Advanced Technologies in Education

International symposium on

Advanced Technologies in Education

Proceedings of the international symposium, held in Kefalonia, Greece 4 - 6 July, 2004

Edited by Sofoklis Sotiriou on behalf of Lab of Tommorow & EUDOXOS Consortia

Published by Ellinogermaniki Agogi Artwork: Vassilis Tzanoglos Evaggelos Anastasiou

the symposium was co-financed by:

e Learning D e s i g n i n g To m o r r o w ' s E d u c a t i o n

Copyright © 2004 by Ellinogermaniki Agogi All rights reserved. Reproduction or translation of any part of this work without the written permission of the copyright owners is unlawful. Request for permission or further information should be addressed to the copyright owners. Printed by EPINOIA S.A. ISBN: 960-8339-42-1

TABLE OF CONTENTS

The Role of the Research Center in Science Inquiry and the Transfer of Knowlenge . . . . .9 Dr. G. Fanourakis, Institute of Nuclear Physics, NCSR "Demokritos", Greece On the Role of the Regional Educational Institutions in shaping the European School of Tomorrow and its Laboratories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19 Dr. N. Solomos, National Observatory of Education "EUDOXOS", Greece Designing the science laboratory of the school of tomorrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31 Dr. S. Sotiriou, Head of R&D Department, Ellinogermaniki Agogi, Greece ICT in Education: The dawn of a new era or the development of an accessory? . . . . . . .45 Prof. K. Tsolakidis, University of Aegean, Greece ICT: Does it enhance or jeopardize learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51 Prof. A. Aviram, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Head of Center for Futurism in Education, Israel The evolution of Pedagogies, Learning Cultures and Organisational Stractures . . . . . . . . .57 Dr. N. Kastis, Lambrakis Research Foundation, Greece "Life in Winter": Interdisciplinary ICT-approach at secondary schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61 Prof. F. Bogner, University of Bayreuth, Germany Free-choice learning in the digital age: Challenges and chances for school-museum cooperations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67 Dr. K. Haley Goldman, Dr. M. Storksdieck, Institute for Learning Innovation, USA Waltzing with the Muses: How Might Computer Technology Help Bridge the Gap between Formal and Informal Science Learning? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79 Dr. S. Rosenfeld, The Weizman Institute of Science, Department of Science Teaching, Israel The Lab@Future project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87 Dr. G. Zissis, Systema Technologies, Greece The EUDOXOS Project: Teaching Science with a Robotic Telescope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93 Dr. S. Sotiriou, Head of R&D Department, Ellinogermaniki Agogi, Greece

The COLDEX Project: Collaborative Learning and Distributed Experimentation . . . . .101 Prof. N. Baloian, University of Chile, Department of Computational Sciences, Chile K. Hoeksema, University of Duisburg, Collide Group, Germany The ASH Project: A Virtual Control Room . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107 R. Andersen, DELTA Danish Electronics, Light & Acoustics, Denmark Interaction between Research Scientists and Students of Secondary Education in Digesting Principal Ideas of Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113 Prof. N. Uzunoglou, National Technical University of Athens, Greece The Lab of Tomorrow Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117 Mr. M. Orfanakis, Ellinogermaniki Agogi, Greece The CONNECT Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .123 Dr. M. Gargalakos, National Technical University of Athens, Greece A Pedagogical Analysis of Laptop and Hyperbook integration in education . . . . . . . . . .137 C. N Ragiadakos, Pedagogical Institute of the Greek Ministry of Education Making ICTs Accessible to All . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .143 Mr. M. Bletsas, Director of Computing, MIT Media Lab, USA Satellite Network of Rural Schools - DIAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .147 Elena Tavlaki, Head of Research Programs of OTE Usability Evaluation of the SensVest and SensBelt Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151 Dr. J. Knight, The University of Birmingham, United Kingdom Tells - a facility for web-based, remote real time laboratory experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . .157 Prof. A. Rurua, University of Limerick, National Technological Park, Limerick, Ireland The ORIENTE Network - Observatory of Research on Innovation in Education: New Technologies Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161 F. Scheuermann, Institute for Future Studies, Innsbruck, Austria An Evaluation of the Design and Development of a Virtual Learning Environment (VLE) for Engineering Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .181 Prof. C. McHugo, University of Limerick, ECE Department, Ireland Consistency vs. fragmentation in Dynamics: evaluating the results of the implementation of MBL technologies in the Physics Laboratory, the University of Athens . . . . . . . . . . .189 Prof. A. Karabarbounis, Physics Laboratory and Department of Physics, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece Moments of the Conference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199 Moments of the Observation Night . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .201

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A change that never occurred. Will this change come? Dr. Savas Stavros Ellinogermaniki Agogi

designing the science laboratory for the school of tomorrow

international symposium on Advanced Technologies in Education

INTRODUCTION

Powerful new technologies promise to transform education and training in ways previously unimaginable. Rapid advancements in educational technologies in the years ahead could enable new learning environments using simulations, visualizations, immersive environments, game playing, intelligent tutors and avatars, reusable building blocks of content, address distributed communities of learners, and many more. There are many challenges in the process of educational innovation that must be addressed in order to take advantage of these technologies to improve learning. Advanced technologies developed to meet other purposes must be translated into affordable tools for learners to use. Technical standards must be deployed to help guide the development of educational content that will be drawn from countless sources throughout the world. The technology community has to form stronger partnerships with the educational community. The educational institutions need to prepare for rapid technological change. In this framework, the symposium brought together individuals and teams from a wide range of technology and education fields to look into the future and to share their visions as to what the learning experiences and educational technologies could be like. A rich collection of examples of futuristic scenarios and visions were presented and discussed in detail. These offered a glimpse of a future in which learners could explore worlds and cultures beyond their own, both in distance and time, as if they were there. And they will serve to remind us that we must strive to apply the power of technology in ways that empower people, enlighten the mind and enrich our lives. Sofoklis Sotiriou, Ellinogermaniki Agogi

designing the school of the tomorrow 7


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The Role of the Research Center in Science Inquiry and the Transfer of Knowledge George K. Fanourakis Institute of Nuclear Physics - N.C.S.R. 'Demokritos'

Introduction: The Scientific Research Centers, either under the auspices of the Universities or independent entities, have a very important purpose in society. They are not only valuable because they produce scientific knowledge and train young scientists, but also because they transfer this knowledge to several applied or educational fields and, as we will see, can provide additional important innovations in the learning methodology. Let us start first with the definitions of the basics, i.e. the notions of scientific knowledge and science [1]. Scientific knowledge is not just the outcome of the research work of one scientist trying to understand the workings of nature. His/her work is communicated in refereed and internationally accepted journals, presented in conferences, discussed with fellow scientists, and thus available for the - usually severe - criticism of the scientific community. In the process it is compared to and augmented by similar research efforts. It takes a while, going through corrections and reevaluations as well as undergoing the necessary wide experimental verification, before it is possible to become established knowledge. Putting it all in a concise form, this is what is meant by scientific knowledge: the collected product of individual contributions of scientists purified and extended by mutual criticism, intellectual cooperation and experimental verification. Two crucial characteristics of this type of knowledge are firstly, that it is directly or indirectly experimentally verifiable, at least within the power of the available technology, and secondly, as far as acceptability is concerned, it has reached consensus within the scientific community. The collection of disciplines which produce scientific knowledge is defined as science and, as based on the previous discussion, it is quite distinguished from other disciplines as religion, politics, arts, etc. The actors in the theater of scientific knowledge production, the scientists, belong to a special cast of people educated and trained hard to acquire the expertise of the scientific methodology in their individual scientific fields and the capacity to communicate

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and defend their findings within the scientific community. The action takes place in the Research Centers and the Universities but also in, slowly increasing in number and significance, industrial research and development establishments as well as other private or government funded non-profit organizations. We will focus, in this note, on the function of the research centers as (scientific) knowledge producing and transferring entities.

The Research Center and the society: The idea of the establishment of the Research Centers is quite old and it is a natural extension of the University Research laboratory, where the researcher does not have to provide basic knowledge and training to University students in addition to his/her research work. The researcher often provides higher level scientific training to graduate or post graduate students mostly for the ultimate benefit of the research, bringing fresh and unbiased minds to contribute to it. The Research Centers are mostly governmental institutions, thus public supported, and they are involved in research activities which can be fundamental or applied or both. Their function is, then, to produce new knowledge which has the prospect, after it is scrutinized and defended, to become established scientific knowledge advancing our understanding of nature and eventually benefit the society. The applied research produces more immediate outcomes or results for society, as compared to the fundamental - or basic - research activities, and it is quite often at times becoming a debate issue whether we do need fundamental research at all. Of course this is the argument of the weary, non-visional and less educated politician in need of saving funds for more immediate benefits to his voters. However, any scientist will tell you that both research directions are needed, the fundamental to expand the frontiers of knowledge and the applied to make our lives easier and keep the public and the politicians happy with useful ready to implement innovations. Without fundamental research the applied activities are doomed to fade off and the technological progress to eventually come to a halt. Strictly speaking, any research is inevitable to result to benefits to the society, along with damaging consequences if and when scientific results and products are not used wisely and appropriately. We will refer to just two - out of numerous - examples of Research Centers where in the process of fundamental or/and applied scientific research there were spin-offs and products developed which are or can be used to the good of the mankind. CERN, the European Research Center for Particle Physics (see figure 1), an organization strictly devoted to fundamental research, is our first example. We all know that CERN is the birthplace of www - the World Wide Web - born out of the need of the Particle Physicists to communicate data and exchange scientific ideas worldwide. We are fully aware of its global spread, its immense usefulness, but also how you can waste your time looking at information of no value, if you do not Figure 1: View of CERN close use it wisely. to eneva Switzerland.

