but have been separated from their homelands as a result of job and travel to know of their own culture. Encyclopedic museums also encourage curiosity about the world. History museums History museums cover the knowledge of history and its relevance to the present and future. Some cover specialized curatorial aspects of history or a particular locality while others are more general. Such museums contain a wide range of objects, including documents, artifacts of all kinds, as well as archaeological objects. Antiquities museums specialize in more archaeological findings. A common type of history museum is a historic house. A historic house may be a building of special architectural interest, the birthplace or home of a famous person, or a house with an interesting history. Historic sites can also become museums, particularly those that mark public crimes, such as Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum or Robben Island. Another type of Page 400

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Science, established on 24 April 1778. It built a museum and a library thatplayed an important role in research, and collected much material on the natural history and culture of Indonesia. 5. The Amerbach Cabinet, originally a private collection, was bought by the university and city of Basel in 1661 and opened to the public in 1671. 6. The Musée des Beaux-Arts et d’archéologie in Besançon was established in 1694 after Jean-Baptiste Boisot, an abbot, gave his personal collection to the Benedictines of the city in order to create a museum open to the public two days every week. 7. The Kunstkamera in St. Petersburg was founded in 1717 in Kikin Hall and officially opened to the public in 1727 in the Old St. Petersburg Academy of Science Building. 8. The British Museum in London, was founded in 1753 and opened to the public in 1759. Sir Hans Sloane’s personal collection of curios provided the initial foundation for the British Museum’s collection. 9. The Uffizi Gallery in Florence, which had been opened to visitors on request since the 16th century, was officially opened to the public 1765. 10. The Hermitage Museum was founded in 1764 by Catherine the Great and has been open to the public since 1852. 11. The Belvedere Palace of the Habsburg monarchs in Vienna, Austria opened with a collection of art in 1781. 12. The Louvre Museum in Paris (France), also a former royal palace, was opened to the public in 1793. 13. The Orthodox Church, later an Ottoman mosque, and now a museum, Hagia Sophia was once the pride of the Byzantine Empire. Historically located in Constantinople, is now modern day Istanbul, Turkey. 14. The Charleston Museum was established in 1773 thereby making it the first American museum. It was not open to the public until 1824. 15. Indian Museum, Kolkata, established in 1814 is the oldest museum in India. 16. The Ashmolean museum was founded in 1677 from the personal collection of Elias Ashmole. It was set up in the University of Oxford to be opened to the public and is considered by some to be the first modern public museum. TYPES OF MUSEUMS The classification of museums is based mainly on the specialty of the museum. This has given rise to the several types of museums in existence. There are basically twelve types of museums based on some categories. These categories include fine arts, applied arts, craft, archaeology, anthropology and ethnology, cultural history, science, technology, children’s museums, natural history, botanical and zoological gardens. Within these categories many museums specialize further, e.g. museums of modern art, folk art, local history, military Page 399

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MASS It is the implied or actual bulk, weight, size or magnitude of an object. In a two dimensional drawing or painting, mass refers to a large area or form of one colour. USES OF MASS • •

It is used in creating three dimensional compositions and forms. It is used in creating volume and distance in perspective drawings.

COLOUR Colour plays a major role in the elements of design. It is the reflection of white light on an object or sensations created on the eye by rays of decomposed light. Colour may vary in degrees of dullness or brightness and lightness or darkness. All natural and manmade objects that surround us have colours. Tomatoes, flowers, plants, cars, clothes etc display varieties of colours. USES OF COLOUR • • • • •

It is used in expressing emotions. Example red with anger, green with envy etc. Artists use colour to communicate ideas. It helps in the organization of other elements of design in a given space. It assists in the identification and differentiation of one object from the other. Colours are used in showing perspective in drawing.

Colours in Nature VALUE This is the degree of lightness or darkness existing in colour. Value is determined by the amount of light reflected by a surface. Value is also referred to as tone. Page 36

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USES OF VALUE • It is used in grading tones from dark to light. • It is used in creating compositions in high and low keys. High keys (light to dark); Low keys (middle gray to dark). • It is used to describe objects, shapes and space. • Value is used for psychological, emotional and dramatic expressions etc. CREATING ELEMENTS OF DESIGN The various elements of design can be created by the use of various methods. These include drawing, printing, rubbing, painting, spraying, scorching etc. Drawing In drawing, the artist uses lines and dots in creating the outlines of objects in a composition. He makes good use of his picture space and organizes varieties of shapes in a pleasing manner. Printing There are several colours used for printing. The artist interplays shapes of objects in a given space. Sometimes textures are used in creating decorative effects on materials through printing. Rubbing Art media when applied or rubbed on a surface would result in the creation of some elements of design. For instance, when a marking tool like a pencil is rubbed on a surface, various patterned lines would be created. Paints can be used in creating textures on paper for the purpose of decoration. Different brushes when applied on surfaces would give out varieties of lines and shapes. Spraying Colours sprayed on a surface appear stippled in series of dots on the material. Painting When colours are applied in different shades and tones we see value. Scorching This technique of creating designs on a surface with a heated tool such as iron gives out several elements of design. These include shapes, lines, texture etc.

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We all have different interests and tastes, and museums are one institution that incorporates that factor aptly. They can vary from big establishments to small establishments that focus on specific subjects, places, events or notable persons in a country’s history. As such, they can be categorized into; natural history, encyclopedic (universal museum), anthropology and zoology, cultural history, fine arts, archeology, philately, sports, car, botanical and zoological gardens, craft and children’s museums, just to mention a few. Though, these classes vary depending on mission, objectives, items displayed, functions, strategies and baseline of the facility. The kind and size of a museum is usually reflected in its collection. Normally, a museum will curate a collection of objects that are important to its field. Museums play the unique role of holding our cultural wealth for all generations and those to come in place in a unique manner, in a way that we can blend in spite of difference and changes over the years. This earns these facilities the unique place and function of being the cultural conscience of our country and the world. Digitization of information has affected their place as we knew them through virtual exhibitions and enhanced resolution images of collections, but they still remain as those facilities that keep our history alive. Seeing our history painted, depicted or sculpted at a museum is interesting, educational and fun. We need to curate and preserve our history to protect our culture and things that – if we lost them, we would never get them back.

EXAMPLES AND LOCATIONS OF RENOWNED MUSUEMS IN THE WORLD There are several museums in the world that have left indelible marks in the cultural, artistic and historical education of our world. Some of these museums and their locations have been outlined below. 1. The Capitoline Museums, the oldest public collection of art in the world, began in 1471 when Pope Sixtus IV donated a group of important ancient sculptures to the people of Rome. 2. The Vatican Museums, the second oldest museum in the world, traces its origins to the public displayed sculptural collection begun in 1506 by Pope Julius II. 3. The Royal Armouries in the Tower of London is the oldest museum in the United Kingdom. It was opened to the public in 1660, though there had been paying privileged visitors to the armouries displays from 1592. Today the museum has three sites including its new headquarters in Leeds. 4. Rumphius built a botanical museum in Ambon in 1662, making it the oldest recorded museum in Indonesia. Its successor was the Batavia Society of Art and Page 398

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them available for public viewing through exhibits that may be permanent or temporary. Museums are important establishments of society that help us to know our country’s culture and learn our history. Most large museums are located in major cities throughout the world and more local ones exist in smaller cities, towns and even the countryside. Today, due to the increase in the digitization of information, combined with the increasing capacity of digital information storage, is causing the traditional model of museums which is the collection of static three-dimensional specimens and artifacts to expand to include virtual exhibits and high-resolution images of their collections for study and exploration from any place with Internet. The city with the largest number of museums is Mexico City with over 128 museums. HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF MUSEUMS Museums have a rich history dating back to the first known museum in Egypt at the University of Alexandria. Over the years, the culture of museums has spread to almost all countries in the world and currently, almost every country in the world has a national museum, regardless of how small they may be. This means that this idea is one universal conception that survived the 20th century. Traditionally, their role was to collect ancient objects that had a bearing on our livelihoods and other artifacts of cultural and historical importance, conserve them, carry out research on them and show them to the public for purposes of education and leisure. Early museums began as the private collections of wealthy individuals, families or institutions of art and rare or curious natural objects and artifacts. These were often displayed in so-called wonder rooms or cabinets of curiosities. They were reserved in terms of admittance to the general public and artifacts exhibited. However, in today’s world, there is a wider focus on public demands and a clamor for realism and collective connection with issues that impact on the populace, society and nations. In today’s world, it is an establishment with national and global touch that tells us the history of man universally and how mankind has survived in this dynamic environment over the years. The museums as we know them today house creations of man and nature over the centuries with an infusion of a country’s cultural soul – the cultural conscience of that country. However, not everyone will agree that they are indeed important institutions that are core to our history and culture as we know it. This can be attributed to the negative perception in some nations and places where objects and materials linked to fetish religions and idolatry are preserved. This contradict opinion has continued to limit the development of museums, especially in Asian and third world nations. But all in all, for us who appreciate our history and culture, you will agree that they are definitely archives of our culture, heritage and evolution.

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GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR S.H.S. COLOUR THEORY

Colour is defined as the reflection of white light on an object. It means that we see colour when white light is reflected on an object. Another source defines colour as the sensation created on the eye by rays of decomposed light. This means that when the rays of white light is disintegrated we see colour. Colour theory is a science as well as an art. In science, it is a perception of reflected light rays. To the artist it is the tint, shade or hue of a pigment. The science of colour is sometimes called chromatics, chromatography, colourimetry, or simply colour science. It includes the perception of colour by the human eye and brain and the origin of colour in materials. It was in 1666 that the English scientist by name Sir Isaac Newton discovered that when pure white light passes through a glass prism, it separates into all of the visible colours. He made the discovery through an experiment that he performed. In the experiment, he directed a glass prism towards the direction of the sun and the rainbow colours were displayed on the opaque paper positioned directly opposite to the glass prism as illustrated below.

Today, the same experiment can be carried out by the use of a basin, mirror, water and an opaque paper. The steps to follow are: 1. Fill a basin with water and place a mirror in it. The mirror is directed to the sun. 2. Place a white opaque sheet in front of the mirror. 3. Move the paper in different directions till the rainbow colours are displayed on it. Page 38

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The colours in the spectrum (A systematic group of colours in the rainbow) shows seven colours which are usually called the rainbow colours. These are red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. Colour can be found in our immediate surroundings. There are two main sources of colour namely natural and artificial sources. The natural sources of colour are the colours that we see in nature. They can be observed from plants, animals, insects, soil, rocks, skies etc. On the other hand, the artificial colours are those found in man-made objects and items such as packages, clothes, books, cars etc.

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76) Textile Designer- He designs and makes articles in textiles such as the production of fabrics, clothes, mats of all kinds, etc. 77) Tourism Developer- An artist who produces artworks or joins other artists in developing a tourism base for art. 78) Toy Designer- He designs prototype representations of objects and items such as cars, musical instruments, human and cartoon figures etc. with various kinds of materials as play kits for children.

THE COLOUR WHEEL A Colour Wheel or colour circle is an abstract illustrative organization of colour hues around a circle that shows relationships between primary colours, secondary colours, complementary colours, etc. It is also referred to as colour disc, colour chart, or colour scale. There are various forms or types of colour wheel. These include the 3-point colour wheel, 6-point colour wheel, 12-point colour wheel and the 24-point colour wheel. The typical artists’ 12-point colour wheel has twelve main divisions or sections that include the three primary colours of pigment which are blue, red, and yellow, their corresponding secondary colours thus green, orange, and violet as well as the six intermediary or intermediate colours which are red–orange, red– violet, yellow–orange, yellow–green, blue–violet and blue–green. FORMATION OF THE 12-POINT COLOUR WHEEL 1. Our colour wheel starts with the three primary colours, placed in an equilateral triangle.

79) Typographer- An artist who designs various forms of lettering styles for the designing of certificates, cards, etc. 80) Upholsterer- An artist who designs and produces the seating and furnishes in vehicles and other machinery. 81) Videographer- An artist who produces films and record videos. 82) Weaver- A textile artist who produces woven fabrics such as Kente on a weaving device called a loom. 83) Web designer- A computer expert who designs various websites for companies and firms. Web is a computer network consisting of a collection of internet sites that offer text and graphics and sound and animation resources through the hypertext transfer protocol.

UNIT TWO

2. The next aspect to the creation of the twelve-point colour wheel is creating the secondary colours. These colours are placed in triangles above the corresponding primary colour combination. 3. The final step to creating the 12 step colour wheel will be to create a ring around the newly formed primary and secondary colour form. Divided into 12 equal segments, the primary and secondary colours shall be repeated to their corresponding segment within the surrounding ring. This will leave a blank segment between every two colours. In these blank segments the intermediary colours will be created. The intermediate colours are: yellow-orange, red-orange, red-violet, blue violet, blue-green, and yellow-green.

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MUSEUM AND GALLERY STUDIES Specific objectives: The student will be able to: 1. Define museum 2. Trace the history and development of museums 3. Explain the socio-economic importance of museums 4. Give examples and locations of some museums 5. State the administrative structure of museums DEFINITION OF MUSEUM A museum is an institution that cares for or conserves a collection of artifacts and other objects of scientific, artistic, cultural, or historical importance and makes Page 396

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63) Painter- An artist who applies paints on surfaces as a form of decoration. This includes the painting of buildings. 64) Papermaker- An artist who produces paper from raw materials such as cotton linters, wood pulp etc.

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On the colour wheel, the intermediary colours are rightfully referred to as tertiary colours. Therefore, if there is a question that states that mention the tertiary colours on the colour wheel, the answer is to mention the six intermediary colours. However, in the classification of colours, the tertiary colours are Citron, Olive and Russet which are formed by the equal measures of two of any of the three secondary colours.

65) Photographer- An artist who take shots of scenes, individuals etc professionally. 66) Photojournalist- A journalist who presents a story primarily through the use of photographs. 67) Portrait Artist- He draws and paints the exact likenesses of people and other

sceneries. Usually such works are laminated or encased in wood or plastic frames with a glass plate to be hanged in rooms and offices as a form of decoration. 68) Printing Technologist- An artist who is skilled in printing and engages in the printing of projects. 69) Product Designer- He designs products for firms and industries before they are produced. 70) Publisher- He publishes literary works in the form of books, magazines and journals. 71) Sculptor- He models figures in either clay or wax and carve out figures from

stone, wood and other materials. 72) Shoe and Footwear Designer- An artist who design and produces shoes and footwear with leather and other appropriate materials. 73) Silkscreen Artist- An artist who produces silk screens with a developing box in a dark room. He also prints projects with the produced silk screens. 74) Stage Designer- He is responsible for the designing, arrangement and decoration of stage for theatrical performances in a theatre. 75) Storyboard Technician- An artists who designs storyboards for animated films. Storyboards are a set of drawings outlining the plot and shot sequence for something to be filmed.

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50) Leather Artist- An artist who uses leather and other leather-like materials in producing articles such as bags, belts, lampshades etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF COLOURS There are three major classes of colours. These are primary, secondary and tertiary colours. •

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51) Legal Practitioner- Someone who practices law and are in charge of legal cases in a law court.

PRIMARY COLOURS:

These are colours which cannot be obtained by mixing other colours. They are in fact in their pure or original state. They are the basic colours and it is through their mixtures that result in the formation of the other colours. There are two forms of primary colours namely the primary colour of light and the primary colour of pigment. The primary colours of light are red, yellow and green while the primary colours of pigment are red, yellow and blue. The primary colours of pigment are those used by artists. Therefore in our discussion, whenever we mention primary colours we are referring to the primary colours of pigment.

52) Lithographer- A printmaker who employs lithography (A method of planographic printing-printing from ink receptive surfaces from a metal or stone surface) in producing printed works. 53) Makeup Artist- An artist who is a body aesthetician in charge of enhancing the faces of people by the use of special cosmetics, sprays and chemicals. 54) Medical Illustrator- He makes several illustrations in a hospital and other health educational institutions to help explain medical conditions and diseases to patients and health experts.

SECONDARY COLOURS: They are colours which are obtained by mixing two primary colours in their equal quantities, ratios or proportions. There are three secondary colours and they are orange, violet and green. These are their formations:

55) Metal-smith- A smith who forges and shapes iron, gold, silver and other kinds of metal with a hammer and anvil into interesting articles and objects such as knives, utensils, trophies, etc.

Red + Yellow = Orange

56) Millinery Designer- This is an artist who designs and produces hats with various materials such as cane, raffia, palm rachis, nylon threads etc.

Red + Blue = Violet Yellow + Blue = Green

57) Mosaic Artist- A picture maker who composes pictures by the use of small cubes of shiny stone, glass or coloured papers assembled or arranged to form the picture.

TERTIARY COLOURS: They are colours obtained by mixing two secondary colours in their equal proportions, ratios or quantities. There are three tertiary colours thus citron, olive and russet. These are their formations:

58) Muralist- He paints scenes and pictures on the walls of public buildings, homes and offices as a form of decoration.

Green + Orange = Citron

59) Museum Director/Curator- An art historian in charge of a museum.

Violet + Green = Olive

60) Museum Educator- An artist who instructs people on objects and artefacts having scientific or historical or artistic value in a museum.

Orange + Violet = Russet

61) Package Designer –He designs packages or containers for products of firms and

industries.

Other minor classes of colours include intermediate/intermediary colours, achromatic colours, complementary colours and analogous colours.

62) Page Designer- A graphic artist who designs the layout of pages in a book or journal. Page 41

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37) Exterior Decorator- An artist who decorates the outside of buildings, offices and homes. 38) Fashion Designer- An artist who designs and sews dresses and apparels. 39) Film Editor/maker- A producer of motion pictures or one who reviews and edits an already produced film. 40) Floral Designer- This is an artist who deals in flowers and other ornamental plants for the decoration of homes, public buildings and venues for special events or ceremonies. 41) Forensic Sketch Artist- An artist who make sketches to substantiate documents for legal cases in a law court. 42) Furniture Designer- An artist who designs furniture for homes and offices. 43) Gallery Owner- An owner and/or caretaker of an art gallery (a room or series of rooms where works of art are exhibited). 44) Graphic Designer- an artist who produces visual communication items such as posters, banners, billboards etc. to communicate with the general public using words and pictures. 45) Industrial Designer- An artist who designs products for an industry. He may be employed to be in charge of all the designing of artistic products for the industry. 46) Interior Designer/decorator- He is an artist who decorates the interiors or inner parts of buildings such as homes, offices, churches and other public buildings in an artistic fashion especially during occasions like weddings etc. 47) Jewellery Designer- An artist who designs all forms of jewellery for personal adornment such as rings, necklaces, bracelets, anklets etc. 48) Landscape Architect- An architect who plans and does the proper demarcation of landscapes. 49) Layout Artist- An artist responsible for the general layout of a landmass.

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INTERMEDIATE COLOURS: This is also known as Intermediary colours. They are obtained by mixing one primary colour with its neighbouring secondary colour in their uniform consistencies. Intermediate colour formations are outlined below: * Red + Violet Red – Violet/Reddish Violet * Yellow + Orange Yellow-Orange/Yellowish Orange * Yellow + Green Yellow – Green/Yellowish Green * Blue + Green Blue – Green/Bluish Green * Blue + Violet Blue – violet/ Bluish violet * Red + Orange Red – Orange/ Reddish Orange ACHROMATIC COLOURS: These are neutral colours. They include black, white and grey (ash). The black and white neutrals are used in tinting and shading of other colours. COMPLEMENTARY COLOURS: These are colours that lie directly opposite to each other on the colour wheel. They are sometimes referred to as contrasting colours. Thus, on the colour wheel, red is directly opposite to green, while yellow is directly opposite to violet. Any mixture of two primary colours is complementary to the third primary colour. For example, a mixture of red and blue is violet which is complementary to the third primary colour yellow. Split complementary refers to a colour which is nearly opposite to an intermediary colour of its original complementary. For instance, Violet is complementary to yellow but when violet is paired with an intermediary of yellow such as yelloworange or yellow-green, it is called a split complementary. ANALOGOUS COLOURS: These are colours that are in close proximity with each other on the colour wheel. They have one colour in common in their various mixtures. Yellow, green, Yellow-green are considered to be analogous colours because they all have yellow in their formations. Other groups include (blue, bluegreen, violet, blue-violet. They all have blue in their formation.), (red, red-orange, orange, red-violet and yellow-orange. They all have red in their formation.)

COLOUR TERMINOLOGIES Warm Colours/ Hot colours: These are colours that contain greater proportion of red and yellow. Warm colours are very bright and radiate a lot of rays or heat. They advance towards the viewer and are sometimes referred to as advancing colours. Examples are red, yellow, orange, yellow orange, etc.

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Cool Colours: These are colours that contain greater proportion of blue. Cool colours are calm in nature and seem to recede or retreat to the background when viewed. For this reason, they are sometimes known as retreating or receding colours. Examples are blue, violet, bluish green, bluish violet, etc. Monochrome: This refers to a painting executed in only one colour. Tints and shades of the colour are still in monochromatic states.

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26) Computer-aided designer- A software designer who designs computer software to assist in the carrying out of tasks such as simple computations in a business enterprise, entering of the data of firms and institutions etc. 27) Computer Scientist- A scientist who specializes in the theory of computation and the design of computers. 28) Costumer- He is a textile artist who designs dresses or costumes for individuals, groups and associations to be worn as apparels on the body.

Dichrome: This refers to a painting in two colours. Trichrome: It is a painting in three colours.

29) Criminal Investigator- An artist who assist the investigation agencies by making quick sketches of suspects and criminals of crime scenes as described by eye witnesses.

Tetrachrome: It is a painting in four colours. Polychrome: This refers to a painting done in many colours.

30) Curator- An art historian who serves as a custodian in charge of an art museum or centre where there is a great collection of artefacts.

Tint: This is adding white to a colour. For instance, pink is a tint of red because the red colour has been mixed with white. Shade: This is adding black to a colour. For instance, brown is a shade of red because the red colour has been mixed with black. Sombre Colours: They are dark colours that carry the emotion of sadness or depression such as brown, black etc. Gray: This is a mixture of two or more colours.

31) Digital Imaging- A computer artist who encodes images digitally by means of the computer and other digital appliances such as digital camera in producing fascinating imaging of photographs. 32) Editorial Cartoonist- A cartoonist who design cartoons for editorial cartoons usually satirical figures of prominent and political figures in the society in newspapers and journals. 33) Engraver- A skilled worker who can inscribe designs or writing onto a surface by carving or etching.

Grey: This is a mixture of black and white. Chroma: This refers to the concentration of colour in a given area. Triad: Triad colour schemes are formed by three equally spaced colours on the colour wheel. An example is red, blue and yellow– spaced with three colour steps between them. There are four triads on the 12-point colour wheel. Tetrads: These are four colours equally spaced on the colour wheel. Spectrum: The entire range of colours produced when light splits. It is also called the rainbow colours. A spectral colour or spectrum colour is a colour that is evoked by a single wavelength of light in the visible spectrum, or by a relatively narrow band of wavelengths. Every wavelength of light is perceived as a spectral Page 43

34) Environmental Artist- This is an artist who specializes in the designing of layouts of the environment. He also decorates the environment especially vantage points of towns and cities, roundabouts etc. with artistic creations such as ceramic wares and sculptural figures. 35) Event Promoter- An artist who promotes events through the designing and making of visual communication tools such as banners, posters, flyers, T-shirts etc. to promote a special upcoming or ongoing event such as a sporting activity, entertainment etc. 36) Exhibition Designer- An artist who plans and organizes an exhibition. He is responsible for the designing of the layout and arrangement of works art at the chosen site for the exhibition. Page 392

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13) Art Educator- A skilled tutor who instructs students in the art discipline. 14) Art Historian- An artist who is well versed in the histories concerning the arts of various groups and people across the world. 15) Art Therapist- A person skilled in the use of art as a form of therapy or medicine for curing mentally deranged and emotionally disturbed patients. 16) Bookbinder- He binds or produces books for commercial purposes such as exercise books, notebooks, writing pads, diaries etc. 17) Book Illustrator- He makes illustrations in books to explain the printed text.

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colour, in a continuous spectrum; the colours of sufficiently close wavelengths are indistinguishable. The spectrum is often divided up into named colours, though any division is somewhat arbitrary because the spectrum is continuous. They are often referred to as Traditional colours. The traditional colours include red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet. PROPERTIES OR ATTRIBUTES OF COLOUR Colour has three physical properties. These are Hue, Value and Intensity. Hue: This is the basic identity of a colour or the name of a colour. Hues are colours in their basic state that has not been blended, mixed or changed. Examples are red, yellow, green, violet, etc. Colours such as pink, brown, etc are not hues because their basic identities have been changed by the addition of black or white.

18) Calligrapher- A graphic artist who is skilled in the writing of stylistic

inscriptions with special pens on certificates and other official documents. 19) Cartoonist- He designs satirical or humorous pictures and scenes (cartoons) for use in magazines, journals, newspapers etc. 20) Ceramic Artist- An artist who produces ceramic wares such as floor tiles, water closets etc. 21) Cinematographer- An artist who is in charge of the production of photographs for the making of films shown at cinemas. 22) Colour Psychologist- An expert in colour theory who knows the psychological or mental effects of colours on people. He is consulted before some particular colours are selected for various tasks by institutions especially health and mental institutions. 23) Comic Strip Artist- A graphic artist who designs a sequence of drawings that tells a story in a newspaper or comic book. 24) Computer Animator- An artist who is an expert in the use of the computer in the creation of moving pictures for making films and movies. 25) Computer game designer- A software designer who design electronic games played on a computer (or other device) using computer graphics for display.

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Value/Tone: This is the relative lightness or darkness of a colour. Some hues are generally lighter in value or tone while others are darker in value or tone. Examples of lighter values include yellow, orange, etc. Examples of darker values are blue, violet, etc. Hues with darker values can easily cover their counterparts in lighter values while lighter values is the vice versa. Intensity/ Saturation: This is the brightness or dullness of a colour. If the colour seems to be the reflection in its most vivid form of the spectrum hue, it is said to be in high saturation. On the other hand if the quality of hue can scarcely be distinguished then it is said to be in low saturation. COLOUR HARMONY This is the organisation and arrangement of various colours in an orderly or pleasant manner so that they portray unity and oneness. Colours used for a composition must ‘agree’ or meet the principles of aesthetics. The artist must carefully and skilfully choose his colour scheme or colour combinations. This is because a wrong pairing of colours can disturb the design and general outlook of a composition. There are several forms of colour harmony. Examples have been explained below. Monochromatic Harmony The term ‘monochrome’ means one colour. Therefore, monochromatic harmony deals with the use of varying tones of the same colour in painting a design. This may be the tints and shades of the same colour. For example, red, brown, pink are all obtained from one root colour which is red. Therefore when these colours are used side by side in a composition, they can create a pleasant colour harmony. Page 44

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Analogous Harmony Analogous colours are colours that are adjacent to each other or close in proximity to each other on the colour wheel. When these colours are used side by side in a composition they form pleasant harmonies. Examples of such colours include yellow, yellow-orange and orange or blue, blue-green and green. Complementary Harmony Complementary colours are colours that lie directly opposite to each other on the colour wheel. These colours when combined in a colour scheme also create pleasant harmonies. Examples include yellow and violet, red and green, blue and orange.

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1) Advertising Consultant- He is an artist who is well versed in advertising. He is consulted for technical advice on the selection of the right advert for a particular product or service. 2) Aerial Photographer- An expert in photography who takes shots or pictures of objects and scenes in space usually outside the earth’s atmosphere or scenes from the sky. 3) Animation Artist (Animator) – He is a skilled technician in the field of animation who produces animated pictures usually cartoon for advertisement, film making and entertainment.

Triad Harmony A triad refers to three equi-distant colours on the colour wheel. These colours have the same distances between each other on the colour wheel. For instance, if the distance is one colour step, to locate the other two colours, count one colour step to your left and right on the colour wheel. Examples of triad harmonies on the colour wheel include Red, yellow and blue (3-equidistant colour steps); Red-orange, Yellow-green and Blue-violet.

4) Anthropologist- A social scientist or cultural expert in the origins and social relationships between people of different ethnic societies. 5) Archaeologist- He is an anthropologist who studies about prehistoric people and their culture.

Rectangle (tetradic) Harmony The rectangle or tetradic colour scheme uses four colours arranged into two complementary pairs. This rich colour scheme offers plenty of possibilities for variation. The tetradic colour scheme works best if you let one colour be dominant. The artist must also pay attention to the balance between warm and cool colours in the design.

7) Archivist- A person in charge of collecting and cataloguing archives (A depository containing historical records and documents).

6) Architect- He designs layout of buildings and other construction projects before the actual projects are executed.

8) Art Administrator- He is a manager of the art department of an institution who is responsible for all decisions relating to art. 9) Art Collector/Trader- A person who collects several artefacts and trades in them. 10) Art Consultant- An expert in art who is usually consulted by firms, industries and institutions to give technical advice on decisions related to art such as choice of colours, emblem or logo etc. of the institution. 11) Art Critic- An expert in the critiquing or evaluation of works of art for

Analogous Harmony

Complementary Harmony

Triad Harmony

competitions and examinations. He also reviews various works of an artist and writes detailed commentaries on each of them for publication in journals and leading newspapers.

Tetradic Harmony

12) Art Director- The director in charge of the artistic features of a theatrical production (costumes, scenery and lighting).

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be chosen because if one is not very much interested in a chosen profession it will reflect negatively on his output of work. Skills – Skill is one’s ability to undertake a project expertly. A skill for a particular field in art is acquired through diligent training. However, an artist may not have skills in undertaking all projects in art. He may be well versed in a certain art discipline. He may have a natural flair for the making of articles in that area of art and has enhanced it through training and practice. There are various production techniques in all the areas of art. The artist may have skills in carving, modeling, coiling, weaving or casting. It is advised that the art area that the artist is able to employ his skills whether trained or gifted in the masterly production of artefacts should be chosen as a career. It is also very possible that an artist may have an interest in a certain field of art say sculpture yet he may not have the requisite skill in producing sculptural works. It will be wrong and even disappointing for an artist to choose a profession in art which he has interest in and yet do not have any skills for it. Aptitude – Your aptitude is your natural ability or skill, especially in learning and your readiness to adjust to meet the standard or demands of what you are interested in. Research has shown that people who are always ready to learn and adapt to new conditions and environment excel in their chosen professions. Granted, we may have the interest and skill in undertaking projects in a particular area of art. However, if we do not have the inner drive or are not naturally inclined towards a certain profession, ever ready to learn and acquire new knowledge to meet the set standards in the industry we intend working for, it will be advised not to select that profession.

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COLOUR PSYCHOLOGY Colour Psychology is what an individual thinks or believes about colour and how this thought affects his/her choice and use of colour. The psychology of colour is based on the mental and emotional effects colours have on sighted people in all facets of life. Many people have some high sense of love for some particular colours or shades of colours. Others have a lasting phobia or irrational fear toward some colours. These circumstances, conditions or state of the mind are the results of past personal, family or community experiences. There are some very subjective pieces to colour psychology as well as some universally accepted and proven elements. Keep in mind, that there will also be variations in interpretation, meaning, and perception between different cultures. In art therapy, colour is often associated with a person’s emotions. Colour may also influence a person’s mental or physical state. For example, studies have shown that some people looking at the colour red resulted in an increased heart rate, which then led to additional adrenaline being pumped into the blood stream. There are also commonly noted psychological effects of colour as it relates to two main categories: warm and cool. Warm colours such as red, yellow and orange can spark a variety of emotions ranging from comfort and warmth to hostility and anger. Cool colours such as green, blue and violet often spark feelings of calmness as well as sadness. The concepts of colour psychology can also be applied in our everyday life. For example, maybe you’re planning on re-painting your walls or redecorating a house or room with a new colour scheme. Well, you might want to consider some of these suggestions about colours and how they might affect your emotions and mood.

Careers/Professions/Vocations in Art Many challenging and rewarding occupations exist in the Visual arts. Schools, museums, galleries, small businesses, and large corporations look for creative and knowledgeable persons for art and art-related positions. Awareness of some of these opportunities helps the student plan his/her career effectively. The experiences offered in the art class facilitate the interest of the student in choosing a rewarding career. It should be noted that almost every career in art looks attractive and inviting. It is recommended that before one selects a profession in art or any field of work, the person should seek professional guidance and counseling. Once you are convinced of the chosen profession, start working towards it. Some of the professions or vocations in art are outlined below.

Psychological Effects of Cool Colours Cool colours in general are restful colours. The colour blue is suggested for hightraffic rooms or rooms that you or other people will spend significant amounts of time. Blue is typically a calming and serene colour, said to decrease respiration and lower blood pressure. The bedroom is a great place to use these colours because psychologically they help us to relax. Violet utilizes both red and blue to provide a nice balance between stimulation and serenity that is supposed to encourage creativity. Light violet is said to result in a peaceful surrounding, thus relieving tension. These could be great colours for a home or business office. Scientifically, cool colours are typically considered restful. The scientific logic associated with this is that when the eye looks at a colour, it is points directly on the retina. Cool colours are said to be less strainful on the eye muscles.

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Psychological Effects of Warm Colours Warm colours like yellow or orange creates an environment of stimulation or whet people’s appetite. These colours are often associated with food and can make the viewer get hungry. This explains why most restaurants are painted with warm colours. However, there should be great caution when using these colours. They reflect more light and excessively stimulate a person’s eyes which can lead to irritation. Common Psychological Effects of Colours The following are some common psychological effects of some colours.

Things to Consider in choosing a Career There are several things that one has to consider before choosing a career. These things are also clues that can help a person to assess himself or herself as to the kind of career that meets his or her abilities and interests. These things are indispensable in choosing a career. They include things to work with such as people, objects, ideas as well as knowing oneself thus one’s interests, skills and aptitudes.

COLOUR White

People – In the choosing of a career, it is often advantageous for people who enjoy working together with other people, what is usually termed as ‘team work’, to excel in their chosen profession. It has been proven that those who enjoy working with people usually get on well with others. They make friends more easily and enjoy solving problems related to people. These individuals who show intense interest, care and concern for people are usually good at teaching, legal practitioner, advertising, curator, and anthropology.

Black Grey Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Purple Brown

Pink

PSYCHOLOGY Purity, Innocence, Cleanliness, Sense of space, Neutrality, Mourning (in some cultures/societies) Authority, Power, Strength, Evil, Intelligence, Thinning / Slimming, Death or Mourning Neutral, Timeless, Practical Love, Romance, Gentle, Warmth, Comfort, Energy, Excitement Intensity, Life, Blood Happy, Energetic, Excitement, Warmth, Wealth\ Prosperity, Sophistication, Change, Stimulation Happiness, Laughter, Cheery, Warmth, Optimism, Hunger, Intensity, Frustration, Anger, Attention-Getting Natural, Cool, Growth, Money, Health, Envy, Tranquility, Harmony, Calmness, Fertility Calmness, Serenity, Cold, Uncaring, Wisdom, Loyalty, Truth, Focused, Un-appetizing Royalty, Wealth, Sophistication, Wisdom, Exotic, Spiritual Prosperity, Respect, Mystery Reliability, Stability, Friendship, Sadness, Warmth, Comfort, Security, Natural, Organic, Mourning (in some cultures/ societies) Romance, Love, Gentle, Calming, Agitation

COLOUR SYMBOLISM Colour symbolism refers to the use of colours to represent ideas and situations in the society. Colour symbolism can vary dramatically between cultures. Let us first discuss the general symbolism of colours among some diverse cultures of the world before we discuss the symbolism of colours in the Ghanaian community. Page 47

i. What you want to work with:

Objects – Generally people who are interested in working with their hands and exploring objects with their hands are good at practically oriented professions. These individuals, who are well versed in the handling of tools and materials, are advised to select careers that are purely practical in nature. Such careers include sculpting, pottery making, textile designing etc. Ideas – People, who enjoy working with facts, usually enjoy reading and researches. Owing to this, they choose to be social commentators, art historians, authors, researchers etc. ii. Knowing Yourself Another essential factor that can assist one in choosing a good profession is considering one’s interests, skills and aptitudes. Interest – Your interests are the things you enjoy doing, very curious about and will like to spend a lot of time on. The young artist seeking to choose a career should take considerable time to consider the area of the arts that he always love to engage in and desires to explore more into it. For instance, do I enjoy drawing of pictures and scenes? Do I have a heartfelt yearning towards this aspect of art, wanting to spend a lot of time in doing it? Do I quickly want to sketch an interesting scene I come across while undertaking my day to day activities? If the answer is yes then I will be good at picture making and may think of being a portrait designer or a picture maker. The career one has a keen interest in should Page 388

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LIKELY EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 1. List and explain the two types of enterprises. 2. Discuss five (5) factors to consider when setting up an enterprise. 3. a) What are business risks? b) With examples, explain the two types of business risks. c) State two ways of managing business risks. d) Explain the break-even analysis and outline its importance in a business enterprise. 4. Write short notes on how to cost, price and market products. 5. a) What is good customer relations? b) Discuss what is meant by these: i)Customer as an asset. ii) Customer as a guest. iii) Customer is always right.

SECTION THREE ENTERPRISES IN ART General objectives: The student will: 1. identify the career related professions/vocations under Visual arts education 2. state the skills needed for practicing a Visual arts profession/vocation 3. select a vocation as a career UNIT ONE

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GENERALLY ACCEPTED SYMBOLISM OF SOME COLOURS Black: It is the colour of the night, and of “evil.” Black can also be a colour of elegance or class (such as a black-tie only event, and black evening gowns.) Black can also represent ideas such as power, sexuality, sophistication, formality, wealth, mystery, fear, evil, unhappiness, depth, style, sadness, remorse, anger, and mourning. Black can also represent a lack of colour, the primordial void or emptiness. It can also mean sorrow or mourning, in the Christian tradition of wearing black to funerals. Black is the colour of mystery and solemnity; the colour of the night. Black expresses the depths of the unknown, and encourages the imagination of a different world from that of daylight realities. Used by itself, black can represent bad luck or misfortune. Black/White: They stand for mourning and cheerless occasions. For example, traditional garb for a funeral is black and white. The black stands for the loss, and the white colour for their passing onto the heavens. Blue: It is the colour of the Virgin Mary, and is associated with girls who have similar pure qualities. In addition, it is the colour of water and the sea, with all the symbolic references already discussed for that element – that is, blue usually indicates femininity, life, purity, etc., just as water does. Blue can also symbolize peace, calm, stability, security, loyalty, sky, water, cold, technology, and depression. Indigo blue mirrors the colour of the vast ocean surrounding the Japanese islands. This shade of blue is very commonly seen in Japanese art and clothing. Brown: It represents the ideas of earth, hearth, home, the outdoors, endurance, simplicity, and comfort.

ENTERPRISES IN ART Gold: It is also associated with royalty. It represents the colour of the heavens, and is used to decorate statues of the Buddha and religious temples in India.

Specific Objectives: The student will be able to: 4.1.1 explain the concept “career”. 4.1.2 describe some of the vocations in selected enterprises. What is a Career A career is a profession, a life-long occupation or an employment by which a person regularly earns a living, especially one for which the person has had a period of training in an institution or through apprenticeship. Examples of careers in art include cartoonist, package designer, textile designer, sculptor, jeweller etc.

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Green: This colour can also represent nature, the environment, good luck, youth, vigor, jealousy, envy, and misfortune. It is regarded as the colour of eternal life, as seen in evergreens which never change their colour from season to season. It represents both trees and vegetation. Orange: It represents energy, balance, warmth, enthusiasm, flamboyant, and demanding of attention.

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Pink: The colour pink usually serves two purposes. It can be used to show childish innocence, or the character of child-like personality. It can also be used to show a more flirtatious personality. Pink is normally a colour associated with girls and femininity. Pink is considered a colour of good health and life – we speak of people being “in the pink” or the “freshness” of a newborn baby. Pink is associated with sexuality and purity. That is, a girl who is a virgin in heart and body. Pink is symbolic of pure love. It is also the colour used for sexual advertisements and such, to indicate the purity of the girls. Purple/ Violet: It represents royalty, spirituality, nobility, ceremony, mysterious, wisdom, enlightenment, cruelty, arrogance, and mourning. Red: It symbolizes many things; from blood, to love, to infatuation. Basically red symbolizes strong emotions, or things of strong emotions rather than intellectual ideas. For example, red can symbolize excitement, energy, speed, strength, danger, passion, and aggression. Red, the colour of blood and fire, represents life and vitality. Red also signifies the colour of the sun: a symbol of energy, radiating its vitalizing life-force into human beings. Red is also looked upon as a sensual colour, and can be associated with man’s most profound urges and impulses. Ironically, red cats symbolize bad luck. Red and White: Their use together immediately signifies happiness and celebration to the Japanese viewer. The combination of red and white in the decorative ornaments used on wedding or engagement presents has a compelling quality that suggests man’s urge to create a bond between his own life and that of the gods. Red and white are also the colours of the uniforms that shrine maidens wear (denoting these colours divine nature.) Red and white are the colours of the Japanese flag; the red signifies the sun. Silver/Grey: Silver/Grey symbolizes security, reliability, intelligence, staid (old fashioned), modesty, maturity, conservative, old age, sadness, and boring. White: It is a sacred and pure colour. It’s the colour of angels and gods, as the colour reflects that which is sacred and pure. It is also the colour of doctors, nurses, and others in the health profession, as well as cleanliness.White can also represent reverence, purity, simplicity, humility, youth, winter, snow, good, cold, clinical, and sterile. Yellow: Yellow symbolizes joy, happiness, optimism, idealism, gold, dishonesty, cowardice, deceit, illness, and hazard.

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products, wrong business locations, currency inflation, introduction of new taxes, changes in labour laws etc. Managing or controlling business risks Business risks whether direct or indirect can be managed or controlled. Some of the ways of managing business risks have been discussed below. • Theft The entrepreneur should be very vigilant and alert in his supervisory role. There should be regular or routine check of stocks and finished products. Only the entrepreneur cannot do this work. An accountant or book keeper should be employed and assigned to check the accounts of the business every month or even daily depending on the size of the enterprise or the rate of purchase of products. Also, the entrepreneur has to increase vigilance and security by beaming up the security such as employing security personnel and installing security devices. These measures would help minimize or entirely stop the cases of theft. • Fire Most of the fire outbreaks that occur in the enterprises are as a result of faulty electrical connections and appliances. The entrepreneur must employ a qualified electrician to do all the electrical connections or wiring in the enterprise. He has to replace all weak or faulty wires and other electrical appliances to avoid the likelihood of fire outbreak. • Low sales Low sales and patronage of the products of an enterprise can be as a result of several factors. Paramount among these is due to the low quality nature of the products and wrong business location.The entrepreneur must undertake training for his staff members while constantly checking for product quality. He has to use quality and durable materials for the manufacture of his products. If wrong business location is causing the drop in sales of products, the entrepreneur should relocate the business to a more promising area where there would be high patronage for his products. • Inflation and changes in labour laws Inflation and constant changes in labour laws can affect the success of a business enterprise. An entrepreneur should be always alert to these changes. He can do this by keeping in touch with the relevant ministries to know what new changes have been planned that may affect one’s business.

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3. Door-to-door marketing This is the selling of products to customers in their homes. It is an interactive form of marketing that allows customers to express their views about the product. It is an effective tool used by marketers in soliciting the views of a section of the market about the effectiveness of a new product. BREAK-EVEN ANALYSIS The break-even analysis is a measure used in finding out whether a business enterprise is making profit or incurring losses. It analyses the total cost of production as against the total sales of the products. Sometimes the total cost of production and the total sales of the products equal or are the same. This is normally termed as the Break-even point. If the analysis proves that the total sale is above the break-even point then we can say that the enterprise has made profit. However, if the total sales fall below the break-even point we say that the enterprise has incurred losses. BUSINESS RISKS Business risks are the likely dangers that a business enterprise may encounter if preventive measures or safety precautions are not put in place to avoid them. When an enterprise experiences a particular business risk, the entrepreneur should not point finger at witches, ghosts or enemies. They happen as a result of poor planning and failure to set out measures in managing these risks. There are two main types of risks that a business enterprise is likely to face. These are: • Direct Risk • Indirect Risk 1. Direct risks This is a type of business risk that could entirely collapse a business enterprise. They directly affect the enterprise and halts down all of its business activities. Due to the severity of direct risks, entrepreneurs should set out preventive measures of curtailing them. Examples of direct risks include theft, fire, bankruptcy, misuse of capital through irresponsible expenses etc. 2. Indirect risks This type of business risk slowly causes the collapse of the enterprise. If extreme care is not taken, it can be hidden from entrepreneurs. Like a slow poison, indirect risks if left unchecked can ruin a business enterprise. They are quite difficult to control and account for greater portion of business losses. Examples of indirect risks are lack of sales due to faulty or low quality

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COLOUR SYMBOLISM IN THE GHANAIAN CULTURE The symbolism of colours in the Ghanaian culture refers to the meanings indigenous Ghanaians assign to some colours. These meanings are based on philosophical, psychological and spiritual connotations related to life. More importantly, every colour has its association with nature thus some natural objects. The colours may have social, spiritual or religious interpretations which are accepted by the members of the Ghanaian society. A good Ghanaian artist should understand the symbolic interpretations of colours in the Ghanaian community so that he can communicate effectively to the general public. This would also enable him to add a cultural feel to his artistic productions through the application of certain colours which have symbolic connotations. The table below discusses the symbolic interpretations Ghanaians attach to some colours as well as their associations with the things in nature and their functions or uses in the Ghanaian community.

COLOUR WHITE

GOLD

ASSOCIATION IN NATURE Colour of white clay, cotton and egg shell.

SYMBOLIC FUNCTION(S)/ MEANING USE(S) Joy, victory, happiness, Joyous occasions like purity, virginity, birth, outdooring, perfection of God. puberty, marriage ceremonies, victory at war or from any form of struggle, funerals of old people.

Colour of gold, chicken fat, juice of ripe pineapple.

Riches, royalty, continuous life, warmth and controlled fire, rule of a king or God, prosperity of the individual and the state.

King’s ornaments, important occasions like outdooring, puberty, marriage, festivals and ceremonies.

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Colour of ripe lemon.

Riches, royalty, continuous life, warmth and controlled fire, rule of a king or God, prosperity of the individual and the state.

Items in the king’s regalia, important occasions like outdooring, puberty, marriage, festivals and ceremonies.

SILVER

Colour of silver metals and items.

Second in command to a leader, female royalty, feminine qualities

Queen’s ornaments, royal regalia of subchiefs.

RED

Colour of blood, red tomato

Close blood relations, war, anger, aggression, violence, calamity, death, riot, force, danger.

Funeral, violence, rallies, puberty, initiation and outdooring ceremonies, Used in cautioning against harmful and dangerous things.

BLUE

GREEN

Colour of sky

Colour of vegetation

Early dawn, love, female tenderness, serene atmosphere, rule of a queen.

Love charms, puberty and marriage ceremonies.

Fertlity, newness, growth, vitality.

Outdooring and naming ceremonies, puberty, hunting ceremonies, used at funerals to keep the mouth shut, purification of spots for sacred ceremonies, used to remove spirits of the dead from spots of accident, used to sprinkle medicinal water during purification ceremonies.

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public. Several marketing strategies can be used or adopted for the selling of products. Basic Marketing Strategies 1. AdvertisementThis is the making known of the existence of a product to the general public through the use of posters, handbills, television, radio, word of mouth etc. 2. ExhibitionsThis involves the displaying of newly manufactured products publicly to attract viewers for them to buy them. It is one of the effective ways of marketing products. 3. Bazaars and FairsThese are programs that are organised to boost the sales of products. They bring several people together creating the platform for the sales of the product. 4. Effective decoration and finishingGood decoration and finishing are also given to products to enhance their appearances and attraction. This helps in increasing their sales. 5. Attractive packagingFor products to attract a large market share, they are packed in attractive packages. This increases the products’ market value. 6. TransportationAs a means of winning more customers, sometimes products are transported free of charge. This could mobilise the sale of products. Strategies for selling products 1. Wholesale This is the selling of products in large quantities. Usually, when the products are bought in large quantities the customer enjoys a discount or reduction of the price for the products. 2. Retailing This is the selling of products in smaller quantities. Clients do not enjoy any discount unlike the wholesale.

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Factors that determine the Price of a Product Pricing is something that has to be considered critically. In determining it, various factors have to be considered. The primary factors that have to be considered in pricing a product are discussed below.

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Colour of soil and rotten objects

Decay and rottenness, things that have passed away, closeness to the soil, hunting and farming activities.

Mourning of the dead, hunting and farming dresses.

GREY

Colour of ashes

Pity, shame, blame, degradation.

Used to paint corpses of persons who have suffered accidental death, used to prevent dysentery and strengthen weak foundations of houses.

BLACK

Colour of charcoal, ebony and night.

Vice, sadness, strength, something that belongs to the past, old age and history.

Used to mark relics or objects of history, for funeral, used in making charms against wild animals and evil forces and for body painting.

1. Costs of the product (total production cost): This refers to the addition of both the variable and fixed costs. 2. Profit margin: It is a percentage that is added to the total cost of production as profit. Most enterprises usually rate it five percent (5%) to ten percent (10%) of the total production cost. 3. Price settings or strategies: There are basically five pricing systems or strategies. They have been discussed below. a. Introductory Price (also called market penetration price): That is the deliberate pricing of a product below the actual market price to attract market share. It is done relatively for a short period of time to attract market for a new product released by an enterprise. b. The “going price” system: This is the pricing of a product the same as its counterpart product produced by other suppliers already in the market. c. The “cost plus” system: This is the addition of a percentage to the total cost as profit. d. The price discrimination system, also known as “what the market can bear”: This is the pricing of the same product differently depending on the income rates of the residents in the area. For example, selling the same product at a higher price in a city like Accra and relatively at a lower price in a town or village. e. The “price differentiation” system: This pricing system varies the price of the same product because of the difference in their packages. The price is higher when the material used for the package is expensive but the price is lower when the material used for the package is cheap. Sometimes the product may be combined with other additives and priced differently. MARKETING Marketing is the art of offering a product for sale using the skills of advertising and supplying. It is responsible for the presentation of the product to the general Page 383

PIGMENT A pigment is a highly concentrated loose powder colour. A pigment must have a high tinting strength relative to the materials it colours. It must be stable in solid form at close temperatures. For industrial applications, as well as in the arts, permanence and stability are desirable properties. Pigments that are not permanent are called fugitive. Fugitive pigments fade over time, or with exposure to light, while some eventually blacken. Pigments are used for colouring paint, ink, plastic, fabric, cosmetics, food and other materials. Most pigments used in the manufacturing firms and the Visual arts are dry colourants, usually ground into a fine powder. This powder is added to a vehicle (or binder), a relatively neutral or colourless material that suspends the pigment and gives the paint its adhesion. TYPES OF COLOURED PIGMENTS Coloured pigments available to the artist are grouped into three: 1. Water-based colours: These are pigments with water-soluble gums as binders, e.g. gouache, tempera, water colour and poster colour.

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2. Oil-based colours: These are pigments manufactured with oily-based products, e.g. enamel paints and oil paints. 3. Dry Media: This constitutes pigments that are used directly without any diluents or solvent, e.g. coloured pencils, pastel, crayons, charcoal and coloured chalk. UNIT TWO PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN Specific Objectives: The student will be able to: 2.2.1 explain the principles of design 2.2.2 organize the elements according to principles of design Principles of design are the rules and guidelines that govern how the elements of design should be organized. They are the fundamental guiding principles to a good composition of the individual elements of design. The principles of design are balance, variety, harmony, emphasis, proportion, movement, unity, and contrast. BALANCE This is the arrangement of the elements of design so that one part of the work does not overpower or seems heavier than any other part. It is a feeling of harmony in the composition of colour and space. It is a state of equalized tension and equilibrium in space, shape and weight. In the real world, balance can be measured on a scale. If two objects weigh the same, the two sides of the scale will balance. In art, balance can be seen and felt by the viewer. There are three types of balance. These are formal balance, informal balance, and radial balance. Formal Balance Formal balance is achieved when one half of a work is a mirror image of the other half or a situation when both halves of a work are the same. It is also referred to as Symmetrical Balance. Owing to the fact that formal balance can easily be noticed, some are of the view that when used in a work it makes the work seems less interesting. Informal Balance Informal balance is when two unlike objects are made to seem to have equal weight but in actual sense they are not. Informal balance is also referred to as Asymmetrical balance. It is achieved by the use of hues, values, intensities, Page 53

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relations so as to provide good and efficient services to the ‘blood of our enterprise’, our cherished customers. UNIT THREE COSTING, PRICING AND MARKETING Specific Objectives: The student will be able to: 2.3.1 identify the cost of a product and what constitutes the components of a total cost. 2.3.2 explain the factors that determine the price of a product. 2.3.3 explain the meaning of “marketing” 2.3.4 describe the basic strategies for efficient marketing. 2.3.5 describe the strategies for selling products. 2.3.6 use the “Break- Even Analysis” to determine when an enterprise is making profit 2.3.7 analyze the risks of a business. 2.3.8 develop a plan for controlling business risks (direct risks) 2.3.9 develop a plan for controlling business risks (indirect risks). Factors that constitute to the Cost of a Product The total cost of a product consists of two components. These are Variable cost (direct costs or production costs) and Fixed costs (indirect costs also called “overheads”). 1. Variable costs (direct costs or production costs): These consist of the cost of raw materials for production and the wages of workers. These are the direct costs of making a product. They are also called “variable” cost because the cost of materials and cost of production is not stable at all times. They vary from day to day and item to item. The quantity of the materials changes as the level of production changes. For example, the cost of producing ten wallets a day is different in terms of the cost for producing fifteen wallets a day. 2. Fixed costs (indirect costs): These are costs that do not directly affect the cost of a product. They are fixed and stays the same whether the level of production changes or not. They include the cost of rent, lighting, taxes, adverts, depreciation costs of tools and equipment, telephone cost, transportation and postage.

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5. Listen to Your Clients It is important to really listen to what your clients are communicating to you. Understand what they are saying and ask for clarifications on things that might be ambiguous. Clients might be unfamiliar with certain terminologies in our profession, and what you think they mean might be different to what they actuallymean. Listen to what their needs are, and then offer your suggestion on the best way to go about fulfilling their needs. 6. Keep Your Promises If you say you’re going to do something, make sure you do it. It’s part of being a professional. If you need more time on something, you should let them know as soon as possible, not after you’ve already missed the deadline. Honoring your commitments is very important.

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shapes and spaces in the picture plane. For instance, in a painted work, a small shape painted with a warm colour like red will balance with several large shapes painted in dull or cool colours. In a drawing, the large shape may be drawn closer to the central point while the small shape can be moved farther away from the fulcrum or central point in order to achieve informal balance. This type of balance is complex and difficult to recognize in a work. Radial Balance Radial balance happens when the elements or objects in a work are positioned around a central point or fulcrum. A flower with its petals spreading outward from the centre is an example of radial balance in nature. The elements placed in a radial balance seem to ‘radiate’ out from a central point in a circular fashion.

7. Don’t Confuse Clients with Jargon Try to explain whatever the problem is as best as you can without making the client feel stupid. When proposing a solution, make sure you state it in terms they understand. You could use analogies that are relevant to them. Read more about how to talk to clients effectively as well as how to get your ideas across to clients. 8. Be Patient Some customers are quite troublesome. There is the need to exercise great patience on them while keeping tempers under control. If you feel thatthe client is overstepping his or her boundaries, let him or her know in a cordial and professional manner. It will be very bad to start yelling and cursing at the people you make a living from. Maintain professionalism at all times. 9. Know Everything You Need to Know You are a paid expert. People are giving you their hard-earned money to do something they believe you have a high level of mastery in executing. You need to keep yourself up-to-date with the profession and always be ready to answer questions your client needs to know. If you exhibit signs that you don’t know your craft inside out, you risk the chance of ruining your professional reputation.

Symmetrical Balance

Asymmetrical Balance

VARIETY This refers to combining one or more elements to create interest or hold attention. It is the opposite of monotony. It is the variation in the elements of design in a composition to break monotony and to increase attraction. Variety heightens or increases the visual appeal of artworks. There are various ways of showing variety in an artwork. These include using light values of a colour in breaking most dark values of the same colour in the work. Straight lines can be used in breaking the monotony of several curved lines in a picture.

10. Put Yourself in Their Shoes Workers in an enterprise should ask themselves this question: ‘If I were in the shoes of my customers and were being treated the way I am treating them, would I have enjoyed that experience?’ If our answer is ‘yes’ then we are doing a good job. On the other hand, if our answer is ‘no’, we have to work harder to improve upon our customer relations. It is important to constantly evaluate our customer Variety of shapes Page 381

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HARMONY This refers to the blending of elements in a pleasing way. It is a design principle that involves composing design elements that share common or similar interest. For instance, rectangle and square are harmonious because each of the elements is constructed by the use of parallel lines. In colour work, paints or colours are said to harmonise if they would form a pleasant combination. Most skilled artists use the principles of harmony and variety together in different amounts to bind the parts of a work to the whole.

Harmony of Shapes EMPHASIS This is the making of an element or object in a work to stand out from the other objects or elements used in the work. This principle helps the artist to control the part of a work that the viewer looks at first. It also helps the artist to control how long the viewer will spend looking at each of the different parts of the same work. DOMINANCE: This is a design principle that ensures that one element in a composition domineers over the other elements. Dominance resolves conflict and helps in regaining unity in an artwork. The traditional and simplest way of achieving dominance is by repeating the dominant element. In numbers, the dominant element is greater than the others in the composition.

Dominance/ Emphasis PROPORTION This refers to how parts of a work relate to each other and the whole. It is the comparative relationship of dimensions and shapes. An artist may point out the Page 55

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Entrepreneurs and students who would want to set up their own small scale industry should carefully consider these steps that discuss how to render good relations to their customers. 1. Respond to Clients as Soon as Possible Speed is everything, especially when a client is requesting something that is timesensitive. Try very hard to meet deadlines and deliver products to customers on time. This would help customers to develop trust and confidence in your enterprise’s ability to deliver effectively and promptly. Even if you can’t work on the task they’re requesting you to accomplish right away, be frank and let them know that you appreciate their request but you are in a fix and cannot deliver the task at their specified time. Then supply them with a timeline of when you will be able to get the task completed. If you can’t find the time to perform the task, it will be very considerate of you to let them know as soon as possible so that they can make alternative arrangements. 2. Keep Clients Updated While working on the projects of customers, it will be appropriate to keep them updated on the progress of work as well as the challenges that you may have encountered in the course of work. Status updates give clients reinforcements that they’re involved in the project. If you’re experiencing trouble with something, let them know right away. It shows that you’re keeping them in the loop and that you have things under control. If it’s something major, communicating your concern right away allows clients to plan for possible delays in the project’s completion. 3. Go the Extra Mile If a client asks you to do something that truly won’t cost you a lot in time and income, you have the option of going the extra mile and doing it for them. Not only will these results in an indebted and happy client, it can also go a long way in terms of keeping yourself in their good books for future projects. 4. Fix Your Mistakes If you did something that didn’t end up working, you should repair it. A quick way to lose a client forever is not admitting that you are at fault and not fixing your own mistakes. You should always strive for a high-quality output. This would show that you have a high level of standards in your craftsmanship. Not taking responsibility of your own mistakes is a sure-fire way of gaining a bad business reputation. Transparency is important in any business. Apologize and bear the cost in producing another product if the first one produced could not satisfy the customer as a result of your own poor workmanship.

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6. Controlling: Controlling means measuring performance against the standards of the enterprise. It involves setting standards, setting production targets, checking production on daily, weekly, and monthly basis to ensure that the business is reaching its targets; monitoring expenses for production, transport and communication, checking expenses against revenue generated to ensure that the enterprise is healthy, giving feedback to staff to improve work quality and work standards. He also takes any corrective actions necessary to make sure that his area’s plans remain on track.

Customer Relations Customer relation is the art of dealing with the customer in such a way that the customer feels welcomed and appreciated. Entrepreneurs should be very much interested in what will make their customers happy about the services and products that they offer. Customers are the ‘ingredients’ that keeps an enterprise running and therefore should be treated with the greatest care as if they were eggs. Customer relations focus on how to win and maintain customers for the enterprise. This comes about in the way workers relate to customers. If the relationship between them is cordial, with the preferences, interests and suggestions of customers highly valued they would feel very welcomed, appreciated and respected. There are certain factors that owners and workers who serve customers should take note. They have to be nice to the customer he/she has the purchasing power to buy today, tomorrow or another time. Customers have to be treated in such a way that they would always like to come back to do business with the enterprise. Workers should make sure that clients come back again.

Also, they should not be rude to the customers either in words or actions. The customers should not in any way feel insulted or disrespected. If a customer voices out any of such complaints, the worker should immediately apologize even if the customer is in the wrong. It should be borne in mind that in business, the customer is always right. Furthermore, the entrepreneur and his team should make sure that their enterprise does not earn a bad name. This can happen if the workers argue or quarrel with customers. This is very wrong because the customer would stain the image of the enterprise to others. This should never be done in any enterprise that is poised in making progress in business.

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main figures in a work by making them larger than the rest. Proportion in art is not limited to only sizes of objects but also in colours. A key colour can be used in differing proportions in a work. MOVEMENT This is the principle of art that leads the viewer to sense action in a work. It can also be the path that leads the viewers’ eyes throughout a work. Artists create movement through a careful blending of elements like lines and shapes. Movement between colours and textures are created by relating their values to one another. Movement can be created by placing elements close to each other (Rhythmic movement) in an orderly manner. RHYTHM / REPETITION This is the systematic repetition of an element to make a work seem active and stimulate a sense of movement. It is a timed movement through space in a work of art. Sometimes, to create rhythm, artists repeat not just elements but the exact objects, shapes, lines, texture or colour in a work over and over again to create a patterned picture. UNITY This is the arrangement of elements to create a feeling of completeness. It is achieved by the careful placement of the elements of design to give a sense of oneness. Unity helps in holding attention. When the objects or individual items seem to go their own way in a picture then unity is missing. CONTRAST Contrast is very similar to variety. However, the varying element is usually opposite to the other element used. For instance, when circles are used, its varying element that will best help in creating contrast is squares. Contrast is sometimes referred to as Opposition or Conflict. SCALE This is using the relative sizes of elements against each other to attract attention to a focal point. When elements are designed larger than life, scale is being used to show drama, animation and cartooning.

In addition, the customer is a guest of the enterprise and must be treated as such. The workers of the enterprise should go an extra mile in showing hospitality to clients after delivering the products or services effectively. Page 379

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GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR S.H.S. UNIT THREE

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Functions of a Manager All managers at all levels of every organization perform some basic functions, but the amount of time a manager spends on each one depends on both the level of management and the specific organization. Some of these functions include:

THE DESIGN PROCESS Specific Objectives: The student will be able to: 2.3.1 design and make a product by applying the design process Design is a planned organization of an artwork. It involves organization, arrangement and composition of elements of design guided by the design principles to achieve a desired effect. To be able to produce effective design and execution of a product, there are some processes or stages that the designer has to go through. These steps when followed meticulously can assist a designer to produce aesthetically pleasing and functional artefact. There are seven main steps in the design process. They are identification of the problem, statement or definition of the problem, investigation of the problem, and suggestion of possible solutions, preparation, period of realization or production stage and evaluation.

1. Planning: Planning of the enterprise is carried out by the manager to determine the market niche to find out if the product will sell, as well as the location of the workshop, labour, types of product(s), capital required, etc. This management function also involves mapping out exactly how to achieve a particular goal set by the enterprise. For example, if the enterprise’s goal is to improve the company sales, the manager first needs to decide on what steps are necessary to accomplish that goal. These steps may include increasing advertising, inventory, and sales staff. These necessary steps are developed into a plan. When the plan is in place, the manager can follow it to accomplish the goal of improving the sales of the enterprise.

The Design Process i. Identification of the problem: The designer needs to identify the reason for a new design to solve an acknowledged problem facing the individual, family or community.

2. Organizing: After a plan is in place, a manager needs to organize his or her team and materials according to the plan. Assigning work and granting authority are two important elements of organizing. He also sets up the business structure and the authority structure i.e. who reports to whom, etc.

ii. Statement/definition of the problem: (Design Brief) The designer has to state the nature of the problem in clear and specific terms. This would help him in understanding it better so as to know how to solve it with the production of an artwork.

3. Directing: Directing means the leadership style adopted to get work done. It implies establishing policies, coordinating the work of staff, coaching staff, motivating staff, and assigning work to different staff as needed, etc.

iii. Investigation of the problem: This stage of the design process requires the gathering of information, investigation and critical analysis of the identified problem. This detailed inquiry into the problem will assist the artist in knowing the right materials, production processes etc. that will best solve the problem at stake.

4. Staffing: After a manager discerns his area’s needs, he may decide to beef up his staffing by recruiting, selecting, training, and developing employees. A manager in a large organization often works with the company’s human resources department to accomplish this goal.

iv. Suggestion of possible solutions: (Ideation) Based on the information gathered, the designer conceptualizes an idea and defines it by making several thumbnail sketches. He develops it by working on it through the rough sketch stage and finally into comprehensive sketches.

5. Leading: A manager needs to do more than just plan, organize, and staff her team to achieve a goal. He must also lead. Leading involves motivating, communicating, guiding, and encouraging. It requires the manager to coach, assist, and solve problems with employees.

v. Preparation: Having crystallized the suggested solutions into working drawings, the designer moves into the making of dummies, cartoons, sketch Page 57

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of these agencies are open to them and must therefore not have doubts or be deterred from seeking their assistance.

models, prototypes, working drawings etc. This would enable him to see how the artefact will look like in a three dimensional form.

Agencies that provide Technical assistance to small scale businesses Young entrepreneurs sometimes face several problems in the execution of their products. Majority of these problems have to do with the technical knowhow of the work. Most of these amateur artists lack the knowledge, skills and expertise in carrying out some aspects of the products they make. This may be in the area of finishing which is a headache for most artists especially in the art industry. Despite the gravity of the technical problems that the artist encounters, there are some agencies that are ready to provide help and the needed technical assistance. Some of these agencies are: • GETRADE • Aid to Artisans Ghana (ATAG) • GRATIS • Integrated Technology Transfer Unit (I.T.T.U.)

vi. Period of realization or production stage: The product is finally made to solve the identified problem with the right tools, materials and techniques.

UNIT TWO MANAGING AN ENTERPRISE Specific Objectives: The student will be able to: 2.2.1 explain the concept of management in an enterprise. 2.2.2 describe the functions of the manager. 2.2.3 explain the importance of good customer relations for an enterprise. The Concept of Management Management is the act of coordinating the efforts of people to accomplish desired goals and objectives using available resources efficiently and effectively. Management comprises planning, organizing, staffing, leading or directing, and controlling an organization (a group of one or more people or entities) or effort for the purpose of accomplishing a goal. Resourcing encompasses the deployment and manipulation of human resources, financial resources, technological resources, and natural resources. Management operates through various functions, often classified as planning, organizing, staffing, leading/directing, controlling/monitoring and motivation.

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vii. Evaluation: The finished product is tested, assessed and evaluated to prove or otherwise its suitability to the solution of the identified problem. It is shown to friends and experts to seek for their comments on the finished artefact whether it best addresses the problem identified. UNIT FOUR CREATIVITY Specific Objectives: The student will be able to: 2.4.1. explain creativity .2.4.2 state the qualities of a creative person 2.4.3 describe the creative Process The word ‘creativity’ comes from the Latin term creō which means “to create or make”. It is the act of using one’s own imagination to come out with new ideas, events or objects. It refers to the bringing of new things into existence. Creativity can also be defined as the process of producing something that is both original and worthwhile. It also involves improvement of already existing ideas or rearranging old things and ideas in new forms. These definitions help us to understand that creativity is contrary or opposite to copying. Creative people try to develop and invent new things to solve problems wherever they find themselves. Creativity is experienced in every field of human endeavour such as art, engineering, sciences, medicine, police, law, trade, civil service, military, politics, teaching etc. THE CREATIVE PERSON A creative person is someone who is able to use his own imagination or ideas to bring out new things which are very useful in our everyday life activities. There are two classes of creative persons namely High/Genius creative person and the Less/ordinary creative person. This classification of creative persons is dependent on three important factors. These are: •

Fluency – The total number of interpretable, meaningful and relevant ideas generated in response to the stimulus. Page 58

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Originality – The statistical rarity of the responses among the test subjects. Elaboration – The amount of detail in the person’s responses.