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Figure 2: Magnetic tomography with spin polarized 3He. Problem areas in smokers' lungs are shown. One of the more recent manifestations CERN's usefulness to the society is the application of the spin polarized 3He (Helium-3) developed for nuclear physics experiments to high precision lung tomography [2]. Patients simply inhale a whiff of gas and with the help of NMR (Nuclear Magnetic Resonance) tomography, they have a fast lung status examination with lots of information included (see figure 2). Rather than just giving a single image, Helium-3 imaging can provide ultra fast sequences, of less than a tenth of a second accuracy, a movie of lung ventilation during the breathing cycle. In addition the rate of depolarization of Helium-3 is related to the oxygen partial pressures in regions of interest in the lung so these as well as the rate of oxygen intake in the blood can be quantified for the first time, providing early diagnosis of respiratory problems. Demokritos, the Greek National Center for Science Research is our second example. It is an institution devoted to both fundamental and applied research. One powerful technique, stemming from Nuclear and Particle Physics detector development technology, is the X-ray fluorescence methodology. This technique has been used to develop a portable X-ray system which can, by just getting close to valuable ancient statues and other objects, analyze their surface composition and find out the chemical structure of the existing Figure 3: Non-destructive analysis of painting, without even touching them (see figure black painting on Pithos at Heraklion 3). This non-destructive technique for the analysis Museum, Crete, Greece. of ancient artifacts is quite valuable to both the investigation and preservation of our heritage, and it is currently being used at museums and ancient sites. Another technique coming from the domain of Physical Chemistry is the development of nanosponges i.e. materials like alkylated dendrimers and hyperbranched polymers, which can be used to trap organic contaminants in the water and thus obtain its purification (see figure 4).

Figure 4: Schematic encapsulation of organic contaminants in the nanocavities of dendrimers.

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Therefore, it is not unjustified that society has always supported a whole variety of Research Centers, and despite the ups and downs of this support, especially in the relative weight of fundamental versus applied research, it continues doing so. The Research Centers have always kept on producing new scientific knowledge, in the global effort to understand nature, and at the same time they have been developing and advancing the technology needed for the improvement of our lives. Naturally, the new knowledge is being continuously transferred to the higher education in the courses of our Universities and Advanced Technology Institutions in order to train the future scientists and teachers. However, this is not the case for the secondary education.

Increasing the gap: The new scientific knowledge produced by the scientists in the Research Centers and Universities during the last century has enormously changed our lives and formed the world we know today. The awesome advancement of technology is indeed due to this new knowledge. However, the basics of this new knowledge have not been transferred to the secondary education system as yet. Even worse, the appropriate structure has not been set up so that the basics of the new knowledge are transferred in a natural way to the secondary education. But, why is this important? It is a fact that the secondary education produces the future citizen. It produces the future worker, the future politician, the future artist, the future lawyer and, of course, the future scientist. Each one of them, whatever his/her profession will have to be adequately trained and properly shaped to be able to understand issues based in science and technology, to be able to understand the laws of nature and the world around. They have to be able to distinguish between scientific understanding and products of personal belief. They have to be prepared to meet the demands of business and industry and to play productive roles in a society increasingly dependent on science and technology [3]. They also need to be able to have an educated opinion not only as policy makers but also as simple citizens. This can only be accomplished by providing the opportunity to all school children to learn and understand science, mathematics and technology at the new basic levels, as evolved by the last century's scientific progress and technological development. Additionally the school has to prepare the student to continue learning, after his graduation, regardless of whether he/she becomes a scientist or not, if the future citizen is to be able to keep up with the progress. We are not talking about making everybody a scientist. We are talking about a new type of citizen: A citizen aware and alert on the state of the world around him, a citizen able to keep abreast with the progress, able to influence its evolution with positive criticism and selectively accept it. The opposite scenario has the citizen continuously distancing himself from the current technological developments, not being able to comprehend the new ideas, not being able to have the knowledge to improve his life by influencing the decisions of his leaders. The knowledge gap between the science 'elite' and the common citizen will widen and, since knowledge and power usually go together, our society may eventually end up being ruled by a knowledgeable 'priesthood' like in the ancient Egyptian society ! This will be the end of Freedom and Democracy. Setting aside this kind of undesirable scenarios, the fact remains that the emerging citizen is left behind not able to follow and take advantage of the progress, suspicious of everything

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new and, even worse, prone to manipulation by the technocrats. The gap is then a fact of our times, getting bigger while the schools textbooks are not being radically updated; while the new teachers are not trained to cope with the teaching of the new knowledge. The Research Institutes are spending more and more time to 'outreach' activities trying to convey the notions and implications of modern science and the new knowledge to common people. Just waiting for some wise leaders to grasp the gravity of the situation and implement correctional measures. So, let us be optimistic. Let us assume we get the badly needed wise leaders who are determined to save the day. They have to proceed in four basic parallel routes: - To require the assistance and cooperation of the new knowledge producers. It is a waste of time and does not help to change anything if the task of bridging the gap is given solely to educators not actively involved in producing new knowledge. - To shift emphasis to teaching only what is considered fundamental or important, thus rewriting the textbooks. - To develop a training program for teachers at specified time intervals, depending on the rate of scientific and technological progress. - To encourage Educational Research and devise new methods to improve the learning and increase the transfer of knowledge. Only then we can expect the developing gap to mend itself and to have a smoothly improving society as a whole, with fewer disparities and imbalances. It has been argued that the new knowledge is difficult to grasp by non experts. This is not true, as we shall see in the following examples, if new ways of teaching and learning are developed.

Applying Research Methodology in Secondary Education: In the last section of this presentation we will concentrate on two examples of devising new learning methodology which can help improve the learning process. These examples are also examples of the contribution that the Research Centers can have to Educational Research and to the diffusion of new basic knowledge to the Secondary Education. We refer to two Educational Projects initiated by the Institute of Nuclear Physics of Demokritos. Both are based on a fundamental observation on the nature of acquiring and learning new knowledge. This is the similarity between a student trying to learn new things (that is to acquire new knowledge) and the scientist trying to acquire new knowledge (that is to learn new things). Unfortunately the similarity ends right there, since the student traditionally does it by reading his books and being helped by the teacher, whereas the scientist does it by active experimentation and formulation and verification of theories. The scientist's standard procedure is to design and conduct experiments, analyze their data and come up with conclusions about the workings of nature and additionally communicate the results to other scientists for discussion, comments and criticism. The fact is that while the scientist acquires knowledge efficiently, the student does not. We maintained then that this situation could change if the Research Methodology was adopted by the Secondary Education, to the extent necessary. Especially it would help in boosting the efficiency of acquiring the new scientific

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knowledge not yet included in the Secondary Education curricula. We proposed, then, two projects for Educational Experimentation based on this idea which, were implemented successfully at several schools. Both projects were supported by the Greek Ministry of Education through the ÓÅÐÐÅ [4] program of the Greek Pedagogical Institute. The first project involved the design and construction of educational instrumentation which was subsequently used to develop and run table-top experiments. These experiments taught various physics notions to the students utilizing the Research Methodology. An example is shown in Figure 5. It is a scattering Figure 5: The scattering table, shown with table used in a series of experiments designed to teach a conical surface representing the potenfundamental ideas of modern physics. One of the tial well of a nucleus. experiments shows the fact that any measuring procedure involves an inaccurate measurement, and this is a property of nature. The accuracy is improved by repeating the measurement many times and taking the average. This fact is investigated by placing a rough surface on the scattering table and Figure 6: The ending locarolling metal spheres tion of the metal spheres with the help of inclined follows a Gaussian distributracks, in the same direction. tion, which end up in collecting pockets around the table (see figure 6). It is observed that the spheres do not always end up in the same end pocket of the table - since their direction continuously changes as it scatters with the irregularities of the rough surface - and in fact the ending location is distributed as a Gaussian distribution, which is a necessary result imposed by the mathematics of the experiment. The second project involved the acquisition of a 60 cm research grade Cassegrain (reflective) type telescope [see figure 7], its installation on high mountain Ainos of Kefallinia island of West Greece, its connection with the Internet and its use for educational purposes. We took advantage in this project - named Eudoxos, after a famous ancient Greek astronomer - of the fact that the observation of the sky always fascinated the mankind and motivated the study of Nature and the Physical laws. The second phase of this project, including the improve-

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Figure 7: The main telescope of the Eudoxos project. ment of the Internet connectivity and the development of a user-friendly interface and educational content for junior high school students, as well as a global evaluation, was supported mainly by the European Commission [5]. We designed experiments, in the same spirit with the first project - in this case whole procedures of astronomical observations, analysis and interpretation of the acquired images - which the students could do by remotely accessing the telescope. These experiments indeed utilized the research methodology and in addition the motivating subject of Astronomy to develop a successful learning environment. The project and the experiments designed are described in two web sites, one designed for the initial project (http://eudoxos.snd.edu.gr) addressed to Greek senior high school students and one (http://www3.ellinogermaniki.gr/ep/eudoxos/htm/) dedicated to the second phase of the project, addressed to European junior high school and elementary school students. Using one extreme example to show the learning capabilities of the concept of Figure 8: The concept of searching for the phenomeEudoxos we refer to the experiment of microlensing, which could be non of microlensing. A massive celestial object creadapted for senior high school students or for University level use. ates a gravitational field which acts as a lens for the This experiment teaches the fact that light can be bending not only star-light (arrow). by going through a common lens but also by a gravitational field, that is when traveling close to a very massive object. Indeed, if while observing a faint star with a telescope it so happens that a dark massive celestial object passes in front of it, this massive object acts like a concentrating lens for the light emitted by the faint star (see figure 8 and figure 9) thus enhancing the brightness of the star being observed temporarily. Figure 8 shows a sequel of images of a region in the sky where a star has become bright while the massive object passes in front of it and then it faints away when the massive object continues its journey going farther.

Figure 9: Light is bent when going through the gravitational field of a massive celestial object.

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The very motivating lessons, which have been designed for junior high school students, in the second phase, were conducted in European schools with considerable success, proving the learning value of this methodology. The Internet was also used to allow for the communication among the students as well as a means for the students to contact the scientists.

Generalizing and concluding: The developed Research Methodology as a learning method with or without the use of motivating environments is in accord with the modern views of how the human brain learns. The neural and cognitive sciences are actually able to 'see' a living brain as it learns and have shown that learning does not occur with the traditional mechanistic way. The brain does not function in a serial manner but it processes all available information in parallel. Learning is not an accumulation of information but the mechanism of construction of concepts through processing multiple representations of knowledge. The more senses participate in the learning process the faster the plastic neural network of the brain is trained and knowledge is acquired. The brain is not a hard disk which just stores information. Thus it has become clear that the old methodology of teaching has been proved insufficient to true learning [6]. This easily justifies the success of the methodology described above.

Figure 10: Large scientific instruments available to schools via the internet. In the context of the proposed and successfully applied methodology, one can generalize and obtain a dramatic enhancement of the benefit of the Research Centers to the shaping of the future citizen by such an organized transfer of knowledge at the secondary education. This can be accomplished by adding to the learning environment of a high school student, large scientific instruments and a series of basic exercises which enrich the learning environment of the student and also exemplify the experimental research process as a learning tool (Figure 10). This can easily be done with the help of the internet technology, in a similar way as in project Eudoxos. Concluding, the Scientific Research Centers are not only needed because they create scientific knowledge and train the young scientists in the Research Methodology. They also dissemi-

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nate the scientific results and the novel techniques developed to applied sciences and industry resulting to benefits of society. In addition they play a very important role in transferring the knowledge to both the higher and lower education. Finally the expertise of the scientists can be used to develop methodologies which can significantly contribute to the basic learning of science.

Acknowledgments: We acknowledge enlightening and useful discussions with colleagues Drs Nikos Solomos, Sofoklis Sotitiou and Profs Spyros Tzamarias, Freidrich Scheuermann. This work is supported by the EU e-learning project Eudoxos under contract 2002-4085 / 001-001 EDUELEARN.

References: 1. J. Ziman 'Reliable knowledge', Cambridge Univesrity Press 1978, and J. Ziman 'Public Knowledge', Cambridge University Press 1967. 2. Article in the Medical Applications section of the CERN Courier, Vol. 41, No 8, http://www.cerncourier.com/main/toc/41/8. 3. L. Lederman, 'Arise' Fermilab project: http://www-ed.fnal.gov/arise/arise.html . 4. Greek initials meaning: Schools for Applying Experimental Educational Projects. 5. TSRT (Teaching Science with a Robotic Telescope) - project Eudoxos, EU contract 2002-4085 / 001-001 EDU-ELEARN. 6. 'Consistency vs fragmentation in Dynamics: evaluating the results of the implementation of MBL technologies in the Physics laboratory of the University of Athens, Greece' contribution to this symposium by A. Karabarbounis et al.

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On the Role of the Regional Educational Institutions in shaping the European School of Tomorrow and its Laboratories Nikolaos H. Solomos Physics Sector, Hellenic Naval Academy, Piraeus & National Observatory for Education EUDOXOS, Kefallinia, GREECE [email protected]

Abstract and Introduction In what follows, as a written account of the talk given in the conference, we try to show that a strong component of dispute and inquiry in Science is physically justified to find a central place in future education. The students should not be taught to consider Science as a mere system of unquestionable and established facts to be learned and applied. However, this essential element cannot be incorporated easily into and conveyed effectively by educational systems, as the only way to teach "research" is the participation to its creation. Early acquaintance with it through the personal participation could be subject of future, formal and informal science learning experiments or innovative test projects. Admittedly, formal-targeted experiments of such type -being very prone to failure or misguidance as every new experiment is- cannot be carried out within the laminar flow of the everyday teaching in schools, for the benefit of the pupils. On the other hand, it is shown that a system not only with inherent ability to experiment but also incorporating recognition of differentiation of learning rates among the students, is essential for the future scientific progress. It is the role of the Regional Educational Institutions existing in the periphery of the main educational systems, to organize, perform, evaluate radical educational experiments and disseminate any potentially positive extracts from them. A brief description such initiatives having as common cradle the EUDOXOS observatory in Greece, is given herein. In conclusion, all that flood of advertised information-technologies (IT) and new tools summarized herein for completeness, are useless towards a more efficient reform of education, without the proper enrichments of the Content they are asked to facilitate. Although the prin-

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ciples of learning remain the same, educational research has to focus on more basic questions, teach scientific generalizations, proven ways of deduction, attitudes for discovery, to underline the physical principles of science and technology, clarify and criticize the devised concepts, implant the spirit of dispute and thus, finally, device and provide new schemes for "production" of inquiring minds.

A-1. On Education and Types and Aspects of Educational Systems "Education" is intimately associated with both Survival and Progress by passing to the new generations the Necessary, the Useful, the Pleasant, the Interesting. This relay of knowledge is focused not merely on the pure and distilled extracts of past experience just in the form of facts and conclusions, but it also includes essential "attitudes" or "methods" and induces motivation for progress. On the other hand, Education is more or less convolved with an (procedural) Educational System. From the various educational systems implemented throughout the world, at least our most familiar (Western), can be categorized into the following two groups, reflecting corresponding core-characteristics: - CLOSED "STATIC" SYSTEMS (Public, Private, primary & secondary schools) where the system of Knowledge given is finite, specific and does not prepare for continuous renewal of Knowledge. Closed systems offer: - Uniformity in all levels - easy means for "mechanistic" evaluation ! - OPEN- "DYNAMIC" SYSTEMS (Universities, Special Institutions, Regional Centres etc.) They prepare for continuous acquisition of new knowledge without restricting themselves to the very material they offer. - Non-uniformity (Teaching associated with research. Content based on the conclusions of Research and on the supplied by research - Evaluation very difficult !

A-2. Questions on Science:..What is "Science" and why we teach "Science" in the Formal Education ? Answers to the above questions arise from contemplation on the Nature of Science. - Science is a human attempt to put order and organization into the received perceptions of our brain (which cannot be handled in other ways due to its restricted capacity and the finite extent of our life). Science is therefore an approximation (..not the only one) to classify and process our empirical data, that uses powerful Generalizations which it discovers, to make us capable to adapt, efficiently, to the external world. It is because this generalization capability leads to the well-known and unparalleled predictive power, that Science is established as an intellectual achievement of mankind. - Science approaches the Truth, but never can it prove that the latter is reached

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! There is not absolute certainty in Science. Study of the history of Science as a intellectual and social process reveals another very important characteristic: The actual progress in science is the "disprove" and contradiction !! Therefore, if the science advances by disproving hypotheses and the educational system mainly teaches Science, it is physically acceptable (and desirable) to build up the education in such a way, that a feeling/spirit of freedom and dispute should permeate the educational system… A2-1. A Paradigm of real Dispute: Developments in Physics and Astronomy in 1900's. Here are the sequential steps of a revolutionary and influencial discovery that shaped the today's understanding of the Kosmos.

1. Discovery that astronomical objects emit spectra which consist of lines, specific to the various elements. These provide information about their conditions and composition. 2. Sodium emission spectrum is discovered and studied 3. The discovery of lines permits one to measure the velocity of the line emitting source. The lines shift to the red if the source is receding and to the blue if approaching.

Fig. 2: the Doppler effect

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4. Measuring Astronomical Distances - Parallax distances measurable to 3000 light years - Beyond 3 klyrs, use luminosity distance 5. Cepheid Variable Period-Luminosity Relation: Henrietta Leavitt (1912) discovers period and luminosity are correlated Spiral Nebulae Controversy: Inside Milky Way galaxy or "Island Universes"? 6. Heber Curtis (1917) discovers faint Novae in spiral nebulae, argues they are vastly distant using luminosity distance 7. Harlow Shapley (1918) determines size of Milky Way to be 300,000 lyr, argues nebulae are local 8. Shapley-Curtis Debate (1920) at NAS. Are the spiral nebulae local or distant? 9. Edwin Hubble (1921) discovers Cepheid variable in Andromeda Nebula 10. Using P-L relation, estimates distance to be 800,000 lyr Proved extragalactic hypothesis Spiral nebulae are now called galaxies, in analogy to the Milky Way galaxy (Andromeda Nebulae [M31] as the case study) 11. Progress on Instruments of Discovery: Hooker 100" Telescope 12. Hubble's Discovery of the Expanding Universe (1929) Spiral nebulae known to have redshifted spectra Hubble and Humason carry out quantitative study Hubble shows velocity of recession is proportional to distance 13. The Hubble Law: Hubble's original data showing the galaxy "velocities" (in fact redshifts) to be proportional to their distance (Fig.

Fig-3. The Hubble Law: Redshift of spectral lines (called "galaxy velocities" in vertical axis) is proportional to their distance from the observer (horizontal axis) which means that every galaxy is receding and therefore an expansion of the universe of galaxies is clearly manifested.

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14. "Expansion of the universe" (!) is concluded. New knowledge is thus produced. In other words a major advancement in science has been made, for a novel world-model compatible with the main corpus of the past data, is established. In the sequel, new predictions of the model are being made and new iterations of the inquiry process started in order to test their validity and therefore the degree of "depth" or applicability of the model itself. The ability to systematically organize or "incorporate" a multitude of experimental data under the generalization scheme of a particular model adds significance in it, which is proportional to the range of its applicability. Increased credibility in a model reflects some elements of a deeper truth about nature, which at the end is subject to conveyance through education. However, the subsequent testing and the posing of new questions, reflect, in fact, the background presence of another essential element, the spirit of a new Dispute.

A-3. Educational Aspects and Associated Problems of the Present Era Are there any new facts or intricacies to be resolved in our epoch?. Incidentally, the above mentioned expansion of the universe was paralleled with another expansion: The rapid expansion of the scientific productivity rate started in the last century which has created another challenging problem set: The problem of the "integration" of the corpus of "New Knowledge" into the educational system.

The understanding of this problem is facilitated by following the direction of "flow of knowledge" schematically depicted in the above diagram of nested triangles. We start from innermost triangle whose base represents the content of primary education, and finally arrive at the question marks, representing the current borders between the Known and Unknown.