High/Genius creative person This creative person possesses more general intellectual habits, such as openness, levels of ideation, autonomy, expertise, exploratory skills and so on. He/she is able to create items with ease; it comes naturally as if without efforts. Creative people tend to be more open to new experiences, more self-confident, more ambitious, self-accepting, impulsive, driven, dominant, and hostile, when compared to people with less creativity. The lives of genius creative persons in history were marked by extreme dedication and a cycle of hardwork and breakthroughs as a result of their determination. Less/ordinary creative person This group of creative persons can create but usually needs direction or guidance. They are limited in their capabilities and ideas. They usually exert themselves before they can create items. Most of them usually need a push to spark their creative abilities. QUALITIES OF A CREATIVE PERSON (i) He is very curious and eager to learn or to find out new things about his environment- A creative person always want to find out why things happen as they do. He asks a lot of questions about things in his environment and he is ever ready to learn from people how some things were made. (ii) He is ready to explore or try out new things and ideas- A creative person is always thinking of new things, how to address a particular issue in a different and more efficient manner. He tries to explore with various materials, tools and techniques with the sole aim of addressing pertinent problems in his/her community. (iii) He is hard working and does not give up easily in times of difficulty- A creative person is not lazy but takes what he does seriously. In the course of attending to his work, when he faces a difficulty a creative person does not give up on the work. On the contrary, he quickly generates a lot of ideas on how to deal with the difficulty. He keeps on trying till he overcomes the difficulty he encountered while attending to his work. (iv) He is highly imaginative, practical oriented and experimental- A creative person is always thinking of how to solve problems by producing or creating Page 59

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6. Nearness to market or customers The location of the enterprise should be near to prospective buyers or customers. It should be closer to the market. This would promote and maximize the sale of the products. 7. Selecting a Business name The entrepreneur should select an appropriate business name for the enterprise. It should be attractive, easy to remember and must have a direct bearing or full description of what the enterprise produces. The business name should be unique and original. 8. Registration requirements The one who desires to set up an enterprise should endeavor to meet all the registration requirements. For example, he has to register the business at the Business Registry Department. He has to see to it that the enterprise together with all its resources is insured. He must also pay all his taxes and have the name of his business in all the legal documents and books of the country. This would spare him of any future business close down. Agencies that provide Financial support to small scale businesses Young or amateur students who want to set up their own small scale industries and enterprises are scared about how to get the money to do it. Owing to this, many of them coy away as far as the establishment of their own enterprises is concerned. Getting the start-up and working capital for a small-scale business enterprise can pose a serious problem to the young entrepreneur. However, there are agencies that provide financial assistance to young artists. Some of these agencies are the National Board for Small Scale Industries (NBSSI), the Export Promotion Council, Aid to Artisans Ghana (ATAG) and the various banks in the country. To gain this financial assistance, the young entrepreneur should have a definite and well-structured business plan with clear-cut objectives of the business. This would increase his chance of getting a financial helping hand from any of these financial agencies. Young designers and students should remember that the doors

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Moreover, the room should be well ventilated and well lit to make the execution of business activities very smooth. The space should be located at a good spot where tools, materials and machinery can be well stored without any hazards internally or externally. 3. Skilled Labour The working force or labour of the enterprise refers to the people who are employed to work in the enterprise. The appointment of these people should be strictly based on their technical expertise or skill that can be utilized for the success of the enterprise. The entrepreneur should seriously consider this factor otherwise he will end up paying people who do not in any way contribute to the generation of funds for the enterprise. Qualified personnel should be employed and they must possess excellent traits that can positively affect the business activity. Never should persons employed to work in the enterprise be based on sympathy or family grounds. Doing this would eventually collapse the business enterprise. 4. Availability of raw materials The entrepreneur should ensure that he has a sustained supplier of the raw materials for his enterprise. He should have a large stock of these raw materials that can sustain him for a fairly long period of time. This would not cause the business activity to cease or halt when the raw materials are very scarce. He must have reliable suppliers of his raw materials. If possible he can even initiate the production of his own raw materials. 5. Transport and Communication The entrepreneur should consider the means of conveying his products from the enterprise to consumers and shops. The roads from and to the workshop should be well constructed or accessible to ensure easy transportation of products. Means of conveyance of products such as vehicles can be made available to aid in transportation. Communication lines must be readily accessible to prospective clients who might want to call to propose business transactions. Telephones must be installed in the enterprise as well as in all its departments. This would ensure the smooth flow of information, enhancing productivity.

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functional items. He is a scientist who tries varieties of methods and ideas so as to come out with a viable tool that is an absolute answer to a problem confronting communities and the nation. (v) He accepts challenges and tasks and completes them- A creative person is very confident and has a high determination to succeed in any task assigned to him. He is not a coward but a positive-minded person who is poised to be victorious. He doesn’t leave a stone unturned in his work. (vi) He is always hopeful and self-disciplined- A creative person has high hopes that his work will yield good fruits. He does not give room for disappointments and ‘it cannot be done’ statement. He works to meet all deadlines and is faithful to his clients. (vii) He is original- A creative person does not steal ideas or copy existing ideas, products or items. On the other hand, he brings out new and first hand ideas. A creative person can also improve upon the efficiency or workability of an existing item or product. However, he does not copy it but tries addressing the deficiencies of the existing product all in the quest of producing a product that best solves the problem at stake. (viii) He has a great interest and love for what he does- A creative person is very proud of what he does and has a keen delight in it. This is very evident in the passionate way he attends to what he does. Derogatory remarks about his work is like a drop of water to quench an uncontrolled fire, it does not affect his disposition and attitude towards his work or profession. (ix) He is able to fit into a new situation- A creative person finds his way easily even in a new environment or situation. His presence is soon noticed and alarmed. He learns quickly and is able to adjust to his new environment be it a new duty, workplace, school etc. (x) He is able to produce many ideas quickly- A creative person is able to come out with a great variety of ideas which are fresh and well meaning. He is a good contributor of knowledge and skills. He is a thinker and a storehouse of ideas. THE CREATIVE PROCESS There are four vibrant stages or periods in the creative process. Each of them takes a great deal of time. The stages are: Period of preparation, Period of incubation, Period of insight or inspiration and Period of verification, elaboration, perception and evaluation. Page 60

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1. Period of preparation This is the first stage of the creative process where the creative person prepares himself or herself to handle the problem at stake. He gathers a lot of information on what he is about to do and explores the problem’s dimensions. He also explores various learning techniques to help him amass an in-depth knowledge about the work he is about to do. 2. Period of incubation This is the stage of the creative process whereby the creative person faces difficulty while attending to the work and then take a temporarily leave from the work. He engages himself with another work with the hope of finding a remedy to the problem he has encountered. Incubation helps in creative problem-solving in that it enables “forgetting” of misleading clues. Absence of incubation may lead the problem solver to become fixated on inappropriate strategies of solving the problem. Creative solutions to problems arise mysteriously from the unconscious mind while the conscious mind is occupied on other tasks. Therefore the creative person keeps working on other things till he finally finds a solution to the problem. 3. Period of insight or inspiration This is the period during which the creative person finds a solution to the problem he encountered while doing the work. He leaves everything and quickly attends to the work. This may take the creative person days, weeks, months or even years. It is also referred to as the Intimation and illumination period. 4. Period of verification, elaboration, perception and evaluation At this stage, the creative person works very hard with great joy with the goal of completing the work. He shows the work to friends, relatives and experts for their appreciation and criticisms. THE CREATIVE ENVIRONMENT A creative environment is an environment that allows people to explore their creative abilities to the highest level. This environment gives people the opportunity of engaging in creative activities despite the differences in their academic levels. A good creative environment ensures that: •

Everyone is accepted as having something good inherent in him or her. A good creative environment ensures that a fair and equal opportunity is given to everyone to showcase his or her innate creative drive. This creative ability, whether high or low should be carefully nurtured to help develop it to the highest point. Page 61

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4. At the event of death of one partner, the continuation of the business is not difficult, because the other parties would take on the business activities with few or without any challenges. Disadvantages of Partnership 1. It is difficult to organize since it involves a team of members and needs a huge amount of capital to start the enterprise. 2. It is highly stiff and is based on rigid rules. Decisions cannot be made by just one party. The consent of the other parties has to be taken and it’s very difficult in arriving at agreed decisions by partners. 3. Due to partners’ limited liability, some creditors are not willing to extend credit. 4. The partners share all the profit of the business equally. Factors to Consider When Setting Up an Enterprise Setting up an efficient enterprise does not come by chance. It involves a lot of input or factors. Proper consideration and planning of these factors can help one to be able to set up a very industrious enterprise. Some of the factors that merit serious consideration are discussed below. 1. Capital This refers to the funds or money available for the establishment of the enterprise. The entrepreneur should have a start-up capital as well as working capital to help the enterprise to stand on its feet. The start-up capital is the capital that is used for the purchase of tools, equipment, materials and machinery to start the business operation. On the other hand, the working capital is the capital used in the day-to-day running of the business. It caters for the salary of workers, transportation costs, and purchase of new materials for productions, operation costs, maintenance of machinery and all the other things that ensures the smooth flow of business activities. The entrepreneur should have a sound financial bedrock to enable him set up and run the enterprise. 2. Room or Space for Workshop The entrepreneur should also search for an appropriate room or space for the workshop. The space should be large enough to accommodate all the equipment, tools and machinery as well as the entire work force. It should also allow free movement from one area of the workshop to the other. Page 374

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Advantages of Sole Proprietorship 1. It is easy to organize and needs only a small amount of capital. 2. It permits a high degree of flexibility for the owner since he/she is the boss of the business establishment. 3. Due to the owner’s unlimited liability, some creditors are more willing to extend credit. 4. The owner receives all the profit of the business. Disadvantages of Sole Proprietorship 1. The enterprise has limited resources. Banks are reluctant to grant loans to single proprietorship considering its small assets and high mortality rate. 2. It has an unlimited liability for business debts. The single owner is responsible for paying all debts and damages of the business. 3. If the business fails, creditors may force the sale of the proprietor’s personal property as well as his business property to satisfy their claim. 4. At the event of death of the owner, the continuation of the business is difficult, because a new owner must typically accept all liabilities including the paying of all the debts of the business. Partnership A partnership is an arrangement where a party that is two or more people agrees to cooperate to advance their mutual interests. It is a nominate contract between individuals who, in a spirit of cooperation, agree to carry on an enterprise. The parties contribute to it by combining property, knowledge or activities and share its profits and losses accordingly. Partnerships present the involved parties with special challenges that must be navigated unto agreement. Overarching goals, levels of give-and-take, areas of responsibility, lines of authority and succession, how success is evaluated and distributed, and often a variety of other factors must all be negotiated. Once agreement is reached, the partnership is typically enforceable by civil law, especially if well documented. Advantages of Partnership 1. The enterprise has unlimited resources. Banks and other financial institutions are more willing to grant loans to partnership enterprises because of their huge assets and low mortality rate. 2. It has a limited liability for business debts. All the partners of the enterprise are responsible for paying all debts and damages of the business equally. 3. If the business fails, creditors would collect their resources from all partners of the enterprise. The burden will not be imposed on only one partner. Page 373

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•

Nobody is judged on any grounds as incapable of performing a task. Everyone should be given the freedom to create or explore his or her creative ability without any intimidations.

•

People with difficulties, challenges and weaknesses are accepted and not marginalized. These individuals with limited abilities should be helped to develop and increase their creative potential.

USEFULNESS OF CREATIVE SKILLS IN THE GHANAIAN SOCIETY Creative skills are very essential to the social, economic, political, educational and religious development of the Ghanaian society. Creative people in various fields of work help greatly in bringing out useful ideas that assists in solving problems facing various agencies, groups and institutions. Their new discoveries and inventions ensure the economic and technological advancement of the Ghanaian society. The products of creative people have lessened the problems we face while attending to our everyday activities as Ghanaians. For example, the rich ideas of some creative Ghanaians have helped in the development of various small-scale and cottage industries. This has reduced the unemployment ratio in the country and has given rise to the productions of numerous useful items. Without these genius creative persons, the country would have been standstill and even retrogressed in its development. RELEVANCE OF CREATIVITY TO THE SOCIETY 1. Creativity helps the society in searching for solutions or remedies in addressing its numerous problems and challenges. 2. It helps the society to make good and judicious use of its rich resources in the environment. 3. It assists the society in coming out with new discoveries and explorations that makes life worth living. 4. Useful and functional items which are products of creativity are used in carrying out our day to day activities. 5. It promotes hard work and competition among Ghanaian citizens in schools, workplaces etc. LIKELY EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 1. (a) Define elements of design (b) Identify five (5) elements of design, describing their characteristics and uses. 2. (a) Define colour (b) Identify three (3) sources of colour (c) Draw and label the twelve-point colour wheel. Indicate the warm and cool colours Page 62

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3. Explain these colour terminologies: (i) Hue (ii) Warm (iii)Cool (iv) Value (v) Monochrome (vi) Polychrome (vii) Complementary colours (viii) Tint (ix) Shade (x) Split complementary 4. (a) Write briefly on each of the classes of colour. (b) Complete this table by indicating the symbolism of the colours listed.

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SECTION TWO ENTREPRENEURIAL SKILLS General objectives: The student will: 1. identify and explain factors to consider when setting up an enterprise 2. develop an understanding, and appreciation of the functions of the manager. 3. acquire costing and pricing skills and explain the concept of marketing, selling and risk management. UNIT ONE ESTABLISHMENT OF AN ART INDUSTRY

COLOURS SYMBOLISM RED YELLOW BLUE WHITE BLACK GREEN 5. (a) What is pigment? (b) List and explain the three (3) types of coloured pigments. 6. (a) What is colour Psychology? (b) Explain the generally accepted psychological effects of warm and cool colours. 7. Discuss three (3) main importance of the design and technology process. 8. Briefly explain the various steps in the design and technology process. 9. (a) What is evaluation? (b) Why is evaluation important to the designer? 10. Discuss the investigation of the problem stage in the design and technology process 11. List the steps in the design and technology process in an orderly manner. 12. (a) What is creativity? (b) Discuss the creative processes. (c) Outline three (3) importance of creativity to the society. 13. State five (5) qualities of a creative person. 14. a) What is colour harmony? b) Explain the following colouir harmonies: i) monochromatic harmony ii) analogous harmony iii) Complementary harmony iv) Triad harmony Page 63

Specific Objectives: The student will be able to: 2.1.1 identify the types enterprises 2.1.2 state and explain the main factors to consider in setting up an enterprise. 2.1.3 identify agencies that provide financial and technical assistance for settingup and running an enterprise. An enterprise is a business activity or activities aimed specifically at growth and profit. TYPES OF ENTERPRISES There are two main types of enterprises. These are i) Sole Proprietorship and ii) Partnership Sole Proprietorship A sole proprietorship, also known as the sole trader or simply a proprietorship, is a type of business entity that is owned and run by one individual and in which there is no legal distinction between the owner and the business. The owner receives all profit and has unlimited responsibility for all losses and debts. Every asset of the business is owned by the proprietor and all debts of the business are the proprietor’s. “Sole” proprietorship is opposite to partnership. The single or the sole proprietorship is a business owned and controlled by one man even though he may have many other persons working for him. A sole proprietor may use a trade name or business name other than his or her legal name. Page 372

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and usage of the hand tools, materials and techniques would certainly have a negative impact on the effectiveness of the article. xii. Diligence, patience and tolerance- These are qualities that are needed to ensure that artists are able to produce articles with great mastery. The artist needs to cultivate and put these fine qualities to work. COMPARING ARTICLES MADE BY HAND WITH MACHINE MADE ARTICLES Hand-Made Articles Articles are produced by hand with hand-made tools and equipment. Production rate is slow and few numbers of articles are produced. Items produced are not exactly the same. They certainly bear some slight differences. Articles produced are original and unique. Articles when produced with great dexterity last for a longer time and are durable.

Machine Made Articles Articles are produced with the help of programmed machines. Production rate is faster and several numbers of articles are produced. Items produced are accurately precise and the same in terms of size, colour, form etc. Articles produced are not very unique since the machine is sometimes restricted in its production technique. Most of the articles produced with the machine do not last longer than handmade articles.

LIKELY EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 1. Discuss the steps in the design process. 2. Compare and contrast hand-made and machine-made items.

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SECTION THREE DRAWING AND COMPOSITION General Objectives: The student will: 1. appreciate the importance and purpose of drawing. 2. be aware of the different tools and materials for drawing and experiment with them to determine their nature and characteristics. 3. acquire skills in different techniques of drawing and shading and develop ideas from the environment. 4. develop creative critical thinking skills and perceptional awareness necessary for understanding and producing artworks. UNIT ONE DRAWING AS A MEANS OF COMMUNICATION Specific Objective: The student will be able to: 1.1.1 explain the meaning and importance of drawing. DEFINITION OF DRAWING Drawing is the act of making visual marks or images on surfaces using appropriate medium and technique. It is an important way of observing and reacting to the world around us by making marks or images on a surface. In drawing, an artist makes visual marks on a support (paper, canvas etc.). It requires great observation skills to enable someone to depict objects as they are. In composing scenes of past events or imaginative ones from memory, the artist has to be highly imaginative. Drawing is a very interesting activity which requires series of experimentations with variety of drawing media. The artist has to know the effects of the various drawing media so that he can use them appropriately for the right tasks in drawing.A lot of practical sessions in drawing would assist the amateur artist to perfect his drawing skills. Therefore it is advisable that the young artist takes considerable time to observe, study and experiment with the various techniques, tools and materials in drawing. IMPORTANCE OF DRAWING Drawing has much relevance in the everyday life of people. Some of the importance of drawing are:

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1. Drawing helps us to record information 2. Drawing serves as a means of communication. 3. Drawing helps one to exhibit his/her creative abilities. 4. Drawing serves as a preliminary study of an idea or object. 5. Drawings are used for illustration. 6. Drawing helps in improving perception. 7. Drawing helps in planning projects. 1. Drawing as a way of recording informationDrawing assists us in recording information about visual forms and qualities such as lines, shapes and surface patterns. Information on our past, present and future can be conveniently recorded by the use of drawings. 2. Drawing as a means of communicationCommunication can be easily carried out to the general public by the use of drawings. Both the literate and illiterate classes of the public can be readily informed of ideas, dangers, etc through drawings without using words. For instance, pictures of a skull placed on crossed bones convey the idea of danger with ease. 3. Drawing as a tool in exhibiting one’s creative abilitiesIndividuals gifted in critical observation of nature and accurate depictions of them make it visible to all through drawing. Several creative prowesses in depicting still-life compositions, imaginative compositions, etc. are shown using drawing. 4. Drawing serves as a preliminary study of an idea or objectDrawings are means by which an idea is made visible on paper. It assists manufacturers in knowing the basic forms of products. These working drawings help them in producing the products in larger quantities. 5. Drawings are used for illustrationDrawings are used as a form of illustration in books, magazines and journals. This illustration helps in explaining the printed text in the book. It also makes the book colourful and interesting to read. This helps in reducing boredom in readers.

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vi. Article to be used by one or several people- The number of users of the article should be known by the artist. This would assist him in the selection of his material, design and shape of the article. For example, if the article would be used by just one person, the artist can factor that individual’s preference and taste such as choice of shape, colour etc. in the designing and production of the product. On the other hand, if the article will be used by several persons, the material to be used should be strong and durable to be able to protect the article from the frequent handling and usage of the masses of people. Moreover, the choice of design and shape of the article should reflect the taste of a greater number of the end users if not all of them. vii. Designed to fit into the place where the article will be used- Where will the article to be produced be used? Is it in a school, hospital, market place or office? This information should be known by the artist. There are some designs and colours that do not fit certain environs. For example, educational items will be suitable for articles meant for an educational institution while farm produce such as yam, corn, etc. are meant for articles to be used at the market squares. viii. Preliminary designing or sketch models- Preliminary designs are the first designs that the artist puts on paper. The designs are what the artist has envisioned or brainstormed in his mind. This serves as a visual representation of the ideas in the mind of the artist. ix. Cultural symbols to be used- The artist must fully understand the philosophies and ideologies behind the cultural symbols that he wants to use for the designing of the article.The interpretations of the symbols should harmonize with the purpose of the article. For example, the ‘Duafe’ Adinkra symbol which means beauty, hygiene and feminine qualities is very appropriate as a cultural symbol for a plaque designed to be hanged in the hall of a women’s association. x. Functional aspect and aesthetic qualities of the article- This is the most important aspect that needs to be considered by the artist. The final product will be useless if it fails to meet the intended function for its production. Also, the artist has to consider the aesthetic elements to add up to the article. This would enhance the appearance and attractiveness of the article.

6. Drawing helps in improving perceptionPerception is the ability to really see and study an object. Through drawing, artists become better at perceiving. Several artists use sketch books as a tool in depicting what they have critically observed and studied in their immediate environment.

xi. Proficiency and dexterity in the use of hand tools, materials and techniques- The artist should know or possess the mastery skills in the handling and use of the hand tools, materials and techniques for the production of the article. This would reflect positively on the final article produced. A poor handing

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Factors to consider when making articles by hand i. Purpose of article- The artist must consider the purpose or need that calls for the production of the artefact. This will serve as a guide to the artist in knowing what to put in the designing and production of the artefact for it to meet its intended purpose. For example, there is the need for the production of a clutch bag to keep the items of an artist. ii. Design, shape and form of the article- The artist has to critically consider the design, shape and form of the article. This should be in harmony with the intended purpose of the artefact. Moreover, the choice of colours, shapes and form should also reflect the age, social status, sex and possibly, the occupation of the end users of the article. For instance, if the article is meant for teenagers, males, females, students, nurses or teachers, viewers must be able to reliably tell from the design, shape and form of the article. Wallets for females may be produced with synthetic leather colours such as pink or blue with oval shaped design as well as floral patterns. iii. Technical qualities of the article- The techniques and styles that would be used for the production of the article should be carefully considered by the artist. The technique to be used for the production of the product should be suitable with the material to be used for the work as well as the purpose of the article borne in mind. iv. Nature and suitability of materials to be used- The material chosen for the production of the article should suit the purpose intended for the article. For instance, if the purpose of the clutch bag to be produced is to keep items to be used by the artist, the designer should choose a material that can hold the said items and ensure their protection. The designer can ask himself or herself some questions such as ‘Will a clutch bag produced with leather, cardboard, or cloth be able to keep these items of the artist?’ A very appropriate material should be chosen for the production of the article with the purpose of the article in mind. v. Occasion on which the article will be used- The occasion during which the article to be produced will be used should be known to help the artist to choose appropriately the designs, colours and form of the article. For instance, if a greeting card is to be made, the artist must know the occasion for which the card is being designed for. Is it Christmas, birthday, examination or get-well-soon card? The occasion would dictate to him the sort of colours and designs to use.

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7. Drawing helps in planning projectsDrawing is always the first step in the planning of projects. Rough sketches or studies are always done before works of art are created with the right tools and materials. Stage designers, graphic designers, and architects show presentation drawings to clients for approval before the actual projects are carried out. UNIT TWO EXPLORATION OF TOOLS AND MATERIALS Specific Objective: The student will be able to: 3.2.1 categorize and state the uses of some drawing tools, materials and equipment . 3.2.2 care for and maintain drawing media. 3.2.2 use the drawing tools and materials in exploratory practical activities to determine their nature and characteristics 3.2.3 describe the types of drawing 3.2.4 use drawing and shading techniques to produce desirable artworks. 3.2.5 explore with the two main types of sketching to produce desirable works. CATEGORIZATION OF TOOLS, MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT Tools are devices that are used for executing various projects. Examples include pencil, pastel, charcoal etc. On the other hand, materials are surfaces, substances or mediums that are used for the production of items. Examples include drawing board, paint etc. Equipments are special instruments needed for an undertaking or to perform a service. Examples include compass, protractor etc. Tools and equipment do not form part of the finished product but materials become part of the finished product. Tools, materials and equipment for drawing are diversified. Majority of them are produced by the use of materials such as wood, metal and plastic. The media for drawing are grouped into two namely i) Free-hand drawing media and ii) Mechanical drawing media. 1. Free-hand Drawing Media These are tools that are used freely by hand without mechanical aids or devices. a) Pencils- This is a drawing tool that is made of graphite rod or lead and inserted into a wooden, plastic or metal barrel or holder. There are three kinds of pencil. Page 66

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- Wood-encased pencils- These pencils usually do not have erasers attached to them. They come out in several grades from hard 9H to very soft 9B. - Lead holder pencils – it is also called a mechanical drawing pencil. It uses lead that can be removed and changed. This lead comes in the same grades as the lead for wood-encased pencils. - Automatic pencils (clutch holder) - The automatic pencil uses leads so thin that the leads can snap off easily while drawing. The user therefore needs some practice to become perfect. b) Drawing Pen- This is a drawing tool that is used in creating permanent marks on materials by the use of inks. Expert artists use them in making their thumbnail sketches. c) Charcoal- This is a dry media for drawing and shading produced from burnt wood and bones. Drawings made with it are maintained by spraying a fixative such as varnish or lacquer on them. d) Pastel- This is a dry colour media like crayon that is used for drawing and colouring. There are two types of pastel namely chalk and oil pastels. e) Crayons- This is also a dry colour media used without any diluents. They are used for rendering colourful shades on drawn objects. f) Papers- They are materials made from wood pulp and other materials usually in flat sheets used as supports for various projects in drawing. Examples include cartridge, bond, embossed paper, pastel paper, manila etc. g) Drawing Board- This is a flat smooth board usually made of wood used as a support for drawing papers and other materials for drawing. h) Drawing pins- These are special pins with either metal or plastic heads used in holding drawing materials such as papers firmly in position so that drawing activities can take place smoothly. i) Eraser- This is a gum-like substance used in cleaning or erasing unwanted areas of a drawing, lines or marks. There are various kinds of eraser such as kneaded eraser and white vinyl eraser. The kneaded eraser is used to erase soft and light pencil marks while the white vinyl eraser is used for erasing hard-toerase pencil marks. Page 67

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The Design Process i. Identification of the problem: the designer needs to identify the reason for a new design to solve an acknowledged problem confronted by the individual, family or community. ii. Statement/definition of the problem (Design Brief): The designer has to state the nature of the problem in clear and specific terms. This would help him in understanding it better so as to know how to solve it with the production of an artwork. iii. Investigation of the problem: This stage of the design process requires the gathering of information, investigation and critical analysis of the identified problem. This detailed inquiry into the problem will assist the artist in knowing the right materials, production processes etc. that will best solve the problem at stake. iv. Suggestion of possible solutions (Ideation): Based on the information gathered, the designer conceptualizes an idea and defines it by making several thumbnail sketches. He develops it by working on it through the rough sketch stage and finally into comprehensive sketches. v. Preparation: Having crystallized the suggested solutions into working drawings, the designer moves on with the making of dummies, cartoons, sketch models, prototypes, working drawings etc. This would enable him to see how the artefact will look like in a three dimensional form. vi. Period of realization or production stage: the product is finally made to solve the identified problem with the right tools, materials and techniques. vii. Evaluation: The finished product is tested, assessed and evaluated to prove or otherwise its suitability to the solution of the identified problem. It is shown to friends and experts to seek their comments on the finished artefact whether it best addresses the problem identified. CONCEPT OF HAND-MADE DESIGN AND ITEMS Hand-made designs and items are items that are produced with the hands with the help of hand tools, materials and equipment. It exclusively refers to articles that are produced manually. To enhance the designing and production of hand-made items, the artist has to consider some important factors. Some of these factors are discussed below. Page 368

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j) Erasing Shield- This is a thin metal shield that protects areas of a drawing which is not to be erased with an eraser.

YEAR THREE SECTION ONE

2. Mechanical Drawing Media These are electronic equipment or instruments that are used in drawing. They make drawings very neat, precise and extremely accurate.

PRODUCT DESIGN General objectives: The student will: 1. understand the concept of design and factors to consider when making articles by hand. 2. develop skills in using ICT to produce sketch models for production of articles. 3. develop the ability to use elements and principles of design to make pictorial compositions and other art forms.

a) Drawing Instruments- These are sharp straight edged instruments that are used for drawing. They enhance drawings for projects etc. They include straight edge/ruler, T-square, dividers, Angle ruler, protractors and rulers. The straight edge is used for creating sharp, accurate lines when precision is required. Tsquares are used in drawing more precise vertical, horizontal and diagonal lines. The angle ruler works like a ruler but can be pivoted to measure angles. Dividers are used to duplicate proportions of sketches and other images.

UNIT ONE

b) Adjustable Drawing Board- This is a special drawing board that can be adjusted to various directions and postures. They are used for all kinds of drawing activities.

DESIGNING AND MAKING ARTEFACTS Specific Objectives: The student will be able to: 1.1.1 explain the design process 1.1.2 explain the concept of hand-made design and items. 1.1.3 explain factors to consider when making articles by hand. 1.1.4 design and make an article by hand using the design and technology process. 1.1.5 use appropriate computer software programmes to design art works for reproduction. 1.1.6 compare hand- made and machine made articles. The Design Process: Design is a plan of work to be executed. It involves the organization, arrangement and composition of elements of design guided by the design principles to achieve a desired effect. To be able to produce effective design and execution of a product, there are some processes or stages that the designer has to go through. These steps when followed meticulously can assist a designer to produce aesthetically pleasing and functional artefact. The various steps in the design process are discussed below.

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c) Templates- These are patterns of various shapes and designs used for creating precise measurements of the parts of the same item. d) Irregular Curves- This is a flat plastic device with varieties of indented curves. It is used for drawing the curved edges of objects and all other kinds of lines. e) Computer- This is an electronic device loaded with a lot of software programs that are used for drawing and enhancing freehand sketches. These programs include MS Paint, CorelDraw, and Adobe Illustrator etc. f) Paper Clip- This is a metal fastener that is used in holding papers like cartridges and other forms of loose materials.

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CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF DRAWING MEDIA AND MATERIALS

ADOM SERIES CUBISM

-To analyse and dissect forms on canvas. -Used multiple views of objects to create the effect of their three dimensionality while acknowledging the two dimensional surface of the picture plane.

-Reduced natural forms into largely angular, geometrical equivalents. -Presentation of multiple views of the same objects. -Figures and background have equal importance.

- Use genre subjects (everyday activities) and natural forms. Eg. Guitars, figures, fruits, bottles, houses etc.

Pablo Picasso, Georges Braque, Ferdnard Ledger, Duan Gris

FAUVISM

-Saw colour as autonomous, as a subject in and of itself.

-Expressionistic -More decorative - Bold, orderly and charming colours - Vigorous brushwork -Drawing that is unrelated to colour

-Outdoor subject matter usually simplified

Henri Matisse, Andre Derain, George Rouault

The media and materials for drawing have to be cared and maintained. This would make them last for a longer period. It would also increase their workability and effectiveness. There are several ways of caring for the media and materials for drawing. Some of these are: 1. Pencils should be sharpened and kept with their nibs pointing upwards. 2. The metals parts of drawing tools should be periodically oiled and wiped with a clean cloth.


3. Broken parts of tools should be maintained through repair. 4. Palette bowls should be neatly washed after colours are mixed in them. 5. Tools and materials such as brushes, chisels, etc. should be kept in their tool bags and boxes in their right temperatures. 6. Papers should be kept away from all forms of liquors like water, oil etc. They should be kept clean and flat.

IMPRESSIO NISM

7. The right tool should be used for the right activity to prolong its lifespan. For instance, deep cuts that are to be created with chisels should not be done using cutting knives and scissors just because they are cutting tools. This would cause their cutting edges to get spoilt or damaged. If the right tool is not available do not substitute it with a different tool. TYPES OF DRAWING There are several kinds of drawing. The types that we want to discuss in this section are: - Still Life Drawing - Memory Drawing - Imaginative Drawing - Figure Drawing - Nature Study 1. Still Life Drawing: This refers to the drawing of arranged objects either natural or manmade objects which are usually used in carrying out our everyday activities. The French call this subject nature morte which refers to any subject which an artist composes from a collection of inanimate objects. The reason why the drawing is said to be Page 69

-An attempt to use colours for their emotional value and not merely because they describe something. -Artists tried to capture in paint, the fleeting effects of light, shade and colour on natural forms. -Reacted against the constraints of the academic style and subject matter

SURREALI SM

-Artists wanted to make art ambigious and strange. -They dwelt on dreams and fantacies to reveal the surreal (true reality).

-Nudes, still lives and landscapes

-Paintings lack realism -Duplicated the glimmering effect of light bouncing off the surface of an object. -Used complementary colours such as red and green to one another to produce the optical vibrations perceived when one is looking at an object in full sunlight. -Paintings placed emphasis on the mysterious, marvelous, mythological and irrational.

-Painting out of doors and social satire.

-Paintings of dreams, fantacies and the subconscious.

Claude Monet, Manet, Camille Pissaro, Renoir, Degas, Berthe Morisot etc.

Louis Bourgeois, Leonora Carrington, Max Ernst, Leonor Fini

-Works expresses hunger, sexuality, anger, fear, dread, ecstasy.

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subjects of artistic production for contextual artists. The meanings of contextual works of art are hidden in the context for their productions. Notable contextual artists include Fareed Armaly, Cosima von Bonin, Tom Burr, Clegg & Guttmann, Meg Cranston, Mark Dion, Peter Fend, and Andrea Fraser.

‘still’ is that the composed objects, their respective positions and placements remain ‘still’ or intact till the drawing is completed. Some objects composed could last for days, weeks, months and even years. It is termed as ‘life’ because the drawings that result from direct or real observations are life drawings.

LIKELY EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 1. a) What is Renaissance? b) Write short notes on the early and high renaissance periods. c) Write on the life, arts and contributions of one of these Renaissance artists: i) Donatello ii) Michelangelo iii) Masaccio iv) Leonardo Da Vinci v) Bramante d) Discuss five (5) contributions of Renaissance to the development of art. 2. Write on the philosophy, style, theme and exponents of two (2) of the following art movements: a) Mannerism b) Cubism c) Fauvism d) Impressionisme) Expressionism 3. a) What is Post-Modern Art? b) Discuss the contributions of ONE of these Post-Modern Arts: i) Conceptual Art ii) Contextual Art iii) Digital Art media

In still life drawing, the artist has to pay particular attention to the selection and arrangement of the objects to be drawn. The selected objects should be harmonized to create unison or oneness in the composition. Also, the source of light should be taken note of so that the artist can depict the shades and shadows of the objects as accurately as possible. The design principle called ‘proportion’ is very important in still life drawings. The artist has to know and understand the size relations of all the objects in the composition so that he can depict them on the drawing surface with precision and accuracy.

ART

PHILOSOPHY

STYLE

- To represent subject matter truthfully as they actually looked with no exaggerations. - To avoid artificiality, artistic conventions and supernatural elements.

-Representation of forms in an objectively real view. - Depiction of forms as accurately as possible.

- To achieve an emotional impact through agitated brushwork, intense colours and the use of violet, hallucinatory imagery. -A desire to express what is felt rather than perceived or reasoned.

-Form is defined by an exaggeration of natural objects for emphasizing an emotion, mood or concept. -Forms and colours are freely distorted to achieve a heightened emotional impact.

THEME

EXPONENTS

MOVEMENT

REALISM

EXPRESSI ONISM

- Paintings of everyday activities. - Depiction of people of all classes in their surroundings engaging in real activities. -Use of natural forms. -Central on human figure, landscape and cityscape.

Gustave Courbet, JeanFrancois Millet, Honore Daumier

Still Life Drawings 2. Memory Drawing: This refers to the drawing of mental pictures or scenes in the mind of the artist as a result of a scene or event that he had previously witnessed or experienced. The artist tries to recollect those ideas, forms, colours etc. and puts it on paper.

Dufy, Matisse, Vlaminok, Van Gogh, Paul Gaugin, Edourd Munch

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installations, may be constructed by anyone simply by following a set of written instructions. In conceptual art, the idea or concept is the most important aspect of the work. When an artist uses a conceptual form of art, it means that all of the planning and decisions are made beforehand and the execution is just a formality. The idea becomes the machine that makes the art. The French artist Marcel Duchamp paved the way for the conceptualists, providing them with examples of prototypically conceptual works, ‘the readymades’. The most famous example is the ‘Fountain’. The works of most conceptual artists are known through documentations such as photographs, written texts or displayed objects. Notable conceptual artists include Marina Abramović, Billy Apple, Shusaku Arakawa, Michael Asher, Mireille Astore, John Baldessari, Marcel Duchamp and others. 3. Imaginative Drawing: This is a purely creative form of drawing which emanates from an artist’s own mind without inference to any scene or event he had previously experienced. The artist out of his own initiative creates the drawing which may sometimes be in a form of composition on his own. This makes the drawing highly original. Few highly creative artists attempt to make imaginative drawings. However, every artist whether amateur or skilled, has to engage in practical exercises in imaginative drawings.

Maurizio Bolognini, Programmed Machines

4. Nature Study: This is making a critical and serious observation of things in nature such as trees, animals, mountains and hills and depicting them on paper. The artist has to examine closely each of the parts of the object in nature that he intends Page 71

Marcel Duchamp, Fountain

CONTEXTUAL ART The term Context art was introduced through the seminal exhibition and an accompanying publication Kontext Kunst. The Art of the 90s curated by Peter Weibel at the Neue Galerie im Künstlerhaus Graz (Austria) in 1993. Both exhibition and publication aimed to establish grounds for recognizing a new form of artistic practice emerging in the early 1990s. The presentation displayed different approaches though all shared an interest in the use of methods of contextualization to reveal connections between the art works and their conditions of production, whether these were formal, social, or ideologically defined. Sometimes, unstable economic conditions and issues of globalization, all closely related to social and political changes, were relevant Page 364

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Programmes, Paint Programmes, Animation Software, 3-D Modelling and Rendering Programmes like AutoCAD, Rhino 3-D, Page Layout Software, Multimedia Presentation Software and the like. Post Modern art especially the digital art media has impacted greatly on the arts that we do today. It has improved the arts in various ways. Some of the ways are discussed below.

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drawing. For instance, if he is drawing a tree, he has to closely observe the arrangement and direction of the linear patterns of the branches, leaves, roots etc. Also, he has to seriously observe the texture on the surface of the tree, its trunk, the shape and colours of its fruit etc. If these critical observations of the things in nature are made by the artist before he engages in the drawings of them, he will be able to draw them as accurately as possible.

i. Creativity and originality- The Post Modern art has heightened the development of creativity and originality since individual artists broke away from existing styles and techniques. The group of artists in each of the art movements had their own distinctive style in the arts. ii. Effective designing- Artists today make use of the computer in the designing of products. This has ensured effective designing of products because the computer and the other digital media produce better designs unlike the traditional methods of production. iii. Precision, neatness and finishing- One feature of the Post-Modern arts is the precision and accurateness of the designs produced. The finished works produced from especially the digital media are very neat and attractive. iv. Multiple Reproduction- The traditional methods of production are slow and produce few copies of products. However, the digital media of production are able to produce greater quantities of the same product with great accuracy and precision at a relatively faster pace. v. Cost of production- Production of items using the traditional method of production is very expensive compared to the production of the same products using the digital media. The use of the computer and other forms of digital media for artistic productions is relatively cheaper and affordable to clients.

5. Figure Drawing: This is a drawing of the human and animal forms in any of its various shapes and postures using any of the drawing media. The degree of representation may be from highly detailed, anatomically correct renderings to loose and expressive sketches. Figure drawing relies on the artist possessing a deep understanding of anatomy and the human proportions. A trained artist is familiar with the skeleton structure, joint location, muscle placement, tendon movement, and how the different parts work together during movement. This allows the artist to render more natural poses that do not appear artificially stiff. The artist is also familiar with how the proportions vary depending on the age of the subject, particularly when drawing a portrait.

vi. Meeting deadlines- Artists who produce items with the hand and other handmade tools and equipment find it very difficult to meet deadlines for artistic productions. The situation sometimes gets out of hand when the artist receives huge contracts that require the production of mass quantities of a particular item. The digital art media speeds up production of items and help artists to successfully meet deadlines for products. CONCEPTUAL ART Conceptual art sometimes simply called Conceptualism, is the art in which the concept(s) or idea(s) involved in the work take precedence over traditional aesthetic and material concerns. Many works of conceptual art, sometimes called Page 363

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GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR S.H.S. DRAWING TECHNIQUES

There are various techniques of drawing. Some of these techniques include Sketch drawing, Descriptive drawing, Tonal drawing, Contour drawing and Pointillism/Stippling. 1. Sketch Drawing: This is the creation of simple line drawings to show different line qualities. It is also referred to as line drawing.It refers to any drawing that consists of distinct straight and curved lines placed against a usually plain background, without gradations in shade or colour to represent two-dimensional or three-dimensional objects. Line or sketch drawings can use lines of different colours, although it is usually monochromatic. Sketch or line drawings emphasize form and outline over colour, shading, and texture. However, areas of solid pigment and dots can also be used in addition to lines. The lines in a piece of sketch drawing may be all of a constant width or of freely varying widths. Sketch drawings may tend towards realism or it may be a caricature, cartoon, ideograph, or glyph.

2. Descriptive drawing: This is a drawing that depicts recognizable detailed natural or realistic forms. As its name implies, it gives a lot of details of a work that makes it easier for the drawn object to be easily recognized. It gives them a more realistic look.

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and mixes them in a fashion that ignores their original use in their corresponding artistic movement. Post-Modern artists are breaking traditional restrictions. Painters are creating three-dimensional paintings and sculptors are adding paint to their works. Most contemporary artists now use variety of electronic and digital media in designing and finishing their artworks e.g. photography, projector, scanner, video, digital camera, computer, etc.

DIGITAL ART Digital art is a general term for a range of artistic works and practices that use digital technology as an essential part of the creative and presentation process. Since the 1970s, various names have been used to describe the process including computer art and multimedia art, and digital art is itself placed under the larger umbrella term new media art. The impact of digital technology has transformed activities such as painting, drawing, sculpture and music/sound art, while new forms, such as net art, digital installation art, and virtual reality, have become recognized artistic practices. More generally the term digital artist is used to describe an artist who makes use of digital technologies in the production of art. In an expanded sense, “digital art” is a term applied to contemporary art that uses the methods of mass production or digital media. A typical form of digital art media is video. Video is simply a series of still images that creates a sense of depth, movement, and the fourth dimension i.e. the passage of time. Video format produces crisper, sharper images which can be imported into a computer where it can be altered, refined and shared with others on the Internet or recorded onto a CD-ROM or tape, either digital or analogue, for a variety of purposes. The use of cameras has dramatically changed art. The camera as a tool is easy to use, readily available, and inexpensive. The digital art media affords artists the opportunity to freely explore their personal thoughts and feelings. The techniques of digital art are used extensively by the mainstream media in advertisements, and by film-makers to produce special effects. Today, photography, video, and graphics, linked by computers, have expanded the artist’s potential for self-expression by allowing him/her to quickly generate multiple ideas, create solutions and mix varied media. This new ability to digitally combine drawing, text, sound, and movement engages our senses, thus making the medium produced interactive. There are several digital software programmes that help artists to produce artistic images with text, sound and animation via the computer. These Software programmes have been developed with more intuitive and standardized menus, commands, and icons. Examples include Draw

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MINIMALISM Minimalism emerged as an abstract movement in art in the early 1960s with roots in geometric abstraction. The art movement rejected the idea of relational and subjective painting, the complexity of Abstract expressionist surfaces, and the emotional feelings in Action painting. Minimalism argued that extreme simplicity could capture all of the awe inspiring representation needed in art. It emphasizes on the use of a minimum of art elements in composing a picture. The movement is associated with painters such as Frank Stella, minimalism in painting, as opposed to other areas, is a modernist movement and depending on the context can be interpreted as a precursor to the postmodern movement.

Tony Smith, Free Ride POST-MODERN ART Postmodern art is a body of art movements that sought to contradict some aspects of modernism or that emerged or developed in its aftermath. In general, movements such as Intermedia, Installation art, Conceptual Art and Multimedia, particularly involving video are described as postmodern. Postmodernism describe movements which both arise from, and react against or reject, trends in modernism. Specific trends of modernism that are generally cited are formal purity, medium specificity, art for art’s sake, authenticity, universality, originality and revolutionary or reactionary tendency. Some schools of thought say art has reached a period that is rapidly evolving and that the era modern art is either gradually coming to an end or has ended. To others we are in the post-modern era. There are several characteristics which lend art to being postmodern. These include bricolage that is construction using a range of things that happen to be available, the use of low forms of art which was part of modernist experimentation, collage, simplification, appropriation, performance art, the recycling of past styles and themes in a modern-day context, as well as the breakup of the barrier between fine and high arts and low art and popular culture. PostModernism is an approach to art that incorporates traditional elements and techniques while retaining some characteristics of modern art styles or movements.Postmodernism also introduced elements of commercialism as well as styles from past periods, such as Gothicism, the Renaissance and the Baroque, Page 361

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3. Tonal drawing: This technique of drawing employs light and shade (tonal values) rendering to define forms. Owing to the varying tones assigned to parts of the drawn object in relation to the reflection of light, tonal drawings are solid and have a three dimensional feel.

4. Contour Drawing (Linear, Outline): This form of drawing involves the use of contour lines in defining the shapes or outlines of objects. It is drawing an object as though your drawing tool is moving along all the edges and the ridges of the form. This technique of drawing helps artists to become more perceptive. In contour drawing, the eye and hand moves at the same time.

5. Pointillism/Stippling/Dottilism: This is the use of dots in drawing. Series of dots or points that are carefully organized or arranged are used in creating forms and objects.

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SHADING TECHNIQUES Shading is the technique of showing tones or values on an object through gradual gradations for it to look ‘solid’ and have a three dimensional effect. Shading techniques allow you to weave layer upon layer of pencil marks to add a convincing form to your line drawing. Shading adds a sense of substance to your subject and produces a convincing tonal relationship. Drawings take on a three dimensional form when shaded properly. To render shades correctly on drawn objects, the artist must carefully observe the source of light that is striking various values of tones or shades on the drawn objects. After realizing the source of light, the artist must study closely the reflections of the light on areas of the objects to know the lightest and darkest sections. After establishing the endpoints or extremes thus the lightest valued areas as well as the darkest valued areas, the remaining area with a mid-half tone between the two extremes is the middle value. The tones are adjusted as many times to make it look realistic. It is advised that artists step back periodically to look at the drawing and the subject in a distance to view and adjust the tones accordingly. This would make the values depicted on the drawn objects more realistic. In the rendition of cast shadow, the artist must take note of the light source and the striking or reflection of the light on the objects. If the light is far above, the shorter the shadow is (try checking out your shadow at noon 12:00PM) whereas the lower the light, the longer the cast shadow will become. The rule is that the darker the shadow, the brighter the light source. As the shadow is drawn further from the object, the lighter it becomes. The shadow takes on the shape of the item it comes from. Notice that to make the shadow, all you have to do is create a triangular shape from the top of the object to the ground and back to the base of the object. According to the light source, make your shadow fit accordingly. Page 75

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DADA Dada or Dadaism was an art movement of the European avant-garde in the early 20th century. Many claim that Dada began in Zurich, Switzerland in 1916, spreading to Berlin shortly thereafter but the height of New York Dada was in 1915. Dada was born out of negative reaction to the horrors of World War I. This international movement was begun by a group of artists and poets associated with the Cabaret Voltaire in Zurich. Dada rejected reason and logic, prizing nonsense, irrationality and intuition. The origin of the name Dada is unclear; some believe that it is a nonsensical word. Others maintain that it originates from the Romanian artists Tristan Tzara and Marcel Janco’s frequent use of the words da, da, meaning yes, yes in the Romanian language. Another theory says that the name “Dada” came during a meeting of the group when a paper knife stuck into a French-German dictionary happened to point to ‘dada’, a French word for ‘hobbyhorse’. The movement primarily involved Visual arts, literature, poetry, art manifestos, art theory, theatre, and graphic design, and concentrated its anti-war politics through a rejection of the prevailing standards in art through anti-art cultural works. In addition to being anti-war, Dada was also anti-bourgeois (not belonging to the Middle class) and had political affinities with the radical left. They ridiculed the contemporary culture and traditional art forms by ignoring accepted ideas. Dada activities included public gatherings, demonstrations, and publication of art/literary journals; passionate coverage of art, politics, and culture were topics often discussed in a variety of media. Key figures in the movement included Hugo Ball, Emmy Hennings, Hans Arp, Raoul Hausmann, Hannah Höch, Johannes Baader, Tristan Tzara, Francis Picabia, Richard Huelsenbeck, Georg Grosz, John Heartfield, Marcel Duchamp, Beatrice Wood, Kurt Schwitters, and Hans Richter, among others.

Hannah Höch, Cut with the Dada Kitchen Knife Raoul Hausmann (Self-portrait) Page 360

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Cubism was the representation of three-dimensional form in the late works of Paul Cézanne, which were displayed in a retrospective at the 1907 Salon d’Automne. In Cubist artwork, objects are analyzed, broken up and reassembled in an abstracted form—instead of depicting objects from one viewpoint, the artist depicts the subject from a multitude of viewpoints to represent the subject in a greater context. Pablo Picasso’s 1907 painting Les Demoiselles d’Avignon has often been considered a proto-Cubist work. Georges Braque’s 1908 Houses at L’Estaque (and related works) prompted the critic Louis Vauxcelles to refer to bizarreries cubiques (cubic oddities). Gertrude Stein referred to landscapes made by Picasso in 1909, such as Reservoir at Horta de Ebroas, as the first Cubist paintings. The first organized group exhibition by Cubists took place at the Salon des Indépendants in Paris during the spring of 1911 in a room called ‘Salle 41’; it included works by Jean Metzinger, Albert Gleizes, Fernand Léger, Robert Delaunay and Henri Le Fauconnier, yet no works by Picasso and Braque were exhibited. By 1911 Picasso was recognized as the inventor of Cubism, while Braque’s importance and precedence was argued later, with respect to his treatment of space, volume and mass in the L’Estaque landscapes. Historians have divided the history of cubism into phases. In one scheme, the first phase of cubism, known as Analytic Cubism, was both radical and influential as a short but highly significant art movement between 1907 and 1911 in France. It placed emphasis on the breaking of forms and objects into geometric shapes with no interest in colour. However, the second phase, Synthetic Cubism, remained vital until around 1919. It was also based on the use of foreign materials as part of the application of colour as in collage.

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Some of the shading techniques are: 1. Hatching 2. Cross-hatching 3. Stippling/Dottilism/Pointillism 4. Circularism/Squirkling/Scribbling 5. Tonal gradation/Smudging

1. Hatching: This is a shading technique that employs one set of line either vertical, curved or horizontal lines in rendering shades on a drawn object. These lines are drawn beside one another to give the illusion of a value. Depending on the hatching shading effect one want to achieve, the artist may decide to make the individual lines in hatching sets far apart or close together.

Picasso, Les Demoiselles d’Avignon ; Three Musicians Juan Gris, Portrait of Picasso 2. Cross-hatching: This is a shading technique made by the use of lines that crosses each other at an angle in rendering shades on an object. In cross-hatching, Page 359

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one set of line crosses over (overlaps) another set of line to create a shade on a drawn object.

3. Stippling/Dottilism/Pointillism: This is a shading technique that employs dots or series of points in rendering the shades on an object.

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phenomenon, though there were parallel movements in Russia, England and elsewhere. The Futurists practiced in every medium of art, including painting, sculpture, ceramics, graphic design, industrial design, interior design, urban design, theatre, film, fashion, textiles, literature, music, architecture and even gastronomy. They repudiated the cult of the past and all imitation, praised originality, “however daring, however violent”, bore proudly “the smear of madness”, dismissed art critics as useless, rebelled against harmony and good taste, swept away all the themes and subjects of all previous art, and gloried in science. Key figures of the movement include the Italians Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, Umberto Boccioni, Carlo Carrà, Gino Severini, Giacomo Balla, Antonio Sant’Elia, Bruno Munari and Luigi Russolo, and the Russians Natalia Goncharova, Velimir Khlebnikov, Igor Severyanin, David Burliuk, Aleksei Kruchenykh and Vladimir Mayakovsky, as well as the Portuguese Almada Negreiros. Important works include its seminal piece of the literature, Marinetti’s Manifesto of Futurism, as well as Boccioni’s sculpture, Unique Forms of Continuity in Space, and Balla’s painting, Abstract Speed + Sound (pictured). Futurism influenced art movements such as Art Deco, Constructivism, Surrealism, Dada, and to a greater degree, Precisionism, Rayonism, and Vorticism.

4. Circularism/Squirkling/Scribbling This is the use of circles, squirkles and scribbles in rendering a shade on an object.When squirkle sets have noticeable spaces between the lines, they work beautifully for shading various textures, such as fuzzy fabrics and curly hair. Squirkles can look like a solid tone when the lines are drawn closely together, and are great for shading lots of different aspects of people, including skin tones. Balla, Abstract Speed + Sound Boccioni, The City Rises; Unique Forms of Continuity in Space

5. Tonal gradation/smudging This is the rendering of soft tones on a drawn object and blending the tones together with the thumb, a piece of paper or a soft cloth. Page 77

CUBISM Cubism is an early-20th-century avant-gardeart movement pioneered by Georges Braque and Pablo Picasso, joined by Jean Metzinger, Albert Gleizes, Robert Delaunay, Henri Le Fauconnier, Fernand Léger and Juan Gris that revolutionized European painting and sculpture, and inspired related movements in music, literature and architecture. Cubism has been considered the most influential art movement of the 20th century. The term is broadly used in association with a wide variety of art produced in Paris (Montmartre, Montparnasse and Puteaux) during the 1910s and extending through the 1920s. A primary influence that led to Page 358

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beyond 1910, the movement as such lasted only a few years, 1904–1908, and had three exhibitions. The leaders of the movement were Henri Matisse and André Derain. The paintings of the Fauves were characterized by seemingly wild brush work and strident colours, while their subject matter had a high degree of simplification and abstraction. Fauvism can be classified as an extreme development of Van Gogh’s Post-Impressionism fused with the pointillism of Seurat and other NeoImpressionist painters, in particular Paul Signac. Other key influences were Paul Cézanne and Paul Gauguin, whose employment of areas of saturated colour— notably in paintings from Tahiti—strongly influenced Derain’s work at Collioure in 1905. Besides Matisse and Derain, other artists included Albert Marquet, Charles Camoin, Louis Valtat, the Belgian painter Henri Evenepoel, Maurice Marinot, Jean Puy, Maurice de Vlaminck, Henri Manguin, Raoul Dufy, Othon Friesz, Georges Rouault, Jean Metzinger, the Dutch painter Kees van Dongen, the Swiss painter Alice Bailly, and Georges Braque.

SKETCHING Sketching is a kind of drawing that puts forward the instant thoughts of an artist. Thus, it is a rough freehand and loose drawing which is not considered to be a finished piece of work. It is a technique for quickly putting thoughts on paper providing the essential features without much detail. Sketching, usually, results out of visualizing and immediately capturing them onto paper. Apart from visual artists, sketches are used by architects to design new buildings and also engineers use them to explain new products and inventions. Sketches help doctors to interpret health related problems at a relatively easier and faster rate.

Derain, Self-portrait Matisse, Portrait of Madame Matisse; Woman with a Hat

Sketching FUTURISM Futurism (Italian: Futurismo) was an artistic and social movement that originated in Italy in the early 20th century. The founder of Futurism was the Italian writer Filippo Tommaso Marinetti. Marinetti launched the movement in his Futurist Manifesto, which he published for the first time on 5 February 1909 in La gazzetta dell’Emilia, an article then rep roduced in the French daily newspaper Le Figaro on 20 February 1909. The artists emphasized and glorified themes associated with contemporary concepts of the future, including speed, technology, youth and violence, and objects such as the car, the airplane and the industrial city. This art movement placed emphasis on angular forms to suggest movement. It was largely an Italian Page 357

Types/Processes in Sketching There are two major processes in sketching. i. Free-hand sketching: a free-hand sketch is made without the aid of any electronic drawing equipment. The designer uses his/her hand freely to draw lines, shapes etc. to create intended images for further development into paintings, posters, ceramic wares, printed/woven fabrics, bags, beads, baskets, busts, bridges, machines, buildings etc. Page 78

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ii. Mechanical sketching: these are sketches developed through the use of electronic drawing instruments and equipment like the computer, drafting machines, compasses etc. Mechanical sketches are more often than not final sketches and are normally preceded by free-hand sketches.

UNIT THREE COMPOSITION AND LAYOUT Specific Objectives: The student will be able to: 3.3.1 explain the terms composition and layout 3.3.2 compose an artwork or piece showing positive and negative parts of a composition 3.3.3 recall, imagine and organize ideas into composition These two terms are used interchangeably in art. They describe the arrangement or organization of the elements of art, e.g. lines, shapes, colours, textures, text, images etc. on a page or in a space according to approved guidelines or principles to create a desirable artwork or an art piece. It is the act of organizing the formal or plastic elements in a work of art to achieve a unified whole.

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Pop art, material is sometimes visually removed from its known context, isolated, and/or combined with unrelated material. The concept of pop art refers not as much to the art itself as to the attitudes that led to it. Pop art employs aspects of mass culture, such as advertising, comic books and mundane cultural objects. It is widely interpreted as a reaction to the thendominant ideas of abstract expressionism, as well as an expansion upon them. Pop art is aimed to employ images of popular as opposed to elitist culture in art. It is also associated with the artists’ use of mechanical means of reproduction or rendering techniques. Much of pop art usually contains conceptual practices that often make it difficult for some to readily understand the art. Pop art often takes as its imagery that which is currently in use in advertising. Product labeling and logos figure prominently in the imagery chosen by pop artists, like in the Campbell’s Soup Cans labels, by Andy Warhol. Even the labeling on the shipping box containing retail items has been used as subject matter in pop art, for example in Warhol’sCampbell’s Tomato Juice Box. Exponents of this movement are Billy Apple, Evelyne Axell, Sir Peter Blake, Derek Boshier, Pauline Boty, Patrick Caulfield, Allan D’Arcangelo, Jim Dine, and Rosalyn Drexler.

Composition in a picture is the putting together, organizing and arrangement of the different parts of a picture. There are various rules of composition such as symmetry and asymmetry. Symmetry is having both sides of a picture the same either vertically or horizontally. Asymmetry is deliberately having the arrangement out of symmetry. Other rules include not cutting the picture exactly in half either vertically or horizontally by a middle placing of the skyline or a central figure such as a tall tower or tree trunk. It is also an incorrect principle to cut at the edge of the picture, the main shapes that are important to the picture such as arms or legs of figures. The most important point about successful compositions is that it should make the viewer feel happy with the finished picture. The viewer should not have the sense that the eye cannot get into the picture. It should take the eye of the viewer and his imagination right into the picture by the placing of the various shapes, by radiating lines such as roads or rivers that lead away into the distance. It should not give a feeling that the picture is dropping out of the bottom of the frame or going off to one side. A composition/layout guides and directs the observer’s eye Page 79

Campbell’s Tomato Juice Box

Paolozzi, ‘I was a Rich Man’s Plaything’

FAUVISM Fauvism is the style of les Fauves (French for “the wild beasts”), a loose group of early twentieth-century Modern artists whose works emphasized painterly qualities and strong colour over the representational or realistic values retained by Impressionism. While Fauvism as a style began around 1900 and continued Page 356

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OP ART (OPTICAL ART) It is a 20th century art style in which artists uses scientific knowledge about vision to create an impression of movement on the picture surface by means of optical illusion. Optical art is a method of painting that is concerned with the interaction between illusion and picture plane, between understanding and seeing. Op art works are abstract, with many of the better known pieces made in black and white. When the viewer looks at them, the impression is given of movement, hidden images, flashing and vibration, patterns, or alternatively, of swelling or warping. Op art is a perceptual experience related to how vision functions. It is a dynamic visual art, stemming from a discordant figure-ground relationship that causes the two planes to be in a tense and contradictory juxtaposition. Op art is created in two primary ways. The first, and best known method, is the creation of effects through the use of pattern and line. Often these paintings are black-and-white or otherwise grisaille. In this technique, black and white wavy lines are placed close to one another on the canvas surface creating such a volatile figure-ground relationship that one’s eyes begin to hurt. Another reaction that occurs is that the lines create after- images of certain colours due to how the retina receives and processes light.Beginning in 1965 Bridget Riley began to produce colour-based op art, however, other artists, such as Julian Stanczak and Richard Anuszkiewicz, were always interested in making colour the primary focus of their work. Exponents of this art movement include Yaacov Agam, Josef Albers, Richard Allen, Getulio Alviani, Edna Andrade, Anonima group, Richard Anuszkiewicz, Barbara Januszkiewicz and Carlos Cruz-Díez.

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and helps him/her to understand the designer’s feelings. A composition may be two-dimensional or three dimensional. Factors to consider when composing a picture There are five main factors that need to be considered when composing a picture. These are: 1. The picture plane 2. The selection of the subject matter 3. Selection of format 4. Drawing 5. Planning 1. The picture plane- The picture plane or picture area refers to the surface where the various elements and principles of the design will be organized into a unit. This should be carefully thought of so as to create a good composition. 2. Selection of the subject matter- The artist should select a suitable and interesting matter for the composition. Examples of subject matter include geometric shapes, still life, plants, landscape, seascape etc. 3. Selection of format- There are two main formats for composition. They are landscape and portrait. The choice of format should be based on the subject matter for the composition as well as the nature of elements in the composition. 4. Drawing- The artist should endeavour to use the various drawing tools at his disposal to bring out the various visual elements in the picture together to give a balanced and coherent effect. 5. Planning- The artist should plan how to position the various visual elements in the work well guided by the various elements of design.

Movement in Squares, Riley

Op art, Victor Vasarely

POP ART Pop art is an art movement that emerged in the mid-1950s in Britain and in the late 1950s in the United States. Pop art presented a challenge to traditions of fine art by including imagery from popular culture such as advertising, news, etc. In Page 355

Parts of a Composition Generally, every composition has two main parts. These are the positive area and the negative area. The positive areas are the areas of the picture plane that are occupied by the image(s) in a composition. The positive area is also referred to as the image area. The negative areas of a composition are the areas that are unoccupied in a composition. In fact, they are the spaces around the images. They are also referred to as the non-image area. However, in picture making, painting, collage, drawing and marquetry, the picture plane is divided into three thus, the background, image area/ground and the foreground. The positive area is the image area or ground while the negative area is divided into two namely the Page 80

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background and the foreground. The background refers to the part of the negative area of a composition that is farther away from the viewer. On the hand, the foreground refers to the part of the negative area of a composition that is nearest to the viewer. In the area of Graphics, posters, billboards, newspapers, pagination, labels, packages etc. composition and layout can be grouped into two. These are the formal layout and the informal layout. i. Formal Layout Also referred to as Symmetrical layout is a layout format that is divided into two equal parts to achieve balance. It is achieved when an imaginary vertical centre line divides the layout and each side of it contains equal amount of copy text and illustrations. Formal balance expresses dignity and stability. Examples of formal layout are the Justified, Unjustified and Centred layouts. •

•

•

Justified Layout: In this layout format, all lines have the same length and are aligned to form a straight line at both left and right or flush left and right. Word spacing is adjusted so that each line fills the entire measure. It is the commonest layout format and is very easy to read. However, its demerit is that it contains a lot of hyphens. Unjustified Layout: The lines of type in this layout format is either flushed left and rugged right or flushed right and rugged left. Flush left is common and easy to read but flush right is not popular and is difficult to read. Centred Layout: Type lines in this layout appear rugged at both ends. The lines centred on imaginary vertical line making it symmetrical. It is a good layout format for headlines and certificates.

ii. Informal Layout It is also referred to as Asymmetrical Layout. This layout format has an informal balance. Each side of the layout contains unequal amounts of copy text and illustrations. Informal balance gives the artist the freedom in placing the different types and elements of design using personal opinion and taste. It is often difficult to read. Examples of informal layout are contour, run-around and inclined layouts. • •

Contour Layout: In this layout format, each side of the layout contains unequal amounts of copy text and illustrations in an undulating form (move in a wavy pattern). Run-around Layout: In this layout format, each side of the layout contains unequal amounts of copy text and illustrations in a circular form. Page 81

Monet (Impression, Sunrise)

Haystacks, (sunset)

Pissarro, Boulevard Montmartre

SURREALISM Surrealism is a 20th century artistic style in which dreams, fantasy, and the subconscious served as inspiration for artists. The word “surreal” was coined by the poet/art critic Guillaume Apollinaire and appeared for the first time in the program notes for ballet Parade in May 1917. Surrealists feasted on the unconscious. They believed that Freud’s theories on dreams, ego, superego and the id opened doors to the authentic self and a truer reality (the “surreal”). They relished the possibilities of chance and spontaneity. Their leader, the “Pope of Surrealism,” was French writer André Breton (18961966), who joined fellow writers Philippe Soupault, Louis Aragon, Paul Éluard, and Robert Denos among many others. Surrealism was characterized by the exploration of the dream and unconsciousness as a valid form of reality, inspired by Sigmund Freud’s writings. Also, surrealists placed emphasis on the mysterious, marvelous, mythological and irrational in an effort to make art ambiguous and strange. Fundamentally, Surrealism gave artists permission to express their most basic drives: hunger, sexuality, anger, fear, dread, ecstasy, and so forth. Exponents of this art movement include Louise Bourgeois, Leonora Carrington, Joseph Cornell Salvadore Dalí, Paul Delvaux, Max Ernst, Leonor Fini, and Alberto Giacometti.

Salvador Dalí, Soft Construction with Boiled Beans Page 354

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extended to a wide range of the arts, including painting, literature, theatre, dance, film, architecture and music. The expressionists rejected the ideology of realism. Exponents of this period include Valminok,Van Gough, Dufy, Paul Guagin, Kandensky, Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, Franz Marc, Karl Zerbe, Hyman Bloom, Jack Levine, and David Aronson.

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Inclined Layout: In this layout format, each side of the layout contains unequal amounts of copy text and illustrations which are slanted to either left or right. Memory and Imaginative Composition

i. Memory Composition – composing a picture based on past ideas and experiences. ii. Imaginative Composition – the ability to create new ideas, images or forms based on things not yet experienced through critical thinking, reflection on dreams, wishes and aspirations (Deer in Woods), MarcMacke, Lady in a Green Jacket Kirchner, Self-Portrait as a Soldier

IMPRESSIONISM Impressionism is a 19th-century art movement that originated with a group of Paris-based artists. Their independent exhibitions brought them to prominence during the 1870s and 1880s, in spite of harsh opposition from the conventional art community in France. The name of the style derives from the title of a Claude Monet work, Impression, soleil levant (Impression, Sunrise), which provoked the critic Louis Leroy to coin the term in a satirical review published in the Parisian newspaper Le Charivari. Impressionist painting characteristics include relatively small, thin, yet visible brush strokes, open composition, emphasis on accurate depiction of light in its changing qualities (often accentuating the effects of the passage of time), ordinary subject matter, inclusion of movement as a crucial element of human perception and experience, and unusual visual angles. Artists captured an impression of what the eye sees at a given moment and the effect of sunlight on the colour of the object. They portrayed overall visual effects instead of details, and used short “broken” brush strokes of mixed and pure unmixed colour—not blended smoothly or shaded, as was customary—to achieve an effect of intense colour vibration. The public, at first hostile, gradually came to believe that the Impressionists had captured a fresh and original vision, even if the art critics and art establishment disapproved of the new style. The development of Impressionism in the Visual arts was soon followed by analogous styles in other media that became known as impressionist music and impressionist literature. Exponents of this art movement include Claude Monet, Renoir, Pissarro, Édouard Manet, Edgar Degas and Sisley. Page 353

UNIT FOUR PERSPECTIVE AND FORESHORTENING Specific Objectives: The student will be able to: 3.4.1 explain perspective 3.4.2 compose artworks to depict the thee principles of perspective 3.4.3 use foreshortening In composition PERSPECTIVE It is a way of drawing objects or composing scenes to create an illusion of distance. It is the science of vision by which the artist can create the appearance of depth and distance on a two dimensional surface. It is any graphical system used to create the illusion of three-dimensional images or spatial relationships on two dimensional surfaces. TYPES OF PERSPECTIVE There are two main types of perspective drawing. These are Linear perspective and Aerial or Atmospheric perspective.

LINEAR PERSPECTIVE This type of perspective deals with lines and forms of things. It is a method of portraying objects on a flat surface so that the dimensions or sizes of objects shrink or reduces in size with distance. Each set of parallel, straight edges of any object, whether a building or a table, will follow lines that eventually converge at a vanishing point. Typically this point of convergence will be along the horizon, as buildings are built level with the flat surface. When multiple structures are Page 82

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aligned with each other, such as buildings along a street, the horizontal tops and bottoms of the structures will all typically converge at a vanishing point. There are three forms of linear perspective. These are Parallel / one-point perspective, Angular/ two-point perspective and Oblique/Isometric/threepoint perspective. Parallel/One-point Perspective In parallel perspective, the plane lies parallel with the picture plane and all parallel lines moving horizontally away from the viewer converge at a vanishing point. However, all vertical lines remain vertical while the sizes of the objects reduce in size as they move towards the vanishing point. It has only one vanishing point.

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subject matter and exaggerated emotionalism and drama of the Romantic Movement. Instead it sought to portray real and typical contemporary people and situations with truth and accuracy, and not avoiding unpleasant or sordid aspects of life. Realist works depicted people of all classes in situations that arise in ordinary life, and often reflected the changes wrought by the Industrial and Commercial Revolutions. . In favor of depictions of ‘real’ life the Realist painters used common laborers, and ordinary people in ordinary surroundings engaged in real activities as subject for their works. The popularity of such ‘realistic’ works grew with the introduction of photography which is a new visual source that created a desire for people to produce representations which look “objectively real.” Romantic emotionalism and drama were avoided equally, and often sordid or untidy elements of subjects were not smoothed over or omitted as was done by the Romantics. The realists depicted scenes as accurately as possible. Its chief exponents are Gustave Courbet, Jean-François Millet, Honoré Daumier, and Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot.

Millet, The Gleaners

Fig.15. Parallel/ One-point perspective

Angular/Two-point Perspective In this type of perspective, the plane is drawn at an angle to the picture plane. It usually has two sets of parallel lines which do not meet at the same point but rather converge at different vanishing points though they share one horizon. The sizes of objects reduce as they move towards each of the vanishing points. It has two vanishing points.

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Courbet, Stone-Breakers

Daumier, The Third Class Wagon

EXPRESSIONISM Expressionism was a modernistmovement, initially in poetry and painting, originating in Germany at the beginning of the 20th century. Its typical trait is to present the world solely from a subjective perspective, distorting it radically for emotional effect in order to evoke moods or ideas. Expressionist artists sought to express meaning or emotional experience rather than physical reality. The term refers to an “artistic style in which the artist seeks to depict not objective reality but rather the subjective emotions and responses that objects and events arouse within a person. To the expressionist, it was not important to reproduce an aesthetically pleasing impression of the artistic subject matter, they felt, but rather to represent vivid emotional reactions by powerful colours and dynamic compositions. Expressionism was developed as an avant-garde style before the First World War. It remained popular during the Weimar Republic particularly in Berlin. The style

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ROMANTICISM Romanticism (or the Romantic era/Period) was an artistic, literary, and intellectual movement that originated in Europe toward the end of the 18th century and in most areas was at its peak in the approximate period from 1800 to 1850.The movement validated strong emotion as an authentic source of aesthetic experience, placing new emphasis on such emotions as apprehension, horror and terror, and awe. The works of artists in this movement portrayed exotic and dramatic subjects.In this movement, “the artist’s feeling is his law”.In order to truly express these feelings, the content of the art must come from the imagination of the artist, with as little interference as possible from “artificial” rules dictating what a work should consist of. Romantics stressed on creativity.The influence of models from other works would impede the creator’s own imagination, so originality was absolutely essential. The concept of the genius, or artist who was able to produce his own original work through this process of “creation from nothingness”, is key to Romanticism. Exponents of this movement include Joseph Vernet, Ingres, Frrancesco Hayez, Delacriox, and Richard Parkes Bonington.

Ingres, Death of Leornardo da Vinci Vernet, Shipwreck near Jerusalem

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Fig.16.Angular/Two-Point Perspective Oblique/Isometric/Three-point Perspective This type of perspective is characterized by a plane with three equal axes at right angles. It has three vanishing points and as usual, the objects reduce in size as they move towards each of the three vanishing points.

Hayez, Crusaders Thirsting

REALISM Realism is a mid-nineteenth-century style of art representing everyday scenes and events as they actually looked. This art movement attempted to represent subject matter truthfully, without artificiality, and avoiding artistic conventions, implausible, exotic and supernatural elements. It was led by Courbet in France. It spread across Europe and was influential for the rest of the century and beyond, but as it became adopted into the mainstream of painting it becomes less common and useful as a term to define artistic style. Realism was an artistic movement that began in France in the 1850s, after the 1848 Revolution. Realists rejected Romanticism, which had dominated French literature and art since the late 18th century. Realism revolted against the exotic Page 351

Fig.17. Isometric/Oblique/Three-Point Perspective

AERIAL / ATMOSPHERIC OR COLOUR PERSPECTIVE This is the creation of depth or distance in a drawing by the use of colour. Depth or distance is portrayed by reducing the contrast or value in colours of objects in more distant objects, and by making their colours less saturated. This will reproduce the effect of atmospheric haze, and cause the eye to focus primarily on objects drawn in the foreground. Colours of objects closer to the viewer or in the foreground are brighter while colours of objects far from the viewer and above the horizon become pale or dull in value. Page 84

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Although the use of aerial perspective has been known since antiquity, Leonardo da Vinci first used the term aerial perspective in his documentary on Painting, in which he wrote: “Colours become weaker in proportion to their distance from the person who is looking at them.” It was later discovered that the presence in the atmosphere of moisture and of tiny particles of dust and similar material causes a scattering of light as it passes through them, the degree of scattering being dependent on the wavelength, which corresponds to the colour, and of the light. Because light of short wavelength such as blue light is scattered most, the colours of all distant dark objects tend toward blue. For example, distant mountains have a bluish cast. Light of long wavelength such as red light is scattered least. This means that distant bright objects appear redder because some of the blue is scattered and lost from the light by which they are seen. The intervening atmosphere between a viewer and, for example, distant mountains, creates other visual effects that can be mimicked by landscape painters. The atmosphere causes distant forms to have less sharp edges and outlines than forms near the viewer, and interior detail is similarly softened or blurred. Distant objects appear somewhat lighter than objects of similar tone lying closer at hand, and in general contrasts between light and shade appear less extreme at great distances. All these effects are more apparent at the base of a mountain than at its peak, since the density of the intervening atmosphere is greater at lower elevations. Examples of aerial perspective have been found in ancient Greco-Roman wall paintings. The techniques were lost from European art during the “Dark” and Middle Ages and were rediscovered by Flemish painters of the 15th century such as Joachim Patinir, after which they became a standard element in the European painter’s technical vocabulary. The 19th-century British landscape painter J.M.W. Turner made the boldest and most ambitious use of aerial perspective among Western artists. Aerial perspective was used with great sophistication and pictorial effectiveness by Chinese landscape painters from about the 8th century and thereafter.

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works exemplifying this trend are often called ‘cold’ or ‘aloof. Exponents of this style include El Greco, Jacopo da Pontormo, Rosso Fiorentino, Agnolo Bronzino and Tintoretto.

Jacopo, Joseph in Egypt

Tintoretto, Last Supper

El Greco, Baptism

NEOCLASSICISM Neoclassicism is a 19th-century French art style that sought to revive the ideals of ancient Greek and Roman art and was characterized by balanced compositions, flowing contour lines, and noble gestures and expressions. The artists drew inspiration from the “classical” art and culture of Ancient Greece or Ancient Rome. The main Neoclassical movement coincided with the 18th century Age of Enlightenment, and continued into the early 19th century. The term “Neoclassical” style was described by such terms as “the true style”, “reformed” and “revival”; what was regarded as being revived varying considerably. Ancient models were certainly very much involved, but the style could also be regarded as a revival of the Renaissance, and especially in France as a return to the more austere and noble Baroque of the age of Louis XIV. Exponents of this movement include Giovanni Battista Piranesi, Angelica Kauffmann, Ingres, Canova, and Johan Tobias Sergel.

Resting Faun, Sergel Sphinx

Kauffmann, Venus Induces Helen Ingres, Oedipus and the

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art in which the traditions of the past have been thrown aside in a spirit of experimentation. Modern artists experimented with new ways of seeing and with fresh ideas about the nature of materials and functions of art. A tendency away from the narrative, which was characteristic for the traditional arts, toward abstraction is characteristic of much modern art. Throughout art history, each new generation of artists has included a group of nonconformists who are unwilling to follow the footsteps of their predecessors. They try to break away from the general practices and in their quest come out with new styles and techniques. The series of art movements recorded over the past two centuries can be attributed to the attitude of nonconformist artists. Modern art movements begin with the heritage of painters like Vincent van Gogh, Paul Cézanne, Paul Gauguin, Georges Seurat, Henri de Toulouse Lautrec and Pablo Picasso all of whom were essential for the development of modern art. At the beginning of the 20th century Henri Matisse and several other young artists including the pre-cubist Georges Braque, André Derain, Raoul Dufy and Maurice de Vlaminck revolutionized the Paris art world with “wild”, multi-coloured, expressive landscapes and figure paintings that the critics called Fauvism. The actions of the above mentioned artists have given confidence to the young and growing contemporary artists to explore and experiment with new and unconventional tools, materials and techniques to express their ideas, beliefs, and feelings. Examples of modern art movements include Mannerism, Neoclassicism, Romanticism, Realism, Expressionism, Impressionism, Surrealism, Op Art, Pop art, Fauvism, Futurists, Cubism, Dada, and Minimalism. MANNERISM Mannerism is a period of European art that emerged from the later years of the Italian High Renaissance around 1520. It lasted until about 1580 in Italy, when the Baroque style began to replace it, but Northern Mannerism continued into the early 17th century. Stylistically, Mannerism encompasses a variety of approaches influenced by, and reacting to, the harmonious ideals and restrained naturalism associated with artists such as Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and Michelangelo. Mannerism is notable for its intellectual sophistication as well as its artificial (as opposed to naturalistic) qualities. Mannerism favours compositional tension and instability as well as distortions rather than the balance and clarity of earlier Renaissance painting. Mannerists stressed intellectual conceits and artistic skill or talent, working in an unnatural and affected “manner” (maniera). Maniera artists looked to their older contemporary Michelangelo as their principal model; theirs was an art imitating art, rather than an art imitating nature. Mannerists give attention to surface and details of works. The subject rarely displays much emotion, and for this reason Page 349

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Principles of Perspective The basic principles on which all perspective drawings are based are: 1. Objects in distance appear smaller than objects closer to the viewer. 2. Colours in distance appear duller and paler than objects close to the viewer. 3. Objects close to the viewer always appear sharper and clearer. 4. Parallel lines going in one direction away from the viewer must be seen as converging toward the single point on the horizon known as a vanishing point. 5. Parallel lines never meet but that they appear to do so. Relevant Tips for Perspective Drawings 1. The horizon is always at the eye level, no matter how long or high one gets. 2. If an object is above eye level, its underside will be seen. 3. High objects are seen above eye level. 4. Neither top nor bottom is seen if the object is at eye level. Big objects are often seen at eye level. 5. An object is below the eye level if the top is seen. Small and low objects are seen below the eye level. 6. All circular objects seen in perspective forms an ellipse. Importance of Perspective in Drawing 1. It helps in creating the illusion of distance. 2. It helps to add the appearance of a third dimension to a working surface. 3. It ensures simulating on a flat, two dimensional surface, or in a shallow space the three dimensional characteristics of volumetric forms and deep space. 4. Aerial or atmospheric perspective is used to blur outlines, limit details, and alters hues toward the cool colours and to reduce colour saturation and value contrast. 5. It helps in grading tones and colours which suggest distance.

FORESHORTENING It is an artistic technique in drawing figures or objects according to the rules of perspective so that they appear to recede or advance into three-dimensional space. It is a method of portraying forms on two dimensional space so that they appear to project or recede from the picture plane. The sizes of objects represented as farthest from the viewer are deliberately diminished or reduced (shortened). Specifically, the diminishing of the sizes of parts of an object are rendered as receding away from the viewer at angles oblique to the picture plane, so that they appear proportionally shorter than parts of the object which are parallel to the picture plane. In foreshortening, there is the use of perspective to represent a Page 86

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single object extending back in space at an angle to the picture plane. Shapes and proportions of figures are altered and made smaller to the eye. An example is a prone figure or an arm extended toward the viewer.Foreshortening is the technique or manner necessary to give the impression, particularly in anatomy, of a limb or figure that is turned towards the spectator. For example, a hand or arm turned towards a spectator.

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3. Renaissance art has freed sculpture and painting from their subordination to architecture. Before the Renaissance period, architecture was seen as paramount or important than all the other forms of art. However, the Renaissance artists have made painting and sculpture parallel to architecture in terms of function and relevance. 4. Renaissance art has introduced mathematical calculations into artistic expressions such that works produced were as accurate as possible. This has deepened the appreciation of the arts that we do today. 5. Renaissance artists defined their own paths – free to express themselves through painting, sculpture and architecture. This helped to them in developing individuality which is a sign of creativity. Artists today also imitate their fine example giving rise to several techniques and styles in the arts. 6. Renaissance artists also experimented with a lot of media ranging from organic to inorganic materials. This shining example is a challenge to young and skilled artists who try as much as possible to explore their creative prowess by trying and experimenting with wide range of tools and materials readily available. This has resulted in the creation of functional and less costly artefacts.

UNIT FIVE PERCEPTION AND AESTHETICS Specific Objectives: The student will be able to: 3.5.1 examine the role of human senses in art activity such as drawing etc. 3.5.2 explain and apply concepts of aesthetics to art PERCEPTION It is an area in psychology that deals with the study of the immediate experience of living things by the use of our sense organs namely sense of sight (eye), sense of hearing (ears), sense of taste (tongue), sense of touch or feeling (skin), sense of smell (nose), and the sense of movement or kinesthetic sense (muscles). Perception is a way of experiencing the world around us. It is an important activity during the creative process, e.g. perceiving with the eyes, ears, tongue, skin and nose. The critical study of our immediate environment by the use of the senses, results in the production of functional items that addresses the challenges in our societies. The table below indicates what each of the senses is used in perceiving. This would assist us in knowing how to effectively utilize the senses in maximizing creativity in individuals.

7. Classical principles of beauty, balance, order, serenity, proportion, harmony and rational design reached a state of near perfection. Renaissance artists tried as much as possible to develop and expand the principles of beauty etc. that was enshrined in the antiques that the artists studied in Greece and Rome. UNIT THREE MODERN ART MOVEMENTS Specific Objectives: The student will be able to: 6.3.1 describe Art Movement and some of the outstanding artists and their works. 6.3.2 describe the new trend and development in art. 6.3.3 trace advances in technology and the development of Digital art media. 6.3.5 identify and describe specific types of software and how each is used. 6.3.6 explain the meanings of Conceptual and Contextual Art with examples/samples. The Modern Art movements refers to the artistic works produced during the period extending roughly from the 1860s to the 1970s, and denotes the style and philosophy of the art produced during that era. The term is usually associated with

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arts of perspective and Roman details. There is an octagonal sacristy, supported by a dome. Bramante built Santa Maria delle Grazie (1492-99); other early works include the cloisters of Sant’Ambrogio, Milano (1497-1498), the Palazzo Caprini (1501-1502) and some other smaller constructions in Pavia and Legnano, but in 1499, with his Sforza patron driven from Milan by an invading army of the French, Bramante made his way to Rome, where he was already known to the powerful Cardinal Riario. In Rome he was soon recognized by Cardinal Della Rovere, soon to become Pope Julius II. For Julius, almost as if it were a trial piece on approval, Bramante designed one of the most harmonious buildings of the Renaissance: the Tempietto of San Pietro in Montorio on the Janiculum. Bramante planned to set it in within a colonnaded courtyard to complete the scenery, but larger plans were afoot. Within a year of its completion, in November 1503, Julius engaged Bramante on the construction of the grandest architectural commission of the European 16th century, the complete re-building of St Peter’s Basilica. With St Peter’s occupying him, Bramante had little time for other commissions. One of his earliest works in Rome, before the Basilica’s construction got under way, are the cloisters (1504) of Santa Maria della Pace near Piazza Navona. The handsome proportions give an air of great simplicity. The columns on the ground floor are complemented by those on the first floor, which alternate with smaller columns placed centrally over the lower arches. In his work, Bramante changed conventional architectural space by inserting illusionistic features more typical of painting and stage settings. In his Roman projects, particularly those for St. Peter’s, he achieved the “grand manner” which indirectly led to Mannerism. Historically, his importance is due to the way he inspired and influenced successive architects rather than through his original buildings, few of which survive unaltered. Bramante died in Rome in 1514, a year after his patron Pope Julius II death. Contributions of Renaissance Art Renaissance art has impacted greatly on the arts that we do today in several ways. Some of these contributions of renaissance art to the development of art are: 1. The Renaissance period was a period of Golden age of artistic expression. Artists strived to achieve perfection in all the artistic creations such as painting, sculpture and architecture. This has raised the standard of production to a high standard for artists today. 2. Renaissance art has introduced linear and aerial perspective in art. This has greatly helped artist today in depicting or representing scenes and pictures in their correct manner.

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SENSE

SIGHT (EYES)


OBJECT/ITEM PERCEIVED

HOW IT IS PERCIEVED

•

Colour

•

Size

•

Shape

Round/angular, irregular/regular

•

Proportion

Tiny/huge, tall/short, long/short

•

Movement

Slow/fast

HEARING (EARS) •

Sound

•

Rhythm

Bright/dull, light/dark, opaque/transparent, pure/mixed. Length/breadth/height

Loud/soft, natural/artificial, complex/simple, shrill/mellow, close/distant, changing/stable, high pitch/low pitch Simple/complex, regular/irregular

TASTE (TONGUE)

•

Food

•

Textures of objects

•

Temperature

TOUCH (SKIN)

Bitter/sweet, spicy/bland, hot/cold, salty/sweet, sweet/sour

Hardness/softness, roughness/smoothness, regular/irregular, porous/non-porous, granular/pebble Coldness/hotness Page 88

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SMELL (NOSE) •

Scent/Aroma

•

Weight

MOVEMENT/KINESTHETIC

(MUSCLES)

Sweet/foul, sweet/acrid, sweet/rotten, spicy/burning, sweet/pungent Light/heavy, fragile/strong, light/bulky

AESTHETICS Aesthetics is a branch of science that deals with the study of the theory of beauty. It is the philosophy and study of the nature of beauty in arts. Aesthetics play a very vibrant role in our everyday life activities such as speaking, sitting, talking, eating, dressing etc. The various senses together with the emotions like love, joy, hope, amusement helps us in expressing our aesthetic feelings toward artefacts and expressive activities. Types of Aesthetic Theories There are three types of theories in aesthetics. These are Imitation and Liberal Qualities, Formalism and Design Qualities and Emotionalism and Expressive Experience. i. Imitation and Liberal Qualities: It focuses on realist presentation of the subject matter or an imitation of life or what one sees in real world. It involves accurate representations of things or objects in nature.

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strived for perfection but was unable to compromise. He sometimes fell into spells of melancholy, which were recorded in many of his literary works. In his youth, Michelangelo had taunted a fellow student, and received a blow on the nose that disfigured him for life. Over the years, he suffered increasing infirmities from the rigors of his work; in one of his poems, he documented the tremendous physical strain that he endured by painting the Sistine Chapel ceiling. Political strife in his beloved Florence also gnawed at him, but his most notable enmity was with fellow Florentine artist Leonardo da Vinci, who was more than 20 years his senior. Michelangelo’s poetic impulse, which had been expressed in his sculptures, paintings and architecture, began taking literary form in his later years. Although he never married, Michelangelo was devoted to a pious and noble widow named Vittoria Colonna, the subject and recipient of many of his more than 300 poems and sonnets. Their friendship remained a great solace to Michelangelo until Colonna’s death in 1547. In 1532, Michelangelo developed an attachment to a young nobleman, Tommaso de’Cavalieri (scholars dispute whether this was a homosexual or paternal relationship). Following a brief illness, Michelangelo died on February 18, 1564 – just weeks before his 89th birthday – at his home in Macel de’Corvi, Rome. A nephew bore his body back to Florence, where he was revered by the public as the “father and master of all the arts,” and was laid to rest at the Basilica di Santa Croce – his chosen place of burial. Unlike many artists, Michelangelo achieved fame and wealth during his lifetime. He also had the peculiar distinction of living to see the publication of two biographies about his life (written by Giorgio Vasari and Ascanio Condivi). Appreciation of Michelangelo’s artistic mastery has endured for centuries, and his name has become synonymous with the best of the Italian Renaissance.

ii. Formalism and Design Qualities: This theory of aesthetics emphasizes on the design qualities of an artifact. It focuses on the arrangement of the elements guided by the principles of design or composition such as balance, unity, proportion etc. iii. Emotionalism and Expressive Experience: This theory of aesthetics is concerned with the content of the work of art and the nature of artwork to convey a message to the viewer. It stresses on the interpretation of the work thus the philosophical, cultural or symbolic meanings associated with the work. Emotionalism requires a strong communication, feeling, mood or ideas from the work to the viewer. This aesthetic theory is concerned greatly with the emotional feelings associated with the work. This could be fear, sadness, anxiety, happiness, hatred etc.

BRAMANTE Donato Bramante (1444 – March 11, 1514), Italian architect, who introduced the Early Renaissance style to Milan and the High Renaissance style to Rome, where his most famous design was St. Peter’s Basilica. Bramante was born in a very small place near Urbino. Bramante’s architecture shows his painting skills: he studied under the Early Renaissance masters Mantegna and Piero della Francesca, who was interested as a painter in the rules of perspective. Illusionistic features in Bramante’s early solid constructions recall this training as a painter. About 1474 Bramante moved to Milan, a city with a deep Gothic architecture tradition, and built several churches in the new Antique taste. The Duke, Ludovico Sforza, made him virtually his court architect, beginning in 1476, culminating with rebuilding the choir of the church of Santa Maria presso San Satiro (1482-1486). Space was limited, and Bramante made a theatrical apse in bas-relief, using the

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By the time Michelangelo returned to Florence, he had become something of an art star. He took over a commission for a statue of David, which two prior sculptors had previously attempted and abandoned, and turned the 17-foot piece of marble into a dominating figure. The strength of the statue’s muscles, vulnerability of its nakedness, humanity of expression and overall courage made the David a prized representative of the city of Florence. Several commissions followed, including an ambitious project for the tomb of Pope Julius II, but that was interrupted when he asked Michelangelo to switch from sculpting to painting to decorate the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. The project fueled Michelangelo’s imagination, and the original plan for 12 apostles morphed into more than 300 figures on the ceiling of the sacred space. (The work later had to be completely removed soon after due to an infectious fungus in the plaster, and then recreated.) Michelangelo fired all of his assistants, whom he deemed inept, and completed the 65-foot ceiling alone, spending endless hours on his back and guarding the project jealously until revealing the finished work, on October 31, 1512. The resulting masterpiece is a transcendent example of High Renaissance art incorporating the Christian symbology, prophecy and humanist principles that Michelangelo had absorbed during his youth. The vivid vignettes of Michelangelo’s Sistine ceiling produce a kaleidoscope effect, with the most iconic image being the Creation of Adam, a portrayal of God touching the finger of man. Rival Roman painter Raphael evidently altered his style after seeing the work. Although he continued to sculpt and paint throughout his life, the physical rigor of painting the chapel had taken its toll on Michelangelo, and he soon turned his focus toward architecture. Michelangelo continued to work on the tomb of Julius II for the next several decades. He also designed the Medici Chapel and the Laurentian Library – located opposite the Basilica San Lorenzo in Florence – to house the Medici book collection. These buildings are considered a turning point in architectural history. But Michelangelo’s crowning glory in this field came when he was made chief architect of St. Peter’s Basilica in 1546. Michelangelo unveiled the soaring Last Judgment on the far wall of the Sistine Chapel in 1541. There was an immediate outcry – that the nude figures were inappropriate for so holy a place, and a letter called for the destruction of the Renaissance’s largest fresco. The painter retaliated by inserting into the work new portrayals: Of his chief critic as a devil and himself as the flayed St. Bartholomew. Though Michelangelo’s brilliant mind and copious talents earned him the regard and patronage of the wealthy and powerful men of Italy, he had his share of detractors. He had a contentious personality and quick temper, which led to fractious relationships, often with his superiors. This not only got Michelangelo into trouble, it created a pervasive dissatisfaction for the painter, who constantly Page 345

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Though one or two of these aesthetic theories can be used in judging or criticizing an artwork depending on the type and purpose of the criticism, it is appropriate or best to employ all the three theories in the criticism of a work of art. This is because if one limits himself to only one of the aesthetic theories to appreciate and criticize an artwork, some unique or interesting aspects of the work may not be discovered. It is advised that the three theories should be implemented in the criticism of an artwork. Aesthetic Training and Education Aesthetic training or education is the studying or learning of our environment through the use of the human senses with the aim of training our sense of aesthetics. This training takes time and is gradual for one to be an expert in aesthetics. This experience or knowledge about aesthetics gathered over a long period of time is termed as Aesthetic Experience. Aesthetic Education involves how we apply the various senses effectively in learning about the things in our environment. This training largely comes about when we engage in practical activities in art such as drawing, painting, sculpting etc where our six senses are at work. Qualities needed for Aesthetics 1. Awareness of the unity of the senses. The artist should be aware that all the six senses work together and will help in making better judgments as to what is beautiful or not. 2. Recognition that the senses are our only means of gathering information. 3. Awareness that sound, touch, lines, colours etc have variations in their aesthetic qualities. The Role of Aesthetics in our lives 1. Aesthetics helps us to make better judgments or develop good taste. 2. It helps us to appreciate nature and our environment as a whole. 3. It helps us to pass good comments about an artwork. 4. It helps us to appreciate beauty. 5. It helps in developing friendship and understanding between people of different cultures. UNIT SIX ANALYTICAL STUDY Specific Objectives: The student will be able to: 3.6.1 observe objects critically with the senses in preparation for drawing. 3.6.2 draw the human figure proportionately . 3.6.3 create animal and human figures in action. Page 90

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ANALYTICAL STUDY FOR DRAWING Analytical study is the critical and serious observation and examination of things in the environment with the view of making an accurate or precise representation of the object or form. It includes the critical observation of linear patterns, variations of shapes, textures, gradation or tones of colours of natural and manmade objects found in the environment. This critical study of nature is done by the use of the six senses. If these senses are best utilized, it would result in excellent depiction of objects in drawing. ELEVEN TIPS TO EFFECTIVE ANALYTICAL DRAWING There are very essential steps that when considered carefully by students would aid them create wonderful observational drawings. These tips are explained below. Take your time to understand each of them and patiently try to follow them. Doing this would greatly improve your observational drawings. 1. Critical observe and constantly look at what you are drawing: One of the serious and fundamental mistakes that most students commit as far as observational drawings are concerned is that they fail to look intently at what they are drawing. Majority of them ends up drawing the objects as they think they should look rather than how they actually look. If shapes, proportions and details of objects can be recorded accurately, the artist must constantly look at the source of information. The eyes of the artist must constantly dance from the piece of paper to the object and back again till the drawing is complete. Failure to do this would result in the drawing of a less convincing, made-up drawing- the exact opposite of observational drawing. Constantly look at the object to be drawn. 2. Draw from real objects whenever possible: Many students prefer drawing from pictures in books rather than from real objects composed. This is because pictures are easier to draw than real composed objects. However, observational drawings from real objects composed are far richer and authentic, closer to what actually exists than those from pictures. It is therefore advisable that students who want to excel in observational drawings must try as much as possible to draw from real objects rather than pictures as illustrated below.

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recommendation of Ghirlandaio, he moved into the palace of Florentine ruler Lorenzo the Magnificent, of the powerful Medici family, to study classical sculpture in the Medici gardens. This was a fertile time for Michelangelo; his years with the Medici family, 1489 to 1492, permitted him access to the social elite of Florence – allowing him to study under the respected sculptor Bertoldo di Giovanni and exposing him to prominent poets, scholars and learned Humanists. He also obtained special permission from the Catholic Church to study cadavers for insight into anatomy, though exposure to corpses had an adverse effect on his health. These combined influences laid the groundwork for what would become Michelangelo’s distinctive style: a muscular precision and reality combined with an almost lyrical beauty. Two relief sculptures that survive, Battle of the Centaurs and Madonna Seated on a Step, are testaments to his unique talent at the tender age of 16. Political strife in the aftermath of Lorenzo the Magnificent’s death led Michelangelo to flee to Bologna, where he continued his study. He returned to Florence in 1495 to begin work as a sculptor, modeling his style after masterpieces of classical antiquity. There are several versions of an intriguing story about Michelangelo’s Cupid sculpture, which was artificially “aged” to resemble a rare antique: One version claims that Michelangelo aged the statue to achieve a certain patina, and another version claims that his art dealer buried the sculpture (an “aging” method) before attempting to pass it off as an antique. Cardinal Riario of San Giorgio bought the Cupid sculpture, believing it as such, and demanded his money back when he discovered he’d been duped. Strangely, in the end, Riario was so impressed with Michelangelo’s work that he let the artist keep the money. The cardinal even invited the artist to Rome, where Michelangelo would live and work for the rest of his life. Not long after Michelangelo’s relocation to Rome in 1498, his fledgling career was bolstered by another cardinal, Jean Bilhères de Lagraulas, a representative of the French King Charles VIII to the pope. Michelangelo’s Pieta, a sculpture of Mary holding the dead Jesus across her lap, was finished in less than one year, and was erected in the church of the cardinal’s tomb. At six feet wide and nearly as tall, the statue has been moved five times since, to its present place of prominence St. Peter’s Basilica in Vatican City. Carved from a single piece of Carrara marble, the fluidity of the fabric, positions of the subjects, and “movement” of the skin of the Pieta– meaning “pity” or “compassion”– created awe for its early spectators. Today, the Pieta remains an incredibly revered work. Michelangelo was just 25 years old at the time. Legend has it that he overheard pilgrims attribute the work to another sculptor, so he boldly carved his signature in the sash across Mary’s chest. It is the only work to bear his name.

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1514, Raphael had achieved fame for his work at the Vatican and was able to hire a crew of assistants to help him finish painting frescoes in the Stanza dell’Incendio, freeing him up to focus on other projects. While Raphael continued to accept commissions – including portraits of popes Julius II and Leo X – and his largest painting on canvas, The Transfiguration (commissioned in 1517), he had by this time begun to work on architecture. After architect Donato Bramante died in 1514, the pope hired Raphael as his chief architect. Under this appointment, Raphael created the design for a chapel in Sant’ Eligio degli Orefici. He also designed Rome’s Santa Maria del Popolo Chapel and an area within Saint Peter’s new basilica. Raphael’s architectural work was not limited to religious buildings. It also extended to designing palaces. Raphael’s architecture honored the classical sensibilities of his predecessor, Donato Bramante, and incorporated his use of ornamental details. Such details would come to define the architectural style of the late Renaissance and early Baroque periods. On April 6, 1520, Raphael’s 37th birthday, he died suddenly and unexpectedly of mysterious causes in Rome, Italy. He had been working on his largest painting on canvas, The Transfiguration (commissioned in 1517), at the time of his death. When his funeral mass was held at the Vatican, Raphael’s unfinished Transfiguration was placed on his coffin stand. Raphael’s body was interred at the Pantheon in Rome, Italy. Following his death, Raphael’s movement toward Mannerism influenced painting styles in Italy’s advancing Baroque period. Celebrated for the balanced and harmonious compositions of his “Madonnas,” portraits, frescoes and architecture, Raphael continues to be widely regarded as the leading artistic figure of Italian High Renaissance classicism. MICHELANGELO Painter, sculptor, architect and poet Michelangelo, one of the most famous artists of the Italian Renaissance, was born Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni on March 6, 1475, in Caprese, Italy. Michelangelo’s father, Leonardo di Buonarrota Simoni, was briefly serving as a magistrate in the small village when he recorded the birth of his second of five sons with his wife, Francesca Neri, but they returned to Florence when Michelangelo was still an infant. Michelangelo was less interested in schooling than watching the painters at nearby churches, and drawing what he saw there. It may have been his grammar school friend, Francesco Granacci, six years his senior, who introduced Michelangelo to painter Domenico Ghirlandaio. Michelangelo’s father realized early on that his son had no interest in the family financial business, so he agreed to apprentice him, at the age of 13, to the fashionable Florentine painter’s workshop. There, Michelangelo was exposed to the technique of fresco. Michelangelo had spent only a year at the workshop when an extraordinary opportunity opened to him: At the Page 343

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3. Do not trace: Tracing is one of the techniques in drawing but it will be wrong, in fact it is unacceptable to trace in observational drawing. Just tracing and applying colour to a traced object involves minimal skill and an artist learns less from such a foul exercise. The end product also looks uninteresting and ‘dead’. 4. Understand the principles of perspective: Perspective renders variations in the sizes and depths of objects as they move further away from the viewer. This change in scale must be well depicted by the artist if a good observation drawing is to be achieved. 5. Strive very hard to achieve proportion: The artist must always ensure that there is proportion in the objects to be drawn. It is therefore a bad practice to start off an observational drawing without using means to know if the drawing would be proportional or not. Some artists do this by the use of well plotted lines such as grid lines to ensure proportion in their drawings. Others use rough forms of drawings to gradually build out the observational drawing in great proportion before adding details. Any of these ways or others not mentioned in this book that would aid the aid the artist to achieve proportion can be implemented. However, great care must be taken when an artist uses them especially the grid lines since it can cause the artist to create a tight and regimented drawings lacking ‘spirit’. 6. Be careful of drawing of ellipses: The drawings of edges of cylindrical objects must be carefully rendered. The edges of objects like bottles, jars, pots, cups etc. must always be rounded not pointed no matter where or the distance they are seen. If an artist renders the edges pointed, it’s a direct indication that he/she is weak in drawing.

The good and bad examples of ellipses drawing

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7. The edges of observational drawings are light not dark: Novice artists think that if the deepen the outlines of the edges of their drawings makes their drawings real and more visible. This is only a lie. Real objects do not have dark edges running around them. 8. Apply a good range of tones to the work: Every object has areas of it where various tones fall or are seen. This must be critically observed and copied in the rendition of the tones in the colouring or painting of the objects. Some novice artists just apply the various tones anyhow and anywhere on the drawn objects from mind thus dark, middle and light tones. It must however be noted that tones must not be invented or created as a result of guesswork but rather according to what is observed as illustrated below.

9. Proper use of mark making to indicate the surface quality and texture of objects: There are several ways of indicating textures on the linear patterns on surfaces of objects. This can be done by the use of dots, smudges or hatches. The artist must carefully think, plan and select the method of line application that can best convey the surface quality of the object. Learn from the varied mark markings used to convey the nature of the surfaces of the objects seen in the picture below.

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painting techniques and exposed him to the principles of humanistic philosophy at the Duke of Urbino’s court. In 1494, when Raphael was just 11 years old, Giovanni died. Raphael then took over the daunting task of managing his father’s workshop. His success in this role quickly surpassed his father’s; Raphael was soon considered one of the finest painters in town. As a teen, he was even commissioned to paint for the Church of San Nicola in the neighboring town of Castello. In 1500 a master painter named Pietro Vannunci, otherwise known as Perugino, invited Raphael to become his apprentice in Perugia, in the Umbria region of central Italy. In Perugia, Perugino was working on frescoes at the Collegio del Cambia. The apprenticeship lasted four years and provided Raphael with the opportunity to gain both knowledge and hands-on experience. During this period, Raphael developed his own unique painting style, as exhibited in the religious works the Crucifixion (circa 1502), The Three Graces (circa 1503), The Knight’s Dream (1504) and the Oddi altarpiece, Marriage of the Virgin, completed in 1504. In 1504, Raphael left his apprenticeship with Perugino and moved to Florence, where he was heavily influenced by the works of the Italian painters Fra Bartolommeo, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo and Masaccio. To Raphael, these innovative artists had achieved a whole new level of depth in their composition. By closely studying the details of their work, Raphael managed to develop an even more intricate and expressive personal style than was evident in his earlier paintings. From 1504 through 1507, Raphael produced a series of “Madonnas,” which extrapolated on Leonardo da Vinci’s works. Raphael’s experimentation with this theme culminated in 1507 with his painting, La Belle jardine. That same year, Raphael created his most ambitious work in Florence, the Entombment, which was evocative of the ideas that Michelangelo had recently expressed in his Battle of Cascina. Raphael moved to Rome in 1508 to paint in the Vatican “Stanze” (“Room”), under Pope Julius II’s patronage. From 1509 to 1511, Raphael toiled over what was to become one of the Italian High Renaissance’s most highly regarded fresco cycles, those located in the Vatican’s Stanza della Segnatura (“Room of the Signatura”). The Stanza della Segnatura series of frescos include The Triumph of Religion and The School of Athens. In the fresco cycle, Raphael expressed the humanistic philosophy that he had learned in the Urbino court as a boy. In the years to come, Raphael painted an additional fresco cycle for the Vatican, located in the Stanza d’Eliodoro (“Room of Heliodorus”), featuring The Expulsion of Heliodorus, The Miracle of Bolsena, The Repulse of Attila from Rome and The Liberation of Saint Peter. During this same time, the ambitious painter produced a successful series of “Madonna” paintings in his own art studio. The famed Madonna of the Chair and Sistine Madonna were among them. By Page 342

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either by going out into nature and observing things or by locking himself away in his workshop cutting up bodies or pondering universal truths. Between 1490 and 1495 he developed his habit of recording his studies in meticulously illustrated notebooks. His work covered four main themes: painting, architecture, the elements of mechanics, and human anatomy. These studies and sketches were collected into various codices and manuscripts, which are now hungrily collected by museums and individuals. Back to Milan after the invasion by the French and Ludovico Sforza’s fall from power in 1499, Leonardo was left to search for a new patron. Over the next 16 years, Leonardo worked and traveled throughout Italy for a number of employers, including the dastardly Cesare Borgia. He traveled for a year with Borgia’s army as a military engineer and even met Niccolo Machiavelli, author of “The Prince.”Leonardo also designed a bridge to span the “golden horn” in Constantinople during this period and received a commission, with the help of Machiavelli, to paint the “Battle of Anghiari.” About 1503, Leonardo reportedly began work on the “Mona Lisa.” On July 9, 1504, he received notice of the death of his father, Ser Piero. Through the contrivances of his meddling half brothers and sisters, Leonardo was deprived of any inheritance. The death of a beloved uncle also resulted in a scuffle over inheritance, but this time Leonardo beat out his scheming siblings and wound up with use of the uncle’s land and money. From 1513 to 1516, he worked in Rome, maintaining a workshop and undertaking a variety of projects for the Pope. He continued his studies of human anatomy and physiology, but the Pope forbade him from dissecting corpse, which truly cramped his style. Following the death of his patron Giuliano de’ Medici in March of 1516, he was offered the title of Premier Painter and Engineer and Architect of the King by Francis I in France. His last and perhaps most generous patron, Francis I provided Leonardo with a cushy job, including a stipend and manor house near the royal chateau at Amboise. Although suffering from a paralysis of the right hand, Leonardo was still able to draw and teach. He produced studies for the Virgin Mary from “The Virgin and Child with St. Anne”, studies of cats, horses, dragons, St. George, anatomical studies, studies on the nature of water, drawings of the Deluge, and of various machines. Leonardo died on May 2, 1519 in Cloux, France. Legend has it that King Francis was at his side when he died, cradling Leonardo’s head in his arms.

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10. Include or omit details as possible: It is sometimes prudent that to avoid crowdedness and cluster while ensuring simplicity, artists carefully omit some aspects of a work. For instance, it is not feasible to draw every branch or leaf of a tree or each grain of a corn or bristle of a brush. This also put less strain on the eye. This is carefully done to heighten the aesthetic appeal of objects. This doesn’t imply that difficult or hard areas of objects to be drawn will deliberately omitted by artists. Doing that is a flaw. Also, main aspects of works that makes them look original must be always maintained. The artist can skillfully add something to the object to improve its aesthetic look and clarify its look better to observers. It may be a special texture, shade etc. However, it must be carefully thought of before it’s implemented. In the illustration below, the artist deliberately omitted some areas of the sandal while adding text to make the newspaper look real.

11. Add your own touch: The artist is not expected to produce a hyper realistic drawing that is producing a picture that is an exact replica of the original. The creativity lies in the ‘touch’ or ‘soul’ that the artist carefully and skillfully adds or insert in the work. This can be carried out by the use of unrealistic mark markings through which the artist attaches a philosophical interpretation to the work. This does not deviate the reality of the work but gives it ‘breath’ that makes it unique from other artists’ depictions of the same object or scene. After all, skilled observational artists are not mere copy cats but creative artists. In the illustration below, the artist added some streak lines to inject soul in his work.

RAPHAEL Italian Renaissance painter and architect Raphael was born Raffaello Sanzio on April 6, 1483, in Urbino, Italy. At the time, Urbino was a cultural centre that encouraged the Arts. Raphael’s father, Giovanni Santi, was a painter for the Duke of Urbino, Federigo da Montefeltro. Giovanni taught the young Raphael basic Page 341

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GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR S.H.S. FIGURE DRAWING

Figure drawing is the drawing of human and animal figures both male and female proportionately with reference to basic human and animal anatomy. It involves the drawing of the human form in any of its various shapes and postures using any of the drawing media. The body consists of the head and the neck, upper torso and lower torso; upper arms, lower arms and hands, upper legs, lower legs and feet. The degree of representation may be from highly detailed, anatomically correct renderings to loose and expressive sketches. A figure drawing may be a composed work of art or a figure study done in preparation for a more finished work such as a painting. Figure drawing is arguably the most difficult subject an artist commonly encounters, and entire courses are dedicated to the subject. The human figure is one of the most enduring themes in the Visual arts, and the human figure can be the basis of portraiture, illustration, sculpture, medical illustration, and other fields. In figure drawing, the length of the head is used to determine the proportions of the full human figure. The recommended proportions for the drawing of the human figure are outlined below: •

• •

•

An average person is generally 7-and-a-half heads tall (including the head). This can be illustrated to students in the classroom using paper plates to visually demonstrate the length of their bodies. An ideal figure, used for an impression of nobility or grace, is drawn at 8 heads tall. A heroic figure used in the depiction of gods and superheroes is eight-anda-half heads tall. Most of the additional length comes from a bigger chest and longer legs. A normal child is four units high of his/her head etc.

Proportions for Adults Despite the fact that men are generally taller than women, their proportions are almost the same. For both sexes, almost half of the height is made up of the legs, with the tips of the hands falling to the mid-thigh region. The waist is lower in men than in women. Men are generally bulkier and wider than women. For most adults, their height is equal to the width of their outstretched arms.

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Artists in the High Renaissance Some of the notable artists of this period are Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael, and Bramante. LEONARDO DA VINCI Leonardo was born in the village of Anchiano in Italy. He was the illegitimate son of a 25-year-old notary, Ser Piero, and a peasant girl, Caterina. Leonardo was born on April 15, 1452, in Vinci, Italy, just outside Florence. His father took custody of the little fellow shortly after his birth, while his mother married someone else and moved to a neighboring town. They kept on having kids, although not with each other, and they eventually supplied him with a total of seventeen half sisters and brothers. Growing up in his father’s Vinci home, Leonardo had access to scholarly texts owned by family and friends. He was also exposed to Vinci’s longstanding painting tradition, and when he was about 15 his father apprenticed him to the renowned workshop of Andrea del Verrochio in Florence. Even as an apprentice, Leonardo demonstrated his colossal talent. Indeed, his genius seems to have seeped into a number of pieces produced by the Verrocchio’s workshop from the period 1470 to 1475. For example, one of Leonardo’s first big breaks was to paint an angel in Verrochio’s “Baptism of Christ,” and Leonardo was so much better than his master’s that Verrochio allegedly resolved never to paint again. Leonardo stayed in the Verrocchio workshop until 1477 when he set up a small signboard for himself. In search of new challenges and the big bucks, he entered the service of the Duke of Milan in 1482, abandoning his first commission in Florence, “The Adoration of the Magi”. He spent 17 years in Milan, leaving only after Duke Ludovico Sforza’s fall from power in 1499. It was during these years that Leonardo hit his stride, reaching new heights of scientific and artistic achievement. The Duke kept Leonardo busy painting and sculpting and designing elaborate court festivals, but he also put Leonardo to work designing weapons, buildings and machinery. From 1485 to 1490, Leonardo produced a study on loads of subjects, including nature, flying machines, geometry, mechanics, municipal construction, canals and architecture (designing everything from churches to fortresses). His studies from this period contain designs for advanced weapons, including a tank and other war vehicles, various combat devices, and submarines. Also during this period, Leonardo produced his first anatomical studies. His Milan workshop was a veritable hive of activity, buzzing with apprentices and students. Leonardo’s interests were so broad, and he was so often compelled by new subjects, that he usually failed to finish what he started. This lack of “stick-to-itness” resulted in his completing only about six works in these 17 years, including “The Last Supper” and “The Virgin on the Rocks,” and he left dozens of paintings and projects unfinished or unrealized. He spent most of his time studying science, Page 340

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architecture. Architects attempted at reconciling Christian and humanist ideals. Centrally planned churches were constructed in this period because the classical antiquity temples dedicated to some gods in Greece and Rome studied by the architects of the period like Bramante, Alberti. There was a rebirth of the Doric style in architectural structures in this period.

Bramante’s Tempietto, designed 1502, San Pietro in Montorio, Rome High Renaissance Sculpture High Renaissance sculpture, as exemplified by Michelangelo’s Pietà and the iconic David, is characterized by an “ideal” balance between stillness and movement. High Renaissance sculpture was normally commissioned by the public and the state, this becoming more popular for sculpture is an expensive art form. Sculpture was often used to decorate or embellish architecture, normally within courtyards where others were able to study and admire the commissioned art work. Wealthy individuals like cardinals, rulers and bankers were the more likely private patrons along with very wealthy families; Pope Julius II also patronized many artists. During the High Renaissance there was the development of small scale statuettes for private patrons, the creation of busts and tombs also developing. The subject matter related to sculpture was mostly religious but also with a significant strand of classical individuals in the form of tomb sculpture and paintings as well as ceilings of cathedrals.

Michelangelo’s Pietà

Proportions for Children The bodies of children are smaller in relation to their heads. Their legs are shorter with the tops of their legs well below the middle line. While the eyes of an adult are placed at the middle of the length of the head thus from the top of the head to the chin, a child’s eyes are below the middle of the head creating a bigger forehead. Though the head is wide, its features are small. Drawing of the face The first step is to draw the basic shape of the head. The head is egg shaped. It should be five eye widths by seven eye widths high. The second step is to add the eye line. Sketch a horizontal line in the middle of the face to place the eyes. Sketch a vertical line to establish the centre of the face. The third step is to add the shapes of the eye, nose and mouth lines. Sketch the eyes and leaving one eye width between them. Add a line for the nose a little lesser than half the distance from the eyes to the chin. Sketch a line for the mouth a little lesser than halfway between the lines for the nose and chin. The fourth step is to add the eyebrows and lips. Draw a horizontal line above the eye for the eyebrows and sketch them in. Sketch the top and bottom lips. The fifth step is to draw the nose and ears. Add the base of the nose. The width of the nose aligns with the inside corners of the eyes. Draw the ears. The top of the ears aligns with the eyebrows and the bottoms align with the base of the nose.

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The sixth and last step is to add details to the eye and nose, along with the hair and neck. In drawing the face of an elderly woman or man, the ears and nose is drawn larger and the chin is longer with more noticeable wrinkles. In the case of adult women, the ears, nose and jaw lines are usually smaller and more delicate. The lips are larger and more noticeable.

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Lorenzo de’ Medici in Florence, and to have ended in 1527. The period is marked by a high sense of artistic expression in painting, sculpture and architecture. During the High Renaissance period, Christopher Columbus, an Italian navigator (sailing master) traveled to what later become known as America (though he was, in fact, searching for a faster trade route to India) and Nicholas Copernicus discovered that Earth exists in a heliocentric solar system, contrary to the geocentric belief of centuries prior that held that the Earth is central and stationary, with all heavenly bodies orbiting it, even though this had been known ever since the antiquity. High Renaissance Painting The High Renaissance was traditionally viewed as a great explosion of creative genius. Even relatively minor painters of the period, such as Fra Bartolomeo and Mariotto Albertinelli, produced works that are still lauded for the harmony of their design and their technique. Renowned painters of the period like Leonardo da Vinci studied the correct proportions of the human form through studies in human anatomy. He also carried out some studies of fetuses in the womb because he was interested to know how life originated and to find scientific explanation for natural phenomena. This led to the rendition of paintings of human figures in their correct proportions. The serene mood and luminous colours of paintings by Giorgione and early Titian exemplify High Renaissance style as practiced in Venice. Other recognizable pieces of this period include Leonardo da Vinci’s Mona Lisa and Raphael’s The School of Athens where painters of the period employed the chiaroscuro technique of painting. Raphael’s fresco, set beneath an arch, is a virtuoso work of perspective, composition and design.

Drawing of the torso The basic shape of the torso is a big cylinder. The torso is divided into two thus the lower and upper torso. The upper torso takes two head lengths while the lower torso takes one head length.

Leonardo’s iconic Mona Lisa, c. 1503-5

Giorgione’s Tempest, c. 1507-8

High Renaissance Architecture High Renaissance style in architecture conventionally begins with Donato Bramante, whose Tempietto at S. Pietro in Montorio at Rome in 1510. The Tempietto, signifies a full-scale revival of ancient Roman commemorative

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trip seems to have had a profound effect on Brunelleschi, and he turned firmly and permanently to architecture in the following decade. Early in his architectural career (c. 1410-1415), Brunelleschi rediscovered the principles of linear perspective, known to ancient Greeks and Romans, but lost during the Middle Ages. With these principles, one can paint or draw using a single vanishing point, toward which all lines on the same plane appear to converge, and objects appear smaller as they recede into the distance. Brunelleschi displayed his findings with two painted panels (since lost) of Florentine streets and buildings. By using Brunelleschi’s perspective principles, artists of his generation were able to use two-dimensional canvases to create illusions of three-dimensional space, crafting a realism not seen previously. Linear perspective as an artistic tool soon spread throughout the whole of Italy and then through Western Europe, and has remained a staple in artistic creation since. Brunelleschi is also known for building or rebuilding military fortifications in such Italian cities as Pisa, Rencine, Vicopisano, Castellina and Rimini. He also created a hoist-like mechanism to help stage theatrical religious performances in Florentine churches (to assist angels in flying, for instance) and is credited with securing the first modern patent for a riverboat he invented. Brunelleschi died in Florence on April 15, 1446, and is entombed in the Duomo. He is remembered as one of the giants of Renaissance architecture. The inscription on his grave within the basilica reads: “Both the magnificent dome of this famous church and many other devices invented by Filippo the architect bear witness to his superb skill. Therefore, in tribute to his exceptional talents, a grateful country that will always remember buries him here in the soil below.”

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The arms are like two pole-like cylinders. Like the torso, the arms are divided into upper and lower arms. The mid line of the arm that is where the upper and lower arm meets is on the same line with the navel. The tips of the arms extend below the middle of the thigh.

Drawing of the legs The legs, like the arms look like two long cylinders consisting of two parts thus the upper and lower legs. The upper legs takes two head lengths while the lower legs take almost two head lengths.

Drawing of the hands The hand is like the foot. It looks like a small rectangular board with tapering or pointed fingers of five.

Some of the Architectural works of Brunelleschi High Renaissance This is the period denoting the final climactic stage of the Visual arts in the Italian Renaissance. The High Renaissance period is traditionally taken to begin in the 1490s, with Leonardo’sfresco of the Last Supper in Milan and the death of Drawing of the foot Page 337

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The foot is like a rectangular board with pointed toes of five. The length of the foot is equal to the length of the face.

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include Nativity, Annunciation, Tribute Money, Virgin Mary and the Trinity.

FILLIPO BRUNELLESCHI He was born in 1377 in Florence, Italy. Filippo Brunelleschi’s early life is mostly a mystery. It is known that he was the second of three sons and that his father was a distinguished notary in Florence. Brunelleschi initially trained as a goldsmith and sculptor and enrolled in the Arte della Seta, the silk merchants’ guild, which also included goldsmiths, metalworkers and bronze workers. Around the turn of the century, he was designated a master goldsmith. In 1401, Brunelleschi competed against Lorenzo Ghiberti, a young rival, and five other sculptors for the commission to make the bronze reliefs for the door of the Florence baptistery. Brunelleschi’s entry, “The Sacrifice of Isaac,” was the high point of his short career as a sculptor, but Ghiberti won the commission. Ghiberti went on to complete another set of bronze doors for the baptistery with the help of Renaissance giant Donatello. Brunelleschi’s disappointment at losing the baptistery commission might account for his decision to concentrate his talents on architecture instead of sculpture, but little biographical information is available about his life to explain the transition. (He continued to sculpt, but architecture was the dominant thread in his professional career.) Also unexplained is Brunelleschi’s sudden transition from his training in the Gothic or medieval manner to the new architectural classicism. Perhaps he was simply inspired by his surroundings, since it was in this period (1402-1404) that Brunelleschi and his good friend and sculptor Donatello purportedly visited Rome to study the ancient ruins. Donatello, nine years Brunelleschi’s junior, had also trained to be a goldsmith. After his training, he even worked in Lorenzo Ghiberti’s studio. In times past, writers and philosophers had discussed the grandeur and decline of ancient Rome, but it seems that until Brunelleschi and Donatello made their journey, no one had studied the physical presence of Rome’s ruins in detail. Although Donatello remained a sculptor, the

Drawings of Expressive Human and Animal Forms

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well as a convincing sense of three-dimensionality. Masaccio died at twenty-six and little is known about the exact circumstances of his death. The name Masaccio is a humorous version of Maso (short for Tommaso), meaning “clumsy” or “messy” Tom. The name may have been created to distinguish him from his principal collaborator, also called Maso, who came to be known as Masolino (“little/delicate Tom”). Despite his brief career, he had a profound influence on other artists. He was one of the first to use linear perspective in his painting, employing techniques such as vanishing point in art for the first time. He also moved away from the International Gothic style and elaborate ornamentation of artists like Gentile da Fabriano to a more naturalistic mode that employed perspective and chiaroscuro for greater realism. Masaccio was born to Giovanni di Simone Cassai and Jacopa di Martinozzo in Castel San Giovanni di Altura, now San Giovanni Valdarno. His father was a notary and his mother the daughter of an innkeeper of Barberino di Mugello, a town a few miles south of Florence. There is no evidence for Masaccio’s artistic education. Renaissance painters traditionally began an apprenticeship with an established master at about the age of 12; Masaccio would likely have had to move to Florence to receive his training, but he was not documented in the city until he joined the painters guild (the Arte de’ Medici e Speziali) as an independent master on January 7, 1422. In Florence, Masaccio could study the works of Giotto and become friends with Brunelleschi and Donatello. According to Vasari, at their prompting in 1423 Masaccio travelled to Rome with Masolino: from that point he was freed of all Gothic and Byzantine influence, as may be seen in his altarpiece for the Carmelite Church in Pisa. The traces of influences from ancient Roman and Greek art that are present in some of Masaccio’s works presumably originated from this trip: they should also have been present in a lost Sagra, (today known through some drawings, including one by Michelangelo), a fresco commissioned for the consecration ceremony of the church of Santa Maria del Carmine in Florence (April 19, 1422). Masaccio profoundly influenced the art of painting in the Renaissance. According to Vasari, all Florentine painters studied his frescoes extensively in order to “learn the precepts and rules for painting well”. He transformed the direction of Italian painting, moving it away from the idealizations of Gothic art, and, for the first time, presenting it as part of a more profound, natural, and humanist world. Some examples of Masaccio’s works

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UNIT SEVEN IDEA DEVELOPMENT AND DRAWING Specific Objectives: The student will be able to: 3.5.1 derive ideas from natural and manmade forms/objects to create new designs. Idea development is a creative activity that involves the improvement of known or existing concepts and ideas derived from the environment through various phases or stages of sketches to arrive at unknown, original and new ideas and designs. This activity deals with the addition and subtraction of aspects of existing ideas to bring out new concepts and ideas for the production of useful artefacts for the society. It should be noted that the main parts that define the original idea or concept of the existing design has to be retained or maintained while developing the known idea. Sources of Ideas for Development There are two main sources where artists can generate a pool of ideas from which he can develop several new and original ideas as designs for the production of

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various artefacts. These are Natural objects and Man-made objects found in the environment. Natural Objects This refers to the objects found in nature. Such objects include various plant species and parts such as leaves, stem, fruits (oranges, pawpaw, pear), cereals, foodstuffs, seeds, roots, tree trunks, branches etc.; animal species such as dogs, cats, pigs, etc and parts such as legs, head, stomach etc. Also, interesting objects such as shells, stones, pebbles, rocks, etc. The shapes, colour patterns, textures of these objects are of great interest to the artist in idea development. Man-made Objects These are the artificial objects produced by man found in the environment. They include furniture, books, houses, electrical appliances, toys, automobiles etc. The various Stages in Idea Development Before the various sketches of the object are made, the artist has to make analytical studies of the object. The object is explored at all sides with the aim of understanding its shape, colours, textures etc. Stage 1: Draw the existing object as accurately as possible.

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the marble relief of the late Cardinal Rainaldo Brancacci’s funerary monument at Sant’Angelo ‘A Nilo, Pisa by 1427. His major art commissions include his now famous artwork, David in Bronze, who was then authorized by Cosimo I De Medici, known forerunner art patron in Florence, for the Palazzo Medici in the year 1430 AD (Anno Domini). By the time the statue was finished, it was then considered the first-ever free-standing nude statue since the ancient era. It was also the primary statue among the Renaissance Sculptures. By the time Medici was Exiled, Donatello stayed in Rome until 1433. His two artworks in the city was the Giovanni Crivelli’s Tomb located in Santa Maria, a province of Aracoeli and his other work was the Saint Peter’s Basilica Ciborium. By the time he returned to Florence, he voluntarily commissioned for the construction of the marble pulpit of the façade of the Cathedral Prato, which was considered as his last project with Michelozzo. He died on December 3, 1466 with his last work being the reliefs for the San Lorenzo church bronze pulpits. He was helped by his students Bartolomeo Bellano and Bertoldo di Giovanni. Some of his major artworks were as listed: Saint John, Saint Mark, Saint George, Pazzi Madonna, Habakkuk, Feast of Herod, Jeremiah, Tabernacle of the Annunciation, The Cantoria, David, set in Bronze, and Equestrian Monument of Gattamelata.

Stage 2: Dissect and draw the various parts of the object at various angles. Stage 3: Explore the various thumbnail sketches by adding minor details to the original concept and subtracting some aspects of the existing object. Stage 4: Select one of the sketches that is very interesting and shows a high sense of originality. Stage 5: Work on the selected design to the finished stage by adding final details. Stage 6: Draw the final sketch of the developed idea in various angles and shades. Some of the sculptural works of Donatello

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2.

MASSACIO Masaccio whose real name was Tommaso di Ser Giovanni di Simone born in December 21, 1401 and died in 1427. He was the first great painter of the Quattrocento period of the Italian Renaissance. Masaccio was the best painter of his generation because of his skill at recreating lifelike figures and movements as

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Artists in the Early Renaissance Some of the notable artists of this period are Fillipo Brunelleschi (Architect), Massacio (Painter), Donatello (Sculptor). DONATELLO Donato di Niccolo di Betto Bardi was known to the art world as Donatello and was born around circa 1386 in Florence, Italy. He was one of the forerunners of Florentine Art, which also paved way for the age of Renaissance Art. His specialty was more in sculptures and statuettes than painting. His works were also noted to have the concept of perspectival illusionism when it came to his shallow relief. He was the child of a member of the then guild of Wool Combers in Florence. It was then that he was eventually educated and schooled in the home of the Martellis, where he might have received early art training from a goldsmith, and finally working for a famous metalworker and sculptor’s studio who was none other than Lorenzo Ghiberti. His early works may have started with working closely with the said sculptor, whose work then was the construction of the prophets along the northern portion of the Florentine Baptistery, which he then received salary from November 1406 until the first few months of the year 1408 AD. By the years 1409 until 1411, he was able to finish the large seated statue of the evangelist, Saint John, which was then a part of the façade of the Florence Cathedral. This work also marked a foundation to the age of Gothic Mannerism, which also paved for the concept of realism and portrayal of human expressions. By those times, open hands and a cloth silhouetting the legs became more realistic whereas the construction of the face, shoulders and bust were still at an ideal state. Afterwards, he set off working about a sculpture of another evangelist, Saint Mark for the Orsanmichele church by the year 1411 until 1413. He was able to finish the image of Saint George intended for the Cuirass-makers Confraternity by 1417. The relief, the Dragon and Saint George, whose base was made from bas-relief (basso rilievo) was also said to be done by Donatello and was one of the firsts of single focus perspective in making sculptures. In the years between 1415 up to 1426, he was able to complete five images for the Duomo (Campanili De Santa Maria Del Fiore), which were as follows (in chronological order): Beardless and Bearded Prophet (1415), Isaac’s Sacrifice (1421), Habakkuk (1423-1425) and the Jeremiah (1423-1246), whose forms mirror models based on orators. His relief version of the Madonna was found in Berlin. He was also noted for making a crucifix intended for the Santa Croce, whose artwork reveals the Savior in torment and pain on the cross. Following the Duomo, he then joined hands with Michelozzo in the making of Antipope John XXIII’s Funerary Monument in Florence. He also accomplished

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LIKELY EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 1(a) What is drawing? (b) State and explain three (3) importance of drawing. 2. (a) List five (5) tools and materials suitable for making a drawing. (b) Outline five (5) ways of caring and maintaining the above listed tools and materials. 3. By the aid of sketches, explain these shading techniques: (i) Hatching (ii) Cross-hatching (iii) Pointillism (iv) Smudging (v) Scribbling 4. Write short notes on these terms in art. (i) Chiaroscuro (ii) Vanishing point (iii) Fixative (iv) Silhouette (v) Positive area 6. (a) What is Sketching? (b) List and explain the two types of Sketching. 7. Mention and explain three types of drawing. 8. Explain the term ‘composition’ and ‘layout’. 9. Outline and discuss FOUR factors to be considered when composing a picture. 10. (a) What is perspective? (b) List and explain the two main types of perspective. (c)Make a simple illustration to explain one-point perspective. (d) In four points, explain why perspective is important in drawing. 11. Explain the term ‘Foreshortening’. 12. (a) What is Perception? (b) List and explain the role of the senses in perception. 13. (a) Define Aesthetics. (b) Explain the three theories of aesthetics. (c)State three importance of aesthetics in our lives.

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SECTION FOUR PREHISTORIC AND ANCIENT ART General Objectives: The student will: 1. be exposed to the significance of Prehistoric Art and their functions. 2. appreciate the components and functions of Ancient Art –Egyptian Greek, Oriental and Oceanic Art. UNIT ONE

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Early Renaissance Sculpture Early Renaissance sculpture was highly influenced by ancient Roman models, artists also focused on individualized features, a sense of interaction between groups of figures, and an enhancement of the three-dimensionality. Portraiture Sculpture was revived but were given a three dimensional effect. Sculpture was mainly focused on adding more expression and drama to the Roman bronze models. Some of the most important sculptures in Florence at this time were the Gates of Paradise done by Lorenzo Ghiberti and Donatello’s David. Both pieces are typical of Renaissance sculpture by creating figures with vitality and realistic aspects. Ghiberti also demonstrates a vanishing point in his pictorial relief sculpture.

PREHISTORIC ART Specific Objectives: The student will be able to: 4.1.1 explain the beginnings, relevance and locations of Prehistoric Art. 4.1.2 explain the nature, uses and reasons for creating prehistoric art. 4.1.3 give reasons why the caveman has the desire to be creative 4.1.4 state the types of art, media and techniques used by the cave artist. The Beginnings of Prehistoric Art The terms ‘pre’ literally means ‘before’ while the term ‘historic’ refers to ‘the period when oral traditions and writings began’. Therefore, the term prehistoric or prehistory refers to the time before people developed writing systems or before the existence of written documents. This period of man’s history spans from 80,000 B.C. and ended in 5,000 B.C. Prehistoric art refers to the paintings, engravings, sculpture and pottery done in the early stages of man’s history before writing was developed. Works of art were used in recording the activities of the prehistoric humans. This period began in 30,000 B.C. and ended in 5,000 B.C. The arts of this prehistoric time show the role art played in the early life of man and it serves as a guide for us in how to use art in the modern development of man. The Locations of Prehistoric Art The locations of prehistoric art are distributed and found in virtually all parts of the world among people of the diverse and complex ethnic societies and cultures of the world. There is no established proof by scholars that prehistoric arts done in one region of the world shows an influence on the works discovered in the other regions of the world though they share strong similarities and resemblances. This is because prehistoric art was done independently at different parts of the world at different times. The discoveries of the prehistoric works of art were found among countries in the various continents of the world. These discoveries Page 103

Early Renaissance Sculpture Early Renaissance Painting Themes and techniques of Early Renaissance painting were enlivened by Greek classical period’s nude paintings of especially women. Also, Christian themes from the Roman art were also painted however with little modifications such as the inclusion of donors of the paintings in the scenes. The painters did that primarily to light up hope for the donors who paid for the works a prayer of intercession before God. Linear forms of perspective were shown in the paintings of this period. The Renaissance painter Massacio displays early linear perspective in his painting of the Trinity in the Church of Santa Maria Novella. The vanishing point is in the middle, just above the base of the cross. Uccello, another Renaissance painter, was also known for being obsessed with linear perspective while Brancocci implemented the atmospheric perspective in his paintings.

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artists were highly respected and they even exerted remarkable influence on other distinguished members in the community such as politicians, governmental officials, humanists, scientists and poets. Florence launched the careers of most of the Early Renaissance artists such as Fillipo Brunelleschi, Lorenzo Ghiberti, Donatello, Giotto, Cimabue, Masaccio, Della Francesca, Fra Angelico, Alberti, Verrocchio, Ghirlandaio, Botticelli, Signorelli and Mantegna some of whom were products of the Florentine school. Early Renaissance Architecture The invention of the uniquely Italian style in Renaissance architecture is typically given to Filippo Brunelleschi. Early Renaissance architecture was dominated by the construction of the Florence cathedral, particularly the innovative design of the dome he was commissioned to construct. In 1419, the building was still unfinished for no-one could quite figure out how to build the dome. Brunelleschi solved the problem by inventing a new type of dome. Rather than a hemisphere, Brunelleschi’s dome is conical and high.In medieval architecture, domes were designed to be visible from within the structure. Brunelleschi’s dome, however, could be seen from all over Florence. In fact, it still dominates the skyline today. The design with its eight sides draws attention to its mathematical proportions and symmetry. Brunelleschi’s dome is perhaps the best example of the Renaissance architectural principle of symmetria, which the classical architect Vitruvius claimed was the highest virtue of architecture. By being as much an exterior architecture as an interior one, the dome is about the public space in Florence and serves as a visual gravitational centre to the civic life of the city. Much of the architecture in Florence is based off of Greco-Roman design, such as arches and columns. It is believed that Brunelleschi travelled to Rome and carried out an extensive study of the ancient architectural structures and monuments in Rome where he rediscovered the correct proportions and accurate measurements of architecture as dictated by the classical rules and orders of architecture. Artists were able to apply more modern techniques to the already notable structures from Greek and Roman temples.

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of the prehistoric works were made accidentally. The works discovered were predominantly animals. This underscores the importance of animals in the prehistoric societies. Prehistoric paintings, engravings, sculpture and pottery have been discovered in several countries in Africa. The first prehistoric artworks were discovered in Mozambique by some French army officers in 1721. Between 1969 and 1972, a group of scientists working in the Apollo 11 Cave in Namibia found seven fragments of stone plaques with paint on them, including four recognizable images of animals. Another prehistoric artwork is the Water worn pebble that resembles a human face which was discovered in Makapansgat in South Africa. Other prehistoric works of art discovered in Africa are found in Kalari, Tebesti, Morocco, Tunisia, Libya, Algeria, and Zimbabwe. Most of the prehistoric arts particularly prehistoric paintings were discovered in Europe especially in France and Spain. In 1985, the deep-sea diver Henri Cosquer discovered a wealth of paintings and engravings on the walls and ceilings of the Cosquer cave which was later named after him below sea level near Marseilles in France. In 1994, three cave explorers came upon an interior chamber in an underground cave complex in the Ardeche valley in southeast France. The cave paintings were named after one of the team members by name Jean-Marie Chauvet. Another cave painting was discovered in Pech-Merle in the Dordogne region of France. In 1879, an amateur archaeologist by name Maria Sanz de Sautuola accidentally found the painting of a group of bisons at the ceiling of the Altamira cave in Spain. The most famous examples of cave art in France are the wall paintings at Lascaux in Dordogne in France. Prehistoric art is found in Asia specifically in India, Indonesia, Russia and Vietnam. In America, prehistoric art is found in the United States, Bolivia, Argentina, Brazil, Peru etc. In the Middle East, in Israel, Jericho and others, prehistoric artworks have been discovered. According to radiocarbon dating, the world’s oldest prehistoric paintings are those that were discovered in the Chauvet Cave in France around 30,000 B.C. and 28,000 B.C.

Early Renaissance Architecture Prehistoric Paintings of bisons and deers with spears on their bodies Page 331

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Stone sculpture of a bison water worn pebble Venus of Willendorf (Examples of Prehistoric Sculpture) Nature, Reasons and Uses of Prehistoric Art The narrow range of subjects of prehistoric art which is animal life and fertility as well as the remoteness and inaccessibility of many of the cave paintings, sculpture and engravings discovered gives the indication that the works of art were not ‘art for art sake’ thus produced for mere decoration. The prehistoric men and women had far more relevant reasons for producing the artworks. Some of the reasons for their creation are: 1. A means of survival. 2. A form of magic to overcome the animals that endangered his life. 3. A form of ritual and worship. 4. Teaching tools for amateur hunters. 5. Recording information and narrating stories. 6. Fertility charm. • As a means of survival The predominance of animals in the various prehistoric arts thus paintings, sculpture, engravings and pottery indicates the importance of animals in those societies. In fact, the entire survival and sustenance of the lives of the cave men and women depended largely on animals. The representations of the images of the animals in painting, engraving and sculpture was a form of charm or magic that ensured successful hunting of the wild and ferocious animals in the deep caverns and thick forest. The points below highlights how the animals hunted were used in meeting the basic necessities of life by the prehistoric men and women: 1. The fleshy parts or meat of the hunted animals were eaten as food. 2. The outer coverings or skins of the animals, the feathers of large birds and the furs of mammals were worn on the body as a form of cloth for protection against the harsh climatic or weather conditions.