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These are the subject of scientific investigation at a level (more or less) higher than that of the present university education. The knowledge acquired by research is then flowing down, enriching the university education (in open - dynamic systems, -> see A-1) from where (through the education of the next teachers of the secondary schools), also enriches the 'content basis" of the secondary and subsequently of the primary education (depicted as the size of the triangle -bigger length of its base). New generations of pupils receive education of a higher level compared with the past ones, and arrive at a formal education in the university at a level equal to the one previously occupied by the previous generation of researchers [5]. On the other hand, since the university produces not only the user but also the producer of new knowledge, a better generation of researchers emerges who bring the borders of known and unknown to even deeper (higher) levels. Accumulated new results are again flowing down to the university education, old results and concepts are heavily criticized for educational value, decisions are taken on their pedagogic usefulness and the process repeats itself impacting the secondary and primary education leading to a deep exploration of the vast space occupied by the Unknown. Admittedly, there is no doubt that this is a purely Platonic idea about Progress and Education. The reality of practice reveals many filters which slow down the flow downstream the secondary education. Such obstacles, are formed not only by the static attitude of a certain part of the teacher population, but also by the absence of a progressive dialogue among the communities involved (vertically) in the educational system. In any case, the net result is an increased amount of fossil knowledge conveyed and an enormous trend to deepen the gap among the frontiers of research and the level of public understanding in the society. These also are distinct problems of much concern for the educational system. The "Scientific Methodology" problem. (that is we do not learn (and teach) how to investigate as much as we learn (and teach) how to apply). The author is of the opinion that a solution can be sought in the introduction of a "research process" component in our learning strategies. Learning by discovering, or stating actually differently, 'education through research' was being tested in various educational experiments (e.g the Greek "EUDOXOS-I" project, etc) with quite encouraging results. Demands for Modern Tools to "upgrade" the "courses"/lessons. These are direct consequences of the following established facts: Emergence of Knowledge-based Society. The today's ongoing formation of an information society is, as a matter of fact, the result of the impingement of three technological 'waves' onto the society. First Wave: Open standards for Data Communication- The Internet. Second Wave: Open standards for Data Presentation- World Wide Web. Third Wave: Open standards for network-based applicationsWeb Services. With the arrival of the 'industrial strength' Internet in the mid-1990s, the notion of a knowledge-based society has gained considerable acceptance. This emergence is reflected in various contemporary trends: - Jobs are shifting from a dependency on relatively low skills to high skills - Major transformations are affecting key sectors with the emergence of E-learning, E-commerce, E-government &

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-

E-health - Skills & knowledge upgrading are becoming a continuous requirement associated with on-the-job training - Designing, sourcing, developing & selling products & services is increasingly globalized Need for Continuous Learning In the New Economy knowledge is a key resource and the quality of a nation's work force is critical to ensuring competitiveness The key to this transition is for workers to make intelligent use of information This capability will increasingly be the measure of an individual's contribution to the economy Therefore, life-long learning becomes an imperative

Emergence of Network-based Education Traditional education is being transformed by the enabling capabilities of the Internet, which offer: - new ways of teaching - new models of learning - means to absorb rapid increase in numbers of students - means to deliver education/training with decreasing numbers of instructors The Internet is globalizing education with the emergence of anywhere - anytime E-learning Research & Education Networks: Since the mid 1990s various countries have established national & regional networks in support of R&D in general as well as the health and education in particular. Such typical networks, include: Internet2 & vBNS (USA), NORDUnet (Nordic countries), SURFnet (The Netherlands), GrangeNet (Australia), SingAREN (Singapore), Dante (European Union)

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Visibility of Future Directions: Enabling new technologies with great impact in elearning and the much wider spread of the latter appear to be the principal axes of reform in future Education. The global picture anticipated is as follows: Enabling Technologies: Creation of Learning Object Repositories, High Bandwidth Optical Networks, Grids, Web Services E-Learning Tomorrow: Universally improved access to the Internet Content developed from repositories of multimedia learning objects Courses designed for broadband will allow for: the use of rich multimedia content dynamic interaction between content & the student Global community of students studying & learning from 'anywhere', 'anytime' at 'any pace' Need for Re-determination of the Aims of SCIENCE & EDUCATION. The rate of increase of the scientific knowledge is much higher than the rate at which we have learned how to incorporate Knowledge into our social and cultural structure. The great successes of Science and the unavoidable "Authority" gained by Science after such achievements combined with our inability to cope with the advent of innumerous facts and theories, were not without consequences: Science now tends to dictate all aspects of life because it determines unilaterally -within its intrinsic framework of notions and mutual relations-, not only what is "meaningful" or what is "feasible" but also what is worthy, i.e. what is needed or -more importantly-, what should be asked for, by the society… Without a doubt, we must avoid nominating Science as the absolute "emperor" of the society merely because of the lack of time to critically evaluate a real flood of new results. There is need to build up a synergetic association of Science with the other major aspects of the Human nature (Historical feel, social evolution) and the establishment of a more wise approach, perhaps a process of redefinition of worthy scientific aims based on a sound social/ethical feedback. All those concerns are not irrelevant to the design of an educational system.

B-1. A Vision for the School of the Future There is certainly a vision behind the efforts of our educational experiments: Produce more Inquiring Minds Early Familiarization with the Open Problems of Science and Technology. Projectbased education. Curation of the Absence of provision for Research Experiences for Teachers, Students, Pupils. Need for new efficient educational axes, especially in the subject of "Interdisciplinary Science" Carry out (in the background) many educational experiments, draw conclusions and provide input to the 'closed' formal educational system.

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As any improvement of the pedagogical systems is largely based on the continuous Experimentation, we carried out experiments with teaching schemes, contexts and tools. We concluded that: - Uniformity in education combined with absence of experimentation is a bad combination. On the contrary - Ability to experiment combined with differentiation (adapted contents and methods to the capacity of subgroups in the class) appears much more fruitful satisfactory for the pupils - If no differentiation is adopted, the new knowledge arrives very late (to be of value) Such approaches requiring amble time, devotion and will for radical deviation from normal curricula and teaching skills, define a research role appropriate for Regional Educational Institutes. Their work is thus carried out in the background, it is evaluated in many small samples of pupils and to draw statistically significant conclusions many such samples are required over the years. They are unavoidably lagging behind in rates of statistical-hypothesis tests but this is because they deliberately want to produce no disturbance in the course of the formal learning. Any results from them are offered offline at no pedagogic harm. The National Observatory of Education EUDOXOS in Greece, can be seen as a case study of the described approach. It is worth to give some elements of its history. The "EUDOXOS" initiative 1999-present. After the establishment of the 'Eudoxos' National Observatory of Education [2],[3],[4] in 1999, the organization has been the common cradle from which two consequent educational e-learning initiatives -both bearing its name "EUDOXOS"- have emerged1. Two different experimental curricula have been elaborated for different student ages in Greek and European Schools. Here we give a brief description and analysis of the pedagogical and learning strategies adopted in both cases. The 'Eudoxos' projects share a common educational axis: They take advantage of the thrill and magic of Astronomy and utilize the possibilities the Internet offers in order to transform the classroom into a research laboratory and improve learning. The projects provided platforms that allow the students and teachers to remotely control and use the "Andreas Michalitsianos" Robotic Telescope (TAM) and recently the "Apollon" Solar Telescope (HTA), in the framework of their school curriculum and beyond2. The Eudoxos' pedagogical approach cross cuts the traditional boundary between the classroom, home, scientific laboratories and research institutions as distinct learning environments. The major teaching goal of the "EUDOXOS" establishment is to provide pupils and undergraduate students www-access to a wide variety of modern scientific instruments, which allows them to acquire and analyze their own images to test astronomical hypotheses and theories. In EUDOXOS-talented there is a strong emphasis on discovery (e.g. SN TypeIa, microlensing event patrols) and advanced hands-on experimentation. The emphasis is particularly put on building on the student's own curiosity to guide them into understanding the Universe using the scientific method of 1 The first (I) was funded by the Hellenic Ministry of Education (1999) and the second (II) by the European Commission (2002). 2 Both robotic telescopes are installed in the Eudoxos National Observatory on the Ainos mountain of Kefallinia Island (Ionian Sea), Greece

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hypothesis, observation, and analysis, based on the fact that astronomy is so attracting that is particularly suited for such a purpose. More than 10 self contained exercises have been written covering modern Astrophysics by following the imaginary path from 'near' to 'far' (that is from Solar System to Cosmology) and also a parallel path largely based on the historic development of Astronomy . The material of this (ever expanding) curriculum can be downloaded by students in the form of self-contained classes and corresponding teacher guides written in Greek. In the subsequent EUDOXOS-e-learning project, the emphasis was transferred in improving the attractiveness of the user interface as well as in the elaboration of a new comprehensive and less demanding curriculum to be used on-line by younger pupils. Furthermore, a matching teaching and implementation guides have been developed to provide students guidance and motivation in using the new facility. Further educational experiments are planned for the future in the form of: EUDOXOS-technology, where we will focused on content and motivation offered by the engineering/ instrumentational aspects of the infrastructure, EUDOXOS -SETI, where the emerging topic of astrobiology is to be taught using the thrill of the search for extraterrestrial intelligence, and finally EUDOXOS Interdisciplinary Science, where emphasis will be put on bold paradigms of the synergetics among various disciplines employed by modern science in developing a holistic approach of learning.

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B-2. Concluding Remarks: Essential Questions All the above mentioned work of a regional educational-research institution EUDOXOS, is firmly based on the huge educational potential of Astronomy and, as a matter of fact, reflect the big intellectual impact of the very basic question -originally stated in ancient Greek language by E. Scrodinger [1]- and repeated here in verbatim: "....Ôßíåò çìåßò ;"3 I would like to bifurcate this very fundamental question in a way providing new grounds or research lines to the learning curricula for the Physical Sciences: Should we continue producing the "user of knowledge " in the School of tomorrow ? Is the present educational system characterized by sufficient ability in producing the "producer of Knowledge" ? These are, indeed, questions of ultimate significance if real progress is actually anticipated in the future.