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Renaissance, emerged as a distinct style in Italy in about 1400, in parallel with developments which occurred in philosophy, art, government, theology, literature, music and scienceand other aspects of society. Renaissance art is perceived as a “rebirth” of ancient traditions that took as its foundation the art of Classical antiquityin Greek and Roman arts and culture. However, these traditions were transformed by the absorption of recent developments in the art of Northern Europe and by application of contemporary scientific knowledge. Renaissance art spread throughout Europe, affecting both artists and their patrons with the development of new techniques and new artistic sensibilities. Renaissance art marks the transition of Europe from the medieval period to the Early modern age. The entire Renaissance period is divided into two main periods namely: i. Early or Low Renaissance ii. High Renaissance Early or Low Renaissance Early or Low Renaissance refers to the early stages of Renaissance art. The Early Renaissance period in art falls between the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the High Renaissance from 1400A.D. and ended in 1500 A.D. Early Renaissance art first developed in the city of Florence in Central Italy in the fourteenth century. Early Renaissance art were also executed in the Netherlands in the province Flanders. Early Renaissance painting, sculpture, and literature in Italy were also influenced by an influx of scholars who migrated to Rome following the fall of Constantinople in 1453. The arrival of these scholars generated new interest in ancient Greek and Roman learning with a reexamination of ancient Greek and Roman texts. This humanist learning and study of the antique was reflected in Early Renaissance art in painting, sculpture and literature. Early Renaissance artists of the 15th century began once again to study nature to gain an understanding of concepts like perspective and anatomy, knowledge lost since antiquity. The stylized works of Byzantine artists was replaced in the Early Renaissance by a return to naturalism. These extraordinary achievements were reflected in the art and architecture of the Early Renaissance. This period was extensively marked by the high patronage and recognition of art in the development of the society. Artists gained support from a group of rich family of Florentines called Medici. They spent astronomical sums of money on architects and artists, who built and decorated Florence to the total delight of all who lived there. The Medici family who had a banking firm almost singlehandedly supported the arts executed in the Early Renaissance period. They funded various academies, workshops and competitions in art helping to unearth and develop talents of art. In this period, art was regarded as a high profession and Page 330

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Modern Art tradition covers the following: a) Renaissance Art b) Art Movements (isms) c) Post Modern Art

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3. The fats and marrows accrued from the animals were used as fuel in the lamps produced from stone or clay. 4. The fats of the animals and their blood were used for producing coloured pigments and binders for coloured ochres from rocks. 5. The bones of the animals were used for the production of simple weapons for hunting activities and as palettes for the mixing of paints. 6. Aside the caves which served as the primary shelter for the cave men and women, they made tents from animal skins and huts out of mud, plant fibres, stone and bone.

UNIT TWO RENAISSANCE ART Specific Objectives: The student will be able to: 6.2.1 trace the period of Renaissance. 6.2.2 describe the major exponents of Renaissance art. 6.2.3 outline the contribution of Renaissance Art to the development of Visual arts. Renaissance was a term used by scholars in the 19th century to describe the activities of European artists and intellectuals from the 14th century to the 16th century. Renaissance is a French word, meaning “rebirth “or “rinascinento” in Italian. The term can also be explained as the ‘Re-awakening’ or the ‘Renewal of knowledge’. The period of renaissance was an age of exploration, experimentation, self realization and the opening up of new worlds not only in artistic sense but imagination and creativity. People began to think, reason and analyze every aspect of words, deeds and conventions of rules of society. It was indeed a period of enlightenment of the world. The period brought about a new attitude to life characterized by curiosity, research and freedom of thought which was falsely opposed by the church. The Roman Catholic Church in Rome and its surrounding cities in Italy had conventions or laid down principles which they thought should not be broken. The church dominated every aspect of the lives of people and conscripted knowledge. They exploited the people in terms of their money and their property due to their ignorance. It was during this period in man’s history where people like Martin Luther started to question the conventions imposed by the church. They researched into science, astronomy, art and philosophy and other proposed theories of the world. Before the Renaissance period, knowledge was restricted to the rich in the society who could purchase the books which were hand written by the learned Monks and Nuns of the church. However, knowledge became abundant and cheaper after the invention of the first printing press by a German called Johannes Gutenberg. This paved the way for people to uncover the deceit of the church bringing about social unrest, political conflict, religious conflict and several forms of warfare. Page 329

• As a form of magic to overcome the animals that endangered his life The prehistoric men were hunters and dependent largely on animals for their survival. However, most of these animals were ferocious and wild. Hunting for these animals was very risky because they hunted these animals with simple weapons, tools or implements. Owing to this, the prehistoric men and women resorted to a kind of practical magic known as sympathetic magic or hunting magic. This hunting magic was based on the belief of the cave man that a close bond or link existed between an object and its image. Therefore, anything done to the drawn image was believed to affect the soul of the live animal. In achieving this, the cave man deliberately omitted some sensitive parts of the images of the animal to be hunted such as the eyes, ears and nose. It was believed that this prevented the live animal from seeing, hearing or smelling the presence of the cave man in the eve of hunting. Sometimes, arrows were drawn pierced into the bodies of the images. The cave man believed that this would ultimately render the animal powerless or wounded bringing the animal under their control. The sympathetic magic was to insure success in capturing or killing the animal. Fresh or new paintings were made for another day’s hunt. This gave birth to the numerous cave paintings, engravings and sculpture. • As a form of ritual, worship and initiation rites The images of the animals confined on the surfaces or walls of the caves were believed to be objects of worship on which rituals for success in hunting activities were performed. Special dances are believed to have been performed around the images for a good day’s hunt. During initiation ceremonies for young ones in these communities, images of the animals were used in the rituals. • As teaching tools for amateur hunters The images of the animals served as teaching aids to instruct new hunters about the character of the various species they would meet when they engage in a hunt. It is asserted that experienced cave hunters may have used the images to point out

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parts of each species of animals to be targeted with the spears by first timers so that hunting will not be a strenuous task for them. • As a means for recording information and narrating stories Paintings and engravings of a group or herd of animals were used in recording animal migrations throughout the passing seasons. Some animal compositions like the composition of rhinoceros, a wounded man and a bison found in the Lascaux cave in Dordogne in France was believed to narrate a tale of a hunt or a heroic man’s death. Most of the compositions in the numerous cave paintings were believed to have been the prehistoric man’s means of recording events and situations experienced in his hunting activities since there was no written form of recording events. • As a fertility charm The female sculptural figures discovered in the caves were believed to be fertility goddesses responsible for childbirth and the fertility of the soil. An example is the ‘Venus of Willendorf’. They stress a potent fertility. Emphasis is placed on the figure’s reproductive qualities: Exaggerated or big breasts, thighs, hips, stomach and buttocks with tiny arms and legs. Scholars refer to them as ‘Venuses’ because they were viewed as sexual objects to the prehistoric men. Moreover, in terms of function and form representation they were similar to Venus, the Roman version of the Greek goddess Aphrodite who was portrayed as nude. These figures were believed to charge barren cave women with fertility potent. They were also consulted through rituals to ensure the fertility of the land when the prehistoric men and women started agricultural activities in the Neolithic period. Reasons why the cave man has the desire to be creative The prehistoric man was a creative person because he brought several new things into existence. He was original and he tried to experiment and explore his environment to create items for addressing his problems and in satisfying his basic necessities of life. Some of the examples that justify the notion that the Prehistoric man was a creative person are: 1. The prehistoric man created his own lamps from clay or stone and fuelled it with the fat and marrow obtained from animals. This helped him in obtaining light. 2. The cave man out of his instincts produced artificial light by striking two stones together to illuminate the dark caverns and inner parts of the rocky structures. 3. There were no colouring medium in existence but the cave man was able to manufacture his own colours by grinding earth colours into powder and mixing it with binders obtained from animal fat, egg yolk, egg white, saliva, blood or cave water. He obtained black colour from vegetal charcoal and charred bones. They Page 107

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GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR S.H.S. 12pm -1pm 1pm-5pm 5pm-6pm

Lunch Break Carving of the work From workplace to the home

LIKELY EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 1. a) What is the concept of healthy lifestyle. b) Discuss three areas of the scope of health. 2. Elaborate on the importance of a healthy lifestyle in the life of an artist. 3. a) What is Stress? b) Explain the effects of stress in the life of an artist. c) Discuss one way of managing stress.

SECTION SIX MODERN ART TRADITIONS General objectives: The student will: 1. Understand and derive ideas from the historical and cultural events that have shaped Western Art 2. Understand the general characteristics of the modern art forms 3. Reflect upon the artists of the period and their contribution to the development of Visual arts. UNIT ONE MODERN ART TRADITIONS Specific Objectives: The student will be able to: 6.1.1 explain the concept of Modern Art Tradition Modern art tradition started in the late 14th century and the beginning of the 15th century when the Middle Ages began drawing to a close. It marked the dawn of a new era when artists expanded their subject matter which was centred on religious themes to include mythological and secular ideas. Italian artists sought to create realistic and lifelike works and the use of perspective. In Northern Europe, artists started to use oil paint in rendering their paintings which resulted in the depiction of intricate details of clothing and the environment.

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4. Facilitates the meeting of deadlinesThe daily work plan helps the artist to meet his deadlines. Usually artists set deadlines for the completion of artistic productions for their clients or customers. The daily work plan breaks down the heinous task of producing the artistic products to simple daily activities that would culminate to the buildup of the finished work. If the artist endeavours to work in the confines of his time frame set for every day, he would be able to meet the deadlines for his artistic products. 5. Builds trust in clientsClients build trust in artists who works with daily work plans. It gives a visual assurance to clients that the completion of their works is really feasible. Studies have shown that artists who systematically plan for their work are able to honour and meet their deadlines. This helps customers to build confidence and trust in artists. 6. Makes you meet personal, family community, demands and have time for leisure, entertainment etc.Artists who work with daily work plans are able to realistically meet deadlines for their works and still buy out time for recreational activities that improves on their health. They do not work under unnecessary pressure due to the fact that they fail to plan or use their resources judiciously. The daily work plan affords them the time to engage in leisure, entertainment and other recreational activities. A Sample of a Daily Work Plan DAY Monday

5.00 am

TIME

ACTIVITY Prayers

5.30 am

Body exercise

6.00 am

Bathing

6.30 am

Breakfast

7 am-8 am

From home To work

8 am-11 am

Blocking out of designs on the wood

11am-12noon

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varied the shades of the ochres which were a range of vivid reds, browns and yellow by heating them to extremely high temperatures. 4. The prehistoric man applied the colours to the limestone surface using pads of moss or fur, and brushes made of fur, feather, or chewed stick. This is a great sign of creativity. 5. The cave man sprayed colours at far reaching areas by blowing them through the tubes of animal bones or reeds against a hand held up with fingers spread open to the rock surfaces to make hand silhouette. 6. The cave man out of his imagination used flint tools in making his engravings and used flat large bones, shells or stones as palettes for the mixing of colours. 7. He built scaffolds from wood and stabilised it against the wall by driving poles into the limestone surface of the cave to enable him paint at high places above ground level. 8. He used sharp flint tools for engravings and pecking out of animal forms on rock surfaces. 9. The cave man was able to pick ideas for the drawing of the images of the animals from the contours and bumpy surfaces of the cave as well as the rock formations. 10. The cave man used the ‘pointilliste’ effect for creating images of the animals. He achieved this by covering the fingers with ochres before pressing it against the limestone surface to create series of dots. Types of art made by the cave man The cave man made several arts. These include drawing, painting, engraving, modelling, carving, leatherwork, pottery and textiles. Several drawings were made on the surfaces of the caves and rocky plates by the use of charcoal and flint tools. The paintings were made by the use of colours or pigment obtained from ochres from minerals, charcoal from wood and bone, blood, white kaolin etc. The cave man produced various images by engraving thus pecking out outlines of the drawn animals with sharp, hard flint tools. The cave man also produced images of animals as well as numerous figurines of the Venuses of fertility by the use of the modelling technique with white kaolin and clay. The modelling technique is an additive sculptural production technique thus, the material is added bit by bit to create the form of the animals or figures. Carving which is a subtractive sculptural method was also employed by the cave man in producing works of art from wood, ivory, bone, rocky mass and stone by chipping away aspects of the material for the form of the object to stand out. Leatherwork with its tanning process was used by the cave man in transforming the skins, hides and kips of animals into leather for the production of clothes to

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protect themselves from the harsh climatic conditions. Others were used in producing tents which served as temporary shelters for the cave men and women. Works of pottery like finely crafted and decorated vessels were used for storing oils and other items in the Neolithic period by the cave man and woman. Textile items produced from palm rachis, moss, grass etc were used in producing clothes and other functional items. Media used by the cave man for his artistic productions The cave man used varieties of materials in producing his artefacts. These included colours, brushes, flint tools, palette, binders, clay, wood, ivory, bone, leaves, reed etc. i. Brushes: He manufactured his brushes by beating or chewing the ends of sticks flat breaking them into fibres and used it in applying his paint. Sometimes, the feathers of large birds, and furs of mammals were equally used as brushes for applying the manufactured paints. ii. Palette: Surfaces for mixing paints were obtained by the use of large flat bones, shells, stones and wood. iii. Drawing Tools: Pointed flint tools were used in creating the outlines of objects. These outlines were deepened and shaded by the use of charcoal. iv. Colours: Colours were obtained from the earth. The colours obtained from the earth included yellow, red, brown and orange. Black was obtained from vegetal charcoal, charred bones or manganese oxide while white was gotten from Kaolin. These ochres from the earth were ground and mixed with animal fat, marrow, egg yolk, egg white, saliva and blood. They were then applied as paint. v. Engraving and Modelling tools: Pointed stones gravers or flints were used for engraving while he used his hands in modelling most of his figures. Techniques used by the cave man The cave man employed various techniques in producing his artistic productions. Some of the techniques used by the cave man in the composition of his works include: 1. Superimposition is a compositional technique that involves the making of a new painting or engraving on an old one. After a successful day’s hunt, a new painting is done over the discarded one.

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iv. Other widely used art materials, such as preservatives, formaldehyde, epoxy glues, and dichromate, can contain dangerous chemicals like cadmium, nickel, silica, and pesticides. Extreme care and safety rules must be observed while using these art supplies.

UNIT THREE DAILY WORK PLAN Specific Objectives: The student will be able to: 5.3.1 prepare a daily work plan Daily Work Plan is a document which explains what an individual intends to do at specific times of the day. All artists must have a work plan that outlines specific times and activities they would like to embark on every day. This work plan should be put in writing to prevent any essential thing being forgotten or prevent afterthoughts. Importance of Daily Work Plan Daily work plan is very important in many ways. Some of the importance are discussed below. 1. Makes you stay focusedThis written plan helps the artist to know where to go, what to do and at what time. It serves as a guide for the artist on his activities. He will not wander to waste time and resources. 2. Leads to achievable goalsA focused person makes optimum use of his time and resources and tends to achieve his set goals more fully. It is due to this that the artist should always and daily, plan his time, resources and activities carefully. 3. Eliminates unnecessary time wastingThe artist who has a written daily work plan is like a traveler who has a handy map that gives detailed direction to his destination. The traveler knows exactly where he is heading to without unnecessary stops making judicious use of his time. The same scenario applies to an artist who has a written daily work plan. He eliminates unnecessary time wasting since he knows when and what to do at specific periods of the day. Page 326

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4. Dust-producing materials, such as pastels, plasters, chalks, powdered tempera, pigments, dyes, and instant should be used with higher degree of care and in a well-ventilated area. If possible, these materials should be used outside to prevent inhalation of the particles. 5. Do not use solvents such as lacquers, paint thinners, turpentine, shellacs, solvent- based inks, rubber cement, and permanent markers in an enclosed area but preferably in an open area. 6. Do not use old materials. Current materials should be used for art productions. This is because many art supplies that were formerly used contained highly dangerous substances, such as arsenic (a white powdered poisonous trioxide used in manufacturing glass and as a pesticide and weed killer), or raw lead compounds, or high levels of asbestos. Older solvents may contain chloroform or carbon tetrachloride. 7. Working conditions in the art room sometimes affect safety. A disorderly art room leads to unsafe conditions, particularly when there are many people working close to each other. An orderly art room is absolutely essential to the students’ and teacher’s safety. 8. Control the build-up of litter and dust in the studio by providing dust bins and cleaning the studio after work. 9. Ensure that tools used for the production of works of art are in good condition. This would prevent users from getting hurt or injured. Metallic tools should be sharpened and kept in their tool box. 10. Keep the art studio reasonably organized. This will help prevent common accidents and also make it easier to recognize and eliminate other hazards. Examples of chemicals used in manufacturing art supplies i. Sensitizers – these can cause allergies, particularly in children. ii. Lead – this is terribly toxic and can be found in such commonly used supplies as oil paint, some acrylics, gessoes, ceramic glazes, copper enamels, and automotive paint in spray cans. iii. Many highly toxic hydrocarbon-based solvents, including methyl alcohol are used in the production of art materials.

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2. Superposition is another compositional technique used by the cave artist. This involves the placing of new painting or engraving on an old one. 3. Juxtaposition is a technique of composition employed by the prehistoric man. In this technique, new paintings are done at either sides of the old painting. 4. Rendering of images- The cave man had several ways of rendering his images in his paintings, engravings and carvings. These include realism thus the cave man carefully represented the images of the animals as accurately as possible. Sometimes, the animals were represented in semi-abstraction that is they were not completely realistic. Most of the paintings of the animals were rendered in flat painting, that is, painting with one tone or value of colour with no variations. Some of the images of the animals were deliberately distorted to serve magicoreligious purpose. 5. Sources of ideas- The cave man generated a lot of ideas for the drawing of the images of the animals from the contours or cracks on the walls of the caves and the shape formations of the rocky mass. THE STONE AGE The prehistoric period falls within the Stone Age period when the cave man resorted to the use of stone in the production of virtually all his implements and tools. The Stone Age period is very vast and scholars have tried to organize it by dividing the entire age into three large time periods. They are: 1. Paleolithic period or Old Stone Age (30,000 B.C.-15,000 B.C.) 2. Mesolithic period or Middle Stone Age (15,000 B.C.-10,000 B.C.) 3. Neolithic period or New Stone Age (10,000 B.C. - 5,000/4,000 B.C.)` Paleolithic Period or Old Stone Age Paleolithic comes from the Greek words paleos, meaning ‘old’ and lithos, meaning ‘stone’. It is the first period in the Stone Age. It gives the genesis of how the cave men used art as a charm (sympathetic magic) in undertaking his hunting activities to enable him meet the basic necessities of life which are food, clothing and shelter. They used crude or unpolished stone implements and weapons in discharging their daily activities. In this period, the cave men and women were nomadic or roamed about in search of food. They lived in temporary structures in caves and under rock overhangs. While the men engaged in hunting, the women were gatherers of wild crops (crops which were not planted and cultivated by man but were given by nature found in natural habitats by chance) and honey.

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Mesolithic Period or Middle Stone Age Mesolithic comes from the Greek words mesos, meaning ‘middle’ and lithos, meaning ‘stone’. It is the second period in the Stone Age. During this period, the cave man seemed to have lost the artistic impulse that moved him to draw. At the latter part of this period, the cave men started to domesticate some animals like cats and dogs as well as some plant species. Owing to the fact that most of the animals he hunted for had died out or migrated, the cave men though were still hunters, congregated around water bodies and resorted to fishing which became a major source of food in this period. Neolithic Period or New Stone Age Neolithic comes from the Greek words neos, meaning ‘new’ and lithos, meaning ‘stone’. This is the third and last stage of the Stone Age. There was a revolutionary shift from hunting and gathering of food to farming or agriculture. This led to a more settled existence in substantial structures. The people were well organized into groups, villages and societies governed by a leader. It contributed to the development of a new form of art which is monumental stone architecture. The formation of human societies resulted in increased specializations and new technologies. Man began to find credible explanation to the changes in his environment such as the changes in seasons, the human system and animal life giving rise to the study of science, mathematics and astronomy. There were temples constructed for worship since the sympathetic magic was now replaced with religion. There was proper burial of their deceased in limestone tombs. Oven-fired pottery and weaving were very prominent in this period. Finely crafted and decorated clay vessels which were fired in kilns were made for storage purposes.

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ii. Inhalation – chemical irritants can be inhaled, causing lung problems like bronchitis and emphysema. Inhaling small particles, like the free silica in clay dust, can cause pulmonary fibrosis or asthma. iii. Ingestion – chemicals can be ingested by touching the mouth with the hands or fingers while working with supplies or unconsciously placing tools like paint brushes in or near the mouth. Some Safety Rules Owing to the health hazards associated with the art supplies, there is the need for both art teachers and students to observe some essential safety rules while working with the art supplies. Art teachers and students should note that manufacturers of art materials are not required by law to state the ingredients used in producing the material. The label non-toxic, for example, does not guarantee a product’s safety. According to federal regulations, toxicity means that a single exposure can be fatal to adults. The effect on adolescents and children, who are more likely to be harmed by dangerous substances, is not considered in this definition. Also, the likelihood of developing chronic or long-term illnesses is not addressed by the legal definition of toxicity. Constant exposure to nontoxic materials is not always safe. Many art supplies contain materials that can cause acute illness. Long-term exposure to such substances can cause chronic illness after repeated exposure or cancer. Hence, safety rules must be meticulously observed by art teachers and students. This would ensure that they are protected from contracting dangerous diseases that can endanger their lives. Some of these safety rules are listed below. 1. Precautionary measures and guidelines must be instituted and adhered to when selecting and using art tools and materials. Art teachers and instructors are responsible for setting these guidelines for the usage of the art tools and materials. Students must cooperate and heed to the precautionary measures and guidelines given to them by their teachers.

UNIT TWO ANCIENT ART Specific Objectives: The student will be able to: 4.2.1 explain the concept of Egyptian Art and. Its influence and relevance on other cultures 4.2.2 explain how Greece became one of the earliest and most important centres of civilization 4.2.3 assess the contribution of the Greeks to the development of art. 4.2.4 determine the influence of beliefs on the use of Art forms. 4.2.5 explain the influence of beliefs on the use of art forms.

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2. Art teachers and students must know the chemistry or chemical constituents of the materials to be used for practical lessons and what potential hazards they can cause. This would alert them on whether to use them and/or what preventive measures they can take to avoid any health hazards. 3. The use of aerosol/spray cans (a dispenser that holds a substance like colour under pressure usually by blowing air with the mouth or otherwise to release it as fine sprays) should not be encouraged because the spray can injure lungs.

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come into direct contact with the body, e.g., underwear, personal towels, facecloths, nappies should be thoroughly cleansed and dried before they are used. •

Cleaning of toilets and hand wash facilities – This is very important since it helps the individual in preventing odors and makes him or her socially acceptable.

UNIT TWO STUDIO PRACTICES (SAFETY RULES) Specific Objectives: The student will be able to: 5.2.1 state reasons for observing safety rules in the art studio 5.2.2 explain some of the safety rules and the dangers that will occur when violated. Safety Rules are the principles or conditions that govern the behavior of individuals especially in the studio or workshop. Generally speaking, these safety rules ensure that the tools and materials are used responsibly to prevent the contraction of diseases, injury or possibly the death of persons. Reasons for observing Safety Rules In the various Senior High Schools in Ghana, practical lessons in art are carried out with several art materials which are unsafe or possibly deadly materials almost every day. Most of the art supplies that are used in our schools contain high levels of chemicals, such as hexane, lead, toluene, and asbestos, and many people are unaware of the danger that these substances pose, both to art students and to teachers. In fact, the danger to art teachers, who are often exposed to these toxins for several hours a day for many years, is often greater than what the student experiences. There is therefore the need for Visual arts teachers and students to become aware of the potential hazards in using art materials. There are three ways in which such chemicals can enter the body: i. Absorption – hazardous chemical are absorbed through the skin from cuts or scrapes, resulting in burns or rashes, or into the bloodstream, moving to and damaging other parts of the body.

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GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR S.H.S. EGYPTIAN ART

Egyptian art refers to the arts (Painting, Sculpture, Graphics, Textiles, Pottery and Architecture) done by the residents in Egypt. Egypt as a country is located along the coast of the Nile river in the northeast of Africa. Egypt was the site of one of the most powerful and longest-lasting civilisation in the ancient world. It became the first centre of civilisation on the African continent in 5000 B.C. Egypt influenced the development of its neighboring North African countries like Algeria, Tunisia, Mauritania, Libya, Morocco, Sudan, Ethiopia, Djibouti, Somalia, Chad, and the northern parts of Niger and Mali. Egypt was divided into two distinct regions thus Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt. The reason behind this division was that the Egyptians saw the world as a set of dualities in opposition thus the forces of chaos and the forces of order. These forces had to be balanced by the king. Upper and Lower Egypt were independent regions but were unified by king Narmer also known as Menes who was the first king of the first of the thirty one dynasties that ruled Egypt. He founded the city of Memphis, the first capital of Egypt located at the mouth of the Nile Delta. Concept/philosophy of Egyptian Art Egyptian art was made purposely to serve the dead. They practiced a death cult because of their belief in life after death. For the ancient Egyptians, death was not an end but the transition from the land of the living (physical world) to the land of the dead (spiritual/metaphysical world). The Egyptians believed that when they died, their souls (Ka) would continue to live in another world but inside the same bodies. Therefore to ensure a successful journey to the land of the dead and the afterlife, the deceased had to be physically preserved along with earthly possessions and other reminders of daily activities. They carefully treated the dead bodies called mummies and embalmed them to protect them from decaying. Works of art were meant to accompany the deceased into eternity. Thus, Egyptian art is an art of permanence that is why Egyptian art is popularly referred to as ‘Art for Eternity’. Fine linen strips woven were used in wrapping deceased bodies. Sometimes, the likenesses of missing corpses were carved from imperishable or durable materials like granite, gold and gems to replace them. After wrapping the body of the deceased (mummy) with the linen material, it was painted in bright colours and laid in tombs. These architectural structures known as pyramids were constructed with heavy stones. This assisted in prolonging their lifespan for eternity. Egyptian tombs were built to assure a blissful afterlife for the deceased, and the paintings, sculptures and other objects in them had an eternal purpose. The interiors of these pyramids were lavishly decorated with series of paintings that depicted the journey of the dead to the metaphysical world. Other themes for Page 112

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the painting included people hunting and feasting. Funerary texts which were believed to preserve the dead person’s name and petitions for his wellbeing by the gods were also written in hieroglyphics. This graphic art recounted the good deeds of the deceased including his titles and honours gained during his lifetime. Achievements of Egypt 1. The ancient Egyptians invented the calendar as a tool in determining dates for events, etc. 2. They invented a system of picture writing known as hieroglyphics in about 4000 BC to assist in communication. They also invented the Hieratic and Demotic forms of writing in addition to the hieroglyphics. These were in force before the Christian era where Coptic was invented. 3. They also invented paper as a writing surface from the papyrus reed, a plant found in Egypt. 4. The ancient Egyptians invented the Nilometer, an instrument used in measuring the rise and fall of the river Nile. 5. They invented glazes for their pottery wares to give them a glossy effect and to prolong their lifespan. Types of Egyptian Art The Egyptians practiced various forms of art to help them in performing their social, political, economic, domestic and religious duties paramount among them was their belief in the immortality of the soul. These arts include Painting, Sculpture, Architecture, Graphics, and Textiles. Egyptian Painting Tools and materials The Egyptian painters obtained their colours by grinding ochres into powder and mixing them with gum. They were dissolved as the painters wet the brushes and rubbed them over the surface much as water colour paint used today. The application of the paint was done by the use of brushes which were made from the trimmed stems of other marsh plants. Bristles which held a supply of wet pigment were made by chewing one end of their stems to separate the fibres. They painted on surfaces such as Papyrus paper, wooden panels, stone tablets, walls and surfaces of pyramids and temples. Subject/Theme The theme for their paintings depicted their belief in life after death and the affluent life of the elite class in the society. The themes included people hunting and feasting, Pharaohs, the affluent and other important people journeying to the land of the dead, people worshipping deities, scenes of musicians and dancers, Page 113

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irregular intervals. This has a great toll on the finances of the individual due to the unexpected paying hospital bills. • Increase in productivity: When all the workers in a firm maintain personal hygiene, it helps in increasing the general productivity of the company. This is especially the case in industries where specialization of work is employed. Factions of work are slowed down or even halted as a result of the sickness of a specialized worker. It results in failure to meet deadlines and this is very detrimental to the success of any industry. • It increases one’s respect and personal ego: An individual who maintains personal hygiene earns respect wherever he or she finds himself or herself. It helps him to gain association and friendship owing to the fact that everyone always wants to be with clean people with good smell and breath. • Improvement in national life expectancy ratio: If members of the nation endeavour to maintain good personal hygiene, the national life expectancy ratio will be improved or increased. This would reduce the total death rate in the nation ensuring national development. •

HOW TO MAINTAIN PERSONAL HYGIENE Body cleansing – The whole body should be kept very clean. This can be done by regular bathing at least once a day. Also, long nails should be cut or removed because they house pathogens that cause diseases. It is advisable to use local body lotions like Shea-butter that nourishes the skin and keep it dry and healthy. Periodically the nostrils and the ears have to be cleaned since its hairs trap dust that can be hazardous to one’s health.

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Hair care – The hair shouldn’t be left to grow especially for the males. It should be frequently cut down. If the individual wants to wear long hair then it should be kept very clean and neat. It can be tied or covered nicely when working or attending to other important duties in the firm. Local hair formulas can be applied on the hair to keep it in good shape.

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Internal cleansing – enema (colon irrigation): It helps the body to flush out internal waste and keep the blood clean.

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The terms cleanliness (or cleaning) and hygiene are often used interchangeably, which can cause confusion. In general, hygiene mostly means practices that prevent spread of disease-causing organisms. Since cleaning processes (e.g., hand washing) remove infectious microbes as well as dirt and soil, they are often the means to achieve hygiene. Other uses of the term appear in phrases including: body hygiene, personal hygiene, sleep hygiene, mental hygiene, dental hygiene, and occupational hygiene, used in connection with public health. Home hygiene pertains to the hygiene practices that prevent or minimize disease and the spreading of disease in home (domestic) and in everyday life settings such as social settings, public transport, the work place, public places etc. Hygiene in home and everyday life settings plays an important part in preventing spread of infectious diseases. It includes procedures used in a variety of domestic situations such as hand hygiene, respiratory hygiene, food and water hygiene, general home hygiene (hygiene of environmental sites and surfaces), care of domestic animals, and home healthcare (the care of those who are at greater risk of infection). Body hygiene pertains to hygiene practices performed by an individual to care for one’s bodily health and well-being, through cleanliness. Motivations for personal hygiene practice include reduction of personal illness, healing from personal illness, optimal health and sense of well-being, social acceptance and prevention of spread of illness to others. Personal hygiene practices include: seeing a doctor, seeing a dentist, regular washing/bathing, and healthy eating. Personal grooming extends personal hygiene as it pertains to the maintenance of a good personal and public appearance, which need not necessarily be hygienic. Body hygiene is achieved by using personal body hygiene products including: soap, hair shampoo, toothbrushes, tooth paste, cotton swabs, antiperspirant, facial tissue, mouthwash, nail files, skin cleansers, toilet paper, and other such products.

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Judgment in the underworld and familiar scenes from the earthly existence of the deceased. Technique/Style/Characteristics The representations of the images in the paintings followed the conventional Egyptian pose. The head and legs are in profile with the torso and eyes in frontal view. Men were painted bigger and darker than women and children. Prominent people and noble men in the communities were painted bigger and darker than slaves. This is a visual representation of the class distinction that existed in Egypt. Distance or depth in drawing (perspective) was depicted by the placement of one body on top of another. Animals and plants in their natural habitats were painted to show naturalism based on careful observation. The technique for their painting was mural painting (fresco secco) that is painting on a dry plaster or surface. This painting technique allowed the trained professional painter to express an exact knowledge of the theme or subject painted. Functions/Uses The paintings were to serve the dead in the land of the dead. They provided the ka or soul with familiar scenes from the earthly existence of the deceased. They also showed the royal power of pharaohs. For instance, the king depicted on the painted chest is portrayed as a successful hunter pursuing droves of fleeing animals in the desert and also as a great warrior. Most of the paintings showed the nobility, richness and prosperity of Egypt.

REASONS FOR PRACTICING PERSONAL HYGIENE The practice of personal hygiene has several benefits. Some of these benefits are discussed below: • It prolongs one’s lifespan: Since the practice of personal hygiene curb the spread of infectious diseases, it increases the number of years that one spends on this earth. Poor hygiene shortens one’s life. • To avoid intermittent illness: The practice of personal hygiene helps the individual to avoid intermittent sicknesses that is illness that when cured starts again within short periods or at Page 321

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1. Wall painting of Nebamun, a noble man together with his wife and daughter hunting in his eternal afterlife 2. Musicians and dancers from the tomb of Nebamun (Examples of Egyptian Painting) Page 114

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GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR S.H.S. Egyptian Architecture

Tools and materials The Egyptian architects constructed their architectural structures from variety of materials such as dried bricks and heavy stones like granite and limestone. They used copper tools, levers and ropes for the cutting of channels in the rock and prying out of blocks of stones for the construction of the pyramids. Subject/Theme The main architectural structure in Egypt which is the pyramid was purposely built to last through eternity thus preserving the soul or ka as well as all the belongings that the deceased will be using in his afterlife in the land of the dead. Technique/Style/Characteristics The pyramids were constructed on a square plan. They were shaped as equilateral triangles, tapers up from the desert sand toward the sky. Each pyramid was dressed with white limestone. The tips of the pyramids were covered with thin layers of gold. The entrance of the pyramids was on the north face. The pyramid had columned halls and a burial chamber. Encircling each pyramid was an enclosure wall. Most of the earlier pyramids were step pyramids while those of later periods were smooth sided pyramids. The sloping sides of the pyramids symbolize the rising of the soul of the deceased to the sun-god for assistance on his endless cycle of regeneration. The surfaces of the pyramids were either plastered or covered with relief carvings, paintings and sometimes with hieroglyphics. The rigidity of the social and political structure that existed in ancient Egypt is reflected in the layout system of the architectural structures in Egypt. The architectural structures in the cities were very close to each other such that gardens were sometimes made on their flat roofs. The Egyptians did a lot of calculations especially in the cutting of the huge stones at right angles. They employed the buttressing technique and later, the layering technique in the arrangement of the stone blocks. This reveals that the Egyptian surveyors were knowledgeable in mathematics, geology and geometry. Knowledge in these areas was vital and crucial in the pyramid constructions.

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This reduces its speed of work resulting in the individual slowing his or her pace of work. It can cause the person to lose his employment because he works below the standards and expectation of his employers and thereby affecting his mental health. v. Strain and injuryStrain and injury are the visible end products of stress. The victim of stress usually exerts himself or herself too much to be able to perform even a simple task. If the task to be performed is physical in nature, the stresses person vigorously attends to the work resulting in injury. Stress has been the cause of numerous accidents, injuries and in some cases death in workshops, firms, industries and on our roads. Therefore, do not yourself good and maintain your healthy lifestyle by taking a rest or relaxation whenever you feel stressed up. Managing Stress Stress is part of humans because we all toil to make ends meet and to take care of our families. There is therefore the need to manage stress. Stress can be managed through deep relaxation and massaging. i. Deep relaxation – a way of resting and enjoying yourself. It helps in keeping away from external detractions and to restore the lost energies that the body needs to function effectively. ii. Massaging/touch therapy – the act of pressing and rubbing the body manually with the hands or mechanically with a machine, to help them relax or to reduce pain in the muscles or joints. Creativity and Stress A creative person has to use his/her own imagination to come out with something new. He needs to have critical thinking, innovative and problem solving skills. When the body is stressed up, fatigue sets in and critical thinking etc. are affected. This makes it very difficult for the creative person to come out with fresh original ideas. The artist should not get stressed up in any way since it can affect his abilities to create or bring new things into existence.

Examples of Egyptian Architecture The architectural structures built by the Egyptians included pyramids which served as tombs for the deceased kings and other prominent and noble men of the society. The best known pyramids are the three Great pyramids at Giza built in commemoration of Sneferu’s son, Khufu (the first and largest pyramid), Khafra (a moderately smaller pyramid), and Menkaure (the smallest pyramid). Temples of worship and funerary temples were constructed. Simple structures constructed

WHAT IS HYGIENE? It refers to the set of practices perceived by a community to be associated with the preservation of health and healthy living. It is the branch of science that deals with the promotion and preservation of health. In everyday life settings, hygiene practices are employed as preventative measures to reduce the incidence and spreading of disease.

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It instills and builds confidence in ourselves because we would realize that our contributions and efforts are worthwhile and meaningful. We gain the opportunity to share our experiences with those that we work with. This makes us satisfied and improves on our health. Stress This is a state of mental or emotional strain or suspense. The body functions in a cyclical manner. There are periods when it functions at a peak and there are periods when it needs to rest and replenish its energies to face more challenges of future activities. Through relaxation the body is reenergized. It is then able to restore the brain processes of focusing attention and performing subtle cognitive and social tasks. Effect of Stress A lot of stress in our lives causes great havoc to our body system. Some of the negative effects of stress are: i. Muscular tensionThis is the physical condition of stretching or overworking the muscles. The muscles, like machines needs time to rest to replenish their energies to work for the body. If this break or rest is denied it, it puts a strain on it and can cause its breakdown. If this does not even happen, the efficiency of the muscles will be drastically reduced and the individual will start experiencing short term sicknesses. A long term effect may have serious consequences such as stroke or render the individual paralyzed. ii. The reduction of the flow of energyStress causes the body to loss a greater quantity of energy to undertake its activities. This weakens the immune system which is supposed to protect the body from foreign substances and pathogenic organisms. This makes it very easy for the individual to be attack by diseases. iii. The feelings of fatigueFatigue is a temporary loss of strength and energy resulting from hard physical or mental work. It is boredom that results from overexposure to work. When this occurs, the individual begins to experience tiredness which can be disastrous to his health. Working in this state can cause a person to commit serious mistakes in the course of work.

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with dried bricks were used as shelters for the ordinary Egyptians while complex stone structures were used as places of abode for the noble, prominent and the rich. Functions/Uses The pyramids were to serve as the everlasting dwelling places of the deceased souls. It housed all the belongings that the deceased would be using in the land of the dead. They built temples which served as places of worship for the numerous gods that the people worshipped. An example is the temple of Amun-Ra where the divine triad Amun, his wife Mut and their son Khons are honoured and worshipped. The Egyptians also constructed funerary temples such as the temple of Hatshepsut where rituals in connection with specific deceased kings and prominent persons were performed.

Great pyramids of Egypt at Giza

Temple of Amun-Ra

Egyptian Graphics Tools and materials The Egyptians wrote on Papyrus sheets, surfaces of the tombs, and stone tablets. They made solid tablets of the colour pigment from carbon (black) or ground ochre (red, yellow, brown). The pigments were mixed with gum which served as a binder. Application of the paint was made by the use of brushes or pens. Subject/Theme The themes for the writings or graphics were basically funerary text and religious text. The Egyptians invented three systems of writing which were used for their graphics before the Christian era. These are hieroglyphics (from the two Greek words hieros, meaning ‘sacred’ and graphein, meaning ‘to write’), hieratic and demotic.

iv. The reduction of flexibility and range of motion in the body jointsStress can also cause the joints of the body to be stiff and may cause it not to enjoy its natural flexible manner of working. Page 319

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Technique/Style/Characteristics The writing of all the systems of writing especially hieroglyphics followed strict conventions. Its writing is very slow and was therefore used for special writing tasks such as those relating to funerary, administrative or religious contexts. However, the hieratic and Coptic were faster and were therefore used for writings for everyday purposes. Examples of Egyptian Graphics The Egyptians developed the papyrus sheets which were used as the principal surface for writing. It was made from the papyrus plant, which grew in the marshes along the Nile. (The Papyrus stems were cut into lengths of about 12 inches. The rind was peeled off and the pith cut lengthwise into thin slices. One layer of slices was laid side by side with a second layer on top of it at right angles. The two layers were bonded together by pressing, the natural starch of the papyrus will create the bond between them. Once dry, the resulting smooth and light –coloured surface was polished with a wood or stone tool. The sheets can be rolled into scrolls by joining the edges that runs at the same direction together). Another Graphic product of Egypt is the book of the dead. The book of the dead is a papyrus scroll in which incantations believed to preserve the soul of the deceased were written. Functions/Uses The writings in hieroglyphics were used for administrative purposes thus, for writing agreements, laws and code of conduct of the land etc. It was also used for religious purposes. It was used by the priests who served in the temples of the gods in writing the words, commandments and nature of rituals of the numerous gods. No wonder the Egyptians referred to hieroglyphics as ‘god’s words’. Hieroglyphics was used mostly for writing funerary text. This text was written on tomb walls, coffins, and on papyrus sheets to work as a magic in protecting the deceased. The text contains spells designed to preserve the dead person’s name and pleas for his well being in the afterlife. They recount the deceased virtues, attest to his good character, and invoke the protection of his body from harmful creatures such as snakes and scorpions.

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strive very hard to demonstrate traits such as respect, humility, gentleness and goodness. This would improve your social health. iv. Cultural health – This refers to the effects of cultural beliefs and practices on the health of the individual. One’s life course should harmonize with the values, norms and laws of his community. This involves not breaching taboos, etc. Being able to satisfy the laid down rules and regulations as well as the accepted way of living enhances one’s cultural health. v. Environmental health – This area of health centres on one’s awareness of his immediate surroundings poised at maintaining the sanity and cleanliness of the environment. It involves the cleanliness of the home and immediate surroundings, proper disposal of rubbish, human and animal waste. If an individual maintains and cleans his environment, it would have a positive impact on his physical health. After all, clean surroundings prevent the contraction and spread of several diseases paramount among them is cholera. vi. Economic health – Wealth can be created through one’s good health. If an individual keeps a healthy lifestyle it helps him to avoid spending huge sums in seeking for health care and paying for his medical bills. The health of the individual is his/her greatest asset. Healthy individuals can create wealth for his/her personal benefit, family, society and nation.

Maintaining health through Good Relationships Human beings tend to come together in groups and communities so as to meet individual, family and community needs. The relationships that the individual develops and builds in a society or community influences or determines his/her health and socio-economic development. This is termed as ‘People-to-people ecology’. The individual should develop the attitude of working together with others since it improves one’s health. Working together with others helps us to achieve a common goal (collaboration). We also influence one another positively thus learning the good traits of others. Working together with others helps one to gain recognition, respect and encouragement etc. This is true because we are hardly known or recognized in our institutions and workplaces if we always work independently. In addition, we do not get any encouragement from anyone due to the fact that we work alone. The situation is however different if we work in groups where there is interaction and cordial relationship between us and others. When we are down in spirit or discouraged, we draw encouragement from others. This may either be in the form of a gentle tap not to give up or a word of encouragement which boosts our morale not to be in despair but rather work hard. Page 318

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more and don’t frown or always put on a serious look. This would improve your health. Exercise Regularly Exercise is the activity of exerting one’s muscles in various ways to keep fit. Exercise helps in strengthening the joints, muscles and tissues of the body while improving on one’s heart condition. It assists greatly in the circulation of blood throughout the entire body. Exercising on a regular basis can help in avoiding stroke, a disease caused by a sudden loss of consciousness resulting when the rupture or occlusion of a blood vessel leads to oxygen lack in the brain. It is advised that a thirty minutes exercise on a daily basis can significantly improve one’s health. Doctors even recommend exercise as a cure to thousands of ailments. Therefore, buy out time every morning to exercise your body and make sure you do it daily to improve your health condition.

Hieroglyphics

The Scope of a Healthy Lifestyle A healthy lifestyle is not just a matter of keeping one’s body in a good shape. Its scope is broad and entails virtually all the things that we do in our everyday life. The field of health includes the physical health, mental or spiritual health, social health, cultural health, environmental health and economic health. i. Physical health – This is the general upkeep of the physical body. It is the body’s ability to function as designed. This is enhanced through controlled or balanced diet, body exercise, personal hygiene, skin and hair care, weight management, proper posture etc. ii. Mental/spiritual health –This health is concerned with the upkeep of one’s state of the mind. Also, it entails one’s religious beliefs and his association with the heavenly deities. The mental or spiritual health of an individual is enhanced by satisfying one’s religious needs and engaging in intellectual activities to acquire grasping and problem-solving skills etc. This results in the cognitive development helping the individual to acquire traits and attitudes such as positive image, self-esteem, etc. iii. Social health – This health focuses on one’s relationship with the people he/she meets in the society or community. This begins with relationships with his family members, friends and neighbours. It is then extended to the other distant members of the society. As an artist, this relationship also embraces those you have with your clients or customers. To improve your social health, do well to have a cordial and peaceful relationship with people. In your dealings with them,

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Papyrus Paper

Egyptian Textiles Tools and materials The chief material for the textiles of the Egyptians was white silk. Subject/Theme The theme for their textiles was mainly funerary themes. Technique/Style/Characteristics They were hand sewn or stitched. Crocheting, knitting and other decorative forms of sewing were employed in the making of the textiles. Examples of Egyptian Textiles Hand stitched or sewn clothes worn on bodies. The white silk was sewn into long fabrics used for mummification that is, the embalmment of the bodies of the dead. Functions/Uses The fine linen fabrics were sewn into clothes and worn on the body for protection against the harsh climate. The white linen clothes were chiefly used for the mummification of the dead. After the removal of the internal organs, the body was then packed with dry natron (a natural compound of sodium carbonate and sodium bicarbonate found in Egypt). This chemical dehydrated the body and dissolved its fats. The corpse was washed, treated with oils and ointments Page 118

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prepared from some special herbs. The body was then embalmed or bandaged with as many as twenty layers of linen in a way that conformed to the original shape of the body. Amulets were then worn on special parts of the body to attract good spirits and fight bad spirits.

Curtains hanged in the temples

Floor mat made of dyed linen

Egyptian Sculpture Tools and materials The Egyptians produced their sculptural figures from imperishable or durable materials such as well seasoned wood, granite, precious and semi-precious stones like turquoise, jasper, quartzite etc. White linen clothes were glued to carved wooden statues of missing corpses. Sharp carving tools such as gouges, chisels etc were used. Simple modeling tools were used for modeling figures in clay. Subject/Theme Most of the sculptural figures served funerary purposes to either represent the deceased or to serve the deceased in his afterlife. Others had religious themes since they were used as representations of deities or gods in temples. Technique/Style/Characteristics The sculptural figures were either seated, standing or kneeling. They were either represented in relief (high/low), bust/ portrait figures and sculpture-in-the-round. The representations of the sculptures were conceptual or intellectual rather than visual. Most of the sculptures were life size figures. The Egyptian artists adhered to strict laws and conventions that governed their arts. They did not strive for change or originality. This explains why Egyptian art was static with no improvements. The standing figures had their left feet placed in a forward position. The figures had frontal shoulders and arms. The heads of the figures were in profile with frontal eyes and legs. The surfaces of their sculptural figures were painted in lifelike colours. The statues of the men as well as the women wore wigs. The relief carvings were painted in bright colours. The faces and form Page 119

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anticipate too much of the future. This puts unnecessary pressure on the body and negatively affects the heart especially in situations where the matter at stake affects us and our business directly. It can also negatively affect our activities we need to do for the day. Experience has shown that some business men commit serious arithmetic mistakes as a result of extreme anticipation of past business transactions of which they have paid dearly. Others who work on machines in the industry have even lost control and endangered their lives. The candid truth is that our extreme anticipation cannot overturn situations or results of our decisions. Think or anticipate less and leave matters to God and move on with the planned activities for the day. Relax Relaxation is one of the activities that set the body in its right and perfect tone. If we relax our bodies by engaging in a recreational activity such as listening to music, watching a video or sport, sightseeing etc. refreshes our bodies. It will be as if we have charged our body ‘batteries’ new. It gives us a new ‘spirit’ or energy to work. As artists, we gain are able to brainstorm and generates a lot of creative ideas for the production of functional artefacts. Remember the old maxim that says ‘All work and no play make Jack a doll boy’. Don’t be too engross or busy in your work, relax and engage in a wholesome recreation to keep your body healthy always. Keep Your Temper under Control Anger is like fire. If not kept under control can burn a whole house as it were. Therefore when tempers are high, exercise self-control or engage in activities that can calm your tempers down. Such activities include taking a walk off the scene, talking about the matter with a trusted friend or engaging in your favorite hobby such as drawing, painting or listening to music. In fact, if tempers are kept unchecked, they can cause serious health problems such as heartaches and other diseases related to the lungs. Also, because the victim is not thinking straight, he/she may take wrong decisions and act unwisely. It is advisable not to act in a provoked situation, just take your leave and remember that we all err against one another. Not making an issue out of what ensued between you and the one who angered you or harboring resentment will improve your health greatly. Laugh More Laughter is a major tool that improves one’s health. Studies have revealed that people who laugh always live long more than those who harbor resentments. Laughing helps in relaxing the muscles causing them to work more effectively. Health experts like clinical psychologists use laughing as a therapy in treating individuals with depression to help restore their emotional state. Therefore, laugh Page 316

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easily, we would rather use an acronym ‘SPARKLE’ to stand for all of those activities. Each of these initials stands for a vital activity in life that prolongs one’s lifespan and improves the health condition of a person. S – Sleep P – Plan everyday A – Anticipate less R – Relax K – Keep your temper under control L – Laugh more E – Exercise regularly Sleep Sleep has been recommended as the best antidote to restore the body organs to work more effectively and efficiently. Our bodies are like machines that need to be halted or stopped for a considerable time. Doing this helps all the organs of the body to renew their strengths. It also prevents us from overworking our bodies which usually result in a breakdown which may be evident through sickness or even death. It is recommended that the body should take a nap for not less than eight hours a day to help its organs to work well. It is wrong to strain the body if it gives signals that it needs to rest and it would even be a death blow if we try to induce our bodies to work an extra mile by taking in hard and unhealthy drugs and liquors like ‘Caffeine’ etc. just to stay awake all day.Let’s allow the body to take its natural course of rest and allow it to rest since this would positively affect our health. Plan Everyday Many sicknesses especially heartaches are as a result of poor or no planning of activities that one wants to undertake in a day. The Bible even admonishes that ‘the shrewd one considers or plans his steps (activities)’. If you fail to plan for your activities everyday you put a strain on the brain and you push it to adjust to new activities without prior consultations. It also results in overworking of the body which can cause high fevers and headaches. Therefore, it is advisable to plan your activities for a particular day the night before the day. Though unforeseen events may arise, yet we can minimize it considerably and improve our health if we plan. Anticipate Less Imperfect as we all are, there is the great tendency to anticipate the unfolding of events and the outcomes of our decisions. However, it would also be wrong to Page 315

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of the sculptural figures were young or ‘ageless’, an expression of their purpose for creation- to serve the dead eternally. Examples of Egyptian Sculpture Wooden or stone caskets or coffins were made to house the body of the deceased. Huge statues (sphinxes) were placed in front of pyramids to guard the tombs etc. An example is the Great sphinx carved from an outcropping rock left after quarrying stone. It has a portrait of Khafra or possibly Khufu with a crouching body of a lion, an indication of strength. This huge scale expresses the power of the king. Another example of a sphinx is the sphinx of Taharqo discovered in the Temple T at Kawa in Nubia, Egypt. There are three types of sphinx namely androsphinx (a sphinx with the body of a lion with a human head), criosphinx (a sphinx with the body of a ram with a human body) and Hierocosphinx (a sphinx with the body of a falcon with a human head). Carved masks used in rituals in connection with the dead were made. Statues of gods in large sizes were carved. Functions/Uses The huge or colossal statues were used as protective guards for deceased kings and other prominent persons buried in tombs or pyramids. The life-sized statues were used to replace missing corpses. It was revered and venerated as the real body of the deceased. It was believed that the carved statue painted in the life-like colours of the deceased served as an everlasting dwelling place for the soul of the deceased in the land of the dead. Colossal statues of deities were carved and kept in temples of worship for religious purposes. The reason for the colossal nature of the gods was to show their greatness and power in comparison to humans who are nothing before them. The figures of the pharaohs were worshipped as gods. This is because the Egyptians viewed their rulers as divine and were therefore feared, honored and worshipped. Other sculptures though they had protective powers, served decorative or aesthetic purposes. They enhanced the outlook and general appearances of architectural structures, halls and temples.

Bust figure of Queen Nefertiti

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GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR S.H.S. Egyptian Pottery

Tools and materials Porcelain or Kaolin was the main material used for the production of the wares. Glazes which were sometimes coloured were applied to the surfaces of the wares and fired at high temperatures. Pointed incising tools were used for creating the linear designs and in scribbling the hieroglyphics on the surfaces of the wares. Subject/Theme The themes for the production of the pottery wares were funerary themes, religious themes and domestic themes. Technique/Style/Characteristics There were four of the Canopic jars which were used in preserving the four vital organs of the body thus the heart, lungs, kidney and liver. Each of the Canopic jars was subjected to the protection of one of Horus’s sons. Horus is the Egyptian solar god with the head of a falcon, the son of Osiris and Isis. Each of his sons had a characteristic head thus, man, baboon, jackal and falcon. The stoppers or lids of each of the jars were shaped in the head of the respective protective deity. The surfaces were decorated with symbolic patterns and funerary texts in hieroglyphics. The Nubia eggshell pottery had very thinned walls hence the name ‘eggshell’. Most of them were decorated with finger prints and basket woven designs. The pottery wares were made with a strong ceramic material such as porcelain or kaolin (white clay). They were glazed and fired at extremely high temperatures in Kilns. Examples of Egyptian Pottery The Egyptians made the Canopic jars which were used for the preservation of individual organs of the body. They were placed in the tomb to accompany the deceased in the land of the dead. There were other ritual jars, vases and pots which were used for storing relics and other important herbs enchanted to help the dead in his afterlife. An example is the Nubia eggshell jars and vessels which were used in making offerings to the gods in temples. They were called Nubian jars because they were initially used by the Nubians in presenting offerings to the pharaohs of Egypt. Functions/Uses The Canopic jars were used in funerary ceremonies to preserve the vital organs of the deceased. They were kept in the tombs of the deceased. The Nubia vessels and jars were used for religious purposes. Other pottery wares were used in domestic activities such as for storing oils, grains etc. Page 121

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b) State three importance of Sustainable Development. c) Discuss three natural resources for artistic creation. d) Outline five strategies for maintaining the ecology. 6. Explain the Ghanaian symbolic meaning and uses of the following shapes: a) Circle b) Triangle c) Square d) Crescent moon

SECTION FIVE PROFESSIONAL ETHICS – 2 General objectives: The student will: 1. develop the attitude and values for a healthy lifestyle and occupational work 2. be aware of regenerative health lifestyles, personal hygiene, safety rules for living and performance of tasks in school UNIT ONE MAINTAINING GOOD HEALTH Specific Objectives: The student will be able to: 5.1.1 explain the concept of a Healthy life styles 5.1.2 State the effect of good relationships on healthy lifestyle 5.1.3 explain the benefits of rest and sleep in the life of a creative person 5.1.4 outline the effect of personal hygiene on health Concept of a Healthy Lifestyle Health is the general condition of the body and the mind. A healthy lifestyleis a manner or way of living that enables one to develop a general condition of the body and mind that is free of sickness and disease. Every activity that the individual undertakes and the decisions that he/she makes affects his/her lifestyle either positively or negatively. Therefore, there is the need for every individual to plan his activities and make sound decisions that would affect his/her health positively. There are some activities that can tremendously improve the healthy lifestyle of an individual. These activities have been time-tested and have proved beyond all reasonable doubt to affect one’s health positively. To assist in remembering them Page 314

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iv. Experimenting and using alternative/improvised materials that are ecofriendly thus recyclable, biodegradable and renewable Artists should experiment and try using materials in the environment that are ecofriendly or are bio-degradable for the production of artefacts. They should use organic materials that can be decomposed after the spoilage of the artefact. Also, they should use materials that can be easily recycled into other new forms without wastage. Production processes that are eco-friendly or do not impose danger on the environment should be used by artists. For example, gas kilns when used effectively are better than firewood kilns because while the former is smoke-free, the latter causes intense smoke that can cause air pollution. v. The Government should strengthen and reinforce laws The government and its institutions responsible for maintaining and implementation of laws should be firm in the laws regarding the environment. Huge penalties should be imposed on citizens who break the laws concerning the indiscriminate falling down of trees, bushfires, unwarranted killing of animals, illegal mining and galamsey operations, indiscriminate disposal of refuse and all the other activities of people that are ‘enemies’ to the environment and our rich natural resources. Offenders should be severely punished to serve as a deterrent for others who tread their footsteps. If these measures or strategies are implemented, it would help in saving our ecology and ensure the sustenance and maintenance of our rich natural resources. LIKELY EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 1. (a) Write short notes on the indigenous arts of Ghana. (b) Discuss the role and functions of these indigenous Ghanaian artforms: i) Kente ii) Akuaba doll iii) Stools iv) Adinkra cloth 2. (a) What is symbolism? (b) Mention and discuss three (3) of these symbols and their meanings: i) Kente Symbols ii) Adinkra Symbols iii) Canoe Symbols iv) Jewellery Symbols v) Pottery Symbols vi) Spokesman Staff Symbols 3. Discuss the symbolic meanings of four parts of the female stool in Asante. 4. Explain the role and contributions of art in tourism. 5. a) What is Sustainable Development? Page 313

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Canopic Jars

Nubia Eggshell jars and vessels

Relevance and Influence of Egyptian Art on other cultures It is an undeniable fact that the arts done by the Egyptians is worth studying today due to the impact or influence it has exerted on the development of the artistic cultural heritage of various groups and societies around the world. The study of Egyptian art help learners to appreciate the vital role that art plays in the economic, social, domestic and religious life of people. It provides important information to learners of art on the tools, materials and production techniques of the Egyptian artists so that they can develop and implement them in the arts done today. It serves as a powerful tool in alerting us of the themes for our artistic productions which should always reflect our cultural beliefs, norms and values in the society. Art was and is still the bedrock to the civilisation of Egypt and the world at large and an eye opener to the development of other fields of human endeavour. Egyptian art greatly influenced the arts of the Greeks who conquered the Egyptians in 333 B.C. The style or technique employed by the Egyptian sculptors as well as the strict conventions in their sculptural productions was implemented by the Greeks in their sculpture. This is greatly evident in the sculptures that were produced in the archaic period of Greek art history. Also, in the classical period of Greek art history, the forms, materials and production techniques of their jewellery was influenced by those produced by the Egyptians in the Middle kingdom. The chief material for the productions of jewellery was gold and the products made included crowns, pendants, mirrors, bangles and anklets. This was exactly copied by the Greeks. In the Renaissance period, the styles and techniques employed by the Egyptian craft men and workers of wood especially in the designs and joinery of their furniture influenced the wooden works produced by wood workers in the period. The designs of the Egyptians in the areas of architecture, sculpture, painting and especially graphics influenced the Byzantine and Islamic arts. The writing systems invented by the Egyptians which were mainly pictographs have influenced the other forms of writing that were developed at later periods. Page 122

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Foreign Influence on Egyptian Art In 333 B.C., the Greeks conquered Egypt thereby rendering the pharaohs powerless. They introduced Hellenistic art. The Greeks built the city of Alexandria and also constructed banks, cemeteries, libraries, museums and other public buildings. They also introduced a new form of art called mosaic to the North Africans. They used shiny cubes of stones in composing various pictures and scenes in mosaic on floors, walls and ceilings of architectural houses. In addition, the Greeks introduced their language and gods to the Egyptians and other North African countries. The Greeks were also conquered by the Romans in 30 B.C. They introduced the Christian religion to the Egyptians. The Christian theme became a popular subject in painting, sculpture and architecture in Egypt. The Romans were also conquered by the Muslims in AD 641. They introduced the Islamic religion and the Arabic language to Egypt and the whole of North Africa. They introduced the use of geometric shapes and signs in art. Similarities between Prehistoric Art and Egyptian Art The arts practiced by the prehistoric men share several similarities with the arts of the Egyptians in terms of kinds of art forms produced, tools and materials used, beliefs associated with the work as well as techniques employed for the production of the works of art. Some of these similarities are discussed below. 1. Both prehistoric and Egyptian arts were driven or motivated by beliefs thus, belief in sympathetic magic for the prehistoric art and belief in life after death for Egyptian art. 2. The arts in both prehistoric and Egyptian arts were created for a certain chief purpose or need. The prehistoric arts were created to help the prehistoric men and women to meet their basic necessities of life while Egyptian art was used to serve the dead and ensure the eternal survival of his soul. 3. Their arts were interdependent and shared the same purpose. The paintings, engravings, pottery, textiles, sculpture and architecture of prehistoric art were for one goal thus to achieve the belief in sympathetic magic for their hunting activities. Similarly, the various artistic productions of the Egyptians were purposely made to serve the dead. 4. The media and tools used by the cave and Egyptian artists bore similar characteristics. For instance, they all obtained their coloured pigments from ground earth ochres mixed with binders such as gums, egg yolk etc. The application of the paints was done with brushes produced from chewed or beaten sticks etc. 5. The prehistoric men and Egyptians all achieved perspective in drawing and painting by placing one form or body on top of another.

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Mineral Source This refers to the resources obtained from the soil or hidden in the deep caverns of the earth. They include precious metals like gold, silver, bronze, bauxite etc. these precious metals are casted into beautiful sculptural figures. Others are used in producing medals and other forms of jewellery. Other precious and semi-precious stones like diamond, turquoise and others are also used by artists especially jewelers in producing brooches, crests, and jewellery of all kinds. Moreover, the pottery and ceramic materials such as clay, plaster of Paris, cement, glazes and other important chemicals are obtained from the minerals of the environment. Vases, tiles, wares and pots of diverse shapes and colours are produced by artists as a result of the resources gleaned from the mineral sources of the environment. Strategies for sustaining and maintaining the Ecology The following are some strategies suggested for the sustenance and maintenance of the environment. The government, corporate bodies, institutions and individuals should strive in implementing these strategies to ensure the survival and sustenance of the natural resources in the environment. i. Promote the rearing of animals The rearing of animals should be encouraged to ensure the survival of the animal species in the environment. If every household learns to rear at least one animal species we will all be putting out measures in sustaining them. Funds should be given to the agricultural firms and industries that is committed to animal farming so that they will be well equipped in caring for a wide range of animal species to prevent the extinction of some of them in the environment. ii. Encourage reforestation Every individual should practice the planting of trees in his or her environment. The practice that should be implemented is ‘plant the number of trees that you fell’. If this culture is promoted, there will never be the distinction of some plant species in our environment. The indiscriminate felling down of trees should cease. iii. Refill clay pits etc. for future use Artists must refill pits of clay after they have taken large lumps for use. These pits shouldn’t be left like that otherwise they can be threats for human life and even abodes for wild animals. Therefore, they have to be refilled with the available soil to ensure its constant supply in the future.

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These discussed points underscore the need to implement measures for sustainable development of the natural resources in our environment. Natural Resources for Artistic Expression There are three main sources in nature that artists rely on for the creation of various artefacts. The sources are: i) Plant Source ii) Animal Source iii) Mineral Source Plant Source This is the resources obtained from plants and the trees in the environment. Virtually all the parts of a plant or tree can be utilized for the production of functional artefacts. For instance, the leaves of some plant species like the palm tree can be used in producing interesting temporary hats for joyous occasions. The palm fronds or branches can be split and woven into baskets and other forms of receptacles for the storage and preservation of farm produce and personal belongings. The trunks of plant species like Sese, Asanfena, Sapele, Mahogany, Wawa and others can be used for carving beautiful and functional sculptural figures. What about the seeds from these plants? They can be stringed with a thread and used for producing various beads for body adornment. The form, shape and textures of the trees were and are powerful sources of idea development for both past and present artists. The harmonies in the colours of flowers have been mimicked by designers of packages and other visual communication tools as their colour schemes.

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6. The cave men and the Egyptians all had a way of preserving their artistic productions for them to last eternally. For instance, the prehistoric arts discovered were done or hidden in deep caverns while the Egyptian arts were hidden in tombs or pyramids. 7. The chief element of their compositions was indicated by size relations. For instance, the main element in prehistoric art compositions was animals which were drawn relatively big in comparison with the tiny human figures. Similarly due to the class distinction that existed in ancient Egypt, the chief element in compositions was prominent people and in terms of gender, men. The size relation of the men and prominent figures was relatively bigger than women, children and slaves. GREEK ART Greek Art refers to the arts (paintings, sculpture, architecture, pottery) made by the residents of Greece. They are called Greeks or Hellenes. Greece is located near Italy in Europe. The country happens to be one of the earliest centres of civilisation in Europe. Greek art spans from 1000 BC and ended in the late 30 BC. Greece had several important independent city-states such as Corinth, Delphi, Mycenae, Sparta, Troy and the most famous city, Athens. The Greeks were adventurous, imaginative and warlike. They were also religious and worshipped many gods or deities, paramount among them was Zeus.

Animal Source This refers to the resources obtained from animals. Paramount among them is the skins, hides and kips of both small and large animals which are used for producing leather through the tanning process. The leather material can be used in producing countless articles such as hats, jackets, belts, lampshades, furniture, table mats, wall hangings etc. The furs and feathers of some mammals and birds are used in producing bristles of brushes. Some are used in producing quills for the writing of calligraphy while others are dyed in beautiful colours and used in making brooches and other fine decorations in clothes. The bones and ivory of some animal species can be carved into interesting articles and figures. Some are used for producing musical instruments like horns that produces nice sounds for entertainment purposes. The fats of some of these animals are used in producing binders for paints and sometimes glue. The teeth of some animals can be used in producing pendants and other forms of jewellery for the adornment of the body.

CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE GREEKS TO THE CIVILISATION OF THE WORLD The Greeks have contributed greatly to the development of many facets of human endeavour. The major contributions are outlined below. 1. The Greeks introduced the Olympic Games which was a sports and athletic festival to honour their gods, the greatest being Zeus. It was organized once every four years and today it helps in uniting people of various cultures in the world. It was called ‘Olympic games’ because the first games took place on Mountain Olympus. 2. The Greeks invented several systems of government of which democracy is the most famous and important. 3. They invented the potter’s wheel to help in their pottery productions and to assist them in meeting the high demand of pottery in the country. 4. The Greeks have contributed to the study of science in areas such as medicine, astronomy and mathematics. Great philosophers like Aristotle, Plato, Socrates, Hippocrates and other learned men usually met at open places called FORUMS to reason and propound theories and hypothesis of the philosophies of life.

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5. In the field of art, the Greeks introduced realism in painting and sculpture through the study of human anatomy, proportion and perspective. This helped them in solving the problem of foreshortening encountered by the Egyptians. THE PERIODS IN GREEK ART Greek Art history is divided into three stylistic periods. The periods and their corresponding dates are listed below. 1. ARCHAIC PERIOD (700BC-480BC) 2. CLASSICAL PERIOD (480BC-323BC) 3. HELLENISTIC PERIOD (323BC-27BC) ARCHAIC PERIOD This is the first period in ancient Greek Art history. It began in 700BC and ended in 480BC. The term ‘archaic’ is a Greek term which means ‘early’. It is used to describe the many developments in art which occurred in the early stages of Greek culture. SCULPTURE IN THE ARCHAIC PERIOD MATERIALS: The chief material for the production of their sculpture was marble because it was very abundant in their mountainous land. They also used other materials like gold, ivory and bronze. STYLE: The postures for their sculptural figures included standing, kneeling and sitting. They produced three dimensional forms (sculpture-in-the-round) and relief carvings. They sculpted figures mainly of gods and goddesses in the likeness of men, women and children. FUNCTIONS: These statues were placed at vantage points in the country in remembrance of important events and the victors at the Olympic Games. Others were placed over graves to remember the departed souls and for decorating public buildings. CHARACTERISTICS: Their statues were characterized by symmetry and stiffness of form. Important features of the human figure were emphasized. The male sculpted figures which were known as ‘Kouros’ (youth) were in nudity or naked because the Greeks athletes performed naked in public during the Olympic Games. They also had their left foot placed in a forward position. The female sculpted figures called ‘Kore’(maiden) were fully clothed. The lips of the sculptural figures in the archaic period were curved and drawn into an expression commonly referred to by art historians as ‘archaic smile’.

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usage and benefit of members of the society. If these natural resources were to be in extinction, it would result in the collapse of these industries. iii. To prevent depletion of the resources The resources in the environment are prevented from permanently dying out if the measures for sustaining them are developed. Sustainable development helps the natural resources to be in constant supply. iv. Prevent global warming Sustenance of the natural resources in the environment prevents global warming. Global warming is an increase in the average temperature of the earth’s atmosphere especially a sustained increase that causes climatic changes in the environment. This usually results in warm and hot climates that extinct several plant and animal species making activities in life quite unbearable. If the resources in the environment are maintained, this problem would be curbed. v. Prevent deforestation and bushfires Sustainable development dictates that fallen down trees and plants must be replaced through reforestation. The opposite is deforestation which is the depletion of the plant resources in the environment which results most often in bushfires. Burning of the forest causes most of the natural resources to fade out of the environment. vi. Encourage self-reliance The preservation of the natural resources in the environment helps a country to rely on itself without resorting to the help from other countries. For example, if Ghana had preserved all of its natural resources such as timber, gold, rubber, etc., she would not need to rely on any countries’ help. Unfortunately today, many countries import raw materials from other countries to feed their local industries. If every country of the world is able to maintain her natural resources, it would encourage self-reliance and our world would be a better place worth living. vii. Help the youth develop their artistic talents and acquire employable skills to reduce poverty. The youth have been given natural talents by God and they are able to develop these talents by exploring the natural resources in the environment to produce functional items which can be sold to earn money and reduce poverty in the country. Interesting compositions of scenes are made with raffia, seeds, plywood, shells etc. They can be bought and used as wall hangings. The truth is that if these natural resources were not available, the talents of the youth would have remained hidden and unexplored resulting in extreme poverty. Page 310

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UNIT FIVE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN ART Specific Objectives: The student will be able to: 4.5.1 explain the meaning and importance of sustainable development in art 4.5.2 identify natural resources for art making. 4.5.3 suggest strategies for sustaining and maintaining the environment. The meaning of Sustainable Development Sustainable development is the strategic development of structures that seek to meet the needs of present and future generations through effective management and maintenance of natural resources. The World Commission on Environment and Development defines Sustainable development as ‘meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’. These definitions points out that the main aim of sustainable development is to ensure that the present environmental needs of humans do not encroach on those that the future generations would also need and use. It is bent on sustaining thus ‘maintaining’ or ‘preserving’ the natural resources that we have now so that the future generations would also have them in ample supply. An “unsustainable situation” occurs when natural capital (the sum total of nature’s resources) is used up faster than it can be replenished or replaced. Sustainability requires that human activity only uses nature’s resources at a rate at which they can be replenished naturally. Reasons and Importance of Sustainable Development Sustainable development is very essential and relevant to the preservation and sustenance of our rich natural resources. Some of the reasons and relevance of sustainable development are discussed below. i. To preserve and have enough resources for future It is very important to sustain the resources in the environment to ensure that they will not be in short supply in the future. If the resources in the environment are not sustained, we and the future generations would not have them in abundant supply to meet the challenges confronting the world. ii. To sustain the survival of the industry The natural resources from the environment are a bank supply of raw materials to the numerous industries of the world. Their livelihood and survival of these industries largely depends on these raw materials obtained from the environment. It is these raw materials that are used in the production of several products for the Page 309

Kore (Maiden)

Kouros (Youth)

PAINTING AND POTTERY IN THE ARCHAIC PERIOD PAINTING: The Greeks made fresco paintings on their walls and other movable panels. They introduced foreshortening at the latter part of the period. The theme for their paintings was stories of gods and heroes. POTTERY: The Greeks made various vases and jars. These were used for the storing of water, oil, honey and corn. Figures on the vases were painted in black silhouette with clay slip. Silhouette (a drawing of the outlines or contours of objects and images while painting the form uniformly with black). The wares were then fired, smoothened and painted in either geometric patterns, figures of animals, human beings, gods or plants. The colours used included black, red, orange and cream.

Examples of Vases and Jars Page 126

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These foreign exchanges help in catering for several thousands of Ghanaians. It also ensures the development and provision of social amenities for the country.

Paintings of nude figures at the beach

iv. Promotion of Ghanaian Culture The various sites where tourists visit in the country are all historical and cultural sites. They educate the tourists about the rich Ghanaian cultural heritage such as our historical leaders and events, religion, norms and values etc. as a people. The artefacts that they purchase from artists also portray our culture through the use of visual images and symbols. This ensures the promotion, sustenance and transmission of the Ghanaian culture to various countries of the world.

Canoes at the sea

ARCHITECTURE IN THE ARCHAIC PERIOD MATERIALS: They used wood, mud-brick and marble for their architectural structures. FUNCTIONS: They used some as shelter in which they lived. Others were built to house their gods, serving as temples. However, worship of the gods was carried out outside the temple. The Greeks built stadiums for athletic contests and theatres for theatrical performances. STYLE: Colour was used in pecking out details of their building. The design of the buildings was rectangular in form with the foundation of three steps with colours either at the ends or all around the porch (A structure attached to the exterior of a building often forming a covered entrance). The style used for the construction of the temples was the DORIC style named after the Doric tribe to which the Spartans (Residents of Sparta, An ancient Greek city famed for military prowess) belonged. Blue and Red were mostly used for painting their buildings. Other colours like yellow, green, black, gildings (gold) were rarely used. The unpainted parts were waxed to improve their surface quality.

v. Promotion of friendship and cordial relations The use of art in the promotion of the tourism industry in Ghana also enhances the friendship that exists between Ghana and other countries of the world. Through the countless artefacts that the tourist purchase and send to their various countries, they come to appreciate and understand the culture of Ghanaians. This appreciation in turn builds and strengthens the friendship ties that Ghanaians have with these foreign lands opening several business transactions and avenues for the country. vi. Provision of employable Skills Works of art have offered numerous employable skills to Ghanaians in the tourism industry. Both old and young Ghanaians acquire skills that can help them to gain employment easily in firms and industries through the art productions. These individuals now have skills that they can work with to cater for themselves without being a burden to the state or resorting to any social vice. vii. Reduction of Poverty The poverty rate in the country is really lowered due to the artefacts produced for the tourism market. The income generated by artists, district assemblies and the Government has really decreased the poverty ratio in the country. Today, millions of Ghanaians have been freed of the stings of poverty due to the transactions in artefacts that they do in the tourism industry. It is an undeniable truth that art has raised, promoted and contributed significantly to the sustenance and advancement of the tourism industry in Ghana.

Temple of Zeus

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With these productions of the above discussed art forms, we can confidently say that Ghanaian artists have contributed significantly to the promotion, preservation and transmission the Ghanaian culture to meet the demands of tourists. The Role and Contribution of Art to the development of tourism in Ghana

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CLASSICAL PERIOD This is the second period in Greek art history. It spans between 480BC and 323BC. The term ‘classical’ means ‘high excellence’ or ‘first class’. The works produced in this period are marked by a high degree of creativity and skills. Greek art reached its greatest peak in this period.

The ongoing discussion is pointing out the distinctive role and contribution of art to the development of the tourism industry. The works of art produced by Ghanaian artists have developed the tourism industry in the following ways:

SCULPTURE IN THE CLASSICAL PERIOD MATERIALS: The sculptors in this period still used marble as the major material in addition to bronze, ivory and gold.

i. Provision of employment for retailers, revenue collectors, service providers etc. ii. Generating revenue for the district assemblies. iii. Attraction of foreign exchange. iv. Promotion of Ghanaian culture. v. Promotion of friendship and cordial relations vi. Provision of employable skills. vii. Reduction of poverty.

STYLE: The lost wax technique also referred to as ‘Cire Perdue’ or ‘open hearth’ was used for their sculptural works. In this technique, the sculptor models his figure in wax. It is then covered with clay to form a mould. The wax is melted out. Metal in a molten or liquid state is poured into the hollow part created to take the form of the mould. It is left to harden or dry. The clay is finally broken away leaving the finished work in metal.

i. Provision of Employment The works of Ghanaian artists have provided employment for countless Ghanaians via the tourism industry. For instance, retailers who purchase the works from artists and sell them to the tourists earn money in terms of profits gained to fend for themselves and their families. Service providers earn a living through the discharge of various duties to the tourists in their lodging, feeding etc. while the work of revenue collectors wouldn’t have been necessary if these tourist sites were not available as well as works of art were not produced. Most of these revenue or tax collectors gained their employment as a result of these tourism attractions.

CHARACTERISTICS: Sculpture in this period was marked by flexibility and a whole-hearted exploration of the representation of movement. Critical observation and the study of human anatomy resulted in the production of sculptural figures in total realism and in their correct proportions. ‘The discus thrower’ (Diskobolos) made with marble by Myron and ‘The Kritios boy’ by Kritios are examples. FUNCTIONS: They played the same roles as in the archaic period serving secular, religious and funerary roles.

ii. Generating Revenue for the District Assemblies The various district assemblies in the Metropolises in Ghana generate revenues from the fee charged per tourist who tour historic and cultural sites in their territory. Also, artists whose works are patronized by the tourists have their studios located in the district assembly. They also pay taxes to the various district assemblies. These revenue generated can be used by the district assemblies for developmental projects in their district such as construction of schools, hospitals etc. iii. Attraction of Foreign Exchange Foreign exchange is earned by artists, the communities and the nation as a whole when tourists visit the country to see these tourism sites and the works of artists. Page 307

Discus thrower

High Relief sculpture

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PAINTING AND POTTERY IN THE CLASSICAL PERIOD PANTING: Fresco paintings were still made. A renowned painter of the period called Polygnotos introduced several innovations into painting like the representation of emotion and character and the use of patterns in classical painting. Women were depicted in transparent draperies or clothes. Figures were placed in different levels in a landscape setting. White ground vase painting served funerary purposes.

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Wood Carving Products in wood carving such as the Akuaba doll, ceremonial swords, and miniatures of stools, masks and drums are readily purchased by tourists since they contain gems of our cultural beliefs and ideologies. Also, miniature sculptural figures of Ghanaian women undertaking some of their everyday activities are sculpted in wood and sold to tourists to earn foreign exchange. Coffin production is also a big business for coffin makers especially those at Teshie-Nungua in Accra. The coffins that they produce take the shapes of various objects and items such as stools, cars, planes, animals etc. This has been an avenue for tourist attraction earning some revenue for the coffin makers and the nation as a whole. Leather Articles Leather products like the indigenous sandals called Ahenema is highly purchased by tourists. Other leather articles like hats, necklaces, belts and bags are equally patronized by tourists. Leather plaques and relief patterned designs are sold to tourists.

Painting in the Classical Period POTTERY: The shapes, designs and colours for vases were greatly improved. They were more noticeable in the proportions and the way the handles were made.

Painting Indigenous and contemporary Ghanaian ways of life are popular themes painted on canvas, paper etc. in bright colours. Sometimes proverbial expressions are rendered in painting in interesting compositions on surfaces of materials. These paintings are sold at hotels, cultural centres and other attractive locations. They are of high value to tourists who purchase them. Historical themes and cultural festivals or events are portrayed in mosaic, collage and marquetry on surfaces to serve as wall hangings. They attract foreign exchange for artists and the country as a whole. Bead making and Jewellery This is an important craft among the Krobos in the Eastern region of Ghana. Local beads are produced in ceramic moulds in variety of materials such as glass and threaded in the form of necklaces, bracelets, wristlets etc. Jewellery items produced in Ghana include casted pendants of adinkra symbols and proverbial symbols in human and animal forms in gold, silver, bronze and other precious stones, rings, bangles, earrings etc. are highly patronized by tourists.

Pottery in the Classical Period ARCHITECTURE IN THE CLASSICAL PERIOD Sculptural figures and columns were added to the architectural structures. Apart from the Doric style, Ionic and Corinthian styles were also used for their architectural structures. The Corinthian style invented in the rich city of Corinth in 420BC was the most elegant in design. Page 129

Pottery and Ceramics Works of pottery and ceramics are the taste of tourists who export numerous of these wares to their homelands. These pottery and ceramic pieces have incised or embossed symbolic Adinkra patterns on their surfaces. Also, clay plaques, wall vases and wall hangings are also well patronized by tourists. Page 306

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Upper East Upper West

Brong Ahafo Northern


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Posuban Shrine, Fort St. Jago Paga Slave Village, Crocodile Pond, Navrongo Church Wa Naa’s Palace, Wechiau Hippo Sanctuary, Mystery Stone, Larabanga Mosque, Mole National Park Kintampo Falls, Boubeng Fiema Monkey Sanctuary Salaga Slave Market

These natural habitats attract good revenue for the country. However, it is the field of art particularly the genius works of both amateur and skilled Ghanaian artists that has really boomed the tourism industry in Ghana. It is their inspirational works of these artists that portray the rich Ghanaian culture that wows the world and make them walk on the Ghanaian soil. In fact, all the works produced are proudly Ghanaian because the Ghanaian artists use symbols, proverbial patterns and signs that vividly paint our cultural identity, norms and values. Some of the artifacts include woven, dyed, printed, painted and embroidered fabrics, wood carvings, leather articles, paintings, collage, marquetry, beads, jewellery, pottery, Antique works etc. Textiles There are numerous Ghanaian textile products that attract tourists into the country. These include the colourfully patterned Kente woven cloth. Each of the weave patterns of the Kente cloth carries words of wisdom that is part of the Ghanaian cultural heritage. Whether in stoles, ties or clothes, this Ghanaian cloth is well patronized by foreigners. No wonder the kente weaving villages like Bonwire, Wono Adanwomaso, Asonomaso, Ntonso, Agotime Kpetoe, Adidome and Keta are occupied by tourists. The Adinkra patterned clothes usually worn primarily on mourning occasions and also joyous seasons have symbolic meanings which embody the values, ideas and norms highly recognized in the Ghanaian community. Thousands of tourists patronize the purchase of the Adinkra clothes which is now a big tourist market. There is also the hand spun Fugu and Batakari clothes from Bolgatanga in the Northern region which has caught the sight of tourists for decades now. The tie-dye and batik clothes, as well as painted and embroidered fabrics with symbolic patterns which are normally sewn into fancy clothes are purchased by tourists who tour the various textile production sites in Ghana.

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Temple in the Corinthian style

HELLENISTIC PERIOD This is the third and last period of ancient Greek art history which started in 323BC and ended in 27BC. The Hellenistic period also referred to as ‘the age of Alexander’ is noted for the high degree of artistic expression with great mastery. The term ‘Hellenistic’ refers to the arts done under Greek influence over the countries in the Mediterranean during the reign of Alexander the Great. Within the cultural centres of the Hellenistic world, several academies arose which engaged in serious analysis of a wide range of fields including arts, literature and medicine. Canons (A body of rules or principles generally established as valid and fundamental in a field of art or philosophy) were developed to judge works of art. This led to a heightened interest in systems of proportions in areas such as sculpture, painting and architecture. SCULPTURE IN THE HELLENISTIC PERIOD Sculpture in this period is marked by expression and movement. Sculptors produced statues that expressed emotions and explored three dimensional movements. One of the earliest developments in sculpture in this period was a high interest in portraiture. Individual likeness was absent in both the archaic and classical sculpture. Several portraits of Alexander the great was sculpted by Lysippos. Other sculpted portrait heads include that of Delos, a famous trader. CHARACTERISTICS: Works were characterized by realism, extreme emotions, extravagant gestures, musculature and dramatic presentations of forms. An example is the drunken old woman by Myron Thebes who produced it at Pergamon.

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GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR S.H.S. UNIT FOUR ART AND TOURISM

Specific Objectives: The student will be able to: 4.4.1 identify some tourist sites and discuss the contribution of art to the development of tourism. Tourism is a travel meant for recreational, leisure, or business purposes. The World Tourism Organization defines tourists as people “traveling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes. In Ghana, tourism has become a major socio-economic activity and one of the most important and fastest growing sectors of the Ghanaian economy. There are interesting sites in all the ten regions of Ghana where tourists from the various parts of the world usually troop to Ghana to see. These places have historic and cultural significance linked to the Ghanaian community. Some of these places that attract tourism revenue for the country are listed below.

Sculpture in the Hellenistic Period PAINTING IN THE HELLENISTIC PERIOD STYLE/TECHNIQUE: Wall paintings flourished in this period especially in landscape settings. Techniques such as shading (the creation of volume by means of contrasting light and shade) and perspective were employed.

REGION Asante

MEDIUM USED: Bright colours were used for their wall paintings. THEME/SUBJECT: The themes for their paintings were based on simple country life in ancient Greece such as the tending of sheep, funerary observances etc. Victories of Alexander the Great over his enemies were also depicted in paintings.

Greater Accra

Volta

Eastern Western Central Painting in the Hellenistic Period Page 131

TOURIST SITE Okomfo Anokye Sword Site, Lake Bosomtwe, Kumasi Fort, Cultural Crafts Centre, Bonwire Kente Centres, Ahwiaa wood carving village, Pankrono Pottery, Kumasi Central Market, Manhyia Palace Christiansburg Castle, Kwame Nkrumah Memorial Park, Independence Square, Independence Arch, National Museum Digya National Park, Wli waterfalls, Tagbo falls, Tafi Atome, Amedzofe, Keta Lagoon, Lake Volta, Akosombo dam, Xavi (Birds) Aburi Botanical Gardens, Shai Nature Reserve Ankasa National Park, Village on stilts (Nzulezu) Wassa Domama, Kakum National Park, Cape Three Point, Cape coast Castle, West Africa Historical Museum, Page 304

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5. The arrow- This is a symbol composed of an arrow with an arrow head attached to both end of it and a cord wound loosely around the stem. This is called Akosaasan, meaning ‘go into battle and return victorious’. It is a symbol of protection and safety. 6. The Star- The star serves as a guide to fishermen when they lose their way at sea at night. It is the light of the stars that help them find their way back home. The star is therefore a symbol of hope.

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ARCHITECTURE IN THE HELLENISTIC PERIOD Great temple structures of gods were constructed during this period with large statues in the form of animals like lions placed at the entrances. An example is the Temple of Apollo. The ground plan and design of this great temple was established by famous Hellenistic architects Painios and Daphnis. Mausoleums were built to remember Mausolus who was the leader of Asia Minor. The old Doric style was rejected by architects of this period.

7. The Heart- It is a very important organ of the body. It gives life and it’s very delicate. Anything connected to the heart has to be handled patiently and with the greatest care. The heart is therefore a symbol of patience or tolerance. 8. The Elephant- This animal is the largest in the forest. It symbolizes greatness and royalty. It is used to show the greatness of a particular fishing group that has the image of the animal carved and painted on their canoes.

Emblems

Greek Temple

An emblem is an object that symbolise the ideals, beliefs, and concepts of a group or association. Objects used or adopted by institutions and organisations as an emblem can be animate or animate. Examples include animals, plants, umbrellas, broom, etc. Usually, the object adopted as an emblem has some traits or attributes that reflect the goals, beliefs and aspirations of the group or association. Various groups use emblems as a form of identification. For instance, political organisations like the New Patriotic Party uses the elephant as an emblem to identify their party whilst the National Democratic Congress has adopted the umbrella as an emblem for identification. Market groups and associations, fishing groups, football clubs, corporate institutions and bodies likewise use emblems as a form of identification. Emblems also symbolise the ideals of the group or association. A powerful fishing group may use an elephant to show how mighty and strong their group is. Kumasi Asante Kotoko has adopted the porcupine as an emblem because of the unending fighting spirit of the animal which reflects the club’s determination.

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Greek Theatre

ORIENTAL ART Orientals refer to countries located in the far Eastern parts of Asia including countries like China, Japan, India and Korea. The cultures and arts of these people are greatly influenced by their religious beliefs. The major religions in these areas include Buddhism (founded by Prince Siddhartha Gautama later called Buddha‘The awakened or enlightened one’) Hinduism (no founder but three popular deities are worshipped namely Shiva, Vishnu and Devi), Jainism (Founded by Mahavira who was considered a jina or saint) and other forms of Islamic religion. INDIAN ART Indian art began in 3000BC and has flourished till date with great improvements. BELIEFS: The above stated beliefs all influenced the arts of the Indians. However, the major religion that exerted great influence on Indian art is Buddhism thus the worship of the god, Buddha. They also believed in life after death with the understanding that anything one does in the physical world will determine his destiny in the metaphysical (spiritual) world. Also, it was believed that the soul of each human being passes from one body to another. Page 132

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CULTURE: The Indians are famed for their long tradition for music and dance as well as jewellery for personal adornment. ART FORMS: The Indians practiced various art forms such as sculpture, architecture, painting and textiles. • SCULPTURE: Figures of Buddha and other gods like Shiva were carved, modeled or casted. Buddha was represented in different postures such as seating or standing. However, the seated figures which portrays him in his usual meditation or teaching mood domineers. His legs are crossed with his hands folded in his lap with his eyes looking down. At either sides of his throne were sculpted lions which were believed to protect sacred personages. Popular episodes of the life and death of Buddha is represented in relief carvings. Three dimensional figures of Shiva portrayed as ‘the lord of dance’ and also as ‘the lord of pity’ were sculpted.

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one’s possession, it is the choice of the owner to either fry or roast it. The fish cannot do anything about the choice of its owner but just to accept it in good faith. The mud fish in this case symbolizes the need to adapt oneself to diverse situations. 2. The Dove- This is the white bird portrayed in the eve of Jesus’ baptism on the Jordan River. It is a very peaceful animal. It is a symbol of the presence of the spirit of God and thus of hope to be successful in one’s endeavour. Therefore, the dove is a symbol of peace and hope. This explains why at the funeral rites of the late former president of Ghana Professor Evans Atta Fiifi Mills, doves were flown all over in the sky because he was acclaimed as an ‘Asomdwoe hene’ (King of Peace). Canoe Symbols These are the symbols found on canoes often carved and painted. The canoe symbols have proverbial meanings. Most of them are words of advice and caution to fishermen. Some also unveils the philosophies, beliefs, social values and concepts of the society. Examples of canoe symbols and their meanings are discussed below. 1. The Snake and Fish- These two animals are always represented together at the stems of the canoes. Sometimes, the design is represented by a snake-looking fish called the ‘Dane woakyi kofa’. This literally means ‘turn round and take’. The snake is said to be waiting for food and the fish is the food which may come in any direction. The snake is ever ready to pounce and catch the fish from any direction. The design symbolizes the cunning and crafty ways of fishermen. It also portrays their readiness to work at any time.

• PAINTING: The Indians decorated the interiors and exteriors of their temples in fresco paintings. The themes of their paintings included various themes of Buddha such as Buddha teaching the four noble truths commonly referred to as Dharma-1. Life is suffering 2.caused by desire 3.overcome desire by conquering desire 4. Pursue an upright life. The story about Buddha’s birth which was a miracle was depicted in their landscape paintings as well as he meditating under the Bodhi tree. Royal symbols that honor Buddha were also painted on the walls of the temples dedicated to him. Also, portraits of women raided in beautiful draperies were also painted. Scenes depicting the everyday life activities of the Indians such as the performance of household chores were also an important theme for their paintings. Page 133

2. The Anchor- This is the device used in keeping canoes from being swept away by the current or waves of the sea or the river. The anchor is therefore a symbol of stability. 3. The Crab- The crab may be represented alone or together with a bird. This symbolizes the fact that a crab does not give birth to a bird but always gives birth to its kind thus a crab. It shows that the behavior of children reflect their parents attitudes and lifestyles. 4. The Seagull Bird- This bird usually shows up at a particular spot on the river or sea where there is the presence of fish. The seagull bird therefore directs fishermen to fertile grounds for fishing. It is therefore a symbol of hope.

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OWUO ATWEDEE

“the ladder of death”

Mortality

PEMPAMSIE

“sew in readiness”

readiness, steadfastness

SANKOFA

“return and get it”

learn from the past

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Indian Paintings SANKOFA

(alternate version)

SESA WO SUBAN

“I change or transform my life”

Transformation

TAMFO BEBRE

“the enemy will stew in his own juice”

Jealousy

WAWA ABA

“seed of the wawa tree”

hardiness, toughness, perseverance

WOFORO DUA PA A

“when you climb a good tree”

support, cooperation

“if your hands are in the dish”

democracy, pluralism

WO NSA DA MU A YENNI NNYA WO

Jewellery symbols The designs or symbols on jewellery products such as necklaces, rings, wristlets, anklets, bracelets etc. sometimes have symbolic meanings. Examples of such symbolic objects and animals are looked into below. 1. The Mud Fish- The usual place for the mud fish is in the water. Therefore if one manages to catch and possess it, the mud fish becomes his sole property. For this reason, the mud fish symbolizes total ownership. If the mud fish is in the Page 301

• TEXTILES: The Indians engaged in weaving by the use of cotton. The woven materials were either painted with the hand or printed as a form of decoration. They were used as clothes, turbans (A traditional headdress consisting of a long scarf wrapped around the head), wall hangings for decorating temples, bed sheets etc.

Indian Textiles • ARCHITECTURE: The Indians built temples of worship, Monasteries and assembly halls. The first type of temples which were constructed from stone and wood were used for protecting their sacred places. Rock-out architectural structures fashioned from the sides of cliffs were constructed. Some were constructed by the use of rocks. An example is the Great Stupa at Sanchi which was a Buddhist monastery. The structure consists of Viharas (celled structures where monks lived), Stupas (hemispherical monuments containing the relics of Buddha and other important monks), Chaityas (buildings that protects the stupas) and temples for sheltering images.

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NSOROMMA

“child of the heavens”

Guardianship

NYAME BIRIBI WO SORO

“God is in the heavens”

Hope

NYAME NNWU NA MAWU

“God never dies, therefore I cannot die”

life after death

NYAME NTI

“by God’s grace”

faith & trust in God

NYAME YE OHENE

“God is King”

majesty and supremacy of God

NYANSAPO

“wisdom knot”

wisdom, ingenuity, intelligence and patience

ODO NNYEW FIE KWAN

“love never loses its way home”

power of love

OKODEE MMOWERE

“talons of the eagle”

bravery, strength

ONYANKOPON ADOM NTI BIRIBIARA BEYE YIE

“By God’s grace, all will be well”

hope, providence, faith

OSRAM NE NSOROMMA

“the moon and the star”

love, faithfulness, harmony

OWO FORO ADOBE

“snake climbing the raffia tree”

steadfastness, prudence, diligence

Indian Architecture • METAL ARTS: Metal arts in the form of jewellery were produced for personal adornment in bronze, silver and other precious metals.

CHINESE ART This refers to the arts made by the Chinese. Their arts and culture is extraordinary and very rich dating back as far as 5000 B.C. Though their arts are among the oldest in the world, they are still flourishing with an easy flow of artistic forms for more than 3000 years. Their cultural unity has made their arts to survive till now. BELIEFS: The main belief of the Chinese was the belief in life after death. Owing to this, they practiced ancestral veneration. They highly valued their dead loved ones and were much concerned about their welfare. Libations were normally poured and prayers said to seek their protection and support. Departed kings and warriors were buried in highly complex, artistic and elegant tombs which were full of several treasures like bronze and ceramic vessels made of porcelain and ritual jades. They performed costly and complex funeral rites. They also believed in fortune telling and thus engaged in divination practices.

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MMERE DANE

“time changes”

change, life’s dynamics

MMUSUYIDEE

“that which removes ill luck”

good fortune, sanctity

MPATAPO

“knot of reconciliation”

peacemaking, reconciliation

MPUANNUM

“five tufts” (of hair)

priestly office, loyalty, adroitness

NEA ONNIM NO SUA A, OHU

“he who does not know can know from learning”

knowledge, lifelong education

NEA OPE SE OBEDI HENE

“he who wants to be king”

service, leadership

NKONSONKONSON

“chain links”

unity, human relations

NYAME DUA

“tree of god”

God’s protection and presence

NKYIMU

the crossed divisions made on adinkra cloth before printing

skillfulness, precision

NKYINKYIM

“twisted patterns”

initiative, dynamism, versatility

NSAA

type of hand-woven cloth

excellence, genuineness, authenticity

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ARTFORMS: The Chinese practiced several forms of art such as pottery, sculpture, graphics, architecture, painting and textiles. POTTERY AND CERAMICS: The Chinese have a very long tradition for the production of high quality pottery and ceramic wares in great variety which is unmatched. The potters had a flair for shaping carefully prepared and kneaded clay into diverse, often dramatic and elegant vessel forms. Their vessels, jars and pots were of several designs like human figures, animals like birds and monsters. The potters used clay coloured by mineral impurities especially iron compounds ranging from yellow to dark reddish brown applied in a slip form for their pottery productions. After firing, to obtain a hard, glossy and glasslike surface for their pottery wares, their surfaces were coated with a glaze (a finely ground mixture of minerals). Casted bronze and jade vessels were produced. They used them as containers for ritual offerings in divination ceremonies. The pottery wares were used for storing cereals, oil, water and other produce from their farming activities. Others were used for pouring libation and in ancestral rites.

SCULPTURE: The sculptors produced several sculptural forms in wood, stone, bronze, jade, clay, ivory and porcelain finished by coatings in lacquer. Life-size figures of animals like lions, and monsters like chimera (fire-breathing female monster with a lion’s head and a goat’s body and a serpent’s tail; daughter of Typhon), and human figures like Emperors and warriors were produced in sculpture. Relief carvings showing the procession of horsemen and chariots were produced. Chinese artists used the low-fire technique to produce terracotta sculptures. Images of Buddha were sculpted because Buddhism was imported to China from India. The sculptural figures were used in rituals and ceremonies of the dead. Some were used to remember great warriors and emperors who were honored as ancestors. Others like Buddha images were used in religious ceremonies. Page 136

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PAINTING: The Chinese engaged mostly in landscape paintings of the sky, mountains, lakes with boats, rivers, trees etc. Mythical beings, dragons and rabbits were painted. Most Chinese paintings were monochromatic. Because Buddhist influence remained strong, images of Buddha were painted. The painters employed the picture making technique known as ‘washing’ for their paintings in inks on supports such as paper, silk and on walls. The inks were applied with brushes. Chinese paintings are characterized by strong and well defined brush strokes that suggest liveliness and movement. An example of a Chinese painting is the work entitled “Twelve views from a Thatched Cottage” by Xia Gui. The paintings were used as decoration in the interiors of temples of worship. Others were used as funeral banners for funeral ceremonies.

GRAPHICS: The Chinese also practiced a form of stylistic handwriting known as calligraphy. The term calligraphy means “beautiful handwriting”. The writings were constructed by the use of fine brushes. The writings were found on oracle bones used by the emperor in the Shang dynasty to foretell future events. Upon its discovery, it was used in the writing of official documents on scrolls of paper. Page 137

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FOFO

“a yellow-flowered plant”

jealousy, envy

FUNTUNFUNEFU DENKYEMFUNEFU

“Siamese crocodiles”

democracy, unity in diversity

GYE NYAME

“except for God”

supremacy of God

HWEMUDUA

“measuring stick”

examination, quality control

HYE WONHYE

“that which cannot be burnt”

imperishability, endurance

KETE PA

“good bed”

good marriage

KINTINKANTAN

“puffed up extravagance”

arrogance, extravagance

KWATAKYE ATIKO

“hairstyle of Kwatakye, a war hero”

bravery, valor

MATE MASIE

“what I hear, I keep”

wisdom, knowledge, prudence

ME WARE WO

“I shall marry you”

commitment, perseverance

MFRAMADAN

“wind-resistant house”

fortitude, preparedness

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OBI NKA BI

“no one should bite the other”

peace, harmony

BOA ME NA ME MMOA WO

“help me and let me help you”

cooperation, interdependence

DAME-DAME

name of a board game

intelligence, ingenuity

DENKYEM

“crocodile”

Adaptability

DUAFE

“wooden comb”

beauty, hygiene, feminine qualities

DWENNIMMEN

“ram’s horns”

humility and strength

EBAN

“fence”

love, safety, security

EPA

“handcuffs”

law, justice, slavery

ESE NE TEKREMA

“the teeth and the tongue”

friendship, interdependence

FAWOHODIE

“independence”

independence, freedom, emancipation

FIHANKRA

“house/compound”

security, safety

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ARCHITECTURE: The Chinese used mainly wood and stone in the construction of their architectural structures. Their buildings consisted of a rectangular hall covered by a pitched roof with projecting edges. The colours of Chinese buildings were predominantly red, yellow and white. The builders painted or lacquered the surfaces to protect the timber (wood) from decaying as well as aesthetic and spiritual effects. Individual buildings that served as shelter were simple in their construction. Their buildings could be easily dismantled, moved to another site or simply replaced. This was because of the numerous wars, fires and earthquakes. The Chinese adopted the ‘Stupa’ of the Indians as temples. Their temples had multi towers with many roofs called ‘pagodas’.

Chinese Architecture TEXTILES: The Chinese produced both simple and intricate textiles from cotton, satin and especially silk. The common people wore simple cotton dresses and canvas shoes while the rich and famous wore the fine complex apparels. Curtains and bedspreads were produced from these textile materials and used for decorating the interiors of houses and temples. Page 138

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GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR S.H.S. ADINKRA CLOTH SYMBOLS

NAME OF ADINKRA SYMBOL

TRANSLITERATION

SYMBOLIC MEANING

ADINKRAHENE

“chief of adinkra symbols”

greatness, charisma, leadership

AKOBEN

“war horn”

vigilance, wariness

AKOFENA

“sword of war”

courage, valor

AKOKONAN

“the leg of a hen”

mercy, nurturing

AKOMA

“the heart”

patience & tolerance

AKOMA NTOASO

“linked hearts”

understanding, agreement

ANANSE NTENTAN

“spider’s web”

wisdom, creativity

ASASE YE DURU

“the Earth has weight”

divinity of Mother Earth

AYA

“fern”

endurance, resourcefulness

BESE SAKA

“sack of cola nuts”

affluence, abundance, unity

Chinese Textiles

JAPANESE ART The arts, religion and culture of the Japanese reflect strong Chinese influences. Buddhism made significant influence on Japanese art and culture. However, they were more active, vigorous and warlike. This was reflected in their arts making them more dramatic and vigorous. BELIEFS: Like their Chinese counterparts, the Japanese believed in life after death. ARTFORMS: The Chinese engaged in the production of various works of art as a result of their practice in architecture, painting, sculpture and pottery. ARCHITECTURE: The Japanese constructed many architectural structures in wood and stone with metal aspects. Temples of Buddha and monasteries were constructed. Unlike the Chinese, the Japanese buildings were single roofed. Theaters were built for theatrical performances.

Japanese Architecture Page 139

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•

Adwinasa (Adwin- skill, Asa-exhausted). This kente weave pattern means the kente weaver has used or employed all the skills and designs that he knows in the weaving of the cloth and has exhausted all of them. It is a very complex weave pattern which is very expensive. Therefore, important personalities and chiefs were allowed to wear this kente pattern.

•

Obo fa, dade fa (partly stone, partly metal). This kente weave pattern is worn for funeral ceremonies. It reminds members of the bereaved family and sympathizers that death is part of man (obo- we are dust) therefore we need to endure the loss of the loved one with a strong inner strength (dadelike metal).

•

Ehianaga (Ehiana-needed, ga- money). It means money is needed in the Ewe tongue. It is a very gorgeous type of kente weave among the Ewes. The name implies that to be able to purchase the kente cloth requires a great deal of money. It is worn by the rich and famous in the society.

•

Lorlofukpekpe (lorlor- love, fukpekpe- turned into suffering). This kente weave pattern serves as a reminder to the wearer and onlookers that one’s expectations may not always be fulfilled and that one may face disappointment or heartbreak from those he or she loves such as partners, friends and relatives.

•

Afiadeke Mefa o (Afiadeke- Nowhere, Mefa- cool). This kente pattern literally means ‘nowhere is cool’. It advices us that we need not crave for what other have and complain bitterly about our condition. It admonishes us to be content or appreciate who we are, what we have and the conditions that we find ourselves.

•

Fiawo Yome (Fiawo- king, Yome- second or next). This kente weave pattern means ‘next to kings or second to royals’. It is a very beautiful and expensive weave pattern. It is worn by important people in the society.

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SCULPTURE: The sculptural works of the Japanese emphasizes strength and virility (manliness). Colossal, demonic and warlike wooden Buddhist deities were sculpted.

Chinese Sculpture PAINTING: The Japanese produced various landscape paintings and paintings of individual portraiture. Portraits of Buddha were painted. Paper and silkscreens and inks were used in executing the paintings. The landscape paintings included flowers, animals etc. Colour printing and calligraphy on silk and other materials were practiced by the Japanese.

Japanese Painting POTTERY: Pottery wares in the form of jars, vessels, coolers etc. used for storing items were produced by the Japanese. However, they bore traits of Chinese influence.The Japanese also practiced theater arts and the production of literary works.

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OCEANIC ART This refers to the arts done by residents in various islands located in and around the Pacific Ocean. The Pacific Ocean comprises of diverse habitats and cultures. A French explorer by name Jules Sébastien César proposed the division of the Pacific into major regions based on their geographical, racial, and language distinctions. It was divided into three major regions namely Melanesia, Polynesia and Micronesia. In our discussion, we will focus on the arts of the first two regions which are requirements for this level’s examination. MELANESIAN ART GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION: Melanesia is a fusion of two words ‘Mela’ which means ‘black’ and ‘nesia’ which means ‘islands’. Melanesia means ‘black islands’. It refers to the arts done by the black people in islands such as New Guinea, the dominant island, New Britain, Solomon’s island, New Caledonia, New Ireland and Fiji all in the Pacific Ocean. Their arts dates back to either 2000 BC or 3000 BC yet their arts have seen only few changes in this modern age. CULTURE: Political powers were vested in the hands of groups of elderly men and in some areas women. These elders usually referred to as ‘Big men’ handled the affairs of the people in a communal fashion. Such elders are renowned for their political, historical, economic and warrior skills. Power and position was earned through the acquisition of knowledge that allows one to advance in the society. This knowledge is imparted through the commemoration of several festivals and initiation rites during which various art forms are used. BELIEFS: The people believed in life after death. They also believed that all activities of this life are controlled by ancestral spirits. This includes agricultural activities like yam productions, fishing, hunting and trading of artifacts. Elaborate ancestral rites are performed to honour, praise and seek help from the ancestors. They were believed to facilitate the transition of the soul from the world of the living to the realm of the dead. ART FORMS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS The Melanesians engaged in many art forms such as sculpture, painting, pottery, architecture, and basketry.

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Textiles There are two major symbolic textile products in Ghana. These are Kente and Adinkra clothes. This section below discusses the symbolic patterns in the clothes and their philosophical meanings. Kente Cloth symbols There are basically five kente weave patterns on which the various complex and diverse patterns originate. These are Adwin, Akyem, Ahwepan or Hweepan, Nkyeretire or Nkyereano and Faprenu. •

The Adwin kente pattern is a design weave pattern which very beautiful. It is noted for its complex designs hence the name Adwin (skill). It requires dexterity or great skill on the part of the weaver to be able to come out with this weave pattern.

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The Akyem kente pattern is noted for its colourful nature. It was named after the local bird with different coloured feathers called Akyem by the Asantes of Ghana. Due to the diversity in its colours, it is expensive and is worn by the wealthy in the society.

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The Ahwepan or Hweepan kente pattern has no design in it hence the name ‘hwee’ meaning ‘nothing’. It is the easiest of all the weave patterns. No wonder it is woven by amateurs and new apprentices.

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The Nkyeretire or Nkyereano kente pattern has the designs appearing only at the edges (‘tire’or ‘ano’) of the woven cloth with the middle of the cloth with no designs.

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The Faprenu kente pattern has two or double (prenu) warp sheets woven together with one weft sheet. It is very compact, strong and durable. This is why it was worn by important personalities in the indigenous Ghanaian society.

There are several other designs from which these basic kente weaves are woven. Some of these designed kente weave patterns are discussed below. •

Kyeretwie (kyere- capture, twie- leopard). This kente weave pattern means one’s ability to capture a live leopard. Due to the fact that it is a very painstaking task as such, this kente pattern is associated with power, might and bravery. Its wearer was viewed as such. Therefore, this kente pattern was reserved and restricted for great chiefs. Page 294

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For example, the doll is used as a charm in searching for missing children. In times past, it was believed that dwarfs stole children. Therefore to get them back, a doll that is an exact replica of the missing child is carved and placed at the forest entrance. The dwarfs would mistakenly pick the doll and release the child in their possession. Among some ethnic societies like the Anglos of Southern Volta region, a wooden doll is carved and placed in the coffin of a dead twin to prevent his soul from coming for his or her live twin. The Akuaba doll is also used for decoration of the interiors of rooms and offices.

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SCULPTURE: Male and female ancestral figures were sculpted and used in the mortuary and memorial rites of the dead in wood, clay and stone. Sometimes ancestors’ skulls were overmodelled with clay in a likeness of the deceased. The head of the carved figure may be made bigger to contain the skull of the deceased. These were used in the ancestral cults. Also, Ceremonial chairs, sacred flutes and masks made from soft wood, vegetable fibers and rattan were produced and worn by dancers during the ancestral cult (Tatanua masks) and initiation rites (Hevehe masks). Special yam masks were worn during the yam cult to petition the ancestors for a bumper harvest. Large carved slit-gongs were used as instruments for communication to the people and as voices of ancestral spirits in the initiation rites of young men. Canoe prows shaped like crocodiles with images of humans, birds and serpents were carved with spells invoked on them to ensure successful fishing and trading of Kula (white conus-shell arm ornaments). Bisj poles which were extremely long poles were carved from the trunk of the mangrove tree and used in head-hunting ceremonies.

Akuaba Doll Pottery The pottery wares produced in the Ghanaian society take the form of many shapes. The shapes range from Spherical/Circular shapes, Oval shapes, Half moon shapes etc. These shapes of the wares have symbolic interpretation sometimes in relation to their functions. 1. Spherical/Circular shaped pots- Spheres and circles represent the perfection of God. Attributes like purity, sacredness are associated with God. The spherical and circular pots are used for storing drinking water which comes from God and is usually pure. 2. Half/Crescent moon shaped pots- The crescent moon symbolizes the warmth and affection of a mother. Since mothers are those who prepare meals and wonderful dishes for the family, pots shaped in this manner is used for serving food. It is also used for storing pomades extensively used by all mothers in the Ghanaian society.

Melanesian Sculpture ARCHITECTURE: The people constructed massive men’s ceremonial houses that served as meeting houses for the local youth during initiation rites. Men’s discussions of community issues were carried out there. Communal meeting houses where the affairs of the community and among individuals are deliberated and settled were constructed.

3. Oval-Shaped Pots- Oval shape is a symbol of beauty and happiness. It is used for chores relating to cleaning to make items beautiful and clean. It is also used in keeping palm wine usually drank at joyous occasions and gatherings. Melanesian Architecture Page 293

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PAINTINGS: Masks were painted in various colours and they had symbolic meanings. For example, the Tatanua masks used in the funeral rites of the deceased were painted with black, white, yellow and red. These colours symbolize warfare, magic spells and violence. The interiors and exteriors of the ceremonial houses were lavishly painted with ancestral figures and animal forms which had spiritual charms. Body painting in the form of tattooing played a major part of their culture.

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umbrellas goes beyond that, they have symbolic meanings. The tops of these umbrellas are decorated with symbolic objects and figures. These symbols often show the nature of the chief or his clan or ethnic society that he emanates from. The symbols are normally carved in wood and plaited in gold and affixed at the tops of the umbrellas. Examples of symbols found on umbrella tops include: 1. A Lion- This signifies power and might of a particular king or his clan. 2. The horn of a deer or antelope- This indicates the fighting spirit of a particular clan and its chiefs. It shows that the members of the clan are always ready to wage war against its enemies.

GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION: Polynesia consists of various islands in the Pacific Ocean such as Hawaii, Easter islands, Tonga, Samoa, Tahiti, Marquesas Island and New Zealand. Polynesia is a fusion of two words ‘poly’ which means ‘many’ and ‘nesia’ which means ‘islands’. Polynesia means ‘many islands’. The Polynesians were skillful

Akuaba Dolls The Akuaba doll is a special doll cherished very much among the Ghanaian communities especially the Asantes. The Akuaba doll earned the name from an Asante’s woman called Akua who was barren and desperately needed a child. Due to her barrenness, she was branded as a witch by her neighbours accusing her of ‘eating’ (killing) all the children in her womb. Out of desperation, she consulted a local diviner for a child. The diviner after his consultations with the ancestors through some rituals asked Akua to commission a carver to carve a doll in the likeness of the child she dreams of having. She described vividly all the features she admires and desires to see in her would-be-child which reflected the Asante concept of beauty. Some rituals were performed on the doll and given to Akua. The story continues that Akua cared, carried and treated the wooden doll as if it were human. Soon, she became pregnant and bore a daughter exactly as the doll. Henceforth, all barren women were asked to go for a similar ‘Akua’ (The name of the barren woman) ‘ba’ (Child) doll. This explains why the doll was has being called Akuaba doll till date. The doll is however returned to the shrine as an offering after the safe delivery of the child. If the child passes on to the land of the dead, the doll will be kept by the mother as a memorial of the child. It is also worth knowing that the features of the doll have symbolic meanings. For instance, the culminated or exaggerated head of the doll symbolizes the seat of wisdom. The flat forehead is an Asante ideal of beauty. The entire body is in ovals and circles which are symbols of beauty in the Ghanaian community. The neck which should be in ringed in an odd manner is a symbol of beauty and prosperity. The textured marks or ‘scars’ that appears on the face especially the foreheads is for medicinal and spiritual protection against convulsions and evil forces. The Akuaba doll is carved from a hard wood called ‘Sese’. The carved doll is then blackened with a mixture of soot from the base of cooking pots and the albumen of raw eggs. As already pointed out, the doll was primarily used as a fertility doll to charge barren women with fertility powers. The doll also has others functions.

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Melanesian Paintings POTTERY: The Malenesians engaged in the production of a special type of pottery called Lapita which were elaborately decorated with incised and geometric patterns. These ceramic vessels were used in domestic chores such as storage of items and in keeping relics of ancestors during the ancestral cults.

Melanesian Pottery POLYNESIAN ART

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members and the president, members of the council of state concerning a matter before making a decision.

navigators (sailing masters). The Polynesian societies were ruled by kings, chiefs and ritual specialists.

3. The Chameleon- ‘Slow but sure in action’. The animal signifies patience and consistence.

OCCUPATION: The Polynesians were noted for specialization in various fields of work such as priesthood, sculpting, canoe making and building construction. Training in the form of apprenticeship was offered to trainees on the mastery ways of handling tools and materials. They were also instructed on the body of beliefs and ideologies that were linked to any of the artistic creations. This accounts for the high technical and aesthetic standards that are the hallmark of art works in Polynesia. Because of the social hierarchy that existed in Polynesia, art was associated with rank and power. Initiation rites were organized for the youth to usher them into adulthood.

4. A bird with the head turned backwards- The bird is made picking something from behind. Usually the Sankofa bird is represented. It indicates that it is not wrong or a taboo to return to fetch something that has been left or forgotten. It shows that we can always correct our mistakes when we notice them or are prompted. 5. The Crab- This teaches the fact that a crab always gives birth to its kind. This explains the fact that children often inherit the behavior of their parents. 6. A Snail and a tortoise (Represented alone or sometimes with a gun) – These animals are very peaceful. A representation of them symbolizes peace and harmony. The symbol indicates the fact that if there was only the snail and the tortoise, there will not be the need for war among neighbours. 7. Tortoise- When it is represented alone, it symbolizes independence and selfsufficiency. 8. Porcupine- This animal symbolizes warlike nature, always ready for war. 9. A Pineapple- This fruit reminds us that things should always be done at their right times. This is because the pineapple is plucked and eaten only when it is ripe, otherwise it tastes sour. It’s a word of caution to all that things done in a rush are often not done right.

Umbrella Tops Umbrellas are usually placed or hinged on important people such as chiefs, family heads and officials during state gatherings, durbars and festivals. Though the umbrella is primarily used for protection against bad weather condition, these Page 291

BELIEFS: The Polynesians believed in ancestors and therefore practiced ancestral veneration and the performance of extravagant funeral ceremonies. ARTFORMS: The Polynesians produced various forms of art such as painting, sculpture, textiles, architecture, feather work and pottery. PAINTINGS: Body painting in the form of tattooing was a prestigious art in Polynesia. It was an important art form for the Marquesan warriors because it was believed to offer spiritual protection of the individual. Nobles and warriors accumulated various patterns to help increase their status, mana or spiritual power and personal beauty. For full protection, the tattoo covered the entire body. The interiors and exteriors of both the ceremonial and communal meeting houses especially the rafters are painted in symbolic patterns in various colours serving both aesthetic and spiritual purposes.

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SCULPTURE: Images of deities usually referred to as fishermen gods and ancestors were carved in wood with multiple figures attached to their bodies. The ancestral figures probably represented clan and district ancestors who were revered and honored because of their protective and procreative powers. They played a central role in human fertility.

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3. The Eagle- It signifies greatness, superiority and determination to succeed.

Ceremonial Swords Polynesian Sculpture TEXTILES: The Polynesians are famed for the production of a decorated bark cloth called Tapa. It was produced from the inner bark of the paper-mulberry tree by the Polynesian women. Its production processes were complex and time consuming. It was used extensively for clothing and bedding. Large sheets of the tapa were and are still produced for exchange. It is used for wrapping objects and it is believed to bestow sanctity or holiness on the object. Some were also used for ceremonial or ritual purposes. These ones were dyed, painted, stenciled and sometimes perfumed. Bodies of high ranking deceased chiefs were traditionally wrapped in the tapa cloth.During funeral and marriage ceremonies, tapa exchanges form an integral part.

Spokesman staff A spokesman is the mediator between the chief and the people in the traditional council. In the Ghanaian society it is not proper for a chief to address his subjects directly and it is viewed as disrespect for a member of the society to address a chief directly. Therefore, the responsibility of a spokesman is to communicate the messages of the king to the people and vice versa. As a special sign or symbol denoting his office, the spokesman holds a special staff. The top of the staff have proverbial symbols which vary from one clan to the other. Most of the symbols at the top of the staffs take the form of human beings, animals and fruits. Animals or objects used as spokesman staff tops are usually totems of clans and families. A totem is an animal or object which has a strange association or special relationship with a group or clan. It is believed that the animal or object may have rendered a special help or assistance to the founding ancestor or ancestress of the clan that ensured the survival of the clan and its members. Usually, it is asserted that members of particular clan exhibit traits of the mythical animal that serves as its totem.Some of the symbols at the tops of the spokesman staff are explained below. 1. A hand holding an egg- This is a warning to those who are in authority in how they are supposed to exercise their authority. The symbol indicates that power is like an uncooked egg. When held too tightly, it breaks and when held too loosely too it may fall. Therefore, those in authority should not be too strict neither should they be too weak or lenient. Despite the fact that they have to be firm and consistent, they should at the same time be sympathetic. 2. Three heads carved together- This reminds us that one head cannot go into council, and that it is important to consult others before decisions are taken for the entire society. This discloses why a king usually consults his traditional council

Polynesian Textiles

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vi) Small square or rectangular holes- It signifies the justice and fairness of God in the society. The square shape has two equilibrium sides while the rectangular shape also has equilibrium or equal sides. This illustrates the fairness in the dealings and rule of God.

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ARCHITECTURE: Meeting houses and ceremonial houses were constructed by the Polynesians. There were carved relief panels along the walls of the buildings that depicted specific ancestors. Intricately painted shapes cover the rafters. They also built temples for their war gods and other deities.

vii) Base- It symbolises the support or stability of the earth. The earth supports life on it with its rich natural resources like plants, rivers, fruits, animals etc. which the society largely depends on it for its livelihood. The stable nature of the earth’s land mass enables all activities to be taken place. Female embrace (female warmth and influence in society)

Polynesian Architecture Male support and influence in society

Female children in society Presence and power of God in society

Male children in society

God’s justice and fairness

FEATHER WORK: Elegant feather cloaks were created for mainly men of high rank. Most of the cloaks were produced in Hawaii. Every aspect of the cloak reflected the status of the wearer. The materials used were extremely precious particularly the red and yellow feathers from the mamo birds. The cloak linked its owner to the gods. Aside offering spiritual protection of the gods to the wearer, their dense fibre base and feather matting provided physical protection.

Support of the earth

Ceremonial Swords These are specially carved or casted swords used for royal ceremonies. They are usually arranged in a semi-circular or horse-shoe formation before him. They serve various functions in the society. They signify the social standing of the clan, group or state in terms of strength, wealth and attitude. The ceremonial sword is an important symbol of statecraft. It has spiritual and political associations. They are used for ritual and festive events. It identifies kings and chiefs and distinct them from the other members of the society during state functions. They are used for swearing oaths during enstoolment. It is often presented to a retiring great warrior in the Ghanaian community to serve as recognition of his bravery, devotion and courage, thereby qualifying him as a warrior chief. The ceremonial sword also symbolise the safe passage during purification rites of chiefs and ancestral state stools and for display. In contemporary Ghana, the ceremonial swords are also used as symbols of ambassadorial rank. The ceremonial swords are usually decorated with animal motifs in gold which are symbolic. Examples of these symbolic animals and their philosophical meanings are outlined below.

Polynesian Feather work POTTERY: The Western part of Polynesia produced the Lapita pottery (ceramic vessels) for domestic, religious and spiritual uses in the temples, homes and ceremonial houses.

1. The Lion- It signifies strength, power and might. 2. The Crab- It signifies simplicity and peacefulness. Page 289

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LIKELY EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 1. Write short notes on each of the periods in Prehistoric Art. 2. Describe sympathetic magic and its relevance to the cave man. 3. Discuss how the cave man obtained the following provisions. a) Shelter b) Clothing c) Food d) Magic and Spiritual needs 4. a) Briefly explain these compositional techniques employed by the cave man: (i) Superposition (ii) Superimposition (iii) Juxtaposition b) Describe how the cave man obtained his tools and materials for his artwork. 5. Explain how the prehistoric man used art to satisfy his needs. 7. Using four examples justify the notion that the prehistoric man was a creative person. 8. Discuss how religious beliefs influenced the arts of the Egyptians. 9. State five (5) achievements of the ancient Egyptians. 10. Outline five (5) characteristics of Egyptian art. 11. Write briefly on the purpose and importance of Egyptian art. 12. Explain these terms in relation with Egyptian art. i) Mummy ii) Sphinx iii) Ka iv) Hieroglyphics v) Papyrus paper 13. a. What is ‘Art for eternity’? b. How did a death cult influence Egyptian Art? c. Why is Egyptian art said to be ‘Art for eternity’? 14. Write on the major contributions of Greek Art 15. (a) Mention four (4) areas of development in ancient Greek Art (b) Describe how the forms of art you mentioned in (a) were used in everyday life of the Greeks 16. (a) Explain what is meant by the term “Renaissance”. (a)Discuss the major contributions of Renaissance to the development of art. 17. Write short notes on the arts of one of the following people. (a) Japanese art (ii) Indian art (iii) Chinese art 18. Write short notes on the arts of the Polynesians. Your answer should include: definition, geographical location, and four (4) examples of their art forms. 19. Discuss the foreign influence on Egyptian Art. 20. (a) What is the ‘Venus of Willendorf’? (b) Give reasons why it was called a Venus. (c) Describe the Venus of Willendorf.

Stools The stool is the central symbol of Akan politics. It is the repository of all ancient traditions and the spirits of the ancestors. It is believed to symbolize the soul of the society. It serves as a symbolic link between the common people in the society and their leader who may be a king or chief. The Golden stool is said to contain the spirit of the Asante nation. It is used as a symbol of unification of many Akan people under the Asante kingdom. The parts or components of the stool represent the elements that make up a perfect society. The female stool which is believed to be the first stool designed and produced in the Ghanaian society is the best example of a stool that makes up a perfect society. Therefore, our discussion will delve into the philosophical meanings behind each of the components or design parts of the female stool.

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i) Top Arc of the stool which is shaped like the crescent or half moon- It symbolises the loving embrace of a mother. It is also a symbol of motherly care and friendship. It also represents the warmth of the female influence in the Ghanaian society. Generally, females are viewed as comforters in times of distress. ii) The four rectangular shaped pillars- It symbolises the male power, strength, good fortune and dependence on men in the society. Since the collapse or survival of a building or architectural structure depends on its pillars, if society will progress or retrogress depends largely on the males in the society who are heads of the countless families that make up a society. Society depends on its male members for subsistence, growth and protection. iii) Triangular pointed projections- It represents the male children in the society. They are usually in an odd number. Males have angular, pointed bodies. iv) Rounded projections- It represents the female children in the society. They are usually in an odd number. Females have round and graceful bodies. The way both the triangular projections (male children) and the rounded projections (female children) are attached to the pillars (men-fathers) which holds the top arc (females-mothers) reflects how children depends on their parents for livelihood, protection and care. v) The Strong Central pillar- It symbolises the presence and power of God in the society. Its central position explains the pivotal role of God in the success of all activities undertaken in the society. Its success or failure depends entirely on his blessing or woe. The size of the circular pillar which is big symbolises the magnitude of the power and wisdom of God.

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K.N.U.S.T. He was the head of the Art Education department and later became the Dean of the Specialist Trainign College in Winneba. As an educator, James Boateng conducted research and prepared reports in the Golden Regalia of the Asantes, Special and Perceptual Abilities of Ghanaian Children and The Development of Teacher Training Colleges in Ghana. James Boateng’s greatest contribution to national development was in making society aware of several available educational responsibilities in Art.

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SECTION FIVE ART APPRECIATION AND CRITICISM General objectives: The student will: 1. develop understanding of the concept of appreciation and criticism in art. 2. appreciate and criticize own works and that of others.

UNIT THREE

UNIT ONE

FORM, SYMBOLISM AND FUNCTIONS OF ART

ART APPRECIATION Specific Objectives: The student will be able to: 5.1.1 explain the concept of appreciation in art. 5.1.2 describe the logical sequence in Art appreciation.

Specific Objectives: The student will be able to: 4.3.1 explain the symbolism of Ghanaian art forms and their functions Form in art is defined as the structure of a work of art that helps us to see its total outlook. On the other hand, a symbol is the representation of an abstracted idea with a sign, shape, colour etc. because of convention, association or resemblance. Symbolism is the ideas behind the symbols used for the production of the work. They are the suggestions through imagery of something that is invisible or intangible. This representation of the material object is not simply for its own interest or beauty but as standing for an abstract idea. Symbols embody the ideas, norms, values and beliefs of a group, association, ethnic society or nation. Therefore, when they are used in the production of artefacts the sole aim is using the artefact to propagate and educate the users about the cultural gems of their society. This makes artefacts produced with these symbols functional. This explains why Ghanaian arts and African arts as a whole cannot be separated from the everyday life activities of the people. Art, to the African is an integral part or force of life. However, for the younger generation to be able to appreciate these symbols readily seen in the numerous works of art, they have to understand what they stand for. This section of our discussion focuses on explaining the body of rich ideas and philosophical meanings behind the symbols used in the production of the sculpture, jewellery, pottery, textiles, basketry and the other forms of art produced in Ghana and Africa as a whole. Sculpture The symbols used for the production of these sculptural figures will be discussed in this section: Stools, Ceremonial swords, Spokesman staff tops, Umbrella tops and Akuaba dolls. Page 287

Art appreciation is a procedure that is followed to make one aware of all the good and bad qualities that one sees, reads and hears about a work of art. It is a means of responding to works of art that is talking intelligently about a work of art and communicating knowledgeably about a work of art. Art appreciation involves a silent and deep thinking about the works of art. This would enable us to talk intelligently about the works of art. Logical sequence of art appreciation There are four main stages or steps in art appreciation. These stages are followed in a sequential order for better appreciation of works of art. They are: i. Identification of the work (title, artist, date, size, medium, location). ii. Inventory of items in the work (naming and description of physical characteristics of items). iii. Technical qualities (kinds of materials, tools, design/composition and styles). iv. Interpretation (meaning of the work). i. Identification of the work • State what the work is, e.g. Leatherwork. • State the title of the work, e.g. A clutch bag for an artist. • State the name of the artist, e.g. Sharon Baah Acheamfour (If the artist is unknown, it should be stated that the artist is unknown or anonymous). • State the date or period when the work was done, e.g. March 2013. • State the size of the work, e.g. 40cm length × 20cm width × 5cm height. Page 148

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State where the work can be found, its location or who owns it, e.g. at the West African Examination Council in Kumasi or at the British Museum in London.

ii. Inventory of items in the work • Name all the objects seen in the work and describe them, e.g. It has three parts with inner compartments for a sketch pad, pencil, ruler and an eraser. The outer flap has the inscription MY OFFICE and a Sankofa Adinkra symbol at the back of the clutch bag. • State the characteristics of the items found in the work, e.g. The clutch bag is shaped like a pawpaw leaf. Natural marbled leather is used for the work and the Sankofa Adinkra symbol is embossed on the back of the clutch bag. iii. Technical qualities in the work • State the materials and tools used in the execution of the work, e.g. leather, adhesive, zipper, brooch, synthetic lining, punching tool, thread, mallet, soldering iron, scissors, Velcro, cutting knife, and brush. • State the method or methods used by the artist, e.g. patch work technique finished in crocheting. The artist also used embossing and soldering technique for the designing and writing of the inscription ‘MY OFFICE’. • State the nature of the composition or design, e.g. there is balance and unity in the placement and arrangement of the embossed design and the soldered inscription. iv. Interpretation of the work • State the atmosphere created in the work, e.g. the dye used for the marbling of the leather was violet dye on cream natural leather. The interplay of dark and light shades on the leather used for the work suggests unity that exists between the diverse cultures in Ghana. • Relate the items in the work to the cultural background of the artist or the work, e.g. the Adinkra symbol used in the work is typical of the Asantes. Therefore it indicates that the artist may be an Asante. The reason for the usage of the Sankofa Adinkra symbol which means ‘It is not wrong to pick ideas from the past’ is to serve as a reminder for the artist who would use the clutch bag to constantly check the items he puts in the clutch bag so as not to forget any important document or item. However, if he does forget, it will not be wrong for him to go back and fetch it. • State the uses or functions of the work, e.g. the clutch bag will be used by the artist in keeping his drawing tools and materials. Page 149

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(F.R.S.A.). He taught art at the secondary department of the then Achimota College, Accra and Wesley College in Kumasi. He was later appointed as a lecturer at the College of Art, K.N.U.S.T. in Kumasi where he became an associate professor of Art and Dean of the College of Art. He was later elected as Pro-Vice Chancellor of K.N.U.S.T. Exhibition/Publication: He has published several research papers in African Arts and culture. Contributions: As an educationalist, Prof. Asihene has made great contributions in several fields of national development. For instance, he was present at the International Society for Education through Art (INSEA) congress in the U.S.A. and Australia respectively and at an exhibition on juvenile delinquency in London, U.K. He participated in establishing Ghana’s Embassy in Rome to which he became a cultural Attaché. He was a member of Ghana’s cultural delegation to Prague in Czechoslavia. In his home country, Prof. Asihene was once the president of Ghana Society of Arts. He was a member of the panel for the planning and decoration of the city of Accra in preparation for the first Summit Conference of the Organization of African Unity (O.A.U.) in Ghana. He was in charge of the preparation of the coat of arms, conference symbols, sculptures, fountains, exhibitions and other artistic activities. He has been a member of the boards of Management of the National Cultural Centre, Kumasi and of Ghana National Museums and Monuments Board. He has also done mural paintings at the Basel Mission Hospital, Agogo, Osu Presbyterian Church, Accra and the World Health Organization (W.H.O.) Headquarters buildings in Ghana, Switzerland and Dr. Congo. JAMES BOATENG Date and place of birth: He was born in 1929 at Nsuta-Kyebi in the Asante Region of Ghana but passed on in 1982. Educational Background: He received his basic education at the Obuasi Methodist School. He trained as a teacher at the Wesley College in Kumasi and as a teacher in the then Achimota College and Kumasi College of Technology. He also studied at K.N.U.S.T. and at the University of Cape Coast. Later, he underwent training in design for Television Programmes at the Ghana Broadcasting Corporation. Contributions: He taught art at the Wesley College, Kumasi and Akrokeri Training College. He was later appointed as a lecturer at the college of Art, Page 286

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Educational Background: He was educated at the Mawuli School, Ho. He studied science subjects and art through the Sixth form. He studied Art at K.N.U.S.T. and had a first class honours in painting. He had his Masters degree at Kent State University, Ohio, U.S.A. and his Doctorate degree at University of Cincinnati, U.S.A. Style/Technique: His works are characterized by the indigenous environment in which he lived. His techniques also reflect his extensive exposure of art through formal education, travel, deep research and active participation in the organization of art within Ghana. He integrates Ghanaian indigenous life with elements inspired by modern concepts of art. He works with mixed media- crayons, indelible ink, poster colours, water colours, oil paint, acrylic and adhesives.

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Importance of Art Appreciation in our Lives 1. It helps us to assess and appraise works of art without passing judgment on them. 2. It deepens our understanding of works of art since the activity helps us to understand the philosophical meanings behind the works of art. 3. It makes us knowledgeable in the histories, techniques, tools and materials as well as designs of the various Visual arts. 4. It helps us to understand and appreciate the cultures of various groups of people thereby promoting friendship among people of varied cultures. 5. It helps us to know various works of art as well as artists of different backgrounds. UNIT TWO

Theme/Subject: The themes for his paintings are representations of Ghanaian concepts, beliefs and ideas of life. Some of the themes of his works include ‘Pouring Palm Wine’, ‘Mother’ and ‘Puberty Mask’. Exhibition/Publication: He has published some scholarly works in art education and has exhibited in and around the country. Contributions: His greatest contribution to national development is in the field of art education. He has led various panels in the planning of art syllabuses for primary, junior and secondary schools for more than twenty years. He also coordinated the preparation of textbooks and teacher’s guides in vocational and life skills for Junior High Schools. He supervised the preparation of modular art syllabuses for the school of Art of Winneba Specialist Training College. He organized an evaluation for revision of art syllabuses for Post-Secondary and Diploma Colleges. He also made significant contributions to the revision and reorganization of examination syllabuses in art for the West African Examination Council. Among his literary contributions are ‘The Attitudes to Art Education in Ghana’, ‘Approaches to Ghanaian Art’ and ‘Notes on General Knowledge in Art and Vocational Skills for Senior High Schools and Teacher Training Colleges’.

PROFESSOR ERNEST VICTOR ASIHENE Educational Background: He was trained as a teacher at the Presbyterian Training College, Akropong Akwapim. He later studied as an art and crafts teacher at the then School of Art, Achimota in Accra. He also studied at the Goldsmith College at the University of London and specialized in painting, sculpture and art education. Prof. Asihene is a fellow of the Royal Society of Art Page 285

CRITICISM AND JUDGMENT IN ART Specific Objective: The student will be able to: 5.2.1 judge an artwork using criteria and theories in aesthetics. Art criticism is a way of looking at, talking and thinking about works of art to understand their aesthetic qualities while passing judgment on the work of art. It is also a discussion or review of the characteristics of a work of art. Knowledge in aesthetics is very essential in art criticism. Before an art critic actually passes judgment on a work of art, he/she has to critically examine the artwork to understand all its qualities whether good or bad. He has to deeply think about the works of art so as to be able to pass good judgment about the work. Factors to consider when critiquing an artwork 1. The art critic has to critically observe the artwork. He can do this by employing all his senses to be abreast with the work to be criticized and judged. 2. The art critic should understand the style and techniques employed by the artist in the work. 3. The art critic should know the cultural background of the artist to enable him to better interpret the work of art and pass judgment on it. 4. The art critic should critically observe the manner (mastery/amateur) in which the artist handled and used the tools and materials for the production of the artwork. 5. The art critic should evaluate the finished work whether it fully meets the purpose or function for its creation.

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Steps in critiquing an Artwork 1. Describe what you see. (Identification of work) 2. Analyze what you see – the composition of the work, the use of the principles of design in organizing the various elements of design. 3. Interpret what you see – the mood, the atmosphere, etc. created in the work. 4. Judge the work – write or give your impression of the work of art whether it is excellent, very good, average, poor etc. Sources of knowledge for criticizing a work of art 1. The artist can source ideas on criticism from newspapers, magazines and other published sources made available by critics. 2. The artist has to develop the habit of learning to see, hear, or read about works of art on televisions, videos etc. These give insight into art. 3. The artist has to also understand the styles, forms and functions of works of art. Importance of Criticism and Judgment in Art Appreciation 1. It helps artists to grade works of art. 2. It assists artists in setting a high standard for their artistic productions. 3. It enables art dealers, museum and gallery keepers in differentiating good works of art from bad works of art. 4. It helps us to understand works of art while talking knowledgeably about them. 5. It helps us to know the cultural values, norms and ideas of various ethnic societies in the world. Difference between Art Appreciation and Art Criticism Art appreciation brings into focus all the good and bad qualities in what one sees, reads or hears about works of art without passing judgment on them while Art criticism is a way of looking at works of art and passing judgment on them. LIKELY EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 1. (a) What is Art appreciation? (b) List the four (4) steps in Art appreciation. (c) State three (3) reasons why Art appreciation is important in our everyday life. 2. (a) What is criticism in art? (b) State two (2) roles of criticism in Art appreciation. (c) Outline the main difference between art appreciation and criticism. 3. a. What is criticism in art? b. Explain in five ways how one acquires the knowledge to criticise a work of art. Page 151

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Educational Background: He had his secondary education at the Fijai Secondary School, Sekondi and the then Presbyterian Secondary School, Odumase-Krobo. He had his Bachelor of Arts and Master of Arts degrees at Howard University in Washington D.C., U.S.A. He is highly experienced in both Art history and Art education. He is an art critic known for his mastery judgments of art works. He has a wide teaching and research experience in both the U.S.A. and Africa. Style/Technique: He is an art educator who lectures students in Art history and Art education. Theme/Subject: In his teaching, he traces the histories of Art from the indigenous settings to the contemporary era. He also explains the meanings and usefulness of the arts practiced in Africa. Exhibition/Publication: He has coordinated and organized several exhibitions in indigenous and contemporary African Arts in both Africa and U.S.A. He has also prepared numerous exhibition catalogues. Contributions: He served as an associate professor who taught African history in the Department of Art, Howard University, Washington D.C. He has also lectured in the New National Museum of African Art, Smithsonian Institute, Washington D.C. and Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria in Nigeria. He has also taught on part time basis in New York State University, Brockport and George Washington University. His greatest contribution in Ghana is in the development of education through research and publications. He has researched widely into African Art. The research took him to almost all countries on the African continent and this has resulted in the publication of a book called “Twentieth Century Arts of Africa”. The book is a guide for collecting and recording information about indigenous and contemporary artists in the African society. His other research works are the ‘Religious-Philosophical concepts of African Art and Sculpture of the Black people of Africa’. Professor Kojo Fosu has been honoured by the American Conference of Artists for his outstanding contributions to Arts. This was in commemoration of his efforts to popularize African Arts in the U.S.A.