References and Notes [1] [2] [3]

[4]

[5]

Erwin Schrodinger (1948), "Nature and the Greeks", Lectures, Trinity College, Dublin Solomos, N. (1995)."The research potential of small telescopes" 2nd Hel. Astr. Soc. Conf., Ed. J.Seiradakis, 643-648 Solomos, N., (2001) Advent and Future of the 'EUDOXOS' Observatories Complex: -I: The 0.6m "AM" telescope: Scientific and Technological proof of concept for the advanced robotic telescope in Greece, in Proc. (4th Hel.Astr.Soc. Conf.), Ed. J. Seimenis, (2001) (pp. 377-386) Solomos, N. Fanourakis, G., Hatzilau, I., Zachariadou, K., Kostarakis,P., Tsilimigras, P., Geralis, T. "Advent and Future of the 'EUDOXOS' Observatories Complex:- II: Operating The National Robotic Observatory of Education and Research Center for Astrophysics", in proceedings of the 5th Hellenic Astronomical Conference, Crete 2002 A. Verganelakis (1977), "Children & Physics" (in Greek), Ïëêüò publishers,

Acknowledgements The author would like to thank Dr. Antonios Verganelakis and Prof. Panayiotis Tsilimigras for the inspiration he received through discussion, life paradigm and for the moral support and encouragement to his pedagogic endeavors and initiatives.

3 (..Who are we ?)

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Designing the science classroom of the School of Tomorrow Sofoklis A. Sotiriou, Head of R&D, Ellinogermaniki Agogi

Science, whatever be its ultimate developments, has its origin in techniques, in arts and crafts… Science arises in contact with things, it is dependent on the evidence of the senses, and however far it seems to move from them, must always come back to them. B. Farrington, Greek Science, 1949

Abstract What will science classrooms be like in the year 2020? How will teachers help all students to acquire skills, reasoning abilities, knowledge and attitudes that help them function in the 21st century? National efforts to reform the science curriculum provide guidelines that call for (a) integration of science with mathematics and other disciplines, (b) more time devoted to inquiry and long-term projects, (c) more group work and cooperative learning, (d) effective application of advanced tools such as graphing calculators and microcomputer-based laboratories, and (e) realistic assessment tied to non-academic outcomes. This paper argues that current reform guidelines will result in classrooms that are more exciting places to learn and apply science.

1. Introduction Step into a time machine and move forward fifteen years to the year 2020. What will high school science classrooms look like? What have we learned about ways to teach science? How will we apply what we have learned about teaching and learning to help adolescents prepare for their lives in the Information Society? Will science learning environments be enhanced by effective use of new tools? Will students be motivated to achieve better? Will science teach-

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ers be more competent at their jobs? Will classroom environments promote outcomes like process skills, problem-solving abilities, teamwork, stronger self-concepts, career goals that include science, and transfer of knowledge to novel situations? What will be different and what will look the same in 2020? Science teaching in schools and in higher education is an important issue related to the Lisbon and Barcelona goals, part of which is to overcome Europe's shortage of scientists and researchers: According to a report of a 'High Level Group on Human Resources for Science and Technology in Europe', published in April 2004, Europe needs 700.000 researchers more in order to accomplish these goals. The report emphasises that more students should be encouraged to choose scientific disciplines at university that lead to a future career in science. Therefore, school science teaching needs to become more engaging. It should be based on more hands-on experience and designed to meet the interests of young people. Powerful new technologies promise to transform education and training in ways previously unimaginable. Rapid advancements in educational technologies in the years ahead could enable new learning environments using simulations, visualizations, immersive environments, game playing, intelligent tutors and avatars, reusable building blocks of content, address distributed communities of learners, and many more. There are many challenges in the process of educational innovation that must be addressed in order to take advantage of these technologies to improve learning. Advanced technologies developed to meet other purposes must be translated into affordable tools for learners to use. Technical standards must be deployed to help guide the development of educational content that will be drawn from countless sources throughout the world. The technology community has to form stronger partnerships with the educational community. The educational institutions need to prepare for rapid technological change.

2. Pedagogical Considerations Our working hypothesis is that amending the traditional scientific methodology for experimentation with visualization applications and model building tools will help students and learners in general to articulate their mental models, make better predictions, and reflect more effectively (Mirland, 2003). Additionally, working to reconcile the gaps and inconsistencies within their mental models, system models, predictions and results, will provide the learners with a powerful, explicit representation of their misconceptions and a means to repair them. Everyday experience suggests that students are eager to learn in informal settings such as excursions to museums and science centres. This positive attitude is believed to have two main roots: The freedom of leaving the formal setting of the classroom and the students' positive motivation towards informal learning beyond the school to a real life setting where contextual knowledge occurs. In order to achieve the best results from informal education one has to take advantage of the motivating effects of freedom and physical context. Our approach aims to bridge this divide, introducing new technologies and activities that fluidly link the use of physical materials with digital technology in creative inquiry and inventive exploration. Our aim is to demonstrate an innovative approach that crosscuts the boundaries between schools, museums, research centers and science thematic parks and involves students and teachers in extended episodes of playful learning. In most science-education settings, there is a sharp division between the physical and the virtual. Our work aims at developing, testing and eval-

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uating learning schemes that will be implemented on ambient, always available educational environment developed upon emerging technology in order to facilitate in-situ learning, by maximizing the impact of information that is provided when the motivation of the student is highest. Our working hypothesis is putting emphasis on the following factors: - Science for All Students: Every student, not just the intellectual elite and college bound, can and should master the elements of scientific literacy. This term is usually defined as the ability to recognize and apply a rational approach to understanding the world, which has explanations for its behavior, and can be manipulated for human benefit. Citizens who are scientifically literate can discuss and make wise personal decisions about problems arising from acid rainfall, global warming, AIDS, increasing human population, decreasing energy and mineral resources, etc. Science-literate citizens believe that these problems are subject to rational solutions. They understand both the potential benefits and hazards of applied science and technology. Because all citizens will be taxpayers and voters and will make decisions every day that affect the aggregate societal welfare, it follows that all students should prepare for this responsibility by becoming familiar with science and technology as a tool for impacting the public, either for good or for ill. Personal actions that result in household and automobile fuel consumption, number of children born into a family, contributions to the waste stream, recycling, etc., add up to significant impacts on the planetary welfare. Taxpayer referenda that establish priorities for funding the technical costs of addressing these problems will be decided by how well schools have done their job of educating all students about the potential of science to "fix" our world. Government funding for research and development efforts in space, medicine, sub-atomic particles, global climate modeling, and other expensive human efforts will be available only if congress and vocal citizens believe in its merits. Some of today's teenagers may be elected to congress; or others may find themselves in positions to make critical decisions; all need to know how to be responsible adults; schools must assure science literacy for all students. This push for universal scientific literacy has large implications for changes in science classrooms. If we need to provide science for larger numbers of students, we will need more science teachers. To integrate science with other subjects, we will blur the boundaries in the curriculum and require better communication and planning among teachers. To include physically and mentally challenged students in science, we will need to show teachers how this can be done and convince them that it is desirable. More minorities and females will need to see optional science courses as essential to their future plans. Multicultural role-models of both genders need to be shown as successful students of science many of whom are choosing science careers. - The Curriculum and Time Schedules: A greater emphasis on interrelationships, traditionally termed "ecology," will be found in the curriculum of the future. Predator-prey relationships, food chains, requirements for species survival, population dynamics, and the effect of humans on the ecosystem will be used as themes for integrated science. Teams of students will debate the global impacts of human consumption and waste management on other species. Loss of habitat and consequent pressure on animal and plant survival will be examined. Teachers will need help as they work more outside the textbook in a dynamic curriculum. This will mean elec-

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tronic networking through the Internet and local re-education through inservice workshops. Universities and local education agencies will play a more active role in teacher support. Finding ways to encourage more active student participation in learning will challenge all the stakeholders in science education. Currently, science classes in most schools are interrupted by scheduled bells at 40-45-minute intervals. Teachers are surely the only professionals who must perform their job within such arbitrary time blocks. Despite their need to set up, conduct and clear away laboratories and demonstrations, science teachers are allocated the same time as shop, gym, or algebra teachers. Schools in 2020 will have alternatives that offer extended time for science learning. Blocks of time will exceed the traditional 45 minute class hour, allowing science teachers to perform laboratory experiments and demonstrations with their students, to examine the resulting implications, and to explore the extensions of thinking that should follow. In place of the traditional series of six, 45minute classes, future schools will offer modular schedules, with a full year of credit offered for a semester of these double-long class periods. Such schedules will provide science teachers with opportunities to extend project work, field trips, and inquiry learning. There will be a distinction between allocated time and actual academic learning time. Non-academic disruptions of academic time will be reduced to maximize time on task. Schedules for science classes will be adjusted in response to questions like: How much can be "covered" in the allocated time?; Does "seat time" imply meaningful learning?; Do Carnegie units indicate real conceptual understanding and mastery of skills that are useful in the world outside the classroom? Exploring fewer topics in greater depth and for longer daily class periods will be the earmark of future science classrooms. This issue is explored in a report issued by the National Education Commission on Time and Learning (1994). The report offers eight recommendations for reinventing the school schedule to provide more time for student academic learning. Table 1 contrasts traditional science curriculum practices with those recommended by new national guidelines from AAAS and the NAS. It is taken from the Science for All Students: The Florida Pre K-12 Science Curriculum Framework (1995).

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Table 1: Comparison of Traditional and Recommended Practices in Science Instruction Traditional

Recommended

Science for some

Science for all

Behaviorist based

Constructivist based

Behavioral objectives - learning is based on measurable behaviors

Conceptual objectives - learning is based on constructing meaningful concepts/learning

Text based

Hands-on/Minds-on

Passive

Active

Confirmatory investigation

Problem solving investigation

Fact oriented

Concept oriented

Teacher demonstrations

Labs/Field experiences

Science is seen as a single subject with little relationship to mathematics, social studies, language arts, art, or music

Science is seen as part of an interdisciplinary world; emphasis is on relating science to the students' world, which is not compartmentalized.