DR. SYLVANUS KWAMI AMENUKE Date and place of birth: He was born in 1940 at Akoefe in the Volta Region of Ghana. His father was a kente weaver and his mother a porter.

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Contributions: He made a stamp for the boys’ scout movement to mark their 5th anniversary in Ghana. He made another stamp to mark the first anniversary of the death of General E.K. Kotoka. He also designed a postage stamp to mark the United Nations Day in 1968. He designed another stamp to mark the anniversary day of the Cocoa Research Institute. JAMES KWAME AMOAH Date and place of birth: He was born in July in 1943 at Agona in Asante Region of Ghana. Educational Background: He was educated at Prempeh College in Kumasi. He entered the College of Art, K.N.U.S.T. in Kumasi. He later gained an award for postgraduate studies in pottery and ceramics at the Ceramic department, Gesamthochschule, Kassel, Western Germany. Style/Technique: He works in simple forms and decorates his works with proverbial symbols or motifs by the use of slip or incising techniques. Theme/Subject: He draws inspiration from indigenous forms and employs proverbial and Adinkra symbols in his pottery and ceramic productions. Exhibition/Publication: He participated in the FESTAC exhibition in Lagos, Nigeria as a member of the delegation from Ghana. He has also exhibited both in Ghana and abroad. He has published a research report on production techniques of indigenous pottery forms. Contributions: He conducted studies in indigenous pottery forms, their production techniques and decorations at Pankrono in Kumasi. This study has been helpful to several Ghanaian potters. He produced a dinner set for the Essumanja palace in Asante Region of Ghana. He has a mural at the United African Company, Accra, Ghana Office. His other ceramic murals can be found at the Bank of Ghana and Ghana Commercial Bank branches in Accra. In 1986, a documentary film was made on his life and works by the Deusche Welle (DW) television in Germany. As an educator, he lectured students at the Ceramic department of the College of Art, K.N.U.S.T. in Kumasi.

PROFESSOR KOJO FOSU Date and place of birth: He was born in August 1938 in Sekondi, Ghana. Page 283

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SECTION SIX PROFESSIONAL EHICS AND ENTRPRENEURIAL PRACTICES – 1 General objectives: The student will: 1. develop the right professional attitude and harness variety of ideas to launch a career. 2. develop a business plan and review it periodically. 3. be aware of the relevance of portfolio building and exhibition in the life of an artist. UNIT ONE PORTFOLIO BUILDING Specific Objectives: The student will be able to: 6.1.1 explain the types and importance of an artist portfolio. 6.1.2 construct and build a portfolio with selected art works. An artist’s portfolio is a collection of an artist’s creative works either in soft or hard copies. To obtain soft copies of the portfolio, creative works are snapped or shot using cameras (such as a digital camera etc.). They are then written on a compact disc (CD), DVD (Digital Versatile Disk), EVD (Enhanced Versatile Disk), VCD (Video Compact Disk) as a soft copy of the artist portfolio. Usually, such soft copies of works include a short biography of the artist- his educational background as well as the media he employs for his works, the theme/subjects, techniques or styles that he uses in his works. The creative works shown in the soft copy may also have their relative sizes and prices indicated on them. On the other hand, the hard copies of the portfolio refer to the actual works on large papers and boards. A fairly large folio or case made of a strong hard material such as a hard paper, fabric or leather is used for the safe keeping of the artist’s creative works. Hard copies of the works either real or pictures of them are preserved in Files, Envelopes, Folders, albums etc. IMPORTANCE OF AN ARTIST’S PORTFOLIO An artist’s portfolio has several benefits. Some of these have been discussed below: • Source of referenceAn artist’s portfolio is a storehouse of the artist’s best works where he can reliably turn when making any reference to his style, technique etc. Page 152

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It can also assist him to critically know areas of his former works that needed to be corrected so as to avoid committing the same mistakes in his future executions. •

A requirement for employment, business promotion, bidding for contract or occupational training or apprenticeship etc.The artist portfolio can open to him several doors or opportunities. For instance, in seeking for an employment, the portfolio presents the technical expertise, craftsmanship and skills in an easier manner to the employer. It speaks for the artist.

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It helps in gaining contractsIn bidding for contracts for the artist, it is his portfolio that does all the conviction so as to win contracts. This is because the committee sees in practical terms the same models the artist has done before.

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It assists the artist in getting promotion in his business and in an interview for further studies – In seeking for business promotions and expansions, the artist’s portfolio is very indispensable. It increases the chances of the artist in his quest to pursue further studies in his area of study.

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Evidence of practical experience, skill, knowledge, creative ability, technical proficiency, academic achievement etc.The artist’s portfolio is a true witness of the artist’s makeup. It sums up the total personality of the artist, making his identity easy in familiarization with people especially tourists who usually tour the country.

CONSTRUCTION AND BUILDING OF A PORTFOLIO There are several factors that have to be considered in the building and construction of a portfolio. These factors include: • Selection of best worksThe artist has to select his best creative works to build his portfolio. It is not all the works produced by the artist that have to be included in the building of the portfolio. Since a portfolio represents his expertise, seemingly poor works when added to his works would poke fun on his personality and reduce his expertise standard. Therefore it is advisable that only best works are used for the artist’s portfolio.

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policies by the government on new economic measures, health, education programs and the like. Exhibition/Publication: Ghanatta has exhibited several of his works especially his illustrations and cartoons strips in and around the country. He has published various magazines and journals where he used his cartoon strips in highlighting government policies and in addressing social issues. Contributions: He is the first artist to have introduced cartoons and comics into Ghanaian newspapers and magazines. He has designed crests and logos on commission basis and has illustrated messages on economic guidelines for banks and corporations. His pocket and strip cartoons have been used as an educational tool for the moral, social, political and economic development of Ghana. His greatest contribution to national development is in the field of education. He established the Ghanatta College of Art and Design in 1969 in Accra. Its rationale was to train young artists in different skills in art so as to help gain personal fulfillment in life. PROFESSOR FREDERICK TETTEH MATE Date and place of birth: He was born on 27th February 1929 at Odumasi-Krobo in the Eastern Region of Ghana. Educational Background: He completed his basic education at the Bana Hill Boarding School at Odumasi-Krobo. He entered the Akropong Teacher Training College in 1948. Upon completion, he entered the School of Art of the College of Technology, Kumasi in 1955 and obtained a three-year specialist course certificate in General Arts. He re-entered the College of Art, K.N.U.S.T. in 1961 for a two years diploma in Fine Arts. In 1964, he pursued his Post-Graduate Diploma in Art Education at the same institution. He studied techniques in packaging at the London College of Printing. Style/Technique: He works in various media like woodcuts, wood engraving, linocuts and scrapper boards. He uses various lines to depict light and shade to portray form. There is also a massive display of dots to show light and shade. Theme/Subject: He was inspired by Ghanaian cultural practices. Exhibition/Publication: He has exhibited most of the stamps he designed at various exhibition sites in and around the country.

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Style/Technique: He was an expert in the production of looms for weaving Kente. He works with a variety of materials such as cotton, rayon, silk, wool, raffia and jute. He combined indigenous techniques of production and contemporary production techniques. Theme/Subject: He was inspired by the indigenous traditional concepts of designing and the foreign concepts of production. Exhibition/Publication: He has exhibited extensively in and around the country. Contributions: In 1977, Idan improved upon the indigenous narrow strip Kente loom by fitting it with a warp roller. This loom produced saves space. He also made a completely new design of a foot powered loom called the Broadloom to suit the local conditions in Ghana. It weaves a broader strip cloth of about one metre width. The loom can produce varieties of weave patterns and designs such as tapestry. He also invented the invaloom coined from the words ‘invalid’ and ‘loom’ in 1979. It was inspired by one of his students called Bortey who was physically challenged. The loom was made purposely for these persons who cannot weave with their legs. He has instructed many students in the field of textiles at K.N.U.S.T. He has contributed significantly to the textile industry and textile heritage in Ghana.

NANA YAW BOAKYE GHANATTA Date and place of birth: He was born in 1927 at Akim-Fosu in the Eastern region of Ghana. He passed on in 2001. His brush name is ‘Ghanatta’. Educational Background: He received his basic education at Akim-Fosu in Eastern Region. His talent was seen at a very tender age. He studied Fine Arts up to the School Certificate and Advanced levels. He majored in Graphic design with specialization in cartooning and illustration. Style/Technique: He works mainly in pen and ink, water colours and oil paints. His style ranges from realistic to semi-abstract figures. His techniques are usually pen and ink drawings with water colour washes with fine finishing. Theme/Subject: The themes for his works are inspired by events that take place in the everyday lives of the people of Ghana. Sometimes, his ideas are based on current affairs. He often tends t highlight on immoral attitudes and malpractices in the society such as smuggling, stealing, drug abuse and addiction, embezzlement of public funds and mismanagement of state property. His works often explain Page 281

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• Finishing of best worksAfter the selection of the best works, the artist has to finish them well before using them in the building of the portfolio. Finishing would enhance the appearance of the works and increase their value. Finishing puts the works in their possible best form making them more attractive. • Preparing a brochureThe artist has to prepare a brochure. This brochure is a printed document in the form of a thin book or booklet that gives information about the artist and his works. It must also contain his statement thus his motivations and ideas for his works as well as appraisals from his referees. A referee is a professional who has skillfully evaluated the works of the artist and is ready to speak for him or defend him and his works as being original. The brochure authenticates the personality and works of the artist. Its absence in the portfolio will render it less effective. •

Building the portfolio-

-Soft copy: The artist takes pictures of his works with a digital camera and writes it on a CD or DVD. He also videos the best works and writes it on a VCD. Through video editing, he adds the brochure in the form of a typed document to accompany the creative works. -Hard copy: The artist first constructs and build a hard copy portfolio by the use of a hard board or material fairly large to be able to accommodate either the original works or photos of them. The artist develops and prints the snapped photos of his best or creative works. He nicely arranges them in a photo album. He prepares a hard copy of the brochureand places it together with the works in the constructed portfolio.

Hard and Soft Portfolio

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Educational Background: She was educated at St. Monica’s school and at Holy Child Secondary School in Cape Coast. She studied at the Ealings School of Art in London where she read Textile designing, Art Embroidery and Fashion designing. She did a course in the Theory and Practice of Education at Garnett College, London.

UNIT TWO DEVELOPING A BUSINESS PLAN Specific Objective: The student will be able to: 6.2.1 prepare a business plan for an art enterprise . WHAT IS A BUSINESS PLAN? A business plan is a document that indicates what one intends doing, how and when. This document outlines in great details, how a particular business activity is to be carried out. It gives a perfect picture of the things needed for the work, the skills to be employed, the time span to be covered, the capital needed for the productions and even how to market the finished product. In fact, it gives the total outlook of a business activity. PURPOSES OF A BUSINESS PLAN A business plan has several purposes. Some of these purposes are outlined below: • It serves as a guide in controlling the direction of an enterpriseThe business plan dictates the activities of a business. It is the boss who makes the decisions as to how to do it, how much to spend, the section of the large market to target etc. It single handedly guides the affairs of a business. • It helps in monitoring and evaluating the progress of the businessThe business plan plays a supervisory role for any business venture. It meticulously and regularly monitors the progress of a business while evaluating it to see if the set goals and objectives of the business are being achieved. When a business is declining or advancing in terms of productivity or sales it is the business plan that points it out.

Style/Technique: She employs both batik and embroidery techniques in her works. She uses conventional textile materials such as dyestuffs, fabrics, and waxes. Sometimes, she uses mixed media such as beads, pebbles, seeds and shells to build designs in her textile pieces. Indigenous proverbial symbols, Adinkra patterns and geometric shapes are also used as designs and in creating the patterns in her textile works. Theme/Subject: The themes for her works are inspired by Ghanaian cultural practices and lifestyle. The human figures in her works are stylized and elongated in form. The muscles on the legs of the figures have exaggerated proportions with long torso and legs. The faces of the human figures are stylized in an impressionist manner. The titles of some of her works are ‘Consulting the oracle’, ‘The gossipers’, ‘Dancers’, and ‘Music Makers’. Exhibition/Publication: Some of her textile productions were exhibited in various art exhibitions of the world especially in London and also in Ghana. Contributions: She is a freelance artist who lives on her art works. She owns a model cottage industry where textile products like batik and embroidery works are produced on public demand. She has also established a training facility for young school leavers in her industry. Annexed to her house is a small art gallery which is a joint venture with the late Vincent Akwete Kofi under the name KOFHAG Art Mart. She markets all her works there. She has impacted greatly to the development of textiles in Ghana.

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It serves as a collateral or security to seek a loan or financial assistanceThe business plan serves as a security when seeking for a loan at a financial institution. It is a guarantee for assistance from corporate bodies and banks.

LIONEL IDAN Date and place of birth: He was a textile designer born in 1930 but passed on in 1982.

THINGS TO CONSIDER IN PREPARING A BUSINESS PLAN Several factors must be considered when preparing a business plan. Some of these factors are: i. Executive summary- This refers to the profile of the members of the executive body of the company. It is not a detailed account of each of them but a summary.

Educational Background: He studied textiles at Kumasi College of Technology. He undertook some studies in the kente weaving of the Asantes. He them toured Japan to study the production processes and weaving techniques in the cottage industries in the country.

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Date and place of birth: He was born in 1944 in Volta Region of Ghana.

ii. Name and address of business or enterprise- The business plan must contain the full name of the business as well as the residential and postal address of the enterprise.

Educational Background: After receiving his basic education at Peki in Volta Region, he had most of his tertiary education abroad. He had his P.H.D. degree from St. Andrews University in Scotland.

iii. Identification of a need to satisfy- The enterprise should identify a special need that should be satisfied. This should be explicitly indicated in the business plan.

Style/Technique: His sculptural figures are both in relief and in-the-round. His works are characterized by the sensitivity, linearity, weight and expressive details. His sculptural productions are governed strictly by the sculptural laws of balanced proportions and creativity. He deliberately reduces the size of the base of his works to project the agility and free movement of his figures. The symbolic and aesthetic qualities of his works make them distinct from other sculptural productions. As an art historian, he attaches philosophical meanings to his sculptural productions giving them reasonable meanings making his works very valuable.

iv. Establish what you want to achieve or do- The set out goals and objectives of the enterprise should be enshrined in the drawn business plan.

DR. B.K. DOGBE

Theme/Subject: His themes for his works reflect the indigenous cultural life and the contemporary religious life as seen in his works ‘Mother of twins’, ‘Makola in 83’ and ‘The resurrection of Jesus Christ’. The female figure has also being an inspirational theme for Dr. Dogbe as is evident in his following sculptural works ‘The shea butter seller’, ‘Nude with a towel’ and ‘A girl admiring her beads’. Exhibition/Publication: He has taken part in numerous exhibitions both overseas and inland. He has written various research papers on African Art, history and culture. Contributions: As an educator, Dr. Dogbe has instructed countless students in sculpture, Art history and African Arts and culture. He is a culture exponent and an art historian who has tremendously helped in the preservation of the Ghanaian art traditions through his works and scholarly papers. He was one of the authors who wrote the textbook on General Knowledge in Art for Senior High Schools in Ghana.

CHARLOTTE HAGAN

v. Find out or research from past solution to similar problems- Solutions or remedies to past problems encountered by the enterprise should be written in the business plan. The measures taken by the enterprise should be noted in the business plan. vi. Analyze the industry or market where you can operate e.g. potential customers, competitors, etc.- A good business plan should include analysis of the target group, likely buyers of the product and potential competitors of the same product especially those in the same business location. This would help the enterprise to determine best strategies in winning customers and competing effectively with competitors. vii. Pick the best solution –The best solution that can proficiently address the situation(s) in vi. above is selected and written down. viii. Describe the enterprise or business (product, services, background of the entrepreneur) – The full description of the enterprise and its activities should be vividly given. This entails the products and services offered by the enterprise as well as some vital information about the entrepreneur who is manning the enterprise. ix. Describe production activity e.g. designing and making process, machines, sources of raw materials, location of enterprise etc.- The entire production processes through which the final product or service gets to the customer are fully described. This includes the source of raw materials for the production, the actual production and the machinery or tools that assists in the manufacture of the products and/or services.

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enterprise should be stated in the business plan. The various vents for distribution, promotions and forms of advertisement decided by the enterprise must be clearly spelt out in the business plan. xi. Organization e.g. background of managers and their duties, etc.- The organizational structure or plan of the business thus, the chain of top executives or managers and their assigned duties should be discussed in the business plan. xii. Financial plan e.g. capital requirement, potential profits, cash flow and sources of funds- A good business plan should have a clear financial plan with details regarding the business capital, expected profits, the day-to-day flow of cash and the sources of funds for the business. This must be explained in simple and straightforward language. If all these factors are well covered in one’s business plan, it would be very efficient in helping the enterprise to grow and not to incur great losses but rather compounded profits.

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Contributions: His numerous murals and mosaic works have served as cultural education for Ghanaians and people around the globe. He has a mural at the entrance of the Accra Community Centre. The inner chambers of the Parliament house of Ghana have been decorated with various relief panels executed by Kofi Antubam. These relief panels narrate the customary life styles of Ghanaians. They include the genre subjects of family activities and traditional court scenes. He was the first Ghanaian artist to identify and blend the Akan traditional symbols into visual images. He was adopted by Dr. Kwame Nkrumah as an official artist for the state. He painted and carved many outstanding state murals and artefacts such as the Presidential Chair and the Parliamentary Mace which are full of Akan symbolic patterns. He has a painted work at the Ghana Embassy in Washington D.C. He is an exponent in the propagation and transmission of the Ghanaian cultural heritage to the younger generation and the world at large. PROFESSOR E.K.A. AZII-AKATOR Date and place of birth: He was a renowned sculptor born in 1932 at Hohoe in the Volta Region of Ghana but passed on in 1991.

UNIT THREE Educational Background: He had his basic education at Hohoe and his tertiary education in both Ghana at K.N.U.S.T. and the Masters and P.H.D. in U.S.A.

BRANDING AND PACKAGING Specific Objective: The student will be able to: 6.3.1 explain branding and brand name 6.3.2 explain the Importance of packaging an artifact 6.3.3 brand and package an art product.

Style/Technique: He made realistic and monumental figures in cement.

Branding is a practice which involves an enterprise or a company giving an identity or name to a group of its products. The purpose of branding is to make the product well-known. It also makes the product unique and distincts it from other similar products.

Exhibition/Publication: He wrote several research papers in sculpture in both local and international journals. His works were also exhibited in and around the country.

Theme/Subject: His sculptural works were based on historic personalities in Ghana.

Brand Name This is the name given to a product by the company that makes it. For example, the brand name of Nestle Company’s food beverage product is Milo. Other common brand names include Eveready Battery, Toyota, Benz, Nokia, Mon Ami poster colour, Crayola crayons etc. Some products, apart from the brand name, also bear the names of particular shops and companies that produce or sell them. It is an offence punished by law to use someone else’s registered brand name for your product.

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Contributions: He was a sculpture lecturer and then the Dean of the college of Art in K.N.U.S.T. He has taught many students with his techniques in sculpture. He made the legendary monumental statue of Okomfo Anokye located at the Roundabout of the Okomfo Anokye Hospital in Kumasi. His other works include the statue of Otumfuo Sir Osei Agyeman Prempeh II, A group of statues at the V.I.P. Lounge of the Kotoka International Airport, Accra. Several works of Prof. Akator are found in both public and private offices, parks, etc. in Ghana and Ivory Coast.

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Educational Background: He was educated at Achimota School and then at the University of Pennsylvania in the U.S.A. Style/Technique: He is a sculptor who employed the in-lay sculptural technique on two dimensional surfaces. Sometimes, he embedded his images on surfaces of the wood that he used for the sculptural work. His human figures are characterized by very expressive moods. He tries to capture the full force of human energy and vitality in his sculptural works. Theme/Subject: His popular theme for his sculpture is human figures especially portraits of important people such as political figures. Exhibition/Publication: He has exhibited both in and outside the country. Contributions: The sculptural works of Saka Acquaye serves as cultural and historic education to the general public in and around the world. His works such as the portraits and statues of political figures like Gordon Guggisberg, Dr. J.B. Danquah etc. gives us visual representations of some individuals in our history who impacted positively for the social, economic and political development of the nation.Examples of some of his works are ‘The Fisherman’, and ‘Drummer’.

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GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR S.H.S. PACKAGING

Packaging is a collective term that refers to all kinds of containers in which goods are packed for easy and safe handling, distribution and sale. It embraces the designing and testing of containers and the looking out for suitable materials as packages. It is usually referred to as the “Silent Salesman” due to the fact that itself can sell or market the product without the producer campaigning for it. Packages are varied. Examples include boxes, cartons, wrappers, labels, baskets etc. SUITABLE MATERIALS USED FOR PACKAGING A wide range of materials can be used in the designing and production of packages. Some of these materials include cardboard, metal, glass, plastic, fabric, straw, polythene, Styrofoam etc. The choice of any of these materials for the building of a package is dependent on some factors. Such factors include the kind of product the package is intended to protect, its transportation, the period or duration for the safe keeping of the product etc. Also, in the selection of a suitable material as a package for a product, the artist should consider seriously the size, shape, and design of the product as well as the background of the intended buyers or market group. This largely dictates the choice of material to be used for the designing and construction of the package.

KOFI ANTUBAM Date and place of birth: He was born in 1922 in Akumfi to an Akan chief of Oppong Valley in Ghana. Educational Background: He was educated at Achimota School, the England School of Art and at the Goldsmith College in London. Aside the formal education he had, he also received traditional training in the Akumfi Traditional court. Style/Technique: His works are characterized by the features of the Royal pomp, elegance and sophistication of the royal institutions to express the ideas in his works. He saw beauty expressed in the Akuaba doll. Theme/Subject: The themes of his works depicted the Ghanaian lifestyle and the traditional institutions of royalty. Exhibition/Publication: His mural paintings and relief carvings have been exhibite in and around the world.

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FUNCTIONS AND IMPORTANCE OF PACKAGING A well designed and constructed package plays various key roles for the product, manufacturer and even the consumer. Some of the roles are: 1. PROTECTION: It protects the product from external destructive influences such as water, gas emissions, spoilage, light, heat etc. 2. IDENTIFICATION: It assists greatly in the identification of the product. Without it people cannot distinguish between the product and its competitors. It prevents imitation of the product and ensures that right standards are maintained. 3. INFORMATION: A good package is informative. It informs consumers about how to use the product, store and prolong its lifespan. It also gives them information as to where and how to contact the manufacturers should they have a query about the product. 4. CONVENIENCE: Packages help in the smooth transport of products from one destination to another without difficulty. Page 158

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It makes the product easy and safe to handle, carry about, keep, shelve, display and open with ease.

Government grant to study Sculpture and History of Art at the Columbia University.

5. QUALITY: A good package also enhances the quality of products. It adds an extra market value to it and ensures the promotion of its sales.

Style/Technique: He was a renowned sculptor who worked in cement, plaster of Paris and other sculptural media. His chief material that he works with is wood. He drew his inspirations directly from both natural shapes and forms. His works were therefore naturalistic. He had a technique of retaining the natural cracks on the wood he worked with. He used mostly the Odenta and the Ebony hard woods and worked mostly with the indigenous carving tools like the Adze and gouges. He usually left the tool marks visible on the finished work as part of the textures of the work and also as a means of providing natural anatomy of the figures. He used the extended parts of the branches of wood to represent natural anatomy. His works followed the natural contours, forms and shapes of the tree trunk that he used. He was noted for his great power of execution by exaggeration and distortion of figures as a means of arriving at his expressions. He portrayed the indigenous concept of beauty in his figures. He rendered the heads, facial details and neck of his figures in the manner of the Akuaba doll. He also emphasized agility, strength and endurance in his works. Theme/Subject: His themes were on the religious, cultural, philosophical and spiritual aspect of Ghanaian life.

CATEGORIES OF PACKAGES The type of material used for the construction of the package, the role it plays for the product and its lifespan helps us to know its category. Generally, packages are classified into three main groups. These are: 1. Primary packages 2. Secondary packages 3. Tertiary packages PRIMARY PACKAGES Primary packages are the first package that is next to the product. They usually wrap and/or seal the product and sold individually. Examples are toffee, a bar of chocolate, a box of matches, a box of chalk and a pair of socks. SECONDARY PACKAGES Secondary packages are the second package next to the product after it has received the first or primary package. These individually packaged goods are put together (sometimes in dozens) into a large container as a unit for the market. The large container therefore is a secondary package. Examples of secondary packages include a carton of milk, a crate of minerals (Fanta) and a sachet of wrapped toffees. TERTIARY PACKAGES Tertiary packages are the third package next to the product after the secondary package into a single unit. An example is a carton/box of sachet toffees. Tertiary packages provide ultimate protection for the products and helps in conveying them collectively from one place to another.

Exhibition/Publication: He exhibited at the first world festival of Negro artists in Senegal in 1960. He was a member of the cultural delegation to the Mexico Olympic Games in 1968. In 1971, he was invited by the government of India to India where he delivered lectures on Ghanaian and African Arts as a means of promoting cultural exchange between Ghana and India. Contributions: He taught at Prempeh College from 1958 to 1961 and also at the Government Training College in Tamale. In 1961 he was the head of the Art department of the Winneba Training College. He was later appointed as a lecturer at the College of Art, K.N.U.S.T. in Kumasi. Prior to his death in 1974, he commented that indigenous Ghanaian Art was not a dead history but a living inspiration for developing a sound artistic and cultural heritage. Examples of his works include ‘The Crucifix’, ‘Awakening Africa’, ‘Mother and Child’ and ‘Moses’.

SAKA ACQUAYE

Various Packages for Products

Date and place of birth: It is possible that he was born in Accra and is a contemporary of Kofi Antubam and may have been born in the 1920’s. Page 159

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Accra. He had his tertiary education at the College of Art, K.N.U.S.T. where he obtained a first class Bachelors degree in Drawing and Painting. He had his Masters Degree in Fine Arts at the Tyre School of Art of the Temple University in Philadelphia, U.S.A. where he specialized in printmaking and painting. Style/Technique: Professor Ato Delaquis works in all media such as Oil paint, Acrylics, Water colours, and Casein paint. In drawing, he uses pen, pencil, charcoal, ink and pastels. In printmaking, he employs etching, lithography, linocut and woodcut. He also engaged in the painting of realistic figures as seen in his painting entitled ‘Dzinto’ (Naming Ceremony). In recent years, he has adopted a semi-abstracted approach. Theme/Subject: The themes for his works are inspired by the environment in which he lives but he dwells mostly on contemporary African City life. His paintings are characterized by the use of bright colours with emphasis on form, proportions, colour gradation and perspective. He developed his style from the pointillist technique. Exhibition/Publication: He worked as a freelance illustrator for the Drum and New Statesman Magazines. He has nine of his works at Ghana’s new Chancery in Washington D.C. He has also written numerous articles on art in both national and international journals. He has mounted several exhibitions both at home and abroad. Contributions: He has painted various murals at the parliament house and the Rothmans International in Accra. He won an Entertainment Critics and Reviewers Association of Ghana (ECRAG) award in 1988 for his outstanding contribution to the development of African culture through his paintings. He was once the Dean of the College of Art, K.N.U.S.T. in Kumasi. Examples of his works are ‘The Fishermen’, ‘Death of Safohene’, ‘Bamboo Disco’, ‘Market Frenzy’, ‘Circular Market’, ‘The Hausa Dispatch Rider’, ‘Xylophone Player’ and ‘The market Plane’. VINCENT AKWETE KOFI Date and place of birth: He was a twin boy born in 1923 at Odumasi-Krobo in the Eastern Region of Ghana. Educational Background: He studied at Achimota School at Accra and later obtained a scholarship to the Royal College of Art in London. He later won another scholarship fron the U.N.O. to study primitive sculpture and also a Page 275

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GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR S.H.S. UNIT FOUR

ARTIST STATEMENT, BROCHURE AND BUSINESS CARD Specific Objectives: The student will be able to: 6.4.1 explain and prepare own “Artist’s Statement” 6.4.2 design and make an artist‟s brochure . 6.4.3 design and make a business card. ARTIST’S BROCHURE An artist’s brochure is a printed document, booklet or a thin book that gives information about an artist and his/her works. It contains the background information of the artist, his profile, educational and professional background, skills and expertise etc. It is the embodiment of the personality of the artist. This brochure accompanies a finished work executed by the artist. A good artist’s brochure may have among other things the following: i. The name of the artist/practitioner- This is the full name of the artist as well as his brush name if any. A brush name is the name an artist pens under his work. It may be the artist’s name, the initials of his full name or his nick name. ii. The artist’s statement- This is a document that talks about the philosophy behind the production of his works. It also outlines what motivates him for his artistic productions and the rich ideas lavishly portrayed in his works. iii. Contact- This is the vital information about how and where to get the artist. It includes the artist’s telephone number(s), email address, postal address, website, etc. iv. Location of studio- This is the direction to the workshop or studio of the artist. It is the residential address that indicates the area, suburb, district, region and nationality of the artist. The house number (if available) of the studio and any other clues that would make it easy for people to identify the studio should be included in the brochure. v. Photos of some works produced- Pictures of the works produced by the artist should also be part of the artist’s brochure. The accurate dimensions and size of the work should be indicated. Moreover, the title of the work, the medium used for its production and more importantly, the price of the work should be included.

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vi. Record of previous exhibitions held (solo and/or group exhibitions)- A record of the various exhibitions that the artist has participated should be included in brochure whether it was an individual exhibition, a group exhibition or an international exhibition.

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characterized by the use of rich colours, textures, lines and planes which tend to suggest movement. To appreciate the aesthetic qualities of the work and get the meanings of his paintings, the viewer has to assess the work from a far distance. He uses oil paint for his paintings on canvas. Theme/Subject: His compositions are centred on people and places. This includes interaction of people in a group, people at townscapes, market scenes and dwellings. He loves to paint scenes of crowds of people. He is fond of painting mostly women; some at the market places with their children at their backs. He appreciates the spirit, courage and hardworking attitude of African women. His images and compositions portray indigenous Ghanaian ways of life. This can be seen in his market scenes where women are seen buying and selling and engaging in all kinds of business transactions. Examples of his works include ‘Market Frenzy’, ‘Two wives’, ‘Hurry’, ‘Sabbath Inspiration’, ‘Blue Forms’, ‘Female Profile’, and ‘Market Scene’.

Examples of Artists’ Brochures

BUSINESS CARD A business card is a relatively small card that identifies an artist. It answers all the questions as to who, where, how and when to find the artist. Though it is just a small card, it is rich with vital information about the artist. It shows a businessman’s name, position, company, telephone number and address etc. It is commonly referred to as a worker’s “Complementary card”. This card is of immense benefit to any professional artist. The professional artist should always have some copies of his business card with him so that he can offer them out to people during his day to day activities and more importantly during art programs, seminars, conferences, workshops etc. This will offer him several rich opportunities to establish links and gain contracts with different categories of people. The business card also contains an image or picture of one of the best works of the artist as well as a short summary of the artist’s statement. The business card can have a single section or an accordion fold. However, it has to be very simple and attractive.

Exhibition/Publication: He is currently the greatest of all the Ghanaian contemporary artists who has widely exhibited his artistic creations in Ghana and around numerous countries in the world. Contributions: He has contributed immensely towards the social, cultural and political development of Ghana. He was a lecturer and then the Dean of College of Art, K.N.U.S.T. from 1992 to 1994 where he impacted very much on his students and fellow lecturers. He has also researched and compiled the indigenous Ghanaian proverbial Adinkra symbols, Spokesman staff and stool symbols, which are on a chart as a reading material with illustrations. He was the brain behind the success of several Art clubs and Art associations in Ghana. He launched the ‘Artist Alliance’, an Art studio and extravagant modern gallery where he exhibits and sells the works of numerous contemporary Ghanaian artists. He received one of the highest awards in Ghana known as the ‘Flag star award in Art’ in recognition of his outstanding contributions to the development of Art in Ghana. PROFESSOR ATO DELAQUIS Date and place of birth: He was born in Cape Coast in 1945. He started drawing at a very tender age through the coaching of his parents who regarded art as very important. Educational Background: He had his basic education at the Methodist Primary and Middle School, and his senior high education at Ghana National College, Cape coast. He then went to Achimota School and Achimota College of Art in

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Saka Acquaye Kofi Antubam Professor E.K.A. Azii-Akator Dr. B.K.Dogbe

W. Sackitey Nicholas Agbo E.K. Anatsui K. Ntiamoah

Contemporary Ghanaian Textile Designers • Charlotte Hagan Rejoice Adjasu L. A. Baah H.A.K. Aduku • Lionel Idan R.K. Ayiku Lydia Ansre E.A. Asante Contemporary Ghanaian Graphic Designers • Nana Yaw Boakye Ghanatta • Professor Frederick Tetteh Mate Contemporary Ghanaian Ceramists and Potters • James Kwame Amoah W.C. Owusu Ofori Duodu C.K. Gomoz D.K. Dzigah • K.K. Broni R.C. Akem S.H. Acheampong Dr. Daniel Cobblah

Contemporary Ghanaian Art Educators • Professor Kojo Fosu E.C. Nyarko • Dr. Sylvanus Kwami Amenuke B.K. Adipah • Professor Ernest Victor Asihene • James Boateng

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ARTIST’ STATEMENT An Artist’s Statement is an official statement by the artist to inform the public about his/her philosophy, style, technique, sources of inspiration and medium of artistic expression. This document clearly outlines what is behind the forms, colours and shapes organized on the surfaces of art works. Understanding the concepts behind the creation of an artist’s works deepens appreciation for his works and shows his maturity. Many artists assume that everybody who sees their works will automatically understand their philosophy and concept for the creation of the works. But this is largely not true since most people just look at the aesthetic appeal of the works of art without taking the pain to understand the philosophical ideas behind them. Therefore, it should be of greatest importance to the artist to always prepare and distribute his/her statement to guide his/her admirers to have a clearer and better understanding of his/her works. EXAMPLE OF AN ARTIST’S STATEMENT This is a written statement of an artist called Leonard Morris. He is a Picture Maker. He explains the philosophies, sources of ideas, and concepts for his creation. Also, he discusses in word pictures, his style, technique and mediums of creation. It should be a guide for readers on how to prepare their own artist’s statement. “I create photographs of assemblages constructed from pieces of ordinary paper. Twisting, tearing and crumpling paper into various shapes. I produce visual imagery that forms intriguing illusions and relationships between my objects when light, shadow and forms merge. At first glance, a photograph might appear as an exotic flower, but taking closer look viewers will see the familiar scalloping and rippling of a paper plate.”- Leonard Morris.

PROFESSOR ABLADE GLOVER Date and place of birth: He is a Ga born in Labadi, Accra in 1934. Educational Background: He received his basic education at Labadi in Accra. He had his tertiary education at K.N.U.S.T. where he studied textiles and painting for his Bachelor of Arts degree. He then pursued his Master of Arts degree at the Kent state University in U.K. He engaged in some studies also at the Central School of Art and Design in London. He obtained his P.H.D. at the Ohio State University in the U.S.A. Style/Technique: He is a specialist painter in the use of the palette knife for painting in an impasto pointillistic style using dots in composing his scenes. He applies his paint thickly on the canvas with great freedom. His paintings are Page 273

IMPORTANCE OF AN ARTIST’S STATEMENT The artist’s statement is very important to the artist and his clients. Some of these have been outlined below. 1. It helps art consultants, dealers and retailers etc. in understanding the style, techniques and concepts behind a particular artist’s works. This makes it easier for them to promote and sell works of the artist. With it, the art dealers and retailers can convincingly explain the works of art propelling viewers to patronize and purchase the works. 2. It serves as background information in helping writers, critics and curators prepare articles, reviews and exhibition catalogues about artists and their works. Page 162

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3. It can help the artist in sourcing for grants, loans and other forms of financial assistance from banks and other financial institutions. UNIT FIVE EXHIBITION Specific Objectives: The student will be able to: 6.5.1 explain and describe the types and purposes of exhibition 6.5.2 plan and mount an exhibition WHAT IS EXHIBITION? Exhibition is the public display of artefacts such as manufactured goods, food, artefacts etc. in order to attract viewers and buyers. An effective exhibition should be well planned and organized. It is also noteworthy that only excellent works that merits appreciation and shows artists’ exceptional skills should be exhibited. IMPORTANCE OF EXHIBITION The organization of an exhibition is very relevant. Its importance cannot be overemphasized. Some of the purposes of organizing and mounting of an exhibition are outlined below: 1. It showcases the designs and works of an artist: An exhibition mounted by an artist helps him to show the entire world what he/she is able to do. This invariably would help him to gain customers who may be interested in the purchase of any of his works or designs. 2. It offers an avenue for the sale of products: An exhibition gives the artist the platform to explain the concepts and ideas behind his artistic creations and this would move viewers to purchase some of his mounted works. 3. It promotes the artist: An exhibition affords people the opportunity to know the artist. This promotes the artist and makes him popular or known. 4. It promotes competition and creativity in the industry: When an exhibition is mounted by the artist, other artists come to view his artistic creations. These artists are inspired by the works seen and are challenged to produce works that surpasses those they have seen. This ensures the development of new ideas and new products in the industry.

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members of the society can pick moral lessons on how to mimic their sterling examples. This usually takes place during visits to historic sites and museums, schools and at other social gatherings. Stories that reflect the Ghanaian belief in life after death is usually narrated during funeral and mortuary services of deceased persons in the Ghanaian community. Moreover, stories of successful and unsuccessful marriages of some known figures in families and communities are narrated to newlyweds as a form of advice on how to play their roles effectively as husbands and wives in the marital union by parents and other well meaning people in the communities. Appellations During state functions and other social gatherings in contemporary Ghana, appellations are said to welcome dignitaries and other important persons. Sometimes, the achievements, bravery, academic prowess and applaudable behavioural traits are narrated by a good orator who may be a grown up or usually young girls. Also, appellations of historic figures who have passed on are sounded at occasions where their contributions are recalled and reckoned as basis for societal growth during talks, seminars and programs held for societal development in specific areas where their contribution is indispensable. GHANAIAN CONTEMPORARY ARTISTS There are several renowned contemporary Ghanaian artists who have impacted positively in the development and promotion of the arts in the country in all the branches of arts especially in the Visual arts. Some were painters, sculptors, educators, textile designers, Graphic designers, Goldsmiths, etc. Others were versatile in their knowledge and practice of the arts. This area of our discussion would focus on their lives, education and contributions to the development of the arts in Ghana. The discussion will delve into these areas of the artists: Date and place of birth; Educational background; Area or field of specialization; Media used by the artist; Style/technique(s) employed; Sources of inspiration, ideas, themes or concepts for his/her artistic creations; Characteristics or qualities of the works; Exhibitions and publications and Contribution(s)-Economic, Social, Political, etc. Contemporary Ghanaian Painters • Professor Ablade Glover Amo Kotei • .Professor Ato Delaquis Kobina Bucknow • Ben Offei Nyarko P.M. Amonoo Contemporary Ghanaian Sculptors • Vincent Akwete Kofi

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Dr. S.K. Amenuke R.T. Ackan E.K.J. Tetteh

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Contemporary Ghanaian drama is staged in churches and mosques to illustrate some Christian themes to educate members about the Christian and Muslim doctrines and the relevance of leading a good moral life in line with the principles and regulations of God. During social gatherings, parties and festivals, drama is performed to entertain those in attendance. Others are staged to educate the general public on social issues such as healthy living, personal hygiene, laws and norms of the land, patriotism and the like. Contemporary Ghanaian Verbal Arts In contemporary Ghanaian societies, various forms of verbal arts are practiced. The indigenous verbal art forms are practiced together with the contemporary ones though with little modification in their presentations and functions. Some of these verbal art forms include Storytelling, Oath swearing, Poetry recitals, Appellations etc. Oath Swearing In contemporary Ghanaian societies, oaths are taken by those who take up leadership positions in the communities and the nation as a whole. Presidents, members of parliament, assembly men and women take oaths concerning how diligent, true and efficient they would be in discharging their duties without embezzling state funds and be law abiding in all their dealings with the general public. In the traditional settings too, newly appointed kings and queen mothers also take up oaths that binds them with their newly assigned responsibilities. In the law courts, accused persons and petitioners swear and take oaths that they would speak only the truth with respect to the cases for which they have been summoned. Usually, the oaths are taken with the individual concerned holding items like the Holy Bible or Quran, ceremonial swords, leadership staffs etc. There are also some professions in Ghana today where newly appointed persons to the job are mandated to swear oaths of allegiance to serve the people. An example is the Hippocratic Oath sworn by new doctors, pharmacists and those who work in the medical field. Oath swearing is supposed to bind the person who engages in it to be true, loyal and efficient to whatever course for which he or she swore. Storytelling Stories with contemporary themes or subjects are told to members of the general public during church programs, school activities, funeral and wedding ceremonies. They are usually narrative and descriptive in nature. They include stories about the birth of Christ, the journeys of Mohammed and other religious themes which are told at the churches and mosques. Stories of the bravery and courage displayed by our forefathers are narrated to the general public so that the Page 271

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5. It entertains all in attendance: People who come for the exhibition are entertained after viewing the varied products of the artist. They gain new experiences of artistic productions and this greatly entertains them. Also, it may help them to get new friends and interact with people of different backgrounds. The side attractions such as the music played at the occasion all adds an entertainment flavor to the entire programme. TYPES OF EXHIBITION Exhibitions are broadly classified into two. These are General exhibitions and specialized exhibitions. •

General ExhibitionThis is an exhibition whereby varieties of items are displayed to the general public. It attracts all kinds of exhibits or works. It should be noted that several products are exhibited during general exhibitions. Several products such as Bags, belts, shoes etc. are exhibited at the same time. It can be called a Bazaar or Fair. An example is the Ghana International Trade Fair.

•

Specialized ExhibitionThis exhibition displays a specific kind of product or artifact. For instance, when only bags are exhibited, we can say it is a specialized exhibition. However, varieties of the same product thus, bags are exhibited. An example of a specialized exhibition is the Ghana International Furniture Exhibition (GIFEX). It should be noted that either of these types of exhibition can be organized at various levels such as Individual exhibition, Group exhibition, Institutional exhibition, Community exhibition, District exhibition, Regional exhibition, National exhibition and International exhibition. FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN THE PLANNING AND MOUNTING OF AN EXHIBITION An effective exhibition should be well thought of or planned before it is organized. Several factors come to the fore in the planning of an exhibition. Some of these factors are:

•

Type of exhibition- The artist or organizers of the exhibition should seriously consider the type of exhibition that they want to mount whether a specialized or generalized exhibition. If the exhibition is organized by a different body, the artist should make the necessary inquiry through trade Page 164

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publications, newspapers, internet etc.to know precisely the type of exhibition to be organized. This would help him to prepare accordingly. •

What to exhibit-The artist should deeply consider the kinds of exhibit to mount. He should consider the theme of the exhibition, the background of the potential viewers such as their age group, sex, levels of education and even their income levels. This would aid him in knowing the kind of artefacts to exhibit.

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Where to exhibit- The place or venue for the exhibition should be carefully considered. Its location should be at the heart or centre of his most expected guests or the target group. The venue must be easy to locate. The premises should be spacious, clean, well ventilated and well lit.

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Cost involved- The cost to be incurred for the organization of the entire exhibition should be carefully rolled out. The cost of publicity, side attractions/ programmes, preparation of the venue etc. must be well planned.

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Publicity- This refers to the means by which the organisers want to broadcast or make known the exhibition to the general public. The best and most effective means of publicity should be adopted and implemented. Should it be done through posters, banners, flyers, signposts, open air announcement, brochures or the internet? The organizers should think about it critically.

•

Expected number of guests/visitors- The number of people to be expected at the exhibition grounds should be well thought of. This would help the organizers to plan the exhibition well. It would enable them to choose the right venue in terms of size, the number of seating etc. for the exhibition.

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Duration/Time- The length of time for the exhibition should be planned well. Will the exhibition last for a day, days etc. The time for the start of the programme and the time it would end should be thought of carefully and communicated with the expected guests prior to the programme.

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Security- The organizers should beef up the security at the exhibition grounds to protect the exhibitors, invitees and the exhibits. This would make all in attendance very secured. Page 165

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marriage feasts, sporting activities and the like to entertain those in attendance. During workshops, talks and seminars, music is played to relieve stress and boredom during intermissions of the program. They are played to boost the morale of competitors in various forms of competitions. Others are played to educate us on morality, patriotism and nationalism. There are various music contest and competitions held in Ghana to promote music. These include TV3 Mentor, X-Factor, etc. Popular contemporary Ghanaian music stars include Dr. Ephraim Amu who composed various Coral songs for the nation, Agya Koo Nimo, Cindy Thompson, Yaw Sarpong, Daddy Lumba, Kojo Antwi, Nana Acheampong, Obrafo, Sarkodie etc. Dance Contemporary Ghanaian dance, like music, has been influenced by foreign dance styles. Some of these foreign dance styles include cracking, electric boogie etc. Dance is performed to entertain people and to express their sentiments towards one another. Contemporary Ghanaian dance forms include quickstep, mambo, waltz, foxtrot, salsa, boogie, cha-cha-cha, robot movement, twist, break and row, Azonto. These dance styles are performed at various functions such as church, weddings, funerals, parties, durbars and festivals etc. Several dance competitions are held today in Ghana to promote dancing such as the Malta Guinness Street Dance contest. Dancing is now a very lucrative enterprise in contemporary Ghana. Drama Contemporary Ghanaian drama is performed on a stage in a theatre. Unlike the indigenous Ghanaian drama where the audience sometimes interact with the audience while the performance in season, contemporary Ghanaian drama is performed uninterrupted by the actors and actresses who play the various roles in the story depicted in the performance. The audience however participates by clapping, booing and shouting in a bid to express their sentiments towards the performance. Contemporary Ghanaian drama includes plays, comedies, operas and cantatas. Popular contemporary Ghanaian drama groups include the Abibigroma drama group, the National Dance Ensemble, Osofo Dadzie drama group, Adabraka drama Troupe and the Tsadidi drama group. Popular drama themes in contemporary Ghana include the ‘The Black African Slave Trade, by the National Dance Ensemble, ‘Ananse and the gun man’ by Joe deGraft, ‘The dilemma of a ghost’ by Ama Ataa Aidoo and the celebrated ‘Marriage of Anansewaa’ by Efua Sunderland.

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Animation This is a field in Graphic arts that deals with the production or creation of cartoons or cartoonlike figures for advertisement, film making and entertainment. It was born out of the art of motion pictures. Animators create stories in the form of storyboards. These are still life drawings that show the action of the story. Storyboards are a series or panels that look similar to comic books but are larger. Each storyboard can have about 66 sketches. A short film will need three storyboards while a full length film will require over 25 storyboards. After the storyboards are created, the animator will create the major poses of the characters in the film. The animator works alongside other artists who assist in filling in the many drawings that complete each movement. Animation is used for the creation of numerous adverts of products and services of companies, firms and industries. They are used for entertaining people especially children in cartoon films and videos.

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•

Visitor’s book- This is a special book that is made available to all the invited guests to write down their names, contacts, comments and experiences. This would enable artists to contact prospective buyers of their products and in the planning of future exhibitions.

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General layout- The entire arrangement of the exhibits, seating etc. should be artistic and nice. There shouldn’t be any room for crowdedness and congestion. The place should be comely and refreshing.

Contemporary Ghanaian Performing Arts There are three main forms of performing arts practiced by the Ghanaians today. These are music, dance and drama. Exhibition Sites Music Ghanaian contemporary music has been influenced by foreign music styles and concepts though there is not a total eradication of the indigenous music styles. Some contemporary Ghanaian musicians blend the indigenous and foreign music styles in composing their songs. The foreign music styles that have influenced Ghanaian music today include jazz, pop music, Blues, Rock and Roll, Reggae, Ragga, R&B, Indian and Arabic songs. Contemporary Ghanaian music includes highlife which has more of the indigenous music elements, the hip-life which fuses slow lyric choruses with Ragga or rap music. Currently, there is the hip-pop music that is an exact rendition of Western style of music though the lyrics and language is mostly Ghanaian in nature. There is also the church or choral music, brass band music, regimental or military music as well as the classical music. Several foreign musical instruments are used hand in hand with the indigenous musical instruments. These include guitars, pianos, trumpets like the saxophone, foreign drums, cymbals etc. Unlike indigenous Ghanaian music, contemporary Ghanaian music is recorded in high technological recording studios where other artificial elements are added to the originally composed music to bring it to foreign standards. They are then copied on Compact Disks, DVD’S, VCD’S, EVD’S etc. Contemporary Ghanaian music is played at theatres, church services, parties, concerts, dance halls and parks. They are played during religious services to enhance praises and worship. They are also played during social functions like Page 269

LIKELY EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 1. (a) Define the term exhibition. (b) List five (5) levels of exhibition/ 2. (a) Mention the two main types of exhibition (b) Explain one (1) type of exhibition 3. State five (5) factors to consider when planning, preparing and mounting an exhibition. 4. Write short notes on the importance of the following to the artist: (a) Artist Brochure (b) Business Card (c) Artist Statement 5. (a) What is Packaging? (b) List the three categories of Packages. (c) Mention five functions of a good Package. 6. (a) What is a portfolio? (b) Explain the differences between the two main types of portfolios. (c) List three functions of a portfolio. 7. Write short notes on a business plan and state its importance to the artist. 8. Explain the term “Branding”.

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YEAR TWO SECTION ONE

such as the jeweler’s saw frame, sanding machine, piercing and cutting tools are used for jewellery production. Jewels are used for enhancing the wearer’s personal appearance. Others serve as identification purposes such as in identifying one’s set of beliefs, values, culture, ethnic society or religious affiliations. Others are worn on the body for spiritual protection.

INTRODUCTION TO LETTERING

Photography This is a new form of art that thrives in contemporary Ghana. It is a branch of Visual arts that deals with the reproduction of images and sceneries by the use of a camera. Photography gives out exact replicas of portraits, scenes and events. Formerly, pinhole cameras were used but today due to the advancement in technology, there has been the invention of several form of automatic and digital cameras that produces images with more accuracy and precision with clearer tones and colours. The clearness of the image is largely dependent on the pixels of the camera used. Photography helps us to record information of our past activities and events for remembrance and commemoration of important activities in our lives. Some of the images obtained via photography is framed in glass and hanged in rooms and offices as a form of decoration.

General objectives: The student will: 1. understand the origin, development and forms of lettering and their characteristics. 2. develop skills in designing and selecting letter types for visual communication. 3. acquire handwriting and ICT/CAD skills for visual communication design.

UNIT ONE LETTERING Specific Objectives: The student will be able to: 1.1.1 trace the origin and development of Lettering. 1.1.2 draw block letters according to specification. 1.1.3 write three and four letter words in block letters. Lettering is the art of constructing, writing or drawing alphabetical symbols in a special or particular way according to some laid down guidelines and rules. A letter is one of the units in the alphabet. For instance, ‘A’ is said to be a letter because it is a unit of the alphabet. Each alphabet serves as a symbol representing a sound in speech. Letters are combined in a special order to form words. There are several lettering styles. Each of these styles of lettering has its way of writing. Therefore, it will be prudent on the part of learners to be abreast with the guidelines and rules for the writing and construction of each of them. ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF LETTERING Early writing was mostly pictures and in its simplest state it could be understood by almost anyone. The first form of writing called Picture writing, or pictographs, is open to various interpretations depending on who is looking at them. Out of picture writing came the second group of lettering known as ideographs in which every word, object, or abstract conception is represented by an idealistic symbol,

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Textiles Textile is the production, manufacturing and decoration of fibres which are spun into yarns and woven into clothes or fabrics. Textile products include dyed items: tie and dye fabrics, batik and tritik clothes, printed items: such as T-shirts, Adinkra clothes; knitted items: table mats, furnishes, bed sheets, curtains, docks, gloves and sweaters; woven items: kente, tapestry, Fugu, Batakari; upholstery items: car seating, furnishes, tyres; protective items: gloves, aprons, boots. Foreign textile tools, materials and machinery are used for the production of today’s textiles in contemporary Ghana. These include power looms, sewing and embroidery machines, varieties of fibres (silk, cotton, linen, nylon, polyester, acetate, rayon, etc.) and equipment such as pins, needles and so forth. The textile clothes are sewn into apparels and dresses and worn on the body to protect the body against harsh weather conditions. Equally protective textile items used in the medical, agricultural and technical fields include gloves, aprons and boots. Artificial textile pipes and tubes are used to replace worn out or damage parts of the intestines in surgical operations at the theatres of various hospitals. In the industries, conveyor belts and ropes are used for transporting industrial materials are made with textile materials. Others like furnishes are used for decorative purposes. The Adinkra and Kente clothes serve as a cultural identity for wearers. Napkins and towels help in domestic duties such as cleaning and dusting chores. Page 268

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Graphics This is a new form of art that concerns itself with the giving out of information to the general public through the use of text and pictures. Aspects of Graphic arts include packaging, poster designing, lettering, calligraphy, book binding, general printing and decoration etc. Products in graphic arts such as banners, signboards and billboards helps in educating the general public on issues such as health, politics, sports, education etc. Members of the public are alarmed on disturbing social vices such as teenage pregnancy, HIV/AIDS, drug abuse, armed robbery, child trafficking etc through posters, flyers, billboards and so forth. The safety, protection and appearances of products are enhanced through nicely designed packages for various products. Advertisement, locations and identities of new companies, associations, institutions and firms are easily made known to the general public through the use of graphic products such as signboards, posters, logos and emblems. Warm regards and greetings are sent to love ones through the numerous greeting cards such as birthday cards, success cards, get-well-soon cards and the like. Pottery and Ceramics Pottery is the production of wares in clay which is hardened and fired at lower temperatures. Ceramics on the other hand is a new form of contemporary Ghanaian art which involves the use of hard and resistant materials such as kaolin, plaster of Paris, glazes etc. in manufacturing items such as water closets, basing, pipes and insulators fired at very high temperatures in kilns. Contemporary Ghanaian pottery is largely thrown on potter’s wheels which may be manually controlled or powered. The open firing method is now coupled with modern kilns fuelled with gas, petrol or oil. Water coolers, bowls, plates, cups, roofing tiles and flower pots and vases are now products in contemporary Ghanaian pottery. The items produced such as the water closets, pipes, Louvre blades, bricks, insulators and tiles (floor and wall tiles) are used for constructional projects such as the building of houses, industries, dams, and fountains. In the medical centres or hospitals, ceramic products such as laboratory equipments are used for the performance of various experiments especially in the mixing of chemicals such as test tubes, cylinders and jars, etc. Others like flower and wall vases are used for decorating the interiors and exteriors of various buildings. Jewellery This is the production of items for personal or body adornment. They include bracelets, anklets, wristlets, necklaces, finger, nose, toe and ear rings, hairpins, brooches, badges and all the items that enhance the appearance of an individual. Jewellery products are made with all forms of metal, semi-precious and precious stones such as gold, silver, brass, bronze, copper, bauxite, diamond etc. Tools Page 267

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sign or picture. This type of writing was used by the Chinese, Egyptians, and the Sumerians. The next step before the creation of the phonetic alphabet was the use of syllable writing with symbols called phonographs or phonograms. It involves the use of symbols or characters created out of the sound of the name/identity of some objects. This led to the invention of what is called the phonetic alphabet. Three different stages of writing were used at the same time, including ideographs, phonographs, and the alphabet. Alphabets were then passed on from one culture to another, which allowed each to build on the older version passed on to them. The final alphabet that came about from this passing is referred to as the phonetic alphabet. Early alphabets were stylized gradually and then simplified by scribes. The modern alphabet is believed to have come from the Greeks who are thought to have borrowed it from the North Semitic writing system which is a Phoenician style. When one compares the Greek and Phoenician styles of writing, it is easy to see the similarities. With an alphabet consisting of 24 letters, the Greeks were able to provide an alphabet that was suitable for all Indo-European languages. This was possible because the Greek provided definite symbols for vowels. At first, there were numerous Greek alphabets but the Ionian version was made the standard in 403 BC. PICTOGRAM/ PICTOGRAPH IDEOGRAMS/ IDEOGRAPH

PHONOGRAMS/ PHONOGRAPH ALPHABET

BLOCK LETTERING Block lettering is a general term used in describing all lettering styles that are drawn or constructed. Block letters are constructed according to specifications using squares or blocks. A young designer or student can use a paper with the squares already drawn in them like a graph sheet. He/she can draw the squares on his/her own by drawing straight or parallel horizontal and vertical lines that crosses each other at an angle. In block lettering, all letters with the exception of “M”, “W” and “I” take 5 squares down and 3 squares across. However, letters “W” and “M” take 5 down, 5 across. On the other hand, letter “I” take 5 squares down and 1 square across. Page 168

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CHARACTERISTICS OF BLOCK LETTERS Block letters have several characteristics that make them different from other styles of lettering. Some of its distinctive features are outlined below. 1. Block letters have equal or uniform thickness of strokes. That is all the parts of each of its letters are of the same measurement. For instance, if the vertical stroke measures 2cm, the horizontal and circular parts of the letter also measures 2cm. 2. They have no serifs or finishing strokes. There are no ornamental projections at the ends of their letters. 3. All block letters stand erect in a vertical position. They do not slant but stands straight. 4. They are not written but are drawn or constructed. 5. Squares of equal sizes serve as aids in their construction. 6. They are bold and easy to read. USES OF BLOCK LETTERS The block lettering style has been used for various purposes due to its distinct features. Some of these are listed below. 1. They are used in writing on signboards, billboards and signposts because of its keen sense of legibility. 2. Block letters are used in writing the titles of books and magazines due to its simple form that readily attract viewers. 3. They are used in writing the text on greeting cards like birthday cards, success cards, funeral cards etc. 4. They are used in writing names of shops, institutions and companies because it is easy to read. 5. Block letters are the most widely used style of text for the designing of communication design products such as posters, banners etc. CONSTRUCTION OF BLOCK LETTERS The construction of block letters is not a very painstaking task. As already discussed, constructing block letters involve the use of accurately measured squares on paper. If this is available, the artist has to follow the rules and guidelines that govern the construction of block letters. Also, the artist has to use a pointed sharp pencil in the ruling of the squares and in the construction of the letters. All the measurements should be done accurately. It is advisable to use straight measuring instruments such as rulers to ensure precision and accuracy. The curvy parts of the letters can be created using any suitable circular object such as the edges of coins or protractors. Page 169

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greatly in the performance of social, religious, economic, political, historical and cultural and domestic responsibilities. For instance, the flagstaff house and the parliament house play a political role since they are venues where issues concerning the state are deliberated by the government. The various churches, cathedral, temples and mosques serve as places of worship and reverence to God. Business transactions, trading as well as monetary issues take place at the various banking halls, companies and market centres. They are places for economic activities. The numerous schools, colleges, polytechnics and universities where formal training or education is received are made possible as a result of the uncountable classroom blocks and lecture theatres. The stadiums and recreational structures play an entertainment role, helping us to relieve ourselves of fatigue, tiredness and boredom in our various workplaces and educational institutions. The palaces, centres of national cultures and museums help us to fulfill our cultural and historic duties. Personal structures serve as abodes for individuals and facilities while serving as a haven for the performance of domestic duties. Painting Contemporary Ghanaian paintings are executed on various supports such as paper, canvas, T-shirts, walls etc. The paint medium, production techniques as well as tools for the production of these painted works are now extensively varied mostly foreign. They include oil paints, pastels, crayons, water colours, acrylic, enamel paints, poster colours etc. The production techniques include drawing, etching, printing, mosaic, collage etc. A new form of painting known as picture making where portraits and pictures of individuals, scenes of past and present events, still-life scenes, landscape and seascape scenes is now in existence. It has broadened the themes for contemporary Ghanaian paintings. The painted works are hanged in the interiors and exteriors of rooms, offices, schools and hotels as a form of decoration. Others like the paintings of individual portraits and scenes of past events serve memorial purposes. They are also used as teaching or visual aids in educational and training institutions. The paintings help in portraying and projecting our culture through the exportations and patronage of the painted works by tourists. They are given as gifts to express our love, appreciation and respect to loved ones, relatives and friends. The works are also traded and exchanged for foreign currencies.

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It should be noted that the squares which serve as guides for the construction of the letters should be created with a lighter grade pencil (HB or HH). The marks should be faintly created so that they could be easily erased after the construction of the letters. The figure below shows how each of the letters in the alphabet is constructed by the use of block letters.

UNIT TWO CONTEMPORARY/CURRENT GHANAIAN ARTS Specific Objectives: The student will be able to: 4.2.1 identify and analyze contemporary Art forms and analyze their influence and role in society. 4.2.2 identify and assess the contribution of renowned Contemporary Ghanaian Artists to the development of the country. The term ‘contemporary’ or ‘current’ refers to the present, what is in season or going on now. Therefore, contemporary Ghanaian arts refer to the arts produced by Ghanaians today. The contemporary arts of Ghana started at the early stages of the 1900’s. It however gained recognition and popularity in the 1920’s. It originated from the formal arts introduced by the British colonial masters. It is highly influenced by Christianity, Islam, Western culture and technology. Owing to these impacts, the contemporary Ghanaian art is a mixture of Western and African art traditions. The blend is seen in the Western tools, materials and production techniques and the indigenous concepts which are juxtaposed or used alongside the Western concepts and ideologies. The contemporary Ghanaian arts are divided into three thus contemporary Ghanaian Visual arts, performing arts and verbal arts. Contemporary Ghanaian Visual arts There are several forms of Visual arts practiced by the contemporary Ghanaians. Examples include architecture, sculpture, painting, graphics, pottery and ceramics, jewellery, photography, textiles, animation, picture making etc. Architecture Contemporary Ghanaian architectural forms range from simple structures to complex and multi-storey structures. They are constructed with a wide range of materials such as cement, floor and war tiles, iron rods, aluminum sheets, plastic T&G, Louvre blades, sliding doors of glass, etc. Some contemporary Ghanaian structures are made with durable and fire resistant materials. The shapes of the buildings are very varied. Some houses take the shape of stools, cars, leaves, caterpillars and so forth. Some are used as meeting places, offices, firms and companies, educational institutions, prisons, churches, mosques, law courts, market centres, museums, banks, hotels, palaces, stadiums and parks of recreation, theatrical centres, clinics and hospitals etc. These structures assist

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Construction of Block Letters

UNIT TWO BROAD PEN LETTERING (CALLIGRAPHY) Specific Objectives: The student will be able to: 1.2.1 write basic broad pen lettering strokes 1.2.2 write upper and lower case letters with broad pen Calligraphy (from Greek words kallos“beauty” and graphẽ“writing”) is a type of visual art related to writing. Calligraphy is the art of producing beautiful handwriting with a special writing tool such as a calligraphy pen or brush. It is also referred to as script or pen lettering. Right after the invention of picture writing, calligraphy was long practiced. The ancient Chinese are well known as the earliest practitioners of calligraphy. They made the writings by the use of fine brushes. The writings were found on oracle bones used by the emperor in the Shang dynasty to foretell future events. Upon its discovery, it was used in the writing of official documents on scrolls of paper, parchments and paper. Unlike block lettering that is constructed, calligraphy is written. The earliest tools used for calligraphy were quills of feathers from large birds Page 170

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such as turkeys, peacocks and ostriches. The sharp erectile bristles of porcupines were also shaped into nice nibs and used for the writing of calligraphy. Today, various nibs that are specially designed in metal and plastic are sold in shops. Felt pens and chisel shaped brushes are used by experts in writing calligraphy. However, improvised calligraphy pens can be made by the use of reed, straw, cane and bamboo. Several kinds of ink are used for the writing of calligraphy. These include Indian ink, Rotring Ink, Pelican ink etc. CHARACTERISTICS OF CALLIGRAPHY LETTERING These are some of the features that will help someone to identify calligraphy lettering. 1. The letters are not drawn or constructed but they are written. 2. Calligraphic letters are less formal. In their writing, they don’t follow rigid rules like block lettering. 3. It has varying thick and thin strokes that come naturally as when writing with an ordinary pen. 4. They are written at an angle of 45 degrees. USES OF CALLIGRAPHY LETTERING This stylized lettering style is used for several projects. Examples of these include the following. 1. They are used in writing on greeting cards. 2. They are used in writing names on invitation cards. 3. They are used in writing titles on dust jackets and magazines. 4. They are used in writing messages in success and birthday cards. 5. They are used in writing messages on citations. 6. They assist in the designing of original hand-lettered logo design. 7. They are used in the writing of cut stone inscriptions and memorial documents. 8. They are also used for props and moving images for film and television, testimonials, birth and death certificates, maps, and other works involving writing.

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specific individual indigenous Ghanaian artists who were renowned and well known regionally. One celebrated indigenous artist of Ghana who is and was known everywhere in indigenous Asante is Osei Bonsu. OSEI BONSU Osei Bonsu was born in 1873 and died in 1976. He was a typical Asante who was born in Kumasi and a royal of the Asante kingdom. He was a master carver who was very versed in the sculpture trade. He produced sculptures for kings, patrons and commoners alike. It was told that Osei Bonsu was naturally gifted or talented in sculpture and may have observe his predecessors who worked exclusively for the Asante kings in the royal home. It is possible that he may have polished his carving skill through some form of apprenticeship with no formal education. Bonsu had apprentices who assisted him for several years while learning their trade. These novices lived with him and were household servants as well as assistant carvers. They helped fell trees, carry logs, and rough out basic shapes that he later transformed into finished work. Patrons travelled to his home for works to be produced for them. Other times, he moved to the homes of the patrons for weeks or months while the commission was being completed. In the latter case, Bonsu and his apprentices were housed and fed in the patron’s compound. Osei Bonsu had a distinctive style for his human sculptural figures. This included a more naturalistic rendering of the face with cross-hatched eye brows. He produced countless simplified Akuaba sculptures for several barren women in the Asante community. His Akuaba dolls had long; slightly flattened foreheads which are believed to be emblems of beauty and mothers actually gently molded their children’s cranial bones to reflect this value. After it was consecrated at the shrine, it was carried by the woman desiring a child. Once pregnant, the doll was still carried by the pregnant woman to ensure safe delivery of a healthy and pretty child preferably a girl since it was believed that they ensured the preservation of one’s family ancestral lineage.Osei Bonsu also carved several gold-covered wooden sculptures such as the spokesman staff, ceremonial swords, stools and other items pertaining to the royal home. These sculptures had symbolic patterns which had proverbial sayings or meanings associated with them. Osei Bonsu is one of the numerous indigenous Ghanaian artists who have helped in preserving the artistic traditions that perfectly portray our identity, cultural values and norms as Ghanaians through his excellent sculptural productions.

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mediums through which the young ones in the society familiarize themselves with their own cultural heritage. These stories are viewed as true and are taken with all seriousness. Tales They are stories narrated to entertain and educate people. They are usually fictitious with unreal characters. They are sometimes full of exaggerations and lies though they are used in highlighting the woes in breaking the laid down rules, customs and taboos of the ancestors in the indigenous Ghanaian communities. Appellations These are praises shouted on a god, ancestor, king or important personality recounting his achievements, character and ego. They are shouted on kings and important personalities during important occasions such as durbars, festivals and ceremonies before they take their seat at a function. During ceremonies where the ancestors ought to be invited, their appellations are sounded. It was believed by the indigenous Ghanaians that doing this would attract favour, goodwill, blessing and help from the ancestors. Proverbs They are short wise sayings that illustrate the bravery of the ancestors. They explain the laws, norms and ideas of the indigenous Ghanaians. They were narrated at festivals, ceremonies and at storytelling times as a form of moral, cultural and social education for the people. Dirges They are words composed for the deceased. They are narrated to console and comfort the bereaved family and sympathizers during funeral ceremonies of their loved ones in the indigenous Ghanaian communities. They educate us on the brevity of our life and the wickedness attributed to death, and the hope that we have to live again. In most occasions, musical instruments accompany these dirges. INDIGENOUS GHANAIAN ARTISTS

Various forms of Calligraphy Lettering PARTS OF UPPER AND LOWER CASE LETTERS All the parts of letters have their distinct names. The parts of both upper and lower case letters are discussed below. STEM- This refers to the main vertical stroke of a letter. CROSSBAR- This is the horizontal stroke or bar that links the vertical strokes of letters like ‘A’, ‘H’, etc. SERIF- This refers to the ornamental or decorative projections at the ends of the main strokes of letters. Beaked Serif is a one faced ornamental projection at the top left of some letters. Bracketed Serif is a two faced ornamental projection at the bottom and upper parts of some letters. Sheared Serif is a one faced ornamental projection at the top right of some letters. BOWL- This is the curved parts of letters like ‘R’, ‘P’, ‘B’ etc. COUNTER- This is the space either enclosed or outside letters. The inner spaces of letters like ‘B’, ‘P’, ‘D’ are known as Inner counters while the space outside letters like ‘C’, ‘S’, ‘E’ are known as Outer counters. STRESS- This is the part of a letter where the thick stroke transcends to a thin stroke.

Little is known about the names of the indigenous Ghanaian artists. This is generally due to the fact that African art in general was often considered as anonymous because early researchers rarely asked for the names of the artists. However, many individual styles and arts can be recognized even when an artist name has not been recorded. During the past nineteenth century, art historians and anthropologists have been systematically noting the names and life histories of Page 263

ASCENDER- This is the upright stroke of lower case letters such as ‘b’, ‘h’, ‘d’ etc. that extends beyond the waist line and touches the cap line. DESCENDER- This is the upright stroke of lower case letters such as ‘g’, ‘j’, ‘q’ etc. that extends below the base line and touches the drop line.

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WEIGHT- This is the thickness or heaviness of a letter. ‘X’ HEIGHT- These are letters that falls between the waist line and the base line. They neither touch the cap nor drop lines. They include ‘c’, ‘e’, ‘a’ etc. EAR- This is the projection at the upper bowl of lower case letter ‘g’. APEX- The pointed parts of letters like ‘A’, ‘W’ etc. SPUR- The extra projections found on letters like ‘E’, ‘F’, ‘L’ etc. TAIL- The part of letters ‘R’, ‘K’ that looks like the tail of an animal. LINK- The part of the letter that joins two sections of a letter together.

APEX INNER COUNTER

OUTER COUNTER

LINK

SERIF

CROSSBAR

BOWL/LOBE

g


festivals, rituals, marriage ceremonies, funeral ceremonies, puberty rites, naming and outdooring ceremonies, funeral rites etc. They played various roles such as entertainment, worship of deities, veneration and inviting of the ancestors, etc. Various musical instruments were used for the composing and playing of the music. They included stringed instruments (hites, lyres), wind instruments (flutes, horns), self sounding instruments (drums, rattle) etc. Music was specially performed in the royal palaces, town squares, courtyards, parks and streets. The lyrics of the music embody the religious and cultural beliefs of the indigenous Ghanaians, as well as their ideologies, norms and values. They were purely educative and were used as a channel for moral instruction. Dance Dance, like music plays a vibrant role in the lives of the indigenous Ghanaians. They ranged from graceful movements to very vigorous movements depending on the style of dance and the occasion and context within which the dance is performed. Dance was performing at naming ceremonies, funeral rites, festivals, religious activities, storytelling sessions etc. Some of the dance movements were symbolic and carried important messages. For instance, the dance performed at durbars, festivals, ritualistic performances and ceremonies of the ancestors by a traditional priest and his attendance were interpreted as messages from the ancestors to the people especially the king. Others were purely for entertainment to relieve stress and enjoy oneself.

ARM- The middle horizontal stroke of letters like ‘E’ and ‘F’.

A

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EAR

Drama Indigenous Ghanaian drama was evident at virtually all places such as the market and public squares, farms, chop bars, meeting places etc. It was performed at storytelling, initiation rites and ceremonies of the ancestors to instruct the people concerning the laws, norms, taboos and beliefs of the people. They usually illustrated themes regarding the repercussions of not heeding to the laws and traditions handed down by the ancestors. Moral lessons on how to live a good life were enshrined in the drama performances. Indigenous Ghanaian Verbal Arts Verbal arts are the arts that are performed with the mouth with or without body gestures. They are usually orated with the mouth. Indigenous Ghanaian verbal arts include folklores, tales, appellations, dirges, poetry etc. Folklores They are the unwritten or oral stories that portray the culture of a group or community. Indigenous Ghanaian folklores narrate the activities and events of our forefathers and the origin of our societal laws, values and norms. They are

STRESS

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Wood carving Wood carving was also predominant in indigenous Ghana. Carved pieces were produced from various types of wood such as Ebony, Sapele, Mahogany, Wawa, Asanfena etc. The function of the carved piece determined the choice of wood. Notable products in wood carving in indigenous Ghana are the Akuaba doll, linguist staffs, ceremonial swords, blackened stool, statues of deities etc. All these products were functional. While the Akuaba doll was used as a charm to effect fertility in barren women, the blackened stools were used for ancestral veneration among the Asantes. The linguist staffs denotes the office and authority of the spokesman in the traditional council, the ceremonial swords are arranged in a semi-circular formation before a king during festivals and durbars. The carved statues are used for religious purposes thus as a medium in worshipping the deities. Metal work The indigenous Ghanaians fashioned several functional and decorative items with metal such as gold, silver, bronze, brass, bauxites etc. War and farming implements such as spears, swords, cutlasses, daggers were produced using techniques in blacksmithing and goldsmithing. The popular indigenous metal product was the gold weights which were used for the scaling or weighing of gold dust in indigenous Ghana. The lost wax technique of casting was used for the production of the gold weights. The gold weights had several designs and symbols which reflected the beliefs, norms and cultural values of Ghanaians. Calabash work Useful and decorative items were produced by the use of either calabash or gourd. After the fluffy part has been removed, the surfaces or outer parts are incised with decorative and symbolic geometric patterns with a heated pointed tool or awl. This technique is known as pyrography. They were used for storing sheabutter, jewelleries, herbs and special concoctions for rituals in shrines. The gourds were also used for producing xylophones played for entertainment purposes. Indigenous Ghanaian Performing Arts Performing arts are the arts that are played or performed which exists only in a stream of time. Examples of the performing art forms practiced and used by the indigenous Ghanaians in their everyday life activities include music, dance and drama. Music Music permeates and accompanies all the activities undertaken by the indigenous Ghanaians such as hunting, fishing, farming, trading etc. Music is played during Page 261


BEAKED SERIF

R E Q TAIL

BRACKETED SERIF

ARM

SPUR

STEM

SWASH

CAP LINE ASCENDERS

dbhl

WAIST LINE BASE LINE

DROP LINE

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DESCENDERS

pjqg caex

DROP LINE X-HEIGHT Adinkra stamp held being use in stamping a piece of cloth.

MAKING YOUR OWN CALLIGRAPHY PEN A simple calligraphy pen can be made by the use of either bamboo or cane and a kitchen knife. These are the steps involved in producing your own improvised pens with bamboo. 1. Cut a stem of bamboo of about 20cm long. 2. Slant one end of the bamboo stem with the kitchen knife. 3. Shave off the soft inside part if there is any by laying the knife flat against it, leaving the hard cover. 4. Place the nib flat on a slab with the back facing upwards. 5. Place the blade of the knife vertically on the tip and cut it off at a right angle to the shaft or the handle. 6. Insert the knife into the middle of the tip and make a slit about 2cm long in it. 7. Cut and re-cut the tip to the required size of the letters. 8. Make some trial strokes to see the effects of the improvised pen.

LAYOUT AND BORDER DESIGN IN CALLIGRAPHY Layout in Calligraphy refers to the arrangement of the text in the available space. It involves the correct placement of the various units of the design in the picture space. This is done to improve the legibility and readability of the text. If done appropriately, it helps in increasing the attractiveness of the work. There are two Page 175

The large piece of fabric is stretched taut on a clean ground by pegging the ends. Sometimes, the fabric is spread on a floor and covered with hard paper boards and nailed at the corners and the selvedges. The stamp block is dipped into the dye bowl and is shaken a bit if it picks too much of the dye. The stamp is applied directly, freehand onto the stretched cloth. The block is stamped on the cloth according to the design planned by the textile designer.

Printing of adinkra cloth Bead making Beads in indigenous Ghana were made by the use of wood, glass, seeds and sometimes precious stones. Holes were drilled in them and threaded with a cord. They were worn as bracelets, anklets, wristlets etc. Beads are worn to enhance one’s appearance and to indicate a person’s status in the community. Some are also worn for spiritual protection as a form of amulet or talisman. The Krobos of Eastern region of Ghana are famed for the production of beads which are used in adorning the puberty girl or initiate during the initiation rites referred to as the Dipo rites.

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symbols carry symbolic connotations which explain the values, norms and beliefs of the indigenous Ghanaians. Historical traditions has it that the Adinkra patterns originated from the Gyamans of La cote d’Voire. It is said that in the nineteenth century, the then king of the Gyaman kingdom by name Nana Kofi Adinkra angered the then Asantehene Nana Bonsu Panyin by trying to copy the golden stool. This made a war to ensue between the Asantes and the Gyamans. The Gyamans were defeated and their king Kofi Adinkra was killed. The craftsmen who had the skill for creating the patterns or symbols were taken as slaves to Asante along with some soldiers. They taught the Asantes how to create the symbols. However, the Asantes copied their skill and improved on the motifs. They created several others with geometric patterns and associated numerous proverbial sayings and meanings that reflected their cultural beliefs, customs, norms and ideas with them. Another school of thought has it that the Asantes learnt the symbols from those that were inscribed on the umbrella, clothes and columns of the stool of Nana Kofi Adinkra after he was killed and his people captured. Another view says that the Adinkra designs were first made for the kings of Denkyira, Takyiman and Asante in ancient times, long before the reign of king Adinkra. It was then called ‘Adwinikena’, believed to have been later corrupted to Adinkra. It is also believed by another school of thought that the Muslims inspired the more abstracted symbols. The most obvious one is the crescent moon and star symbol, which symbolizes faithfulness. The stamps for printing the Adinkra patterns are cut from gourd or pieces of calabash about three inches in diameter. Three or four sticks of stiff palm-leaf ribs are attached to the calabash and tied together at one end to serve as a handle, held between the forefinger and thumb. The adinkra dye which is a vegetable dye is extracted from the bark of the badie tree. It is grown mostly in the Brong Ahafo region. The barks removed are boiled for about three hours. The liquid formed is collected and poured into the container. Enough water is again poured onto the stuff and boiled for some time. The liquid is collected and poured into the container. This process is repeated as long as the stuff continues to yield the dye. The collected dye is then boiled for about four hours till the colour turns black and sticky. Originally, iron fillings known as ‘etia’ were added to the solution during boiling but now it could be boiled without them. To make the dyes look shiny after printing, honey, albumen or sugar is added and stirred when it cools down.

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main formats for layout of works in calligraphy. These are portrait and landscape formats. The portrait format is placing the paper in a vertical manner while the landscape format is placing the paper in a horizontal manner. In both formats, the artist has to govern the arrangement of the text and the border designs with the principles of design. The two most relevant amongst them in the writing of calligraphy are balance and proportion which is properly referred to as ‘correct use of space’. The total design should be balanced. Moreover, the entire elements of the composition must integrate to be seen as a united whole. The choice of colours should harmonize to attract and sustain attention. Border designs are the decorative designs that are found around text or copy to enhance its presentation and improve its attractiveness. The border designs may be floral, geometric shapes or lines. However, it is very appropriate that borders for calligraphic works also be designed in calligraphy.

UNIT THREE GOTHIC LETTERING Specific Objectives: The student will be able to: 1.3.1 explain the functions of Gothic lettering. 1.3.2 demonstrate skills in writing gothic letters Gothic lettering also known as ‘sans serif’ lettering refers to letters of uniform thickness but without serifs (Finishing/decorative/ornamental strokes). ‘Sans’ is a French word that means ‘without’. Therefore as already explained, they are letters without serifs. It is a form of block lettering since it bears all of its features. The letters are called ‘Gothic’ because of their thickness or heaviness. Some artists referred to this lettering style as ‘Grotesque’ because the lettering was said to be strange, fantastic and laughable. It was a popular lettering style that emerged in

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the early nineteenth century. Today, there are several variations of Gothic lettering with some having a slight movement from thin to thick strokes. CHARACTERISTICS OF GOTHIC LETTERING These characteristics help us to identify Gothic letters. 1. They have upright strokes of equal thickness and weight. 2. They have no serifs. 3. They are simple and bold. 4. They are easy to read and very attractive. 5. They stand erect in a vertical position. 6. They are constructed or drawn. USES OF GOTHIC LETTERING Gothic lettering has several uses. Some of these are listed below. 1. They are used for making book cover designs. 2. They are used for writing the text on greeting cards. 3. They are immensely used in the designing of posters, notices, sign writings and other forms of advertisement. 4. They are used in writing headlines of magazines and newspapers. 5. They are used in writing signs placed at roadsides. 6. They are used in writing vehicle number plates. 7. They are used in writing elementary books for nursery and lower level pupils. 8. They are used in writing names of institutions, shops and companies.

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crafty design of the spider’s web or by observing the natural way by which rushes and grasses interlaces each other. Kente weaving was first introduced at Bonwire by Ota Kraban and Ameyaw, who got the idea from a spider’s web during the reign of Nana Bobie of Bonwire. There was no doubt that Ota Kraban studied weaving in the North. With Ameyaw, he made experiments in dyeing cotton yarn with local dyes. After obtaining a variety of yarns, they wove the first Kente cloth, called Oyokomaa. The first umbrella of Bonwire chief Nana Bobie was made with this Oyokomaa fabric. There is a myth among the Ewes that it is the black and red python that taught them how to weave kente. That is why the animal remains uneaten among the lands covered by the ethnic society. Unlike the other clothes produced and adored for their aesthetic appeal, kente is a rich symbolic cloth. Its patterns, colours and designs have symbolic meanings associated with them. These may remind the wearer of the norms, values and ideas of the Ghanaian society. This underscores why it was worn on important occasions such as festivals, outdooring and naming ceremonies, funeral rites, marriage feasts etc. Cotton was the main fibre used for producing the yarns for weaving the kente cloth on the traditional loom. A loom is a device used for weaving kente. The traditional loom produces the kente in strips usually referred to as ‘stoles’ which are later sewn together to obtain the cloth. Some of the popular kente weaving towns in the Asante region are Bonwire, Wono Adanwomaso, Asonomaso, and Ntonso. Popular kente weaving towns in the Volta region are Agotime Kpetoe, Adidome and Keta.

Kente Weaving on the traditional loom Adinkra Printing This is a traditional block printing technique. The finished cloth is a traditional mourning cloth worn for funeral occasions. The word ‘Adinkra’ means ‘farewell’ or ‘goodbye’. It is worn to bid farewell and part ways with the deceased. The cloth has several symbolic patterns usually referred to as Adinkra symbols. These

Fig.5. Gothic letters

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their hair in the Densinkran (a low hair cut in a round or calabash shape dyed in black) to indicate their social status. It was reserved for queen mothers, and other important women and girls in the King’s house. The Afro hairstyle was for the young and enterprising young men in the community. Successful business men, teachers and dignitaries also braided their hair in the Afro style. Body marks in the form of cicatrixes, scarification or mutilation had various functions in indigenous Ghanaian communities. For instance, special mutilated marks usually called the Donkor marks are deliberately created on the bodies of ‘born to die’ babies in the indigenous Ghanaian communities to prevent them from going back to the spiritual world. Among the Northerners of indigenous Ghana, these marks help in identifying one’s ethnic society as being a Frafra, Dagomba etc. The Dagabas of Northern Ghana make disc-like marks on the bodies of puberty girls as a signal to show that they are ready for marriage. The Gonjas also create mutilated marks of their protective deity called Nzani below the eye or on the cheek bone of the fourth child of a mother who has consistently lost her first three children for spiritual protection. Pottery Indigenous Ghanaian pottery was hand built using techniques such as slabbing or coiling. Pottery wares that were produced included ceremonial or ritual pots that were used in keeping items for the performance of special ceremonies and rituals in the shrines and temples of deities or during ceremonies like Akwasidae among the Asantes of Ghana. Others were used for keeping witchcraft powers usually concealed in a household as well as in keeping the relics of ancestors. Cooking pots and vessels were used for discharging domestic duties in the home such as cooking, storing water, wine, oils, jewellery and riches. Indigenous Ghanaian pottery wares were fired using the open firing method. They were not glazed. Basketry Indigenous Ghanaian basketry items were made with with materials such as raffia, cane, grass, palm rachis etc. They were plaited or woven into simple and complex designs or patterns. They were used used for storage purposes. Mostly these items served as receptacles or containers for storing farming tools, implements and foodstuffs from the farm or bought in the local market squares. Kente Weaving Kente weaving has a long tradition in Ghana. It is a unique hand woven cloth. It serves as a traditional cultural identity and a symbol of unity for Ghanaians. History has it that it may be the Asantes or the Ewes who first introduced the art in Ghana. It is asserted that the art of kente weaving was learnt either from the Page 257

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GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR S.H.S. UNIT FOUR ROMAN LETTERING

Specific Objectives: The student will be able to: 1.4.1 identify the characteristics of Roman lettering 1.4.2 explain the significance and functions of Roman letters 1.4.3 write words in Roman capitals 1.4.4 determine the similarities and differences between Gothic and Roman letters 1.5.1 explain the uses of lettering in communication design 1.5.2 write, print and create messages, labels and collé Roman lettering style was developed from an old inscription found at the foot of a column built by Emperor Trojan in Rome in 113 B.C. A Frenchman called Nicholas Jenson first created the Roman lettering style in the fifteenth century precisely in 1470. Roman letters are also referred to as ‘Classical Roman lettering’ or ‘Quadrata’. The Roman alphabet took at least seven centuries to develop and did not contain the letters, J, U, and W. Roman letters have ornamental or finishing strokes called serifs at both the top and bottom parts of the letters. These serifs give the vertical strokes of the letters stability and also make the letters graceful. The serif may be angular, rounded or rectangular. This accounts for the varieties of serifs such as beaked serif, hairline serif, bracketed serif, sheared serif and slab serif. Roman letters have varying strokes of thick and thin. The vertical strokes are generally thick while the horizontal strokes are usually thin. CHARACTERISTICS OF ROMAN LETTERING These features outlined below distinct Roman lettering from other forms of lettering. 1. They have varying thick and thin strokes. 2. They have serifs or ornamental projections at the top and bottom parts of the letters. 3. The letters have different proportions or sizes. 4. They are extremely beautiful and attractive. 5. The letters stand erect or upright. 6. They are drawn or constructed. USES OF ROMAN LETTERING Roman letters are widely used for various purposes. Some of these are listed below.

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1. It is used in writing the reading materials in books, newspapers and magazines due to its readability. 2. They are used in designing packages and greeting cards. 3. They are used in writing the text on posters, banners etc. 4. They are used for writing messages on citations. 5. They are used in writing certificates.

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cherished and protected. There are three main forms of Ghanaian art. These are a) Visual arts b) Performing Arts and c) Verbal Arts a) Indigenous Ghanaian Visual arts Indigenous Ghanaian artists practiced various forms of Visual arts. As earlier explained, visual arts are the arts that appeal to the optical sense and can also be felt by the sense of touch. Examples of the Visual art forms produced by the indigenous artists include body arts, pottery, basketry, kente weaving, Adinkra printing, bead making, wood carving, metal work, calabash work etc. Body Arts These are the arts done on the body either in the form of body painting, body marks or coiffure. In indigenous Ghana, body arts played various roles in the indigenous society. They were made to serve aesthetic, medicinal, political, identification, spiritual, symbolic, entertainment and religious purposes.

Roman Lettering DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ROMAN LETTERING AND GOTHIC LETTERING There are various differences between Roman lettering and Gothic lettering. These differences can be seen in their form and constructions. The table below shows the differences. ROMAN LETTERING

They have strokes of varying thickness. The vertical strokes are normally thick while the horizontal strokes are usually thin. They have serifs or ornamental projections at the top and bottom of the letters. The letters have different proportions or sizes.

GOTHIC LETTERING

They have strokes of equal or uniform thickness.

They have no serifs or ornamental projections. They are sans serif letters. The letters have the same sizes or proportions.

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For instance, body paintings in the form of tattooing are done on special parts of the body for beautification purposes. For the women, the tattoos may appear on the neck, shoulders, breast, navel etc to depict their feminine beauty. In indigenous Ghana, a woman who has safely delivered a baby paints herself with white kaolin to signify her relief or success from child birth. During festivals, people paint their bodies in the symbols of the deities, ancestors and gods whom they are honoring. Some are for spiritual protection against evil people who will attend the function. Among the Gas and the Fantes, the bodies of twins are painted with clay during out dooring ceremonies to signal their fortune. Indigenous Ghanaian priests paint special parts of their bodies such as their left eye, ankles and wrists and dance in a circle created with white kaolin for spiritual protection. The corpses of dead bodies of individuals who committed suicide in indigenous Ghana were painted with grey or ash to disfigure their bodies for the disgraceful act. Body painting also served medicinal purposes in Indigenous Ghana. For example, a child who develops a swelling on the cheeks called Gyemerekutu among the Akans is cured through painting the cheeks with created dots from a mixture of red earth pigment- laterite (Ntwuma), ash from the burnt firewood and black from the soot of cooking pots. Also, some hairstyles or coiffure were made to enhance the personal appearance of people. Examples of indigenous Ghanaian hairstyles include Densinkran, Ntekua, Nteekuma, dedah, Mesa etc. It serves identification purposes such as indicating one’s sex, social status, level in the rites of passage or ethnic society. For example, high ranking women in indigenous Asante communities braided Page 256

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16. a. What is direct printing? b. Describe the direct printing technique. 17. Write short notes on frottage printing 18. Write briefly on stencil printing. 19. (a) Define screen printing? (b) List five (5) tools and materials for screen printing. 20. Describe how to design and transfer images onto screens using the lacquering method.

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SIMILARITIES BETWEEN GOTHIC AND ROMAN LETTERING There are some similarities between both the Gothic lettering style and the Roman lettering style. These similarities are listed below. • Both Gothic and Roman lettering are drawn or constructed. • The letters of both lettering styles stand erect in a vertical position. • They are all formal lettering styles. ITALIC LETTERING

SECTION FOUR GHANAIAN ARTS AND ARTISTS General objectives: The student will: 1. appreciate the roles of Ghanaian indigenous and contemporary artists and their art forms. 2. develop the ability to assess the functions and relevance of Ghanaian Art forms. UNIT ONE

Italic lettering is a cursive typeface based on a stylized form of calligraphic handwriting. Owing to the influence from calligraphy, such typefaces often slant slightly to the right. Different glyph shapes from roman type are also usually used. True italics are therefore distinct from oblique type, in which the font is merely distorted into a slanted orientation. However, uppercase letters are often oblique type or swash capitals rather than true italics. This style is called "italic" for historical reasons. Italic typefaces started to be designed in Italy, for chancery or political purposes. Ludovico Arrighi and Aldus Manutius (both between the 15th and 16th centuries) were the main type designers involved in this process at the time. "Italics are the print equivalent of underlining" and typewriter users underlined words that would normally appear as italics in professionally printed works.

GHANAIAN ARTS AND ARTISTS Specific Objectives: The student will be able to: 4.1.1 describe Ghanaian indigenous arts and artists. 4.1.2 discuss the functions and relevance of indigenous Ghanaian Art forms. Ghanaian arts refer to the arts thus the sculpture, paintings, pottery, music, dance etc. made by Ghanaians. They include the art forms, techniques or style, production processes, tools and materials (media) that distinct the arts from those of neighbouring regions in West Africa. There are two phases of Ghanaian arts. These are the Indigenous Ghanaian arts and the Contemporary Ghanaian arts. INDIGENOUS GHANAIAN ARTS AND ARTISTS Indigenous Ghanaian arts refer to the arts designed, arranged or composed by the people (indigenous Ghanaian artists) for the people (the Ghanaian society) using their ideas, local ingenuity, technology, tools and materials. They form an integral part of the everyday life of the people. These works are highly valued, Page 255

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DECORATIVE LETTERING These are letters that receive special ornamentations or decoration. They are normally used as first letters for text in books, magazines, journals, greeting cards etc.

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i. Visual Communication systems This system of communication is based on the sense of sight (eye). Thoughts and ideas are created in visual forms, e.g. text and images such as billboards, magazines, posters, collage, photograph, newspaper, etc. ii. Audio Communication systems This communication systemis based on the sense of hearing (ears). The message is sent through sound waves to receivers. Examples are radios, telephones, mobile phones, etc. iii. Audiovisual Communication systems This communication system combines visual and audio messages and communicate them to receivers. Audiovisual messages are received by watching and listening. Examples include television, motion pictures, DVD, EVD, etc.

Decorative Lettering iv. Computer-based Communication systems This communication system uses computer assisted software programs and various social communication network systems to communicate information or messages to receivers. Examples include Face book, Twitter, Skype, computerbased interactive video etc.

FREESTYLE LETTERING Specific objectives: The student will be able to: 2.4.1. design letters to form words using ideas from the environment. Freestyle letters are letters that are created through drawing. They are used to express ideas, mood, state or nature of objects from the environment. It is also referred to as Letter Semantics. It does not follow any strict or laid down rules and therefore allows for great flexibility for the Graphic artist. Due to its expressive nature, it is very useful in designing trade names for companies. The chief material used by the company is used in creating the writing of the trade name to reflect its activities. For instance, a wood processing company may use trees as the main pictorial symbol for the writing of the trade name while a fishing company may also use fishes. Freestyle letters add more meaning to their accompanying text and make it more interesting.

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LIKELY EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 1. Discuss the three (3) dominant processes involved in the designing of artefacts. 2. State five (5) points essential in making a two-dimensional design. 3. Describe the relationship between two dimensional and three-dimensional works. 4. (a) What is a computer? (b) Draw and label the parts of a computer. 5. Discuss the role that computer play in Art. 6. List and explain four computer accessories. 7. Briefly describe the general importance of computers. 9. Discuss three (3) main importance of the design and technology process. 10. Briefly explain the various steps in the design and technology process. 11. (a) What is evaluation? (b) Why is evaluation important to the designer? 12. Discuss the investigation of the problem stage in the design and technology process. 13. List the steps in the design and technology process in an orderly manner. 14. a. Define printmaking. b. List five (5) types of printmaking. 15. Describe the relief printing method. Page 254

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elements, treatment, and structure. It may be words, letters, or symbols used for presenting or recording information. RECEIVER This is the one who receives the message sent by the source or sender. Communication skill of the receiver is his/her ability to decode or interpret the message or signal delivered by the source into cognitive schemata (knowledge). Receivers should develop decoding skills of reading, listening and understanding the structured message or signals delivered by the sender or source. FEEDBACK This refers to the receiver’s response to the message sent by the sender. Feedback helps the sender to ascertain whether the message sent was successfully understood by the receiver(s). Let’s use this scenario to illustrate the five elements of communication. Prof. Ablade Glover wants a Sales Girl for his Art Gallery. He put up an advert in the media stating the requirements. He receives some applications; short listed a few, interviewed them and employed two of the applicants. Sender – Prof. Ablade Glover Channel – The Media Message – Vacancy for a Sales Girl Receiver – The public Feedback – The Response/Applications received Communication Technology This refers to the tools, materials and processes that people use to enhance their abilities to communicate. These include books, radio, computer etc. Communication System It is the sum of all the tools, materials and processes through which a sender sends a message and a receiver returns feedback. There are several types of communication systems. Types of Communication System Communication basically utilizes two of our senses. These are the sense of sight (eye) and the sense of hearing (ears). There are four main categories of communication systems. These are visual communication system, audio communication system, audiovisual communication system and the computer based communication system. Page 253

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SERIF They are ornamental projections or flourishes around the extremities of letters or it is the little strokes found at the end of the main characters or strokes of Roman letters and others. It makes letters to stand firm. There are five types of serifs namely hair line, slab/block, bracketed, wedge/chisel and round serif. SPACING This is the art of adjusting the gaps or spaces in letters, words or lines of text. There are three types of spacing namely Line spacing, word spacing and letter spacing. i) Line spacing: This refers to spaces between lines or sentences in a paragraph. ii) Word spacing: This refers to spacing between individual words in a sentences iii) Letter spacing: This refers to spacing between individual letters in a word. There are three types of Letter spacing. They are explained below. (a) Visual spacing: This refers to the use of the eye in adjusting spaces between letters. It is also called optical spacing. (b) Mechanical spacing: This refers to assigning equal or uniform spaces between letters. It is also known as mathematical spacing or ‘Tracking’. (c) Kerning: This refers to overlapping letters in a word such that there is little or no space between them. LIKELY EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 1. (a) What is block lettering? (b) List five (5) characteristics of block letters (c) State five (5) uses of block letters 2. (a) Mention the three (3) styles of block lettering (b) State the differences between them. 3. (a) Describe the characteristics of gothic letters (b) State five (5) functions of gothic letters 4. Explain the types of spacing 5. (a) What is calligraphy? (b) Describe and explain the following lettering with letters A and M: i) Roman lettering ii) Gothic lettering iii) Italic lettering Page 182

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SECTION TWO AFRICAN ART General objectives: The student will: 1. be aware of the philosophical and cultural attributes that influence past and present African Art. 2. appreciate the contributions of indigenous and contemporary African Artists and their medium of expression. 3. understand the concepts of Visual arts in relation to history and cultures UNIT SIX COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

UNIT ONE PHILOSOPHY OF AFRICAN ART Specific Objectives: The student will be able to: 2.1.1 analyze the belief system of the African 2.1.2 describe the art forms of the African 2.1.3 analyze the influence of the African belief system on the creation and patronage of African Art forms African arts are the arts that were created in Africa and bears African traits or characteristics. They are usually referred to as south or sub Saharan arts. They comprise various societies in the Western, Southern, Eastern and Central part of Africa. THE AFRICAN BELIEF SYSTEM The sub-Saharan African believes that he is surrounded by various spirits. These spirits fight against each other for supremacy and prominence. There are good or benevolent spirits and bad or malevolent spirits in the universe or cosmos. Therefore, various rites and rituals are performed by the individual so as to tap the help of the benevolent spirits to war against the malevolent spirits. These spirits are arranged in a hierarchy based on the extent of their power and capabilities. The belief system of the African are: 1. Superior Deity (God) 2. Ancestors 3. Spirits 4. Animism 5. Witchcraft and Sorcery

Specific Objectives: The student will be able to: 3.6.1 explain the elements of Communication 3.6.2 describe communication technology and state the systems Communication is the process by which people exchange information or express their thoughts and feelings. Communication is defined as the transmission of information from a source to a receiver. Elements of Communication Communication involves five basic elements. These are the sender, channel, message, receiver, and feedback. SENDER This is also referred to as the source or who or where the message is coming from. Communication skill of the sender is his/her ability to encode or convert the content or message into appropriate modes or signals. This includes the ability to write, speak and reason. CHANNEL This is the means through which the message encoded by the sender is sent to the receiver. It is also referred to as Signal. This signal or channel changes the message into a form that can be heard, seen, touched, tasted or smelt by the receiver. The popular channel is the media through sound waves (radio) etc. MESSAGE Message simply refers to the main information that the sender or source has for the receiver. Message in communication is described in terms of code, content,

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All Over Repeat The all over repeat pattern has the principal designs or motifs appearing or running through all the parts of the material.

Positive and Negative Repeat This repeat pattern is achieved by alternating the positive and negative areas of the picture area. The positive area or image area rotates in placement with the background which is usually composed of textures to form the repeat pattern. It is also referred to as Counter Change design.

Mirror Reflection Repeat In this repeat pattern, the main design or motif is repeated in a mirrored manner. This is achieved by placing and alternating side by side the right and left parts of the main motifs or design.

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1. BELIEF IN THE SUPERIOR DEITY (GOD) All Africans believe in the Supreme Being or God. The belief is at the centre of African religion and dominates all its other beliefs. He is believed to be at the top of the hierarchy of spirits in the cosmos. Each society in Africa has a local principal name for the Supreme Being. For example, the Akans of Asante call him Onyame or Onyankopon Kwame. The Ewes called him Mawu while the Gas refers to him as Ataa Naa Nyomo. He is the creator and sustainer of the universe. There are various attributes for God in Africa. These attributes indicate the nature of the deity and it varies from one locality to the other. He is the creator of all, sovereign ruler of the universe, omnipotent (all powerful), omniscient (knows everything) and omnipresent (is everywhere). Atheism (people who don’t believe in the existence of God) is foreign to African thought. It is generally believed that Africans do not worship God directly. However, they worship him through mediators like the lesser gods and ancestors. Though it is asserted that Africans do not build shrines or temples to worship him as well as create images to represent him, there are some few shrines constructed for him in some ethnic societies. Typical examples can be found among the Asantes of Ghana, the Ewes of Ghana and Togo, the Dogons of Mali and the Kikuyu of Kenya. 2. BELIEF IN ANCESTORS Ancestors are our forefathers who led good or exemplary lives while they lived in the physical world. They are referred to as the living dead or shades because though dead physically they continue to be members of the lineage. They did not die through accidents, child birth, and unclean diseases such as leprosy, epilepsy or suicide but had died a good or natural death. Drunkards, adulterers, an extravagant person, a lazy person, as well as thieves are all not considered to be ancestors. Most of the ancestors are founders of societies and families. After their death, they enter the spiritual mode of existence and go to live close to the Supreme Being. The Akans, however, believe that the ancestors live in Asamando (the land of the dead). In some societies they are regarded as invisible policemen controlling the affairs of the living. These ancestors have been given special powers by the Supreme Being. Everything that concerns the community, its health, fertility of the land and prosperity are of interest to them. The ancestors by virtue of their age, experience, authority and unique position are believed to be appropriate agents to be consulted for the necessities of life. Since they are the custodians of the societal laws and customs, they seek their consent in any undertaking. Failure to seek their guidance would incur their wrath and displeasure resulting in a heavy calamity for the society. Before a new land is cultivated, their permission is sought since they are the owners of the land. Page 184

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They are venerated or revered through the pouring of libations, drums, songs, dances, prayers and offerings. Festivals and ceremonies are held in honour of the ancestors to thank them and to ask for more help. The most important festival held in honour of the ancestors among the Akans is the Adae festival. The ancestral spirits are propitiated, solicited and venerated. It is observed twice in every successive period of forty-three days, once on a Sunday (Akwasidae) or (Adaekese) and one held on Wednesday (Wukudae). It is a day on which the chief and his elders enter the stool house (nkonguafieso) to offer sacrifices and prayers to the ancestors. Elaborate ancestral cults are organized for them at particular times of the year. In all these rites, ceremonies and festivals, art looms high. 3. BELIEF IN SPIRITS Spirits are special creatures of God created to fulfill specific functions. Their powers given to them by God are limited to the performance of specific functions and none of them enjoys the unlimited power ascribed to the Most High God. They are regarded as children, agents or messengers of God. They may be male or female and are given places of abode or habitats in the environment such as in hills, rivers, the sea, trees, rocks and even certain animals. The Akans call them Abosom while the Gas refers to them as W)ji. The Ewes call them Trowo while the Yorubas call them Orisha. Each of these spirits is believed to have his or her own area of competence and jurisdiction. Hence, there are those in charge of war, fertility, agriculture, travelling and various other spheres of human endeavour. An example is the Chiwara spirit of the Bambaras of Mali who is believed to supervise agricultural activities in the land. Special antelope masks are worn together with special costumes accompanied by some dance tunes to invite his spirit to help them in their agricultural activities. Among the Akans of Ghana, Asaase Yaa or Asaase Efua and Odudua of the Yorubas in Nigeria believed to be goddesses of the earth are in charge of the fertility of women and the earth. The images of the goddesses are modeled in clay or carved in wood together with some children. Offerings and prayers are forwarded to them to seek their help. Another example is the god of thunder of the Yorubas of Nigeria called Shango. He is either represented as an armed rider on horseback or by the symbol of the thunderbolt. These are used in invoking his spirit. 4. BELIEF IN ANIMISM It is asserted that all natural things including stones have a soul or spirit inherent in them and some possess special powers granted to them by God. Therefore these natural objects are highly respected. Animism is therefore the belief that God has given special powers to some plants, animals and objects which can be tapped for Page 185

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ii. Half drop repeat iii. Simple repeat iv. All over repeat v. Positive and negative repeat vi. Mirror reflection repeat Full Drop Repeat In the full drop repeat pattern, the full size of the motif or main design appears in all parts of the composition.

Half Drop Repeat In this repeat pattern, the motifs or main designs are dropped by half by the first arrangement so that there will be halves at both ends of the cloth or paper such that when the sides of the paper or cloth is rolled, it would result in full designs.

Simple Repeat In simple repeat pattern, the motifs are repeated across the material in a simple pattern. Sometimes, they are placed haphazardly in the composition without any forethought plan. The focus of simple repeat pattern is that the motifs should be repeated in the composition.

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String Pulling This is the technique of creating patterns on a material by the use of strings. These strings are immersed in a colour pigment or ink. The coloured string is then pulled for the colours to spill on the material to create decorative patterns on the paper. Scribbling This method of creating patterns involves the creation of random abstract lines with a marking tool, generally without ever lifting the drawing device off of the paper. The scribbles which are often created with different coloured marking tools result in eye catching and attractive patterns on papers. These can be used in producing designs on paper bags, garlands, greeting cards etc. Paper marbling This is a method of aqueous (water) surface design used in producing patterns. The patterns are the result of colour usually oil paint poured to float on either the surface of plain water or a viscous solution known as size, and then carefully transferred to an absorbent surface, such as paper or fabric. It is often employed as a writing surface for calligraphy, and especially book covers and endpapers in bookbinding and stationery. It can also be used as designs on papers to be used in producing paper bags. Wax Resist/ Crayon Batik This form of pattern making involves the use of wax in resisting parts of a paper or fabric and either applying colour or ink on the entire surface of the material. After the paint or ink is dried on the surface of the material, the wax is scratched off or removed to create interesting patterns. Another technique is applying the waxed design on the surface of the material and immersing it in a paint, dye or ink solution. The wax is freed off the material after the paint or dye is dried to create the patterns. Coloured crayons can be used for creating attractive patterns on materials before paint, dye or ink is applied.

MOTIF ARRANGEMENTS A motif is the principal or main design in a composition. When the motif appears together with other designs in the composition, it domineers in size as well as number in relation to the other designs. The motifs are bigger in size and greater in number when compared with the other designs in a composition. The motifs, images or elements can be repeated and organized in several pleasing patterns in a composition. Motifs, images or elements can be repeated according to the following: i. Full drop repeat Page 249

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human use. However, to be able to tap this power, certain rituals, ceremonies and rites have to be performed. Sometimes rituals are performed on concoctions prepared from some parts of a plant and is given to a sick person to get healed. Some animals like birds, crocodiles, and snakes are believed to have fertility charms. Some parts of such animals like the teeth, bones and skins are used in making amulets, talisman, charms and belts. They are worn by barren women who cannot give birth and they help them to be able to give birth. Images of these animals are fashioned in gold, brass, silver, ivory, bone etc. into various forms of jewels such as necklaces, pendants, anklets and wristlets. They are worn on the body for spiritual protection. Tools and materials for the production of artefacts are respected and feared. For this reason, before a wood carver cuts down a tree to be used for carving, he has to propitiate or appease the spirit inherent in the tree through the pouring of libations and the performance of other rituals before he fell down the tree. Also, the tools for creation of the artefacts should be treated and handled with respect otherwise it is believed that the artist would wound himself or herself while performing the work. Some animals and sometimes plants are used as totems to represent clans, families and societies. These animals and plants are believed to have special relationship between members of the clan. Such animals and plants are respected by members of the clan or family. Their bodies are not eaten and they are given befitted burials as if they were human. An example is the python which is a totem of the Asantes. There is an Asante myth that it was the python that taught their first descents about conception. 5. BELIEF IN SORCERY AND WITCHCRAFT These are practices based on magic but are used for evil purposes. It is believed that the power of divinities and ancestors as well as the power derived from medicine can be used for destructive purposes. Witches and sorcerers represent those elements in the African societies that use these powers for the purpose of destroying life. In general, witches are female while sorcerers are male. Witches are believed to be wicked and malicious human beings whose intention is simply to kill, which they do by poisoning or cursing their victims. Witches and sorcerers are usually identified as the major causes of misfortune or death in the family. Due to the fear of witches and sorcerers, some seek protection against them through medicine men who may ask them to wear a special ring, necklace etc. as either an amulet (attract good spirits) or as talisman (wards off bad spirits). In some cultures, special dances performed by individuals wearing special costumes and masks are believed to drive away witches.

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RITES OF PASSAGE The term ‘rites of passage’ or ‘rites de passage’ was first used by the French ethnologist Van Gennep in 1909. It refers to the rites, rituals and ceremonies that are used to mark the changes or transitions from one stage of life to another. These changes include birth, puberty, marriage and death. BIRTH This is the first phase of the life cycle. It is a transition from the spiritual world to the world of the living. In some societies, birth is believed to be the channel through which ancestors are reborn into their lineages. It is viewed as a way through which the gods and ancestors reward members of the family. Naming and outdooring ceremonies are organized to thank the gods and the ancestors for the child and to welcome the child from the spiritual world. The ceremonies are carried out on the eight day because it is believed that it is at that time that the newly born child has fully severed or broken his former link with the world of spirits. Prior to the eight day, the child is referred to as a visitor. During the rites, prayers are said and libations are poured with water, wine or milk depending on the ethnic society the child is born into. Among the Akans, the parents of the child put on white cloth and white clay to signify their happiness. Several art forms are used during this occasion such as pots, clothes, calabashes, music, dance etc. PUBERTY This is the passage from childhood into adolescence and adulthood. At this stage of life, several rites are performed to usher the young ones into adulthood. Initiation rites are performed to make the initiates fully developed persons capable of discharging their duties as full members of the society. The initiation rites contain ideals of manhood or womanhood which society wishes to instill into the young adults who undergo the rites. In some societies, the initiates are secluded in a camp away from home for a period of time during which instructions such as knowledge on the customs of the land, law and justice, home management, personal hygiene, fighting skills, practice of art etc. are given. The entire experience that they gain brings about physical, emotional and psychological changes in them. The return to their homes after the rites signifies a rebirth into another stage in life, for they have been reborn into adolescence and adulthood. Special costumes and masks are worn by the initiates and their instructors who are usually the elders in the society. Artefacts are used as teaching aids in the giving of instructions. Drums are beaten and initiates engaged in special dances to invite the spirits of the ancestors to the initiation ceremony. Drama and storytelling are mediums through which the instructions are given. Page 187

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resultant designs cannot be predicted by the artist. Patterns can be used as designs for paper bags, clothes, greeting cards, fringes, garlands or tassels, and pop-up. There are several techniques in pattern making. Examples of pattern making techniques are Sponging, Veining, Blowing, Spraying, Spattering, Stippling, String Pulling, Wax-resist/crayon batik, Marbling, Scribbling, Rubbing-in, Rubbing-out etc. Sponging This technique of pattern making involves the use of sponge as the principal tool for the creation of the patterns. The sponge can be laid or spread on the material (such as paper or cloth). The paint or ink is then dabbed with foam at the open areas of the sponge. The paint or ink can also be sprayed onto material after laying the sponge. The netty patterns or diamond shaped patterns of the sponge would appear on the material. Another technique is immersing the sponge in the paint or ink and rolling it on the material or paper to create the patterns. Spattering This form of pattern making involves the application of paint in a liquid form by splashing the paint on the surface of the material to create interesting patterns. Sometimes, the tips of brushes are loaded with colour or ink and the thumb is used in splashing the colour onto the material such as paper. The splashing of the coloured pigment or paint can be done with a piece of foam or brush loaded with paint. Spraying This is the application of paint or colour spilled through the tiny holes of a spray diffuser or atomizer. The spray can or container is filled with different coloured pigments or ink and is sprayed one at a time onto the material in several ways to create interesting designs. Surfaces of Papers for writing calligraphy and other forms of wall hangings are decorated with spray patterns in varieties of colours. Stippling This is the use of a drawing tool or implement in creating series of dots in an organized pattern on a material. Marking tools such as pencils, crayons, markers and pens can be used in creating interesting patterns of dots on paper and cards. This form of pattern making can be used to decorate the background of cards to be used for greeting cards, certificates and other forms of wall hangings. Pointed metallic tools such as gouges, chisels and texturing nails can be used in creating decorative textures in the form of dots on backgrounds of wood, clay and leather.

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plates. This results in a faster duration of printing as well as lower cost when using the digital printing process. Another advantage with the digital printing method is that the ink or toner does not permeate the substrate as conventional inks do. It rather forms a thin layer on the surface of the substrate. Digital printing also offers ‘Print on Demand’ services such as personalize printing with customized names, photo books etc. It enhances the advertisement of goods and services such as outdoor banner advertising and event signage. In the area of photography, digital printing has made it possible to add other features to photographs such as retouching and the implementation of different colour effects before printing is carried out. In the area of architectural design, new media that conforms to a variety of surfaces has enabled interior and exterior spaces to be transformed using digitally printed wall murals and floor graphics. Digital printing technology has grown significantly over the past few years with substantial developments in quality and sheet sizes.

Digital Printing Machine

UNIT FIVE PATTERN MAKING Specific Objective: The student will be able to: 3.5.1 create patterns using varieties of techniques A pattern is an organized arrangement of the elements of design such as dots, lines, shapes, textures, colours etc. on a surface using any appropriate techniquefor decoration. Pattern making is an experimental process since the Page 247

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MARRIAGE This is the legal union between a man and a woman who have gone through all the rites and customs associated with marriage in the society. Marriage is more than a union of two individuals but a union of two families. To the African, marriage is a duty or a requirement and an aspect of life that everyone must participate. Any member of the society who fails to participate is viewed as a curse to the society, he is a law-breaker. He is not only abnormal but also an ‘under human’. The aim of marriage is procreation and without it marriage is incomplete. Several artefacts are used during the marriage rites. For instance, prayers are offered to the gods and ancestors to bless the marriage with peace, prosperity, joy and many healthy children. Friends and loved ones offer presents and gifts to the married couple and most of these are artefacts like bowls, vessels, clothes etc. The bride also adorns herself in nice clothes with several jewels. Since it is a festive occasion, performing art forms such as music, drumming and dancing are immensely used. DEATH This is the last stage of the life cycle. It is viewed as the inevitable end of man. However, Africans believe that death is a transition or journey from the world of the living to the metaphysical world or the land of spirits. It is a journey which man must make in order to reach the life beyond and continue to live as an ancestor. The dead do not remain in the grave but become spirits and proceed to the spirit world called Asamando by the Akans. Funeral rites and ceremonies are held for the deceased to prepare him for the journey. Items that the deceased will need in his journey as well as in his next life are put in his grave such as mats, sandals, clothes, money, pillows etc. It is also believed by most Africans that a person’s status and position in the physical life is maintained in his next life in the spiritual world. Various artefacts are used such as wooden caskets (coffins), funerary clothes such as Kobene, Kuntunkuni, Adinkra clothes, pouring of libation, prayers are said, music, drumming and dancing. MYTH The word myth is derived from the Greek word ‘mythos’ meaning ‘story’. They are sacred stories which are told to explain how the people who give the myths think about themselves and about the universe. Myths are means through which certain facts or ‘basic truths’ about man’s existence and his encounter with the universe are explained. These stories give understanding in a clearer manner than any scientific description and logical analysis.

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Myths play an important role in explaining religious beliefs and practices. They are usually linked to the worship of the gods and are told to explain festivals, ceremonies and forms of images. They are told to explain the origin of things in the universe such as the origin of man, God, the creation of the universe, human institutions and societal values, the origin of death, the relationship between God and man, heroes and great leaders and political institutions. For instance there are numerous myths about the creation of the world and the origin of man in Africa. These myths deepen our understanding of God’s creative powers and supremacy. Some myths bear resemblances with biblical mythology. One of such myths is the popular myth of the Akans that explains why God separated from humans. A woman constantly pounded fufu with her pestle hitting God and thereby drawing him to a distance away from man. The woman regretting her action asked her children to gather together all the mortars they could find, and building them one upon another to reach God. Unfortunately, they were short with one mortar. The old woman instructed her children to remove the bottom-most mortar and place it on the top one so as to reach God. When this was done all the mortars collapsed and rolled to the ground. This resulted in their failure to reach God. This myth is similar to the story in the Bible about the Babel Tower. Among the Ewes there is a popular myth that Mawu made the first men and women out of clay and water. Clay was scarce in those days and so when men died Mawu took their bodies to make new men. This explains why children resemble their parents and also the link between the living and the dead. All over West Africa, there are myths that indicate that men were fashioned as women fashion pots. This implies that man belongs to God and that God can do whatever he pleases with them. Man, is therefore nothing before God for God can build and destroy them. In this myth, the story may seem untrue but the basic truth is well explained in it. Therefore myths are not untrue stories but are sacred stories that throw more light on facts of life and creation. THE ART FORMS OF THE AFRICAN The Africans practiced several art forms. These art forms were used in association with their set of beliefs as well as cultural life. The Africans made use of Visual arts, Performing arts and Verbal arts. VISUAL ARTS Visual arts are the arts that can be seen and felt by the sense of touch. The Visual arts used by the Africans include Sculpture, Painting, Architecture, Textiles, Pottery, Basketry, Leatherwork, Bead making, Calabash art etc.

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FLEXOGRAPHY Flexography (Flexo) printing uses a raised-image printing plate. Photopolymer or rubber plates are used to transfer the print image. Conventional liquid or sheet photopolymer plates are used for line art. Laser-imaged, direct-to-plates (DTP) are used for all four-colour process, all duotone, and most halftone images. As the plate cylinder rotates, it comes in contact with an anilox, or ink roller, which inks the raised portion of the printing plate. The plate then transfers the ink to the web, or paper. The anilox roll is laser-engraved with thousands of recessed cells that fill up with ink. The doctor blade controls the ink transfer to the plate. The doctor blade wipes off all ink except what is in the cells of the anilox roll. Compared to offset printing, this method offers significantly more ink transfer.

The Flexo printing process

DIGITAL PRINTING Digital printing is a type of printing whereby digital-based images are transferred directly onto a variety of media. It involves the printing of designs from desktop publishing and other digital sources are printed using large-format as well as highvolume laser or inkjet printers. In digital printing, an image is sent directly to the printer using digital files such as PDFs and those from graphics software such as Illustrator and InDesign. Several forms of substrates can receive the printed image such as paper, plastics, glass, canvas, metal etc. Digital printing is far cheaper than the traditional offset printing which requires the production of printing plates which are costly. Digital printing also allows the modification of images for each impression which will only be possible at a higher fee when using the offset printing method. Moreover, the traditional methods of printing such as lithography, flexography, gravure or letterpress involves the constant replacement of printing plates while digital printing do not require the replacement of printing Page 246

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The Lithography printing process GRAVURE PRINTING Gravure prints made from a "cut-in," or a recessed surface. An engraved metal printing cylinder is used to transfer the printed image onto the paper. As the gravure image cylinder rotates in the ink pan, the engraved cells of the image are filled with ink. The doctor blade controls and meters the ink by wiping the excess from cylinder surface, leaving ink only within engraved cells. The gravure cylinder then comes in contact with the paper substrate, transferring the printed image with the help of the rubber impression cylinder, which pulls the ink from the engraved cells. The principle involved in gravure is also referred to as ‘intaglio’. In gravure printing, the images are transferred from plates that have been recessed or sunken in. It is the exact opposite of relief printing.

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Mostly, deities and ancestors are represented in sculpture either in wood, clay, metal etc. Images of some of the deities are painted on the walls of shrines and temples of the gods and ancestors. Body paintings are made on the bodies of initiates during initiation rites. Some shrine attendants and traditional priests also lavishly decorate their bodies with symbols of their gods and ancestors. Architectural structures such as shrines, temples and ceremonial houses are constructed to serve as places for worship and initiation ceremonies. Dancers wear special costumes during ritualistic performances and initiation rites. Pots are used in storing the relics of ancestors and other spiritual items. Baskets and other receptacles are used in storing various items in the shrines and temples. Some are also used in carrying food to be given to the ancestors and gods. Leather items such as belts, amulets and talismans are worn as a form of protection on the body of the wearer. Some in the form of necklaces, bracelets etc. are worn as a form of identification and personal adornment. During puberty rites, the initiate girls are adorned in various forms of beads which serve beautification and spiritual purposes. Calabash with beautiful patterns which are usually symbolic are produced and used in the storing of relics, sheabutter and other items. Others are used in pouring libations to the ancestors and deities to thank them and to ask for their assistance. PERFORMING ARTS These are the arts that are played or performed. They also appeal to the kinesthetic sense or the sense of movement. Several performing art forms are used by the Africans in their daily activities. These include drumming, dancing, drama, music (singing), and miming. In various festivals and ceremonies organized in Africa, drumming and dancing places a major role. Tunes from the drums are played to assemble the people together, welcome the spirits of the gods or deities and to entertain those in attendance. Special songs are sung to praise and honor the ancestors and deities. Others are played to serve as entertainment. In DR. Congo, special tunes played from some drums are believed to be the voices of the ancestors. Symbolic forms of miming done by traditional priests during a trance which are understood and explained by an interpreter are believed to be means by which the ancestors or deities communicate with the people. Drama performances are staged to reenact the actions of the ancestors that resulted in the liberation of the people, family, clan or the society for those in attendance to observe and imitate their courage and bravery. Dramas are also staged during initiation ceremonies to teach the young initiates how to play their roles effectively as adults and matured members in the society.

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VERBAL ARTS They are the arts that are communicated in the form of spoken words which are usually narrative and descriptive in nature. The verbal arts used include folklores, dirges, appellations, storytelling etc. Folklores are stories, proverbs and riddles that discuss the cultural life of a people. During the initiation rites, stories of heroes and our founding fathers of the society are narrated to the young initiates to bolster their courage and preparedness to shoulder the responsibilities of adulthood in the society. Proverbs and riddles that contain wise sayings and important experiences worth imitating are narrated to the young ones in the society. Dirges (A song or hymn of mourning composed or performed as a memorial to a dead person) that narrate the achievements of the departed soul are performed during funeral and memorial ceremonies. Appellations of deities, ancestors and kings that embody their achievements are recited during societal gatherings, festivals and ceremonies.

a lot of pressure is exerted on the screen, it will result in the blurring of designs on the substrate. This means that the printing ink or paste will extend beyond the boundaries or edges of the design. Therefore, the pressure exerted on the squeegee should not be too light neither should it be too much.

THE INFLUENCE OF AFRICAN BELIEF SYSTEM The belief system in Africa that we have discussed has greatly influenced the creation and patronage of the various art forms. The various sets of beliefs all in one way or the other has influenced the creation of the arts done in Africa.

LITHOGRAPHIC PRINTING Lithography is a planographic printing process (surface printing) that makes use of the principle of the immiscibility of grease and water that is, water and grease does not mix. Lithography means ‘printing off stone’. Senefelder used a porous Bavarian limestone for his plate (hence lithography, from Greek lithos, “stone”). Lithography is an unusually well documented invention by German actor, playwright and typographer by name Alois Senefelder in 1798. The technique developed rapidly and spread throughout Europe. It lies at the heart of the modern printing industry but has continued to be used as an artistic medium throughout its history. In 1817 it became possible to print from a zinc plate and from there colour lithography and four-colour printing using a raster developed. By the end of the century offset printing had been invented. Artists who have used lithography as a medium include Francisco Goya, Honoré Daumier, Odilon Redon, Edvard Munch, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, Paul Klee, Käthe Kollwitz, Joan Miró and Robert Rauschenberg. In the lithographic process, the image is drawn with tusche (a carbon pigment in liquid form) and litho crayon before the printing surface is fixed, moistened, and inked in preparation for printing. The printing itself is done on a press that exerts a sliding or scraping pressure. Because it undergoes virtually no wear in printing, a single stone can yield an almost unlimited number of copies. In the lithographic process, ink is applied to a grease-treated image on the flat printing surface. The non-image (blank) areas, which hold moisture, repel the lithographic ink. This inked surface is then printed either directly on paper, by means of a special press or onto a rubber cylinder. Colour lithographs, called chromolithographs or oleographs, was developed in the second half of the 19th century.

BELIEF IN GOD The belief in the existence of God has led to the construction of some shrines and temples for him in Africa. Also, various performing art forms are used in sounding praises to him such as drumming, music and dance. He is petitioned through prayers and the pouring of libations which are all verbal arts. Again, verbal art forms such as stories and myths of God’s existence and creation of the universe are told to the younger generation. BELIEF IN ANCESTORS Owing to the belief of the African that the founding fathers and leading members of the society merits veneration and respect, various art forms are created to help in the performance of rites and ceremonies in their veneration. For instance, special stools like the blackened stools which are sculptural products are carved to represent the ancestors by the Asantes of Ghana. Libations are also poured and prayers are said to seek favour and goodwill from them. Special dances are performed to welcome their presence and sound their appellations. Various masks, costumes and beads are worn in the performance of ceremonies and cults associated with them. Tunes from special drums are played and viewed as the voices of the ancestors in some cultures. Special songs are composed to advertise their bravery, loyalty and commitment to the unity and

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-Instant washing of screens- The screens used for printing should be washed immediately after printing to avoid the blockage of screens. This is due to the fact that when the printing ink residue is allowed to stay on the screen for sometime it ceases to be washed off from the screen resulting in its blockage. It is appropriate then to wash the screen right after the printing with soapy or warm water and foam to remove all ink residues. However, it should be washed gently otherwise it will result in the creation of pinholes (small areas [pins] of the coated screen which are free from the coating solution) or the tearing or reduction of tension in the taut stretched screen.

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the screen and covered with a piece of cloth. The whole thing is exposed to the solar energy (sun) for some few minutes. The duration is dependent on the intensity of the sun. The screen is then removed and washed under running water. The design areas will be left open with the negative areas blocked. In using the developing or shooting box in the dark room, after the screen is coated with the photo emulsion and sensitizer solution, it is left to dry. The design is then placed with face up on the glass of the shooting box. The frontal part of the dried coated screen is placed on the design with the inside or hollow part up. A sack filled with fine sand or heavy clothes hinged with stones are placed in the hollow part of the screen just to ensure firm contact between the glass plate, the paper with the design and the screen. The lights in the shooting box are switched on for about five minutes. The duration can be more or less depending on the number and watts of the fluorescent bulbs in the shooting box. The screen is removed and washed under running water. Afterwards, it is dried and ready for printing.

development of their people. Ancestral figures are carved, modeled and casted in various materials to represent the ancestors. Various architectural structures such as meeting houses are constructed to house the figures that represent the ancestors and to serve as the grounds where ancestral rites are performed.

Printing with silk screen The following steps are followed when printing with prepared screens.

BELIEF IN ANIMISM Owing to the belief in animism, images of animals are used in producing necklaces, rings, bracelets etc. and are worn by individuals for protection and favours. In some cultures, animals believed to possess special powers such as Python linked with fertility are sculpted and worshipped.

1. Prepare the printing table. 2. Place Substrate (t-shirt, hanky etc.) on the printing table. 3. Position the screen (hollow side up) on the substrate. 4. Fetch little printing paste into the non-image area (ink reservoir). 5. Draw pull paste across the image area of the screen with the squeegee tilted at a reasonable angle to register a print. 6. Go over the print if deeper print is required. 7. Gently remove, wash and dry screen for future use. 8. Allow print to dry and iron design to fix.

BELIEF IN SPIRITS The numerous spirits or lesser gods who have been assigned special tasks to perform by God also operate through art. For instance, the god of thunder of the Yorubas of Nigeria is invoked through the use of special staffs. Sacrifices are offered to them in which various verbal arts such as appellations and incantations are said. The god of metals called Ogun in Yorubaland is offered dogs by drivers to avoid experiencing constant mechanical faults from their vehicles. The Asantes petition the earth deity Asaase Yaa through modeled figures in the likeness of a mother and children which is used to represent her.

BELIEF IN SORCERY AND WITCHCRAFT Special costumes in the form of amulets and talisman are worn as a form of protection. Some plants and flowers believed to ward off witches and other evil spirits are kept in special pots and placed at the entrance of the house.

UNIT TWO There are some important tips that should be noted when printing. These are: INDIGENOUS AFRICAN ARTS -Correct placement of screens- The artist should pay close attention to how he/she positions the screen on the substrate or material to be printed. If screens are wrongly placed on the substrate it would result in wrong registration of designs at designated areas of the substrate. Also, if the prints are repeated on the cloth in a special pattern or arrangement, there will be gaps or disorderliness in the arrangement.

Specific Objectives: The student will be able to: 2.2.1 analyze the role of indigenous art forms in the African society. 2.2.2 describe the main characteristics of African arts. 2.2.3 explain the socio- economic importance of the arts of the major ethnic groups of West Africa.

-Appropriate pressure on the squeegee- The pressure exerted on the squeegee should be moderate and well thought of. This is because if the pressure exerted is less, some areas of the screen will not be registered in print. On the other hand, if

The indigenous Africans practiced a lot of arts and each of the arts played various roles in the society. The arts and their roles or functions in the society are discussed below.

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VISUAL ARTS These are the arts that appeal to the optical sense and can be felt by the sense of touch. The visual art forms used by the indigenous Africans include sculpture, architecture, textiles, painting, pottery, beadwork, basketry, calabash work, leatherwork, blacksmithing, goldsmithing, body arts. • Sculpture The indigenous Africans produced various sculptural figures from varieties of materials such as wood, stone, clay, metal, ivory and bone. These materials were carved, modeled or casted into various artefacts such as stools, ceremonial swords, statues, masks, musical instruments like drums etc. These artefacts such as statues and masks played a religious/spiritual purpose such as worship of God and the veneration of the ancestors. Others like drums, flutes and chairs played a secular/ordinary purpose such as entertainment or in carrying out a household chore. • Architecture Architectural structures are used as places of worship such as temples and shrines. Others like houses, market squares and community centres played social roles in the community. Local materials such as red clay, dried bricks, bamboo, raffia and palm rachis were used in constructing of the architectural structures. Houses that served as shelter for individuals and families were simple in their design while temples and other social centres were complex in design. The shapes of the buildings mostly had symbolic meanings. For instance, shrines were usually in a circular shape to symbolize the perfection associated with God. • Textiles Textile materials such as cotton, silk, raffia and coir were used in producing fabrics that played several roles. Weaving, printing, dyeing, and appliqué are some of the textile production techniques used by the indigenous Africans. Some of the fabrics produced were worn to enhance personal appearances while others like talisman and amulets were worn for protective and spiritual purposes. Special costumes were worn before performing a religious duty. For instance, the traditional priest and his attendants wear special costumes made with coir or raffia before performing sacrifices to the gods and ancestors. Indigenous clothes such as that of the Asantes of Ghana like Kente and Adinkra are worn during festive occasions. Other textile items like curtains and mats were used for decorating the interiors of buildings.

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Equipment for screen printing •

Squeegee: This is a special device made with a flat piece of wood with a thick rubber blade as its edge. It is used for forcing the printing paste or ink through the taut stretched screen to register a print on a substrate. The edge can be made with the sole of a rubber sandal.

Preparation of Screens Paper Stencil Screen Preparation This paper stencil screen is very similar to the stencil preparation though this is an extension of it. It involves the transfer of the finished design onto the paper to be used, while cutting out the positive areas (the image to be printed) of the paper. The prepared stencil is then attached to the stretched screen block with the aid of a masking tape. Enough allowances are left to serve as ink reservoirs. The screen is ready for printing. Candle Wax screen/Shellac Screen /Lacquer screen preparation The preparatory processes in these methods of screen preparation are the same. The only difference is the material used in coating the negative areas of the screen which may either be molten wax, shellac or lacquer. The finished design is transferred onto the stretched screen block. With the aid of a brush, apply the molten wax or thinned shellac or lacquer to block the negative areas of the design. Test screen for pinholes by doing a test print. Block pinholes if there are any. The prepared screen is ready for printing. Lacquered screens are very durable and more economical in terms of quality and quantity. They are very good for simple, bold designs. Photographic Screen Preparation The photographic screen preparation involves the use of light in developing or bringing out designs onto the screen. The sources of the light can be natural or artificial. Therefore, there are two main ways of making photographic screens thus the use of the solar energy (sun) during the day and the use of the strong fluorescent bulbs in the exposing or shooting box. In all these two ways, the screens have to be coated in the darkroom with a solution of photo emulsion mixed with a sensitizer. The screen is placed in the dark room to dry. In the solar energy method, the inside or hollow part of the coated screen is filled with a sack of fine sand on a flat wooden board and turned upside down. The positive part of the paper (where the designs are) is placed on the frontal part of

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Materials for screen printing •

Mesh (organdie): This is the main netted fabric stretched over the wooden frame in making a screen. Apart from organdie, nylon, terylene or silk are used for the preparation of screens.

•

Lacquer: This is a black resinous substance obtained from certain trees and used as a natural varnish. It is usually transparent in colour used in blocking the negative areas (non-image areas) of lacquered screens.

•

Photo emulsion: Also known as closet or fixoprint is a special chemical used together with a sensitizing solution in coating photographic screens.

•

Potassium dichromate: Also called sensitizer is a chemical used as a sensitizing solution which is usually mixed with photo emulsion for coating photographic screens. It is called a sensitizer because it is sensitive to light.

•

Masking tape: This is a special paper tape with glue on one side. It is used to mask or cover the edges of a prepared screen to prevent bleeding or leakage of the printing ink in the event of printing.

•

Printing ink/paste: This is a special dye or paint in a paste or sticky form used for screen printing.

•

Chassis (wooden frame): This is a square shaped frame made up of four poles joined together at the sides with nails. It is usually soft and allows free penetration of staple pins used in fastening the mesh to the wood. Preferably, the size of the wooden frame should be bigger and wider than the size of the design.

•

Shellac: This is a sticky solution prepared from Lac purified by heating and filtering; usually in thin orange or yellow flakes but sometimes bleached white. It is used in coating or blocking the negative areas of shellac screens.

•

Printing cloth: This is a heavy cloth usually spread over the printing table used as a surface for printing.

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• Painting Paintings in various colours were made by the indigenous Africans on surfaces such as walls of temples and shrines, doors, masks, statues and drums. Most of the colours applied had a symbolic meaning. For instance, ‘wild’ colour like red was usually applied on masks and statues used in representing vindictive and ‘wicked’ gods and ancestors. On the other hand, cool and calm colurs like blue and green are used in painting objects of forgiving and generous gods. Special signs and symbols that have an affinity with a particular god or ancestor are painted on the walls of temples and also homes as a form of spiritual protection. • Pottery Pots and other receptacles are fashioned from clay, metal etc. Most of these pots and containers are used for storage purposes and in carrying out chores in the homes. Others are used for spiritual and religious purposes such as storing the relics of ancestors, keeping witchcraft powers, keeping special herbs for the performance of certain rituals, keeping jewelleries and other riches and for storing concoctions for spiritual healings. The shapes of these pots were sometimes symbolic. For example, pots for storing water in pouring libation to God was circular (symbol of perfection) while those used in puberty rites performance was in oval shape (symbol of beauty). • Beadwork Beads are stringed in the form of necklace, bracelets, and wristlets etc. and worn on the body for various purposes. For instance, the puberty girl is adorned in beads to serve as a beauty charm or in enhancing her appearance. Some beads are worn for medicinal purposes. For example, a child who frequently falls sick such as feverishness and headache may wear a bracelet stringed with sea shells enchanted to prevent the sickness. Others are worn as a form of identification of one’s family or social status and also for spiritual protection against witches and other evil spirits. • Basketry Baskets were produced from cane, palm rachis and branches, raffia and grass. They were woven into simple, complex and beautiful patterns. These baskets were used for storage purposes such as storing of farm produce, personal belongings etc. • Calabash work Gourds and calabashes are used in producing interesting artefacts. Their surfaces are lavishly decorated with beautiful and symbolic patterns. Heated metallic tools and piercing tools are used in creating the patterns on their surfaces. These are Page 194

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used in decorating the higher areas in the interiors of temples and shrines. Others are used in storing sheabutter and other substances. Some like the gourd is used in making musical instruments such as xylophones and rattles.

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considerable effort and money. Examples of permanent screens include photographic screens, lacquer screens and shellac screens.

• Leatherwork The skins and hides of animals are treated and used in the production of various artefacts. Items like shoes, slippers, hats, and costumes were worn on the body for protective and decorative purposes. Others like talisman and amulet were worn for spiritual protection. • Blacksmithing Blacksmithing is an area in metal arts that involves the production of articles from either iron or silver. It involves the heating of the metal at a very high temperature causing it to be malleable enough to be shaped into any shape on a special object known as an anvil. This technique was used by the indigenous Africans in producing their swords, daggers, knives and other war and agricultural implements for war and agricultural purposes. • Goldsmithing Goldsmithing is very similar to blacksmithing. The only difference is that gold is the chief material used in goldsmithing. Artefacts in gold like rings, crowns, hairpins, cups, bowls, goldweights, necklaces and wristlets. The items produced are used for identification purposes such as identifying those of a high social class. For instance, the chief and other members of the traditional court are distinct from other members of the community by the gold items they are adorned with. • Body arts There are three aspects of body arts in indigenous Africa. These are body painting, coiffure and body marks. Body paintings were made to serve several purposes such as religious, medicinal, political, spiritual, war and entertainment purposes. For example, a traditional priest paints himself in with white clay while performing rituals to the ancestors and gods. The colour chosen indicates his surety to succeed in his performance. During festivals, people paint their bodies and dance to entertain those in attendance. Coiffure which is concerned with the shape and treatment of the hair also thrived very much in indigenous Africa. The hair was braided, dyed and shaped in various forms to serve various purposes. These include identification, decoration, entertainment, profession, age, sex and status in the society. Body marks such as mutilations, scarifications and cicatrices were made on the body to serve medicinal, identification, religious, decorative and spiritual Page 195

A Silkscreen Tools, Materials and Equipment for Screen Printing Tools for screen printing •

Stapler: This is a device with staple pins used in stapling the mesh tautly to the chassis or wooden frame.

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Stapling pins: These are the pins used in stapling the mesh to the chassis.

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Spoon: It is used for picking and mixing the printing paste or ink.

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Shooting/exposing/developing box: This is a specially designed box with fluorescent bulbs used in developing photo sensitized screens.

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Brushes: They are used in applying lacquer in blocking the non-image areas.

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Scissors: It is used in trimming the excess mesh or silk material after stapling.

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Cutter: It is used in cutting the paper stencil for paper stencil screen.