The teacher imparts knowledge and students learn it; communication is learning generally one way.

The teacher is a facilitator of and a learner as well; students are learners and teachers in some situations; networks emerge instead of one-way forms of communication.

Limited use of technology

Full integration of appropriate technology in instruction

Exclusive use of pencil and paper assessment disconnected from instruction

Multidimensional assessment; assessment integrated with instruction

Competitive learning

Cooperative learning

Single exposure

Spiral curriculum

Many science topics covered with little depth.

Few science topics covered with more depth.

Florida Department of Education. (1995). Science for All Students: The Florida Pre K-12 Science Curriculum Framework. (Tallahassee, FL: Author), p. 37.

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- Integrated Science: Science classrooms of the next decade will no longer separate subject matter by grade level. They will not dictate that all graders must take biology to the exclusion of the physical and earth/space sciences. Mathematics will become a central component of all science classes. Other school subjects will also find their place in science classes. Furthermore, science is to be part of a larger tapestry of all school subjects, especially mathematics, language arts, and social studies. This implies a need for students to think horizontally and to apply knowledge and skills in science that they have learned in other subjects. This also points to a need for teachers to work together in teams to plan and execute a curriculum based on common themes, communication, social needs, and mathematical tools. Examples include exploration of energy conversions, and what fossil fuel combustion means to our culture. Students would write about this, interview power plant employees, learn to read electric meters and calculate electric bills, examine rate structures and interview utility Boards of Directors, and study the laws of thermodynamics. A wide variety of subject matter would be explored during several days or even weeks of study. Bringing information into class discussions would be expected of each student. Students will use the Internet to discover resources and others' ideas in reaction to their own. Informal learning in museums and nature centers will enrich classroom science. Concrete, manipulative materials that exercise students' thinking in force and motion will be a prelude to later, more abstract study of friction, vectors, and Newton's laws. Seniors will be better prepared for calculus-based physics if they have been guided in exploring physics concepts in earlier grades. A good example of an integrated science curriculum is the program developed at the University of Alabama by Star Bloom and Larry Rainey for use throughout the state of Alabama (Bloom & Rainey, 1994). This middle school curriculum consists of (a) weekly telecasts featuring scientists, students, and teachers engaging in activities that focus on the topic of the week; (b) classroom cooperative group activities emphasizing hands-on encounters with real world problems; and (c) student handbooks with additional background material that relates science to everyday events in student environments. - Group Learning: The real world rarely puts people in isolation and asks them to come up with solutions without consulting others. Schools are finally moving toward cooperative learning groups in science classes. Three or four students of mixed ability are each assigned unique tasks within the team and helped to master the social skills required by these tasks. Just as athletic teams succeed when the entire team functions well, so science learning proceeds best when each team member feels responsible for the success of both individuals and the group. Typical roles in cooperative teams include (a) the questioner, who asks what is known, what needed information is missing, how to proceed to obtain what is needed to solve the problem, and how certain the team is of its conclusions; (b) the record keeper, who maintains a written summary of what has been given, what has been acquired, graphs, tables, and preliminary conclusions; (c) the materials organizer, who sees that calculators, lab equipment, supplies are at hand and put away when they are no longer needed. - Assessment: In the movie, "Apollo 13," the ground crew and astronauts were required to come up with solutions to a series of unrehearsed problems by applying science, engineering and common sense to their situation. They worked out their problems by breaking out of the mold; they could not check the "right answer" in the

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back of the book. Their success is a tribute to scientific problem-solving, and may represent a high water mark in technical education. There is a wealth of data to indicate that a generation of our science students are losing this ability to solve openended problems by inventing solutions. This points to a need to change the way we teach and learn science. Because the way we assess outcomes in science classes tends to drive the way we teach it, the classroom of the future will evaluate realistic situations that require application of science concepts, principles and theories. Assessment of student outcomes in science will be imbedded in a realistic framework so that students are not merely provided prompts and expected to pick the "best" answer from a set of multiple-choice options, or to choose the "best match" from a set of related terms, or to indicate whether a statement is true or false. In the real world, careers provide a series of inputs (givens) and require a creative application of theories and principles to derive a solution that makes sense in the context of the problem. There are not many employment opportunities for high school graduates whose problemsolving skills are limited to completing worksheets and turning them in for grading. Therefore, assessment will be imbedded in realistic situations that can be found outside the classroom. Assessment can easily be made a part of classroom activities based on realistic simulations. Students will be invited to take a more active role in determining what they know and do in science learning environments. Concept and skill self-inventories will be administered to students at the beginning of new units. In completing such inventories, students will encounter new as well as familiar terms and ideas, and see a preview of what they are expected to know at the end of the unit. Use of concept mapping, Venn diagrams, analysis of research reports, and Vee diagrams will help teachers and students evaluate science learning. Students will be expected to maintain portfolios that contain evidence of their skills, the quality of their writing, reflective thoughts on their personal strengths and weaknesses, and goals. A few states such as Vermont are already moving toward portfolio assessment for all students. While this type of assessment requires more time than machine scoring a multiple-choice test, it provides a richer record of students' abilities. It also places responsibility on students to examine their progress over time and to take pride in personal growth. New national standards and benchmarks require that students be placed in situations where they are given parameters of a problem and invited to propose solutions. Students are now expected to do more than respond to pre-written prompts on tests. The real test of America's skills is how well we can apply our knowledge of science and technology to raw materials so that value is added and the resulting product can be sold competitively in the world market. For this question there are no answers in the back of the book! Table 2 provides a summary of changes in assessment of science classroom learning (Doran, Tamir and Chan, 1995).

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Table 2: Predicted Trends in Measurement and Evaluation of Science Instruction

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From

To

Primarily group administered tests

A variety of administrative formats including large groups, small groups, and individuals.

Primarily pencil and paper tests

A variety of test formats including pictorial, laboratory performance and computer-aided tests and observations/discussions/interviews.

Primarily end-of-course summative assessment

A variety of pretest, diagnostic, and formative types of measurements.

Primarily measurement of low-level cognitive outcomes

Inclusion of higher level cognitive outcomes (analysis, evaluation, critical thinking).

Primarily assessments of cognitive outcomes

Inclusion of measurement of affective(attitudes, interests, and values) andpsychomotor outcomes (observing, manipulating, etc.).

Primarily norm-referenced achievement testing and grading

Inclusion of more criterion -referenced assessment, mastery testing, and selfand peer evaluation.

Primarily measurement of facts and principles of science

Inclusion of objectives related to the processes of science, the nature of science, and the interrelationship of science, technology, and society.

Primarily measurement of student achievement

Inclusion of measuring the effects of programs, curricula, and teaching techniques.

Primarily teacher-made tests

Combined use of teacher-made tests, standardized tests, research instruments, and items from collections assembled by teachers, national and international projects, and other sources.

Primarily concerned with total test scores

Interest in sub-test performance, item difficulty and discrimination, all aided by mechanical and computerized facilities.


From

To

Primarily a one-dimensional format of evaluation (e.g. a numerical or letter grade

A multidimensional system of reporting student progress with respect to such variables as concepts, processes, laboratory procedures, classroom discussion, and problem-solving skills.

Primarily concerned with what students know or don't know

Special attention to student preconceptions, misconceptions, and alternative exploration.

Primarily assessing isolated bits of information or skills

Emphasis on the "whole," such as solving problems, investigation, concept maps, and embedded activities.

Primarily verbal tasks

Inclusion of tasks with data tables, graphs, charts, and sketches.

Primarily tests requiring student selection or choice of answers

Inclusion of tests which require student performance, to include projects, reports, and portfolios.

Doran, R. L., Tamir, P. & Chan, A. (1995) Assessment in Science. Arlington, VA: National Science Teachers Association. pp. 17-18.

3. The role of the New Tools Technology will offer exciting new options for science teachers and their students. Links to high-speed microcomputers will open a wide variety of channels to meet almost every learning style. Virtual and Augmented reality is already being tested in secondary school science classrooms. Three-dimensional projections of simulated reality will become more common as tools to help students "experience" space, time and motion in controlled states. Thus, a student can simulate weightlessness, or friction-free motion, or an Earth-centered universe as easily as opening a window. Trying out these environments in virtual reality will make facilitate learning and make group and class discussions more much more interesting. Students will use personal "think-pads" to do calculations, obtain tutoring help, and keep up with schedules. Graphical display panels will be built into classroom walls, and used to show high-resolution colour video sequences that are keyed to textbooks and curricular guides. Overhead projectors will be fitted with liquid crystal display panels that connect with classroom computers to make a "dynamic chalkboard" for the classroom. Static and dynamic visuals will be available on videodisk for science teachers to use to show single- or multiple-concept topics. Threedimensional displays will allow rich discussions of physiology, collisions in space, and molecular geometry. These displays will make it possible for science classes to take field trips to any location on the planet and examine plants and animals there.

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Figure 1: The advanced learning environments are expected to provide access to the scientific and cultural heritage resources (museums, science centres, research laboratories, collections and more) that will qualitative upgrade teaching and learning (formal and informal) in the school of the future. The microcomputer-based laboratory will be expanded from its current state of monitoring temperature, light intensity, pH, and motion. To these parameters will be added new variables, such as population of humans on Earth, metabolic rate of selected students, location and direction of hurricanes, historical frequency and location of earthquakes, somatic cellular activity, solar flux onto the school, and many others. Current events will be exhibited in new ways that facilitate better understanding and learning. The science textbook will change. Universal bar codes on each page will allow students and teachers to use bar-code readers to access videodisk sequences that make each page come alive. Textbook publishers will provide computer programs to accompany each major topic. Hypertext and multimedia materials will make true self-paced learning possible for all students. Self-help features will mean that students can receive assistance without depending as much on the teacher. Role models will include all gender and ethnic groups. Each chapter will have imbedded assessment activities for individual students, small groups, and whole class testing. Toll-free numbers to publisher hot-lines will allow teachers to request customized tests over any topic from large banks of questions, many of which embody higher levels of thinking. In a decade or two, three complementary interfaces will shape how students learn: - The familiar "world to the desk top" interface, providing access to distant experts and archives, enabling collaborations, mentoring relationships, and virtual communitiesof-practice. This interface is evolving through initiatives such as Internet2. - Interfaces for "ubiquitous computing" in which portable wireless devices infuse vir-

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tual resources as we move through the real world. The early stages of "augmented reality" interfaces are characterized by research on the role of "smart objects" and "intelligent contexts" in learning and doing.

Figure 2: Lab of Tomorrow "Kick Life into classroom": Playing with a "smart" ball with embedded sensors gathering and manipulating experimental data of real life activities. One of the most successful examples of the role of "smart objects" in science learning. - "Alice-in-Wonderland" multi-user virtual environments interfaces, in which participants' avatars interact with computer-based agents and digital artifacts in virtual contexts. The initial stages of studies on shared virtual environments are characterized by advances in Internet games and work in virtual reality.

Figure 3: Lab@future's approach for teaching geometry through augmented reality applications.

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4. Towards the science classroom of the school of tomorrow We should point to a future hybrid classroom that builds on the strengths of formal and informal teaching and learning strategies in ways that can support learning of all students. Our vision for the school of the future is that it will not be an island, a self-contained campus, a counterworld. The school of the future will be able to emit and absorb along different wavelengths, be immersed in contemporary culture, be open to the emotions, facts and news of its time. It will be permeated by society, but not unprotected: the relationship between school and society will be one of osmosis, where the advanced pedagogical tools filter, guide, and act as a membrane and interface. Look into a science classroom of the year 2020. Instead of seats arranged in rows and columns, you will find students sitting in a circle or in pods as they discuss whole class or small group topics. Computers will be available, equipped with modems to link the classroom with the Internet. Videodisc and videotape equipment will be used for viewing linear and random access sequences. Live animals, models, simulations, and collections of student work will be a part of the scenery. An open-door policy will invite visitors to join for observation or participation. Use of outside resources such as museums, nature centers, state and national parks will enrich the curriculum. The day will begin with teachers meeting together for team planning on how groups of students will move through the day. There will be less dependence on bells to dictate the daily schedule. Textbooks will be used as reference sources for information, but will not be the sole or even primary source. Access to electronically-stored information will be easy. Compact discs and remote databases available on the Internet will offer students and teachers current data on global and local systems. Assessment will be ongoing, and built into small-group discussions. For a period of weeks, the whole class will deal with themes like matter and energy, force and motion, patterns and change. More emphasis will be placed on current events, with television broadcasts used to augment class discussions. Students will end the school day at different times and with less enthusiasm than in the past. Project work, team cooperation, higher levels of inquiry, and the stimulation of interactive technology will raise the motivation of students to apply science in their own cognitive world. Dinner table conversations and talk in school hallways will include more science. This will increase the scientific literacy of high school students, and contribute to our skills in the world economy. We have applied science and technology to adapt our environment. Every generation must redefine the future and relearn the values, tools, and principles that will influence it. We have the tools and the principles have not changed. It is the values that we struggle with. The scenarios above are images of plausible futures that depict how applying these interfaces might reshape teaching, learning, and the organization of educational institutions. The objective of these scenarios is not to detail blueprints of an unalterable future, but instead to show the range of possibilities enabled by emerging interactive media and the consequences-desirable and undesirable-that may flow from their application in pre-college and higher education settings. Such visions suggest decisions that researchers should make today to explore the potential of these technologies while minimizing unintended and negative outcomes of their use.

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Resources American Association for the Advancement of Science. (1993). Benchmarks for science literacy. New York: Oxford University Press. Bloom, S. and Rainey, L. (1994). Integrated science. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama. Doran, R. L., Tamir, P. & Chan, A. (1995) Assessment in science. Arlington, VA: National Science Teachers Association. Florida Department of Education. (1995). Science for all students: The Florida pre K-12 science curriculum framework. .Tallahassee, FL: Author. Herman, J., Aschbacher, P. & Winters, L. (1992). A practical guide to alternative assessment. . Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Johnson, R.T. and Johnson, D.W. (1982). What research says about student-student interaction in science classrooms. In M. B. Rowe (Ed.), Education in the 80's: Science. Washington, DC: National Education Association. Kober, N. (1993). What we know about science teaching and learning. EdTalk, Council for Educational Development and Research, Washington, D.C. ERIC Document Retrieval Service No. ED 361 205. McColskey, W. and O'Sullivan, R. (1993). How to assess student performance in science: Going beyond multiple-choice tests. Greensboro, NC: Southeastern Regional Vision for Education. Moshell, J.M. and Hughes, C.E. (1993). Shared virtual worlds for education. In Proceedings: 4th Annual Virtual Reality Conference and Exposition. San Jose, CA. National Academy of Sciences. (1994). National science education standards. Washington, DC: Author. National Education Commission on Time and Learning. (1994). Prisoners of time (Stock #06500000640-5). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. National Science Teachers Association. (1993). Scope, sequence, & coordination: The content core. Arlington, VA: Author. Natural Science for Youth Foundation. (1990). Natural science centers: directory. ERIC Document Retrieval Service No. ED 319 619. Also available from: Natural Science for Youth Foundation, 130 Azalea Drive, Roswell, GA 30075 ($49.95 plus $3.50 shipping and handling). Oh, Deer! [Computer software]. (1983). St. Paul, MN: Minnesota Educational Computing Consortium. Rescue at Boone's Meadow [Optical media]. (1992). Learning Technology Center. Warren, NJ: Optical Data Corp. Roth, W. M. (1992). Bridging the gap between school and real life: Toward an integration of science, mathematics, and technology in the context of authentic practice. School Science and Mathematics, 92 (6), 307317. Scarnati, J. T. (1994). Interview with a wild animal: Integrating science and language arts. Middle School Journal, 25 (4), 3-6. U. S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment. (1995). Teachers and Technology: Making the Connection, OTA-EHR-616 (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office).

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ICT in education: The dawn of new era or the development of an accessory? Prof. K. Tsolakidis, University of Aegean, Greece

1. Is ICT in education still an open question During the last decades, Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) have been introduced in a dynamic way in society and in a far lesser degree in education. Formal education (i.e. primary, secondary, higher education) or informal education of various modes (i.e. professional training, life long learning etc), are all affected by ICT. By ICT in education we mean all the contemporary digital tools, such as computers, accessories and Internet that can be used in education helping to fulfil its goals. A lot has been said about the impact of the introduction of ICT in education. Some believe that ICT is a basis for a revolutionary reform in this field. Some believe it is a panacea. Others consider ICT in education as a very useful tool that will not necessarily change the function of education dramatically. In general (and this is the common ground of the above points) it is widely expected that ICT will solve at least some of the problems that education faces. It should be noted that the academic and scientific dialogue concerning the effectiveness of ICT in education remains still an open issue. At the one edge there are those who believe that ICT should be applied in every discipline expecting that its penetration will improve the performance of every educational process. At the other end there are those who believe that penetration of ICT in education will not change things radically hence it should be dealt with caution, leaving no room for excitement. There are grounds to believe that ICT will improve education. Thus: - ICT can be used as a substitute for almost anything in the class: pencil, book, telephone, TV, encyclopaedia, map, library and many more.

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- Practically, with ICT, all the applications can be implemented using repeatedly very few basic techniques and devices, as well as a symbolism that becomes more and more standardized. It is noticeable that using only a PC (which is a multi-tool in education) and the Internet (which is a big river of information and communication), a lot of solutions are offered in various issues and fields. This certainly facilitates the learning process. - Since technology has helped many other branches of activity or areas of human life we expect that it will help education. It is a fact that indirectly ICT has started affecting all people hence all groups of educational communities - learners and teachers. There are also grounds to believe that ICT will help them in a direct way too.

2. There is inertia of education related to ICT a. A Global Issue of mass character Education is a global-scale issue of huge "mass" and concerns a very large number of people. Its mass character is the result of an evolutionary process that reflects democratic ideologies and the adoption of human-centric social policies. This mass keeps increasing, furnished with new ideas and practices; lifelong learning is one of them. Such a huge, non-elitist mass character is certainly good in a democratic world, since it offers to an increasing number of people (if not to everyone) the opportunity to become educated. However it has also a corresponding huge "inertia" against changes; in other words the fact that education is a huge sector of activities obstructs any change especially if this change involves expenditure -as is the case with ICT. b. An investment with no immediate return Worldwide, a very large part of formal education (primary, secondary and higher) are organized and run by the state. As far as a government is concerned, investment in education yields returns in the far, if not in the remote, future. Especially when acute and immediate needs are encountered, as in cases of severe poverty, such educational targets as the introduction of ICT become of secondary priority. However it is in these cases that ICT could provide real solutions, offering at the same time the chance to improve the development rates of poor societies in an extended time scale. c. A Cultural Issue The real inertia of education is the lack of technological culture that exists in most parts of the world. There are historical, social and psychological reasons for that. Thus: For a very long time in the past, the school provided an environment, which differed substantially from the environment in which other functions of society were taking place. School uniforms, conservative ideas, political, social and religious stereotypes, formal way of addressing pupils and teachers, even a different way of speaking, formed a military-like culture to

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which everybody had to conform. The modern character of ICT culture seems to contradict the strict culture that dominated behaviour in most educational environments. Nowadays, all these have changed and the atmosphere in a class is very different from that in the past. However there is still some noticeable backwardness. In a modern society, nowadays, outside school, everybody uses technology, plays with technology and works with technology. In today's class in many cases the only equipment that exists (depending of course on the specific social environment) is the same old traditional blackboard of past ages.