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Printing table: This is a specially padded table of foam with a leather or fabric covering used as a surface for printing. Page 240

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5. Apply the printing paste or ink with the foam and gently dab the cut out areas of the stencil. 6. Gently remove the stencil to register the print. 7. Allow the print to dry.

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purposes. In healing certain sicknesses, cuts in symbolic signs are created on particular parts of the body like on the cheeks and at the back of the neck and some herbs rubbed in it to prevent certain physical and spiritual sicknesses. PERFORMING ARTS These are the arts that are played or performed. They can be seen by the sense of sight and felt by the sense of touch as well as the kinesthetic sense (sense of movement). In carrying out their everyday activities, the indigenous Africans made use of performing art forms such as music, drama and dance. • Music Indigenous African music is played during festivals and durbars to invoke the spirits of ancestors and deities to the occasion and also to entertain those in attendance. In all the ceremonies used in marking the various stages in the rites of passage, music plays a very significant role. In the performance of household chores and rituals in temples and shrines, music forms an integral part.

Stencil Printing Process

Screen Printing Screen printing is a way of printing images by forcing printing ink or paste with the aid of a squeegee through a specially prepared screen block to register a print on a substrate ( fabric, paper, leather, t-shirt etc.) It is also referred to as Serigraphyor Mitography. This printing technique is widely used by several artists and most printing houses for the execution of their projects because it can be used in printing on virtually all surfaces such as papers, plastics, cloths, leather, glass, wood, rubber etc. Types of Screens for Printing There are two main types of screens that are used for screen printing. These are Temporal Screens and Permanent Screens. a. Temporal Screens These are screens that last for a shorter period of time. They are suitable for registering single or limited prints on clothes and papers. They are very easy to prepare and does not require a lot of money or effort. Examples of temporal screens are paper stencil screens and candle wax screens. b. Permanent Screens These are screens that have a very long time span and if properly cared for, can last forever. They can be used in printing multiples, hundreds and even thousands of prints. Their preparation in comparison with the temporal screens demands Page 239

• Drama Drama and other forms of theatrical performances are used in initiation ceremonies to give instructions and training to the young initiates on the laws and customs of the land as well as fighting skills etc. During storytelling sessions, drama plays a vibrant role in highlighting and giving moral lessons. In indigenous African drama, the audience participates and interacts with the actors and actresses while the performance is in season or in progress. • Dance Special dance performances are performed during festivals, durbars, rituals and other ceremonies in all the indigenous societies in Africa. Graceful and vigorous dance patterns characterize the various dances. Some dance performances are to appease and thank the ancestors while others are merely for entertainment. VERBAL ARTS Verbal arts are the arts performed orally with the mouth. It involves words, body movements, and is sometimes accompanied by songs. Examples of verbal arts include incantations, poetry recitals, storytelling, dirges, lyrics, appellations, proverbs, idioms, prayers and libations. In ancestral veneration, incantations, appellations and recitals are said to praise, appease and thank the ancestors. Prayers are said to the Supreme Being to ask for his assistance and help. Libations are poured to petition the gods during rituals and rites connected to success in agriculture, fishing and hunting activities.

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Dirges which are sorrowful expressions are said at funeral and memorial ceremony of the dead by a member of a bereaved family. Proverbs, idioms, storytelling and poems are wise sayings and educative stories that carries moral and instruction messages on varieties of topics. Some give counsel about family life, social living etc. MAJOR CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIGENOUS AFRICAN ARTS The arts practiced by the indigenous Africans bear certain distinct traits or features that make them different from the arts practiced by other cultures like the Western culture. Though some critics say that indigenous African arts is primitive, old fashioned and ritualistic, the arts done are far from those criticisms and they are false. Those allegations are as a result of the failure of the critics in analyzing their unique characteristics. The major characteristics are discussed below. • FUNCTIONAL Indigenous African arts are functional. They are used in performing various roles in the everyday activities of the indigenous Africans. They are not created just ‘art for art sake’, rather they are used in performing a specific or variety of functions such as utilitarian, medicinal, identification, spiritual or religious purpose. For example, the sculpted ancestral figures were used for religious purpose in ceremonies linked with the veneration of the ancestors. Pots, containers and other receptacles were used for storage purposes and in performing various house chores. • SYMBOLIC All the arts produced in indigenous Africa have meanings beyond what the eyes see. The various aspects of the work of art such as shape, colour, and form have symbolic and philosophical meanings. They are not ordinary but rather have spiritual connotations. For instance, a mask painted in warm or hot colours carries the symbolic meaning that the deity or ancestor the mask represents may be wicked or vindictive. The symbolic meanings connected with the various arts are understood by the indigenous Africans. • RELATED TO EVERYDAY LIFE The arts practiced by the indigenous Africans go hand in hand with their daily activities. One cannot separate a single activity from an art form. They form an integral force of everyday life activities. They are used in performing household chores, religious service, occupational duties, festivals etc.

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3. Select, improve and transfer the best sketch unto the block: soft wood, foam, lino, cocoyam, etc. 4. Cut, chip or carve off the negative areas (non-image areas) of the design. 5. Apply printing ink/paste onto the surface of the block. 6. Press or stamp the inked block on the substrate (material) to register the print. 7. Allow the printed work to dry. NB: The process can be repeated and organized if a repetitive design is needed.

Relief Blocks Stencil Printing / Stencilling Stencil printing is the process of making prints from stencils made of flat sheets such as paper, fabric, metal plates, plywood, etc. After the designs or letters have been drawn on the surface, the positive areas are cut out for the negative areas to remain. The paint is then applied at the open areas of the stencil to register the design on the material. Stencil Printing Process Tools and materials: Cardboard, Manila board, Cutting Knife/Razor blade, Printing paste or ink, Masking tape, Drawing Pins, Foam, Brush. Procedure 1. Draw or trace the design on the cardboard or Manila board with enough spaces surrounding it to serve as reservoirs (area for printing ink or paste). 2. Accurately cut out the positive areas (image areas) of the paper with a sharp cutting tool. 3. Position the stencil at designated area on the material. 4. Firmly hold the ends of the stencil with the aid of masking tape or drawing pins. Page 238

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Frottage Printing Process Tools and materials: crayons, pencils, charcoal, textured surfaces (coins, tree barks, etc), and materials like paper, fabric, etc. Procedure 1. Select a suitable textured surface. 2. Place the paper on top of the textured surface. 3. Hold the paper firmly on the textured surface and gently rub the surface of the paper evenly with a pencil, crayon or charcoal to register the textured design on the paper.

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•

THE ARTS ARE COMMON TO ALL MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY The arts produced by the indigenous Africans are not owned by just a member of the society but belongs to all the members in the society. The concepts, beliefs and forms behind the artistic productions are understood and shared by all. It is not the sole property of an individual but the entire society. • EDUCATIONAL The arts are used in giving moral instructions concerning the various factions of life such as community living, health, law etc. During initiation ceremonies, the arts are used as teaching aids in the training of the initiates. • RECORDING Works of art are used to record events that happened in the past and about their culture. Though the arts don’t have mouths to talk, they can teach the viewer things about the past. They are like history books that give us first hand information about our cultural heritage and our way of life. They are used in recording and commemoration of past events.

Frottage Prints Block Printing Block Printing is a printing method that involves making a print from a raised surface or block. It is also referred to as Relief Printing. It is the oldest printing technique. Relief blocks can be made from wood, lino, foodstuffs etc. After the design has been drawn on the block, the negative areas of the design are chipped off for the design to stand out. Printing paste is applied on the block and used for printing. Block Printing Process Tools and materials: Knives, Chisels, Gouges, Cardboard, Pencil, Eraser, Printing paste or ink, Foam, Brush, Masking tape, Tracing paper, Wood, Lino, Foodstuffs (Yam, Cassava, Cocoyam), Fabric.

SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF THE ARTS OF THE SUBSAHARA AFRICA (WEST AFRICA) There are various ethnic societies in the Sub-Saharan Africa who practiced several forms of art. The arts practiced by these ethnic societies had social and economic relevance to the people in those regions. In fact, the arts were indispensable in the daily activities of the people. The arts of these people were driven by religious beliefs and concepts which were similar in all the ethnic societies. However, the artworks that reflected the religious beliefs and concepts as well as the meanings associated with the forms, colours and shapes of the arts differed greatly from one ethnic society to the other. The major ethnic groups of West Africa that would be discussed in this section are The Bambara of Mali, The Mendes of Sierra Leone, The Baule of Ivory Coast, The Asantes of Ghana, The Swazi of South Africa, The Baluba of DR. Congo and The Nok of Nigeria. THE BAMBARA Geographical Location: The Bambara ethnic society is located in Mali. Socio-economic life: The Bambara cultivate the land for sustenance. The main occupation there is farming. The people engage in agricultural activities like the planting and cultivation of corn and other cereals. A section of the people also

Procedure 1. Select a theme/topic. 2. Make preliminary sketches Page 237

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engages in pastoral farming. Some few selected people were trained in smithing and carving. These smiths and carvers are greatly respected and feared because they are believed to be closer to the gods and ancestors. Beliefs: The Bambaras believe in God whom they call Faro. He is believed among the people as the creator and redeemer of the universe who sends rain for the fertility of the land. The sacred colour of Faro is white. Therefore, he is petitioned through the performance of certain oracles and rituals before any farming activity is started on a land. White items and objects are offered to him as sacrifices during the performance of the rituals such as white clothes, eggs, cowry shells, white sheep and hens. It is believed that when this is done, the people will earn the favour and blessings of Faro and a bumper harvest. They also believed in ancestors. Types of art forms: The Bambaras practiced various forms of art. These include sculpture, textiles, blacksmithing and beadwork. The sculptural figures they made included masks, male and female ancestral and fertility figures, cult objects such as bowls, stools, flutes, Harps and door latches or locks. Ritual staffs were smithed in iron. Their sculptural figures are generally monumental, cubist, thin and pillar-like. The breasts of the female figures are cone-shaped, heavy and are projected in a forward position. The hairstyle is in a transverse, a popular hairstyle of the Bambara men. The arms of the figure hang at the sides of the figure and the surface of the figure is decorated with various ethnic body marks which have symbolic meanings. The sculptured figures are decorated with glass beads, cowry shells and strips of copper sheets. The surfaces of the figures are blackened with a heated iron. It is then finished by burnishing with sheabutter. The famous mask produced by the Bambaras is the Chiwara mask or headdress which is in the form of an antelope. The textile was done mostly by the Bambara women. The chief material they used was cotton which was dyed in the discharge dyeing technique. They decorated the surface of the cloth with elegant geometric patterns. Uses of the arts: The female sculptural figures are used in fertility cults which ensured the fertility of women in the society. The Chiwara masks are worn during ritual dances before tilting and planting are done on the land. It is believed by the people that it was the antelope that taught them how to cultivate grain. Therefore the antelope is viewed as sacred among the people. During harvest and puberty rites where fertility of the land and women is earnestly sought, the dancers wear the Chiwara mask or headdress. Their dance movements, leaps and vibrations reflect that of an antelope. This symbolic dance symbolizes the magical relationship of the antelope to fertility among the Bambara. Page 199

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bottle tops, rope, string, hands, feet, stick etc. In direct printing, images of objects are directly transferred from one surface onto another. Printing paste is applied with foam or brush. This is then stamped gently onto the surface to be printed. It is an easy method of printing which is not costly to do. Direct Printing Process Tools and materials: paper, starch, poster or powder colour, printing ink or paste, object/image, brush or foam. Procedure 1. Collect a variety of materials suitable for making direct prints. 2. Mix powder or poster colour with starch to an even or uniform consistency. Already made printing paste is also suitable. 3. Cover the surface of the object with the printing paste with the aid of a brush or foam. 4. Place a sheet of paper on a flat surface or padded printing table. 5. Gently transfer the inked object or image onto the paper to register the print. 6. Gently lift the object from the paper and allow the print to dry.

Direct Prints Frottage Printing This is another type of direct printing is the frottage printing. It involvesthe collection of ideas from textured natural or man-made objects, e.g. tree barks, coins, corrugated cards, etc. Frottage printing is a method of printing done by placing paper on a textured surface and rubbing the back with media such as crayon, pencil or charcoal to register the design onto the surface of the paper. It should however be noted that the drawing tool should not be pointed otherwise it may create holes in the paper. Examples of textured objects include coins, tree barks, mosquito mesh, concrete floors, etc. Page 236

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a. Manual Printmaking Methods This method of making prints employs manual production skills. All the prints are made by the hand with hand tools and materials. Examples of manual printmaking methods include direct printing, relief printing, block printing, frottage, mono-printing, stencil printing, and screen printing. b. Mechanical Printmaking Methods This method of printing involves the use of printing machines in the making of prints. Examples of such printmaking methods are photocopy (xerographyForming an image by the action of light on a specially coated charged plate; the latent image is developed with powders that adhere only to electrically charged areas), lithography, off-set lithography, digital printing etc.

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Secret societies and Youth groups: Six secret societies rule the Bambara ethnic society. They exercise authority over all the aspects of life of the people. However, the most powerful and influential of the six secret societies are the Komo secret society and the Flankuru secret society. The Komo secret society exercises judicial powers while the Flankuru secret society supervises agricultural activities. All the men in the society are to join these secret societies. The young boys between the ages of 7 years and 12 years also join a youth group which is also a secret society called the Ntomo secret society. It offers training to the young ones regarding good behavior and manners. Artefacts were used immensely as teaching aids.

Printmaking Processes There are several processes or practical actions involved in carrying out the task of printmaking. These processes include: i. Stamping (This process involves the exertion of pressure with the hand on the inked object to produce the impression on a surface). Art works of Bambara (Mali) ii. Dabbing (This process involves the application of paint in a liquid form with an object like foam soaked with the printing ink. However, the application of the printing ink is done by hitting the inked object gently on the printing surface). iii. Pressing (This is the exertion of pressure usually a tapping at the back of the inked object or image to register a print on a surface). iv. Rolling (This process involves the moving of an inked object such as an inked rope by turning it over or rotating it in different directions on the printing surface to produce an interesting print pattern). v. Rubbing (This is the effort expended in moving a marking or colouring tool such as crayon or pencil over a material with pressure to produce a print). vi. Spraying (This is the application of the printing ink or paste in a flowing consistency in the form of small particles ejected from a spray diffuser). Direct Printing Direct Printing is the making of prints by transferring an inked image directly from one surface onto another. These surfaces include natural and manmade surfaces like surfaces of sawn wood, corn cob, sponge, sole of canvas shoes, Page 235

THE MENDE Geographical Location: The Mende ethnic society is located in Sierra Leone. Socio-economic life: The main occupation there is farming. The Mendes have organized themselves into kingdoms and autonomous villages and towns ruled by chiefs. The chiefs’ exercised limited power because the secret societies there exercise greater authority over the political and social life of the people. Beliefs: The Mendes believed in God as the creator. They practiced magic and also believed in ancestors, animism, sorcery and witchcraft. Types of art forms: The Mendes engaged in the production of various works of art. The visual art forms include sculpture, jewellery, body arts and textiles. The sculptural works include the Bundu masks, Sowie masks, minsereh figures and statuettes. The body arts included body painting, marks and coiffure with various hairstyles. They engaged in weaving. While the women spun the cotton threads, the men wove the fabrics on looms. They also engaged in verbal arts such as songs, dance, poetry and storytelling, The Bundu masks and its parts refer to ideals of female beauty, morality and behavior. It has a high broad forehead signifies wisdom and success. The neck Page 200

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ridges are signs of beauty, good health and prosperity. It also symbolizes a moth chrysalis, the transformative stage in a butterfly’s life from a worm to a flying creature that is similar to a young woman’s initiation into womanhood. It also has an intricately woven or plaited hair that is the essence of harmony and order found in an ideal Mende household. A small closed mouth and downcast eyes indicates the silent and serious facial expression expected of new initiates. The surface of the mask is coated with a glistering black substance as a form of finishing. The masks symbolize the adult women’s roles as wives, mothers, providers for the family, and keepers of medicine for use within the Sande association and the Mende association as a whole. The Mendes also produced the nomoli or pomdo stone carvings carved out of soapstone. The Mendes believe the stones are the representations of the people who lived in the region before they came to the area and the people have a ceremony around the stones where they treat them as former chiefs and kings of the region.

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•

Learning of skills: Skills in production processes are very essential in both two and three dimensional compositions. For instance, a skill in layout designing is required in all compositions be it two or three dimensions.

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Problem solving: Both two and three dimensional compositions are made with the view of addressing or solving an identified problem. Finished works of art are produced as a result in arresting those problems.

UNIT FOUR PRINTMAKING Specific Objectives: The student will be able to:

Uses of the arts: The women wear the Bundu mask together with a costume of black raffia during the initiation rites of the females. The masks conceal them from the audience attending the performance. The women leaders who wear these masks dance to a song from drums during the initiation ceremony. They serve as priestesses and judges during the three years of the training. They serve as teachers and mentors helping the young girls with their transformation into educated and marriageable women. These masks are not discarded but rather they are repaired and reused after each initiation ceremony. The nomoli figures were used for ancestral veneration. The Minsereh figures are used by the women prophetesses for healing and divination. Secret societies and Youth groups: The men’s secret society known as Poro secret society while the female secret society is called the Yaasi, Sande or Bundu secret society. These associations control the initiation, education, and acculturation of females and males respectively. They teach the initiates adult life, sexual conduct, personal and environmental hygiene, laws of the land, warfare, beliefs and concepts of good living.

3.4.1 explain printmaking. 3.4.2 print desired items using the Direct Printing method 3.4.3 design and print with a block. 3.4.4 describe the types of screen printing process 3.4.5 describe tools, equipment and materials for screen printing. 3.4.6 make prints using screen printing technology. Printing is the process of transferring an image from an inked image carrier (block) unto an image receiver (substrate). It can also be defined as the art of making marks and impressions on surfaces such as paper, cloth, wood, plastics etc. by pressing or stamping designs from natural and manmade surfaces such as rollers, screens, blocks and stencils. To make a print, there are some things which are inexcusable to the artist. These include the image carrier (e.g. block), image receiver (substrate) or item to be printed, e.g. paper, leather, fabric, plastic, wood, metal, wall floor, etc. and the Printing ink/paste. An artist who makes prints is known as a printmaker. Printmaking is very important because it allows an artist to produce images on various surfaces. Printmaking is done in order to learn a process, reproduce a design and as a means of communicating ideas. Examples of printed items include posters, stickers, labels, banners etc. Types of Printmaking Methods There are two main methods of making prints. These are a) Manual Printmaking Methods and b) Mechanical Printmaking Methods.

Art works of Mende (Sierra Leone) Page 201

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and agreement of shapes, space, scale, weight, proportion, balance, variety, rhythm, etc. Creation of three dimensional art forms involves knowledge and skill in construction and building of forms, perspective as well as the mastery way of handling tools and materials. Relationship between two and three dimensional works Two and three dimensional works are much related. For instance, before all three dimensional works are built and constructed, they are first represented in two dimensional drawings from various angles and views. This is done to envision how the actual three dimensional works will look like. Two dimensional designs give us the platform to analyze and select those aspects of our environment which motivates us to make three dimensional arts. The relationship or similarities between two and three dimensional forms is easily recognized in the identification, selection and examination of visual information derived from the environment, the exploration and the use of tools and materials in producing artefacts as well as the feeling that arouses in us when we see the finished art work. A problem needs to be identified that would require the production of a three dimensional art form. For example, there is the need of a leather clutch bag to house some items used by an artist. Several observations of both natural and manmade objects found in the environment are made to accrue ideas for the designing of the clutch bag. Through the various stages in idea development of the natural or manmade object selected, several designs are obtained through additions and subtractions of the parts of the original design. Recall maintaining the original concept or main parts of the original design while going through the various stages in idea development. The appropriate design that demonstrates the artist’s ingenuity or creativity and best addresses the problem identified is selected. The final sketch of the design is drawn in a two dimensional form showing various views of the design. This paves the way for the building of the actual clutch bag with the appropriate tools and materials thus leather in a solid three dimensional form. There are series of activities that are involved in both two and three dimensional compositions. These are: •

Visual investigation: This refers to the exploration of the visual world through keen and critical observation of nature with the eye. These explorations of the eye are put on paper in the form of drawing whether in two or three dimensional composition. Page 233

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THE BAULE Geographical Location: They live in the central part of Cote d’Ivoire / Ivory Coast. They can speak Asante Twi because they were once part of the Asante kingdom. Socio-economic life: Very little is known concerning the social and economic life of the Baules but they may have been ruled by kings and had a traditional ruling council as they were influenced by the Asantes. They also engaged in farming and gave credence to art as a profession. Training was offered to trainees in the form of apprenticeship. Beliefs: They believed in God whom they called Alura. They believed in lesser gods or divinities and ancestors. The Baule also believed that they lived in heaven with their marriage partners before coming to the earth. Types of art forms: The notable art form of the Baules is sculpture. They used production techniques such as casting using the lost wax technique and wood carving. The statues included ancestral figures and masks used in ancestral rites. They also made figures of bush spirits. They also practiced jewellery in the form of beadwork. Carving was a famous art in the region because of a great demand for statuettes. Owing to the belief that they had concerning their former life in heaven with their spouse, they commission a sculptor to sculpt a likeness of the spouse as he/she sees in a dream. The carving was done by only professionals who carve from hardwood. The finished work is dipped in mud or black juice and polished. Their ancestral figures had many naturalistic aspects of human anatomy. The figures are slightly tall and slim with parts of the face decorated with cicatrices. The legs are rounded and bent at the knees while the thighs are short with the feet flat and closed together. The artist freely exaggerates the neck, head and calf muscles which are forms of idealization or beauty in the Baule culture. The arms rest gently on the stomach. The hair is high, carefully structured and covered with linear patterns. The neck is long and cylindrical with a small mouth. The eyes which are semi circular in shape are usually closed. The eye brows are emphatically curved to join the downward flow of the nose. The bush spirits were short, horrible looking and sometimes deformed. However the figures representing them were in the form of beautiful, ideal human beings because it is believed that the spirits would be offended by ugly figures and would refuse to work for the owner. Uses of the arts: The ancestral figures are used in ancestral cults and rites where the ancestors are venerated. The bush spirit figures were used to seek special Page 202

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favours from the bush spirits in solving their problems and in curing all forms of sicknesses.

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piles of designs in a portfolio. They can be duplicated and dispatched to various places for placement, appointment and gaining of contracts. The computer is in fact a salient tool that has enhanced the efficiency and usefulness of art in the social and national development of any country.

UNIT THREE TWO AND THREE DIMENSIONAL COMPOSITION Art works of Baule ( Ivory Coast) THE ASANTES Geographical Location: The Asantes are a section of the Akan people who reside in Ghana. They speak Asante Twi. Socio-economic life: Most of the Asantes dwells at the southern coast of Ghana. Their main occupation is farming. They plant and cultivate corn, rice, yam, cassava etc. Their kingdom is governed by a king who is called ‘Asantehene’ bearing the title ‘Otumfuo’. He rules the kingdom with his sub-chiefs and a body of elders who forms the traditional council. They highly regard traditions and customs handed down to them by their forefathers. They celebrate numerous rites, festivals and rituals to the gods and ancestors for success in every undertaking. Beliefs: The Asantes believe in God whom they call ‘Onyankopↄn’ or ‘Nyame’. They also belief in life after death, ancestors, lesser gods, animism, sorcery and witchcraft and also practice magic. Types of art forms: The Asantes practice a lot of the arts to help them in their everyday life activities. They engage in visual art forms like painting, architecture, sculpture, textiles, blacksmithing and gold smithing, basketry, calabash art, Bead making etc. They also engage in performing arts such as music, dance and drama. Verbal arts such as storytelling, poetry, idioms, riddles, dirges, appellations and incantations are greatly used in their festivals and daily life activities. The well known sculptural forms include the blackened stools, ceremonial swords, spokesman staffs, goldweights, Akuaba dolls, stools and palanquins. In the field of textiles, the Asantes are famed for the production of the woven cloth called Kente and the mourning cloth known as Adinkra. The Akuaba doll bears naturalistic traits of a young girl and the ideals of beauty in the Asante culture. It has an exaggerated head which symbolizes the seat of wisdom. The forehead is slightly flattened with a long cylindrical neck ringed in Page 203

Specific Objectives: The student will be able to: 3.3.1 compose shapes in a given two-dimensional space. 3.3.2 create and respond to work in three- dimensional forms. 3.3.3 design and build three-dimensional art forms with appropriate tools, materials and techniques. Composition is the weaving together of visual elements in a picture to give a well balanced and coherent effect. Composing in a Two-dimensional Space Two-dimensional art works are works that have length and breadth. They do not have depth of height. They are flat and are viewed and appreciated as such. Examples of two dimensional arts include photographs, posters, mosaic etc. In two dimensional compositions, the artist has to give particular attention to how the various elements of design are organized or arranged. Their arrangement should be governed by the various principles of design in the given space. For instance, the text and images in the picture area should be organized in such a way that there will be balance, dominance, rhythm, unity etc. at work. If serious thought and considerable time is given to the way the various elements in a two dimensional work is composed, the entire work will be seen as a unified whole. Creating and Responding to Three-dimensional Art Forms A three-dimensional art form refers to any art form that has height, breadth, depth and can be viewed and appreciated from different directions. They are free standing and are sometimes referred to as ‘works in the round’. Examples of three dimensional works include basketry, sculpture in-the-round, ceramic ware, bead etc. In three dimensional compositions, the arrangements of the various parts or components of the design should be guided by the principles of design. Also, in creating three-dimensional art forms consideration is given to the relationships

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computer when compared with the traditional method of designing using the hand, manual tools and materials. Architects and engineers are able to design the layouts of buildings and other constructional projects as well as automobiles with ease by the use of the AutoCAD program. Various layout views of the architectural structures and automobiles can be explored and worked on with limited time and energy.

an odd number of either ‘3’ or ‘5’ adorned in beads. The figure has a small mouth and a thin pole-like nose, dazzling eyes and thick eyebrows. The breasts protrude out of the body in a graceful manner. The body is cylindrical with the hands and legs not given much attention. It is carved from a hardwood called ‘Sese’ and finished with a black substance obtained from soot mixed with a gum or any suitable black substance.

iii. Designing The Microsoft word program is enriched with several lettering styles that increase a designer’s scope of selecting the appropriate font style for a particular work. The Corel Draw and Rhinoceros programs together with the Adobe Illustrator assist artists in developing and selecting pictures to be incorporated in designs. These computer software programs give artists the freedom in exploring and trying different ways of representing their designs. Working on the computer affords artist the opportunity of developing their creative abilities. It has also reduced the burden on artists when using traditional methods, tools and materials in the production of designs. Three dimensional products such as packages for industries can be represented on the computer in a more realistic look using the Rhino software program. The computer is therefore a reliable tool in assisting artists in creating and designing to meet the current standards and demands of today. The computer is a salient tool that can help artists in the selection of colour. Tints and shades of varieties of colour are on the computer. Specific shades of a colour can be selected for a particular work. Colour specifications of industries, firms and institutions can be satisfactory met without any difficulties. Colours can be tried to verify whether they harmonise or not before the final work is produced. This has made artists more efficient in their choice of colours. Computer has made television broad casting easy. Graphic designers produce TV slides and the graphical display seen on television screens during broadcasting. Designs for products in industries and firms are made by the use of computers. In the automotive industries, designs for cars, motor cycles are done using a computer.

Uses of the arts: The blackened stools serve as ancestral figures and are used in ancestral rites. They are kept in the stool house (Nkonguadan) and ancestral rites and rituals are performed on them during any ‘Adae’ to seek goodwill, favour and blessings from the ancestors for the people. The stools and palanquins are used by the Asantehene to denote his office while that of his spokesman is that of the spokesman staff. The ceremonial swords are arranged in a semi-circular formation in front of the king during festivals as a form of protection and to distinct him from the other sub chiefs. The Akuaba dolls are consecrated at the shrines and then they are carried by young women hoping to conceive and largely by barren women. The doll is treated as a real child or baby by the woman desiring of a child. It is bathed, fed, adored and cared for. Once pregnant, the woman continues to carry the doll to ensure safe delivery of a healthy and beautiful child. The etymology behind the name of the doll was that the doll was first used by a barren Asante woman called Akua who was branded and accused as a witch owing to her barrenness. She was instructed by a traditional priest to commission a carver to carve a figure bearing the features she wants in her would-be-child. The doll helped her to conceive and give birth hence the name ‘Akua- ba’ (Akua’s child). The Kente cloth is worn during festive occasions like naming and outdooring ceremonies, marriage ceremonies, durbars and other joyous occasions while the Adinkra cloth is worn as a mourning cloth during funeral and memorial rites of a deceased to bid him or her farewell or goodbye in his next life in the world of the spirits. The gold weights are used in weighing gold dusts.

iv. Storing, processing and retrieving design and information: Unlike the traditional method of storing or keeping drawn projects and designs in portfolios and albums which is subject to external attacks such as insect, dirt, fire and the like, designs are safely and conveniently stored on any of the computer storage devices. These designs stored can be retrieved with no constraint. This is largely due to the fact that each of the designs has been assigned a file name which makes each design easy to be identified and retrieved when compared with the traditional method of going through the painstaking task of flipping through Page 231

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THE SWAZI Geographical Location: The Swazi live in Swaziland at the southeastern part of South Africa. They speak the Bantu language which is closely related to the Zulu language.

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COMPUTER PERIPHERAL This refers to all the hardware equipment attached to the system unit and controlled by the CPU. They include Printer, Scanner, Digital Camera, External Drive and Pen Drive.

Socio-economic life: The Swazi is part of the San’s people who depend on farm produce such as millets and other grains for sustenance. Their main occupation is farming with a large section of the people engaged in pastoral farming precisely the rearing of cattle. Owing to this they also produce milk from the cows reared. Their farmlands are ruled by chiefs and his cabinet of experienced elders. Women are greatly respected in their communities. Beliefs: The Swazi believed in ancestors. The ancestors were greatly respected and highly honoured. Types of art forms: The people practiced Sculpture and painting. They sculpted milk pots and mural paintings of women. Uses of the arts: The milk pots were used for storing milk. They were also used in rituals connected with milking and testing of milk before it is used or sold. The milk produced is first tested by chiefs and other authorized persons during the rituals. It is believed by the people that when the milk is tested by the chief, he bestows blessing on it and help in avoiding any spiritual attacks. The mural paintings of women were used in expressing their ethnic identity as a people and in decorating their homes and shrines. A typical example is the Ndebele paintings. They also made sculptural figures to represent their ancestors which were used in ancestral venerations and rites.

ART RELATED COMPUTER SOFTWARE PROGRAMS There are several art related software programs that help artists to work with great efficiency. Some of these programs include Corel draw, AutoCAD, Page-maker, Publisher, Photoshop, Illustrator, Maya, Indesign, Microsoft Word, Rhino etc. USES OF THE COMPUTER IN ART The computer is used immensely in art productions done today. In the field of art, computers help artists to create intricate designs with precisions and accuracy unlike the traditional method of using the hand. This has increased the value and meaningfulness of art in the country. The functions of the computer in art are treated under these four headings:

i. Drawing ii. Layout planning iii. Designing iv. Storing, processing and retrieving design and information i) Drawing The computer helps artists in the drawing of objects and shapes with more accuracy and precision. Quick or shorthand sketches can be made on the computer with no difficulty. Outlines of already existing pictures and manually drawn objects are further enhanced by the use of art related software programs like CorelDraw. ii) Layout planning Layouts of products are designed with ease by the use of art related software programs. For instance, graphic designers utilise the CorelDraw program in working on the layout designs of packages, posters, greeting cards and virtually all the visual communication tools. The placement of pictures, text and other design parts are organised into various layout formats with great flexibility on the

Art works of Swazi (South Africa)

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STORAGE DEVICES Storage devices provide permanent storage for your data, enabling you to name and save files and access them again later. There are two categories namely magnetic and optical storage devices. The magnetic storage devices include floppy disk, hard disk, and high capacity disk while the optical storage devices include DVD’s and CD’s.

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THE BALUBA Geographical Location: The Baluba live in the eastern and southern parts of Democratic Republic of Congo. Socio-economic life: The Balubas are farmers who practice the matrilineal system of inheritance. Women play significant roles in decision making and politics. They are noted for the practice of several arts. Art was regarded high and artists were greatly respected and given political positions in the society. Beliefs: They believed in ancestors and lesser gods. Types of art forms: The Balubas practiced various forms of art such as sculpture, pottery and weaving. They sculpted a lot of ancestral figures which were predominantly females because of the immense respect they had for women. They wove various fabrics in cotton and made several pots, bowls etc.

SOFTWARE COMPONENTS OF THE COMPUTER Computer software also known as Computer programs are a set of instructions that have been designed by a programmer or software engineer to ‘tell’ the computer what to do in order to perform a specific function. There are two types of computer software. These are System software and Application software. SYSTEM SOFTWARE This software manages and controls the CPU and allows all the other programs to run. It is responsible for the smooth operation of the input and output of data. It manages and coordinates the resources of the computer system. It also provides an interface between the computer (Hardware) and the users (Live ware). Moreover, it serves as a background running program for the Application programs.

Uses of the arts: The ancestral figures were used in ancestral veneration with the numerous female sculptures with the aim of highlighting the important roles women played in their social, religious, economic, cultural and political lives of the people. The pots and bowls were for storage purposes and in performing household chores. The female figures served as fertility charms for the women to bear numerous children which was a compulsory duty in the society. Their female sculptural forms bore these characteristics. The postures included standing and kneeling figures supported with small stools. The head is exaggerated and covered with an elaborate hairstyle. The forehead is protruded with the nose elongated. The breast is conical, relatively small and points downwards. The figures carry bowls signifying that women are supposed to be hard working. The form shows a lot of roundness and curves symbols of femininity tenderness. The legs of the kneeling figures are elongated and folded back to form a long and stable base for the big bowls held between the knees with an elongated torso and abdomen symbolizing fertility. The abdomen and the back of the figures were decorated various scarifications in high relief. The surface of the figures is smoothened and highly polished.

APPLICATION SOFTWARE This is a set of instructions designed by programmers to tell the computer what to do in order to carry out a specific task. Application software includes Word Processing, Spreadsheet, and Database etc.

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THE NOK Geographical Location: Nok is a tin mining village located in Nigeria. The name was given by an archaeologist by name Bernard Fagg after studying the culture and discovering some terracotta (fired clay figure which is not glazed) sculptural remains of the people in 1943. Socio-economic life: The people had a well organized administration and economic system. They were ruled by kings. They were farmers and hunters by profession. The people also practiced a snake cult and they highly revered snakes. Beliefs: The people believed in ancestors and practiced ancestral veneration and had an ancestral cult. They also believed in animism.

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GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR S.H.S. UNIT TWO COMPUTER AS A TOOL IN ART

Specific Objective: The student will be able to: 3.2.1 use the computer to perform basic art functions Computer is an electronic device, which has been put together to form a system to accept data, process data, and produce meaningful result or information from the processing, and store the result or information for future use. Computer performs tasks such as calculations or electronic communication under the control of a set of instructions called a program.

Types of art forms: The people practiced sculpture and blacksmithing. They sculpted realistic animal sculptural figures in the form of snakes, elephants, monkeys, rams and other quadrupeds as well as non-realistic human figures in terracotta hollowed and fired with the open firing technique. The surfaces of the figures were burnished with smooth objects. They fashioned several items from iron such as weapons, tools and implements for farming. Their human figures were of different sizes. The rulers and other important persons were sculpted bigger and taller than slaves and attendants. The heads of the figures were exaggerated and its ratio to the body was 1:3. The figures had elaborate hairstyles with the pupils of the eyes perforated. The eyes are triangular in shape and in low relief with horizontal upper lips. The mouth is thick lipped sometimes opened with no teeth. The nose is broad with wide perforated nostrils. The ears are exaggerated in size and pierced. They are unnaturally positioned. The figures are adorned in jewels like necklaces, bracelets, wristlets and anklets.

COMPONENTS OF THE COMPUTER There are two main components of the computer. They are the hardware component and the software component. The hardware components are the physical or visible parts of the computer system which can be seen and touched such as monitor, system unit, mouse etc. while the software components are the unseen or untouchable aspects of the computer system such as text, files etc.

Uses of the arts: The elaborate snake figures were used in their snake cult. The human figures were used for magico-medical purposes. They were also used in funeral ceremonies of the dead and in their ancestral cults.

INPUT DEVICES These devices are used to enter data into the computer or are the medium through which signals are sent into the computer. Such devices include keyboard, computer mouse, floppy drive, CD ROM drives, joystick, scanner, light pen, digital tablet, trackball, touch pad, digital notebook, digital camera etc.

HARDWARE COMPONENTS OF THE COMPUTER The hardware components of the computer are grouped into four according to their performances and functions. They are: • Input devices • Output devices • Processing devices • Storage devices

OUTPUT DEVICES These devices are media through which the computer displays information. Among these are monitor, printer, plotter, audio card, projector, modem etc. PROCESSING DEVICES These devices are concerned with the processing of data. They include C.P.U., mother board, memory (Rom and Ram), system bus, hard disk etc. Page 207

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(vii)


Preliminary designing/Model making: Preliminary designs or model of the final design is made using materials. This makes the work more actual since it is in three dimensional form showing the length, breath, and height of the work. Working drawing: At this stage, the various parts of the article are drawn to scale to assist the designer in the making of the final article. The actual measurements of all the parts of the work are shown. For example, the measurements of the sides, base and gusset of the purse are clearly indicated in the working drawings. This can be used in producing patterns or templates of the article with ease. It would also assist manufacturers in producing the same item in mass quantities with accuracy and precision.

(viii) Prototype/Model: This is the stage during which the working drawings are used in the construction of a prototype of the article. The prototype is the exact replica or photocopy of the final article. The prototype is constructed for the purposes of study or testing to know if the article would be able to solve the problem for which it was produced. For instance, the prototyped purse is shown to some of the targeted group or end users thus the students for their comments on the shape, colour and other features of the purse to be produced. (ix)

Production: This is the stage whereby the final article is produced using the tools, materials and production methods mentioned above. The comments of the end users when weighed and is positive, is factored in the actual production of the work.

(x)

Evaluation: This is the last stage of the design process whereby the product is finally tested or evaluated to see whether it can ultimately address the problem. The work is shown to friends, teachers and experts in the field for their comments and evaluation. The final corrections for the product are made at this stage.

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THE DOGONS Geographical Location: The Dogons are located around the rocky plateau on the Niger bend, near Timbuktu in Mali. Socio-economic life: Their main occupation is farming. They engaged in agricultural activities such as tilting and cultivation of the land as well as the planting and harvesting of cereals. Some few selected ones were also sculptors and blacksmiths. They also had secret societies that train young initiates on virtues of life, societal living, warfare etc. Beliefs: The people believed in God, ancestors and other deities. Types of art forms: The people practiced sculpture and blacksmithing. The Dogons are noted for carving the KANAGA masks. It is a carved mask which is surmounted with a framework in a form of human figure with arms raised representing either NOMMOS (Priest) or HOGONS (Blacksmith). The masks mostly have concave faces. They look more naturalistic and may show sacrificial patina. Their carved figures used in ancestral veneration usually have convex faces. Various forms of materials are used in the production of their art forms. These include wood, metal and raffia. Uses of the arts: The KANAGA masks were worn by the KANAGA dancers together with a support structure about one metre high representing a crocodile, a sacred animal believed to heal all forms of sickness. The dancers move in powerful rhythm, bending in unison the tips of the mask almost touching the ground. The masks were used in the initiation ceremonies for the young initiates. The carved figures were used in ancestral veneration, worship and healing purposes.

Art works of the Dogons (Mali)

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SIMO SOCIETY The Simo society is a secret society in West Africa among some ethnic societies in Ghana, Mali, and Sierra Leone. It is also described as a "masked cult". It hails from among either the Temne people or the Baga people at the time of the Mali Empire. The Susu people's political organization "assigned an important role to the Simo initiation society", and it "dominated" the organization of the Baga and the Landuma people. Initiation and other rites included masks, and of particular importance were fertility rites. One of the famous masks used by the people is the Nimba mask named after the goddess Nimba who is in charge of fertility. Masks, decorated with "animal, reptile and human attributes" are used in ritual. The Simo were also one of many secret "cultic groups" whose priests "possessed immense knowledge of herbs and roots" that practiced medicine to cure specific ailments.

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• UNIT THREE CONTEMPORARY/CURRENT AFRICAN ARTS

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Specific Objectives: The student will be able to: 2.3.1 identify types and uses of contemporary art forms. 2.3.3 differentiate between indigenous and contemporary African arts.

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Contemporary African arts refer to the arts done in Africa from the early 1900’s till present. It is generally accepted that contemporary African art began in the early 1920’s though Nigeria earlier than this age somewhere in 1910 showed a faint digression form the traditional African art trend to the contemporary African Art. Contemporary art in Africa is attributed to the impact of western culture, education and technological advancement on artists and the various societies in art. Critical observation of the types of art done during this period show great signs of contemporary influence. This was largely noticed in the forms of art that were produced, the tools and materials used, production techniques, subject/theme, as well as the functions of the arts. The traditional tools and materials, production techniques, functions and themes for the artworks were replaced by modern tools, materials and machinery, modern philosophies and ideas. TYPES OF CONTEMPORARY AFRICAN ARTS The contemporary arts of Africa are grouped into two main branches. These are i) Contemporary African Visual arts and ii) Contemporary African performing arts. Page 209


cuts are freely abundant in the department, durable and suitable in the production of the purses, it will be used. Simple leather implements and tools in the visual art studio can be used for the production of the purse. The cost of the article- The cost of an article is usually dependent on the total production cost and the profit margin which ranges from 5%-10% of the total production cost. The cost of the purse should be moderate and affordable to the student body. The method of production- This refers to the production techniques used for the production of the item. Simple production techniques should be used in the production of the purse. These include cutting, stitching, gluing, and thonging. These will allow the visual art students to assist in the production of the purses. The safety of the article- This is ensuring that the produced item would not cause any injury or harm to the users. For instance, rough edges of the purse should be smoothened. Zippers and other fasteners of the purse should be fixed properly to avoid all forms of injury. The cultural elements- The choice of design and colours of the items should reflect the beliefs and aspirations of the client. It should reflect the culture of the client. Adinkra symbols that contain gems of our cultural values and norms can be used in designing the purse. The final appearance of the article- The finishing technique used in finishing the product should ensure that the handling, safety and attraction of the item is enhanced or improved. For the purse, the surface of the leather used can be finished either by burnishing or polishing.

(iv)

Possible solutions: Reliable remedies in addressing the problem are suggested. Several ideas are obtained from the environment. Elements of design such as lines, shapes, colours etc. and principles of the design like harmony, unity, balance, dominance etc. are put to work in producing varieties of design for the purse. The most suitable design which will best solve the problem at stake is taken.

(v)

Idea development: The most suitable idea or design is further developed and worked on through series of stages by either adding or subtracting some aspects of the original design. The main parts of the original design are retained while the other details are worked on to develop a unique and original design. This would ensure that the most appropriate and suitable design is chosen for the work. Page 226

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vi. Preliminary designing/model making vii. Working drawing viii. Prototype/model ix. Evaluation x. Production

There are several visual art forms that are produced today. These art forms include Sculpture, Painting, Architecture, Textiles, Pottery and Ceramics, Metal arts (jewellery), Photography, Cinematography (animation), Leatherwork, and Graphic Design.

Definition of the problem: This is the second stage of the design process where the specific nature of the problem is pointed out together with the available materials and financial strength of the client. For example, most of the girls do not have purses for keeping those items that is why they lose them so easily. There is a heap of leather off-cuts deposited at the visual art studio of the school.

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CONTEMPORARY AFRICAN VISUAL ARTS

(i) The problem identification: This is the first stage of the design process whereby the existing problem that calls for the production of the item is clearly stated. For example, most students in a girls’ school have been misplacing their ID cards and money. (ii)

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Investigation of the problem: This is the third and most important stage in the design process whereby the designer engages in research and analysis to find the exact solution to the problem. He asks himself several questions and tries to find answers by carrying out a thorough investigation. For instance, what is actually causing the misplacement of the money as well as the ID cards? Is it that the students are careless or there are thieves in the school? Or is it really that the students don’t have a place to safely keep these things? A thorough investigation proved that the students need a purse to enable them safely keep these items. He then probes into the shape, size and form of the article; the tools and materials for the production; the cost of the article; the method of production; the safety of the article; the cultural elements and the final appearance of the article. The shape, size and form of the article- This should be considered very carefully. For instance, since the purse is for students, it should not be too cumbersome and should be able to fit into the pockets of their school uniforms. A rectangular purse measuring 10cm length × 8cm width will be very appropriate. The tools and materials for the production- In selecting the tools and materials, the artist has to consider their availability, suitability and durability as well as the financial strength of clients. Since the leather offPage 225

Contemporary African Sculpture The sculptures which are done today show great diversity in their presentations such as high and low reliefs and three dimensional forms (sculpture-in-the-round) with extreme flexibility in form. The sculptural forms are in abstract, semiabstract and realistic styles. The tools and materials used for sculpture productions today include the hands and feet, spatulas, gouges, chisels, knives, hammers, wielding equipment, mechanical and electronic tools. Diverse materials of organic sources such as hides and skins, ivory, wax, wood, horn, bone and inorganic sources such as clay, glass, metal, plastic, paper and fiberglass. More production techniques are now in use. In addition to the carving, casting, and modeling, construction and assemblage is also part of the production processes in contemporary sculpture. The subject matter for sculptural productions today reflects indigenous, Western, Christian and Islamic themes and ideologies. Contemporary African sculptural forms are used to commemorate important events and personalities in the society and nation. Also, they are used in religious activities to represent deities and divine and holy ones, messengers and disciples of various religious sects. More importantly, they are used for decoration. Sculptural works in either two or three dimensional forms are used in decorating and enhancing the aesthetic appeal of public buildings such as conference centres, libraries, schools, churches, parks, roundabouts and public squares. Contemporary African Painting/ picture making The techniques used for today’s painting include drawings, etching, printing, mosaic, photo montage, collage. It is seen in cloth productions like batik and tiedye. The tools and materials used for contemporary paintings include Oil paints, Oil and Chalk Pastels, Colour Pencils and Pens, Crayons, Water Colours, Acrylics, Poster Colours, Inks of various brands, Brushes, Foam, Paper, Glass, Canvas and Enamel Paints. The themes for the paintings include still-life, animal and plant forms, landscape and seascape scenes, imaginative and historical compositions, portrait paintings, Page 210

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cultural life of the indigenous African and Western themes. Contemporary African paintings are used primarily for decorating the interiors and exteriors of private and public buildings. They are also used for remembrance of people and for the education on the rich culture of the Africans. Contemporary African Architecture Various styles of buildings are constructed today in Africa. Single structures to high or towered buildings of great complexity with various compartments are constructed today. Several shapes of building such as round, square, rectangular etc. are constructed in Africa presently. These shapes depend on the function of the architectural structure as well as the aesthetic principles of art. The tools and materials used for modern architectural structures include cement, plaster, plastic, stone, iron rods, slate, bricks and tiles, polymer, polythene, fibre glass, aluminum roofing sheet and tiles, building construction tools and machinery etc. The subject matter for the buildings reflects its intended purpose such as a religious place, shopping mall, banking, health services etc. The architectural structures serve variety of purposes. Some are religious, commercial, cultural, social and political. Churches, Cathedrals, Temples, Mosques, Monasteries and Sanctuaries are religious buildings. The social or public buildings include banks, law courts, theatres, conference halls, hospitals, military barracks, post offices and educational institutions. The buildings for commercial activities include banks, shopping malls, factories and industries. The buildings that serve cultural purposes are museums, galleries, and centres of national culture. The buildings that play political roles include the parliament house, district assembly halls etc. Contemporary African Textiles Modernization and technology have greatly influenced the textiles produced today. This has given rise to the advent of various styles and techniques of production such as embroidery, knitting, sewing, appliqué, dyeing, crocheting, quilting, tapestry, weaving on variety of looms, printing etc. Simple tools as well as varieties of complex electronic tools are used for the production of today’s textiles. These include needles, crocheting pins, highly powered looms, printing machines, embroidery and knitting machines, fibre and yarn processing machines etc. A wide range of materials ranging from natural to synthetic materials are used for textile production. These include wool, silk, cotton, nylon, acetate, rayon, polyester, natural and synthetic dyes, inks and pastes etc.

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SECTION THREE INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN AND TECHNOLOGY General objectives: The student will: 1. understand the design and technology process and explain the steps involved. 2. apply skills, knowledge and technique in printing to communicate ideas. 3. be exposed to the computer as an aid or tool in designing and making in Art.

UNIT ONE DESIGN AND TECHNOLOGY PROCESS Specific Objective: The student will be able to: 3.1.1 apply the steps in the design and technology process to make items. The design and technology process is a systematic chain of activities through which items are produced to address the needs of individuals and that of the society. It assists amateur and seasoned designers to produce hand-made articles to satisfy our basic needs. The paramount of these needs is shelter and then food and clothing. Articles for storing items such as food, oil, etc. are made. Apparels for personal adornment and other products to improve our livelihood are made possible through activities in the design and technology process. Creative abilities are developed and enhanced through activities in the design and technology process. Organisational skills, production skills, thinking abilities are learnt as the artist goes through the design process. These skills when developed can be used in producing useful items which when sold can aid in satisfying one’s economic needs. The needs, tastes and aspirations of clients are satisfactorily met when steps in the design process are meticulously followed. Clients’ priorities and specifications such as shape, size, colour, etc are satisfied. This helps in maintaining good customer relations and mass mobilisation of sales. There are ten steps in the design and technology process. These are: i. The problem identification ii. Definition of the problem iii. Investigation of the problem iv. Possible solutions v. Idea development Page 224

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contemporary artist to communicate, the indigenous artist uses carving, body paintings etc to do so. 9. Works of art produced by both sections are used by all people in the community. 10. They are both used to communicate philosophies, ideas, and beliefs to the people in the community. LIKELY EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 1. Write on the socio-economic importance of the arts of these major ethnic groups in West Africa: a. Mende b. Bambara c. Baule d. Dogon e. Swazi 2. Identify ten (10) contemporary Visual arts and three (3) contemporary performing arts. 3. Write briefly on five (5) differences between contemporary and indigenous artforms. 4. Discuss two (2) uses of contemporary African artforms. 5. Explain the role of the following artforms in the everyday life of the African; i. Music and Dance ii. Sculpture iii. Body arts iv. Verbal arts 6. Write short notes on the Chiwara mask of the Bambara including the media used, forms, characteristics and functions. 7. Discuss five (5) characteristics of Indigenous African Arts. 8. The following are some of the virtues taught the youth during puberty rites. Explain each of them: (a) Customs of the people (b) Law and justice (c) Dignity of work (d) Personal hygiene

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Textile products in the form of clothes and apparels are worn on the body for protective and decorative purposes. Others like curtains, bed sheets, table mats, furniture etc. are for interior decoration. Others like the upholstery for seating and furnishes are used in the automobile industry. There are several products in textiles used in the medical sector, agricultural sector and other areas of our lives. Contemporary African Graphic Design This is a new form of art which was introduced in the 19th century. It deals with the giving out of information to the general public by the use of text and pictures. There are several products in graphic design such as posters, banners, billboards, signboards, signpost, book jackets etc. There are various techniques in Graphic Design such as bookbinding, poster designing, packaging, lettering, printing, etc.The tools and materials for Graphic Design include all kinds of paper, colours (acrylic, oil, poster, water, enamel), squeegee, screens, writing tools like pencils and pens, glue,etc. Graphic design products are primarily used for decorations, advertisements and for the promotion and sales of products. It assists in the giving out of information to the general public concerning social issues (caution against teenage pregnancy, drug abuse, HIV/Aids, environmental sanitation etc.), political issues (elections, political campaigns, governmental policies etc.), religious issues (harvest, conventions and assemblies etc.) Contemporary African Cinematography This is a new form of theatrical art that uses various forms of art such as literature, music and drama to serve as a form of entertainment to the general public. It involves the production of films which are recorded performances on stage onto a film reel. A film projector then transmits the narrated story which was performed on stage onto a screen by a technician called projectionist or operator for an audience to watch in a cinema. With the advancement in technology especially in the entertainment industry, video film productions that ensures that the staged play is recorded on a video cassette, VCD or DVD which are viewed on a screen with the help of a video cassette player/deck or a VCD/DVD player. A new form of cinematography is animation which is extensively used in film production today. Animation is a film made by photographing a series of drawings usually cartoons, to give the illusion of movement when projected in rapid sequence. Cinematography is used primarily for entertainment. However, they are used as mediums in educating the general public on important moral and cultural issues. Page 212

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Cotemporary African Pottery and Ceramics Pottery which is the production of pots and other wares to serve as containers and receptacles are produced with great variety in designs and shapes. Powered and manual potter’s wheels are used today to facilitate the mass production of pottery wares such as cups, jugs, coolers, mugs etc. Ceramics is a new form of art especially in the area of clay ware production that employs highly resistant materials in the production of its products. One of such materials is glaze (a fine grinded powder from glass made soluble and used in coating fired wares to give them a hard, glasslike finish). Ceramic wares are fired at very high temperatures. Examples of ceramic products include bricks, wall and floor tiles, water closets, vases, plates, etc. The tools and materials used in making ceramics and today’s pottery include electric, gas, fire-wood or oil kilns, potter’s wheel, hands, incision and modeling tools, coloured glazes, clay, kaolin (white clay) etc. Various techniques of productions such as slabbing, coiling, throwing, glazing, modeling, painting, incision and stamping are used for pottery and ceramics production today. Products in pottery and ceramics are used as receptacles for the keeping, storing and serving of food, water and the like. Other like the flower pots and vases are used for decorating the interiors and exteriors of homes, offices and other public and private buildings. Those used for building and construction purposes include floor tiles, wall tiles, roofing tiles, water closets etc.

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7. Uses/Functions

The arts served religious and secular needs.

8. Symbolism of forms

Symbolic meanings were associated with all the works that were produced.

The arts serve secular, aesthetic and religious needs. Symbolic meanings are not necessarily the essential features of the works created. They are produced mainly for aesthetic appeal.

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN INDIGENOUS AFRICAN ARTS AND CONTEMPORARY AFRICAN ARTS The arts done in indigenous Africa as well as those executed in contemporary Africa, share some strong similarities though they were produced at different times. Some of these similarities are: 1. A form of training is offered to both learners of indigenous and contemporary arts in Africa to enable the young artists to master the skills in art. 2. The works of art produced in indigenous and contemporary Africa were all made to satisfy or address a need. They are both useful and functional and can serve as educational materials for teaching and training the younger generation.

Contemporary African Metal Arts This is the production of forms, objects and articles in metal in the areas of gold, silver and black smithing and jewellery. The jewellery products include rings, necklaces, bracelets, wristlets, anklets, cufflinks, belt hooks and brooches, tie and hair pins etc. Other products in metal arts include the production of farming implements like cutlasses, hoes, forks etc. Household articles such as washing and frying pans, plates, cups, trays, utensils, spoons, buckets are products in metal arts. Others include trophies, lamp stands and holders, chandeliers and the like.

3. A set safety rules, regulations and instructions are observed by both indigenous and contemporary African artists before artefacts are produced.

The production techniques used include annealing, casting, soldering, enameling, repousse, wielding, cutting, and joining. Various forms of metals are used for metal arts such as gold, silver, bronze, copper, platinum, aluminum, iron, tin etc. Other materials such as precious stones like diamonds, lapis lazuli, turquoise, rubies are also used. Leather, bones, ebony, glass and plastics are often integrated with the purely metal materials in producing artefacts in metal arts.

6. The works of art produced in both sections have symbolic meanings.

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4. All the artefacts produced in indigenous and contemporary Africa have admirable aesthetic qualities. 5. Great emphasis is given to craftsmanship in the works produced by both indigenous and contemporary artists.

7. Common to both indigenous and contemporary African arts is the use of local materials. 8. They are all used in disseminating information as well as record information. For example, while painting, photography, printing etc. are used by the

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3. System of training

4. Media

5. Tools and Equipment

6. Techniques/ Styles

GENERAL KNOWLEDGE IN ART FOR S.H.S. architecture, bead making, painting, appliqué, coiffure, calabash and gourd work. Art forms express the continuity of life and the renewal of creation. People were trained informally through apprenticeship in the shops of a master. No certificates were awarded after completion of the training.

architecture, sculpture and textiles.

Local materials used for artistic productions were influenced by the belief in animism. Local materials like wood, cane, rattan, raffia palm, twigs, bone, horn, fibre, skin, hide, shells, earth colours, dyes, gourds, calabash and feathers

Local materials used for artistic productions are not influenced by the belief in animism. Based on local and foreign materials like clay, cement, fibre, plaster of Paris, glass, oil paint, water colours, pencils, crayons, pins, plastics, gouache, paper, metal, minerals etc. Both manual and powered tools and equipment are used such as chisels, saw, hammer, powered tools and equipment. Same as the indigenous techniques with modifications as a result of limitless tools and materials available on the market now.

They used only local tools and equipment such as adze, cutlass etc.

Symbolic painting or printing. Hand built pots, weaving, dyeing, printing and appliqué. Carving, scorching, modelling and casting.

Art forms are free expressions of the artists in both visual and performing arts. Learners are trained in formalised institutions or educational institutions by qualified tutors. Certificates are awarded after completion of training.

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Some of the products in metal arts are used to enhance personal appearances. Others help in the performance of various chores in the home, farms and industries. Contemporary African Leatherwork Natural and synthetic leathers are used in the production of a wide variety of articles in eather. These articles include purses, wallets, bags, aprons, cases, hats, car accessories, footwear, bridles, cushions, book covers, sculpture, containers, flower vases, table mats, lamp stands and dresses. The tools and materials include awl, knives, edge beveller, needles, sewing machine, pliers, burnishers, measuring tape, stamping tools, P.V.A. glue, thread, dyes, etc. The production techniques in leatherwork include dyeing, painting, embossing, collage, mosaic, stamping, staining, piercing, marking, modeling, appliqué, thonging etc. The designs and themes for products in leatherwork reflect both indigenous and western cultural patterns. Products in leatherwork are worn on the body for protective, medicinal, spiritual and decorative purposes. Others are used in storing items and for decorating the interiors of buildings. Contemporary African Photography This is a new form of visual art that emerged in the 19th century. It is a digital means of recording events, scenes and the depiction of the likeness of individuals for the purpose of remembrance. A technological device known as a camera is used. Formally, pinhole cameras were used for photography but today various forms of camera especially the digital camera is used. These cameras allow for pictures to be viewed and printed instantly. Aside the cameras as a tool in photography, other tools are indispensably used such as printers, photo papers, picture frames and glasses. Photography is used for capturing events and images of people for remembrance and for decorating the interiors of homes and offices. Contemporary African Basketry The field of basketry is not limited to only the production of baskets or receptacles for the storing of items. Products in basketry now include furniture, room dividers, wardrobes, flower vases, tables, Television and computer stands, trunks, ceiling and floor tiles etc. The production techniques include plaiting, weaving, staining etc. The tools and materials used for basketry are now diverse. They include cane, raffia, rattan, bamboo, straw, Palm rachis and synthetic cords.

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Contemporary African Hairdressing Hairdressing and barbering are now highly patronage form of Visual arts. There are various styles of hair braiding and hair cut since people are now giving serious attention to their hairstyle. Several hair braiding and barbering saloons are everywhere in Africa. The tools and materials used include combs of all kinds, oils, waxes, dyes, chemicals, ointments, creams, hair rollers, hair driers, blades, scissors, and electronic hair cutting machines. Hairdressing is used for enhancing the personal appearances of individuals. It is also used in showing affiliations of an individual to some particular group or association, his ideologies and beliefs. CONTEMPORARY AFRICAN PERFORMING ARTS Performing arts are the arts that are played or performed. Today, there are new dimensions to the various forms of performing arts which are music, dance and drama. Contemporary African Music Contemporary African music has been greatly influenced by various foreign music styles and patterns. These foreign music styles include Jazz, Blues, Pop music, Roc and Roll, Reggae and Ragga, R&B, Indian and Arabic music. A great variety of musical instruments are used such as guitars, organs and pianos, trumpets, tambourines, cymbals, drums of all kinds, violins, etc.Sometimes these foreign musical instruments are blended with the indigenous musical instruments like xylophone, Kongas and Dondo and are used in composing music. The accompanying lyrics may reflect social, religious or traditional ideologies and themes. There are music contests organized in various African countries to train young talents in the music industry. Examples are the Mentor, Project Fame, Vodafone Idol, Talented Kids etc. Contemporary African music is played at theatres, churches, concerts, stadiums, dance halls and parties, wedding and out-dooring ceremonies for entertainment purposes. However, music today is also played to educate people on moral issues. Contemporary African Dance Contemporary African dance forms have been influenced greatly by foreign dance styles such as cracking/break dance, robot dance, electric boogy etc. However, there has been a blend of indigenous dance patterns like Kpanlogo, adowa and kete with the Western dance styles giving rise to new contemporary African dance style like the Azonto. Other contemporary African dance styles include swing, cha-cha-cha, rumba, mambo etc. There are several dancing competitions and contests held all over Africa such as Boogy Dance, Malta Guiness Street Dance

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contemporary African performing arts especially music in discharging their duties. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN INDIGENOUS AND CONTEMPORARY AFRICAN ARTS There are some differences between the indigenous African arts and the contemporary African arts. Several factors have contributed to the differences in the arts done in indigenous and contemporary Africa. Some of these are trade, religion, education, politics and technological advancement. These differences will be discussed in the light of these areas: i. Philosophies behind the production of the works ii. Types of Art Forms iii. System of Training iv. Media v. Symbolism of forms vi. Tools and Equipment vii. Technique/Style viii. Uses/Functions DIFFERENCES INDIGENOUS AFRICAN ARTS 1. Philosophies behind Works were motivated by the production of the beliefs. Taboos and works safety rules were observed and rituals were also performed before works were produced. There is a division of labour among the sexes. Pottery is for women while carving is for men. The works produced were for specific ethnic societies or people of the same culture. 2. Art forms Art forms included basketry, pottery, leatherwork, carving, modelling, casting, weaving, metal smithing, dyeing, printing,

CONTEMPORARY AFRICAN ARTS Works are not guided and restricted by any taboos or beliefs. However, safety rules are observed. There is no division of labour among the sexes. The works are made to satisfy all people in diverse ethnic societies and cultures.

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The stadiums, parks and other game centres where the sporting activities take place are as a result of contemporary African architecture.

competition etc. Dance is a form of pleasure and is a major form of entertainment in Africa today. It is used in reducing stress and pent up pressures in individuals.

viii. Agriculture The products of the various agricultural sectors such as farming, fishing and the like are stored and exported in large containers and packages for safe and easy handling. These are made possible through contemporary African art forms such as basketry and graphic arts. Advertisement of the products is made through communication tools in graphic arts such as posters, banners, billboards, flyers etc. Agricultural implements and tools such as cutlasses, hoes, water cans etc. are produced through blacksmithing and silversmithing which are parts of contemporary African metal arts. Other implements for agriculture such as aprons, wellington boots, gloves, nose masks and hats are products in leatherwork and textiles which are branches of contemporary African visual art forms. Harmful chemicals for agricultural activities are safely kept in plastic and other packages to protect farmers from having direct contact with them. These packages are made possible through graphic arts.

Contemporary African Drama Contemporary African drama is not performed in the open but it is rather performed on a mounted stage or a raised platform in a theatre hall. The audience in contemporary African drama does not participate in the theatrical performance as was done in the indigenous African drama. They sit quietly on their seats and show their appreciation for the play or drama by laughing, applauding or shouting especially when a character on stage does something unwholesome. Any criticisms, appraisals and communication with the actors and actresses are done after the performance of the drama. Generally, contemporary drama is used for entertaining people. However, others are used in teaching moral lessons and highlighting on social issues that need immediate attention.

ix. Health The health personnel and workers are identified through the dress that they wore. This is a product of contemporary African textiles. The various medicines are nicely enshrined or kept in well designed packages to protect them from spoilage. Packages are products in graphic arts. The hospitals and clinics where patients are cared for is a product of contemporary African architecture. The safety tools and equipment used by the health personnel in discharging their duties such as aprons, nose masks, gloves and even the stethoscope are artefacts produced from contemporary African Visual arts. The health education which involves sensitizing the general public on deadly diseases and how to prevent them is done through communication tools such as posters, banners, flyers, handbills etc. The locations of these health centres are made easy through signboards and billboards which are products in contemporary African graphic arts. x. Radio and Television Programmes The various radio and television stations in the country make their activities known to the general public through products in graphic arts such as posters, banners, flyers etc. The television stations make use of animation which is an aspect of contemporary African Visual arts in the production of majority of their advertisement for firms, companies and industries. They rely heavily on the

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USES OF CONTEMPORARY/CURRENT AFRICAN ART FORMS The contemporary arts of Africa are used immensely in the everyday life activities of the African. The uses of the art forms will be discussed in the light of some areas of our life. These are: i. Education ii. Politics iii. Commerce/Business iv. Religion v. Tourism vi. Entertainment vii. Sports viii. Agriculture ix. Health x. Radio and Television Programmes i. Education Products in contemporary arts enhance teaching and learning activities in the various educational institutions in Africa. Graphic design products like books and other stationery materials affect the teaching and learning processes directly. Architectural structures and furniture gives a serene atmosphere for teaching and learning. Uniforms and dresses worn by students are products in contemporary textiles. It assists in identifying students and also in distinguishing the various educational institutions from each other. Announcements, school programmes and general information are made known to students through graphic communication tools such as posters, banners, handbills etc. Page 216

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ii. Politics The various political parties in the various countries in Africa rely heavily on the contemporary arts in discharging their duties. For instance, their identification is done through emblems and flags with their party colours. They inform the general public about their aims, aspirations and ideologies through the graphic arts such as posters, banners, signboards, billboards, flyers etc. T-shirts and clothes which are products in contemporary textiles that bears their party emblem and colours are worn during rallies and political campaigns. Other party paraphernelias like hats, bracelets etc. Contemporary African music, dance and drama are greatly used in channeling political messages to the general public. Political party songs are sung during campaign and rally sessions. Dramas are staged to present a party’s policies to the general public. Voters’ identification cards, ballot boxes and other electoral materials that make election possible are as a result of some African Visual art forms like graphic design and the like. iii. Commerce/Business Contemporary African arts promote the activities of various businesses and enterprises. For examples, packages are designed for products and items to attract customers and protect the products from any external damage. Advertisements of the products are made through the use of posters, banners and billboards etc. to inform the general public of newly released brands of the products of companies on the market. Locations of businesses are easily made known to the general public through signboards and signposts which are all products in Graphic arts, an area in contemporary African arts. iv. Religion Contemporary African art forms promote religious activities that are carried out in temples, churches, cathedrals and shrines. The architectural structures in which the religious activities take place are as a result of contemporary architecture. Music, drumming and dancing which are important elements that promote worship and praises are part of contemporary African performing art. Dramas are staged to illustrate various religious stories and these are used in educating and informing members of the religious groups about their set of beliefs and doctrine. The deities and gods who are worshipped are represented in sculpture via African contemporary sculpture. The holy books like the Bible and Quran are as a result of contemporary African Graphic arts. Other items that enhance religious activities like the rosaries are part of contemporary African arts. The religious leaders and those who perform special duties like church ushers are identified by the kind of apparels or dresses that they wear. These are products in contemporary Page 217

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African textiles. Religious literature and messages are broadcasted everywhere through book production which is an aspect of contemporary African Graphic arts. The activities of the religious bodies are communicated to the general public through Graphic art products such as posters, banners, billboards, signboards, handbills etc. The interiors of their religious buildings are lavishly decorated through paintings and products in picture making. v. Tourism The tourism industry is promoted through products in contemporary African arts. For instance, various artefacts like miniature statues (Akuaba doll, stools, ceremonial swords etc.), produced from the contemporary African visual art forms like sculpture, painting, metal arts etc. usually referred to as souvenirs are exported to foreign lands to earn foreign exchange for the artist and the nation as a whole. Many tourists from foreign countries tour the various countries in Africa just to see at first hand the tools and materials, production techniques and products of the contemporary arts of Africa. This promotes the tourism industry. vi. Entertainment The entertainment industry relies heavily on contemporary African arts. Cinematography which is an African visual art form is used in entertaining the young and old through its animated images and cartoons. Contemporary performing art forms such as music, dance and drama are a great source of entertainment to the members of the general public. The theatrical centres and cinemas where the entertainment takes place were made possible through contemporary African architecture. Products in Graphic arts such as the production of hilarious books and other comic magazines that carries humorous stories coupled with satirical images are a mouth watering form of entertainment to the general public especially students. The activities of the entertainment industry are communicated to the general public through communication tools such as posters, banners, flyers, handbills etc. vii. Sports Kits for sporting activities like jerseys, boots, football, volley ball, trophies, medals and the like are products of contemporary African textiles, graphic arts, leatherwork and metal arts. Without them the various sporting activities cannot take place. The identification of players and teams which are through jerseys bearing their individual names and flags of their respective countries are made easy as a result of printing which is part of contemporary African textiles and graphic arts. The programmes of various sports are communicated to the general public through graphic design communication tools such as posters, banners, handbills etc. Page 218