3. Change due to ICT has already started Some important changes are already under way in education, due to ICT. It is a fact that some widespread, cheap and simple technical solutions have already produced substantial changes attributed to ICT. Such changes are in the following: (a) The teaching and learning practice in institutions of any level (schools, universities etc). e.g. - Mathematics (Formulae calculation, trigonometry, algorithmic solutions, logarithms, square roots etc) - Language (Spelling and syntax corrections of sentences, voice recognition) - All other subjects (Multimedia) (b) New teaching ideas, approaches and methodologies have being developed, relying on ICT and applied on different levels of education. All of them are used at an increasing rate; e.g. - Distance Education (The traditional teacher - student scenario is eliminated) - Home Schooling (Many American kids do not go to school but work at home) - Cross-curriculum Applications - Multidisciplinary (Part of school curriculum involves multidisciplinary activities and subjects) - Virtual reality (Still at a pioneer level. It promises to give an insight in many educational fields, especially in developing dexterities and producing first person learning i.e. not through symbols. With virtual reality, the learner can "live" virtually dangerous phenomena or phenomena with no other access, apart from a virtual one, such as the solar system, volcano, human body, historical events etc.)

4. Development theories support ICT in education The theoretical background concerning economic development can be considered as an advocate in favour of ICT in education. Reference here is made to the theory of human capital. Specifically: Individual human capital may be defined as the sum of knowledge and experiences that an individual possesses. Social human capital is defined as the sum of knowledge and experiences that a society possesses. The rationale in the heart of the human capital theory is that: - The better the quality of human capital the higher the productivity.

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- The higher the productivity the more the (economic) benefits for the individual and for the society. This is so because high quality of human capital is associated with: - Better understanding of ideas, - Better communication skills - Better expression of ideas - Higher adjustability to new working environments. - Quality of human capital depends on the quality and quantity of education and training. The above rationale supports the view that: The higher the penetration of ICT in education, the better the quality of schooling, hence the better the quality of human capital and the higher the productivity. In the same sense, according to the human capital theory, education, not only increases productivity of the person who possesses it (hence this person is rewarded - paid better), but also creates the conditions for more non-financial benefits for the society (more sensitivity to social issues as health, environment, family etc).

5. Different skills will be needed in the work market With the introduction of ICT, the teaching - learning process will change and new skills for the teacher and the learner should be developed. Thus: Methodology and content of teaching will change so that the learners will benefit most from the new technology. Learners will not be evaluated only according to their knowledge but mainly with respect to their ability to achieve goals with all the technological means available to them. The situation reminds of writing open-book exams. More specifically: - The teacher has to organize and arrange all the technological means available in the classroom, to spend time for planning well and scheduling his performance and for choosing carefully the educational material for which the options are dramatically increasing. More structure has to be developed and new ways of interaction/dialogue have to be devised. The teacher will have to act more like a manager/director and not simply as an actor in the simple teaching model. - From an information point of view, the pupils -through ICT applications- have certainly more information available to them than what they need. Hence they have to develop the skills to choose. For example, in the past, reading in depth was an important skill for a scientist. Now speed-reading is of great importance too.

6. Are there limits of ICT in education? Technology evolves in an accelerating and non-linear way. Hence, not only it develops very fast, but also discoveries in science and technology, from time to time, produce a discontinuity in the impacts of technology on our lives. ICT is becoming cheaper, smaller in size, friend-

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lier and more effective (a good example is the evolution of the basic switching device, from electronic valve to transistor and to integrated circuit). To the limit of the foreseeable future could one anticipate the end of education, as we know it? In order to consider this question, it is worth looking at an example from another discipline: Thus, technology has affected the field of medicine in a dramatic way. Nowadays, - Medicine can show how the human body works (Genetics, Biology, etc) - Medicine can alter and change human parts and improve the body's functions (DNA changes, implants, artificial parts etc are an increasing reality) - It seems that at present the only area that Medicine has not gone too far is to understand and to intervene to the way the human mind works. However, what will happen if progress is achieved on this front? Though frightening, it may be argued that in such a case, advances in medicine may change the way we are, the way we think and the way we function. Turning now to education, the prospect is that in the foreseeable future there will always be an educational system in a country (Ministry of educations, teaching institutions, educational levels etc) in the same way as there will always be a health care system. However, what will happen if progress is achieved on this front? The prospect that education will be replaced by a bioelectronics' procedure is at the moment a favourite subject for science fiction. For how long will it remain unforeseeable?

7. Conclusions The goal of education is to help people, especially young people, to participate in the functions of society, to acquire knowledge and to develop skills that will help them to confront the needs of the future and to be productive and competitive in tomorrow's world. It is our experience that many people in the developed world are working in jobs that did not exist some years ago. It is certain that the future holds a lot of surprises. It is another major task for education to give young people the qualities and the skills for the jobs that do not exist yet -and ICT can help a lot towards that! It should also be a major task of the educational system to provide these qualities and skills in an enjoyable and modern way. ICT offers a chance for reform in education along such lines. Will educational factors reciprocate?

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ICT : Does it Enhance Learning, or Jeopardize it? Roni Aviram and Nimrod Matan The Center for Futurism in Education Ben-Gurion University of the Negev

Throughout the relatively short yet intensive history of attempts to introduce ICT into educational usage contexts, it has mostly taken for granted that ICT can in fact contribute significantly to learning and that it therefore should be made available to teachers and students, as fast and on as large scale as possible. However, no systematic cross-sector and interdisciplinary comprehensive study has ever decisively proved that ICT-enhanced learning is in fact better, nor in what aspects(cognitive, social, emotional, etc) .is it better than traditional learning) or in what fields of learning does it make a qualitative change. This is the case whether "learning" is defined in traditional terms as "possession of knowledge" or skills, or whether it is conceived in more constructivist/ constructionist terms as the ability to construct knowledge and reflectively inquire; or in relation to another parameter, defined either as individual, collaborative or cooperative learning (Aviram 2003, 2004b) As often has been the case throughout the history of technology in modern ages, technological innovation is mostly conceived as having the potential to bring "progress", and though it may raise objection and cause resistance, its "enlightening" nature is almost never doubted. This message has been passed also through the definition and use of "progress' which did not distinguish between technological and humane or social advancements and, thus, almost committed one to unreflectively suppose that the first category of advancement is necessarily leading the second. But that seldom has been the case, generally and especially in the realm of education As journalist Todd Oppenheimer has commented in the opening passage of his celebrated critique of US President Bill Clinton's "computer in every classroom" initiative (back in 1997): In 1922 Thomas Edison predicted that "the motion picture is destined to revolutionize our educational system and ... in a few years it will supplant largely, if not entirely, the use of textbooks." Twenty-three years later, in 1945, William Levenson, the director of the Cleveland public schools' radio station, claimed that "the time may come when a portable radio receiver will be as common in the classroom as is the blackboard."

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Forty years after that the noted psychologist B. F. Skinner, referring to the first days of his "teaching machines," in the late 1950s and early 1960s, wrote, "I was soon saying that, with the help of teaching machines and programmed instruction, students could learn twice as much in the same time and with the same effort as in a standard classroom." This concise piece of "ancient" history is symptomatic of the malady of educational system, that can be put bluntly in the form of the following diagnosis: it is inclined to hastily embrace technological innovation without having critically studied its potential impact in light of independently-set goals, only to discover some decades later, and billions of Euros worth investments have been made, that impact has scarcely been made, and when made - it was only sporadic, unsustainable and hard to reproduce on larger scale. The aim of this paper is to present three moments in the short history of the era of uncritical adoption of ICT into the educational system - to be referred to as "The Messianic Era" and then sketch an outline for a fourth moment, a desired one- yet hopefully to come,, to be referred to as "The Post-Messianic Era", that consists in all those involved in educational change regaining mindful control over technology and strategically act to harness it in a systematical way to the enhancement of a priori desired educational and social Humanistic goals.

The Messianic Era Moment 1 -

The computer euphoria; the computer as a miraculous teaching machine

The first appearances of computers in commercial distribution in the early 1960s' created a wave of expectations. The computer was conceived as a potential enhancement of the teacher's capabilities, if not as his replacement: computers would allow optimal attention and provide the needed stimulation to each individual student. They would also enable immediate response and feedback, and adaptation of learning sequences to each student's needs. These merits were conceived as means for facilitating learning, conceived in traditional terms as, basically individual acquisition of knowledge, where classroom teaching failed due to lack of resources and poor teacher/students ratio. Achievement gaps between successful and less successful students were expected to be significantly reduced. But, alas, these hopes were proved false, expectations failed to materialize, and the educational revaluation had to await another generation. An attempt to analyze this lack of success yields several possible reasons: 1. The computerized learning environments were too "sterile", too rigid in their structure - as black-boxes closed for customization - and too isolated from the traditional learning environment. 2. Learning methodologies focused on knowledge transfer, rather than inducement of understanding and critical thinking.

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3. Internal motivation of students was missing, and teachers were alienated from the change process 4. Computer time per student was insufficient 5. Teachers felt alien to the new technology and lacked the motivation to explore it, let alone adopt it (Aviram 2001) Moment 2 - The interactive-multimedia euphoria; the computer as a playground The major improvement in graphical representation, man-machine interface and interactivity in mid-1980's launched a second wave of high hopes and expectations. Improved graphical capabilities and GUI technologies were conceived as a solution to the students' motivation problem: learning could be conducted in a visually rich environment that would "sweep" the users into it and ease resistance and digital literacy barriers. Learning could become an enjoyable activity, and with the aid of improved interactivity, learning-by-playing as way as learning in simulated environments could become a facilitator of experiential and active learning activities. Students would have more control of the learning environment and of the learning paths they follow, and improved user-specific and event-specific feedback will increase relevance of the learning process to each individual student. This richness of means was conceived again as a key for significant improvement in students motivation and achievements as well as for a decrease of gaps. This era saw the resurrection1 of various schools based on constructivist and constructionist conceptions of learning, sometimes also related to the attempt to enable "social learning" or in what became to be known as "social constructivism"2. ICT has been understood as the 'Trojan horse", waited for during long years, that\ will penetrate the thick walls of traditional learning and lead to the desired revolution in learning. But, again, when judged in the macro level, and with educational goals as the criteria against which success should be measured - the interactive-multimedia impact has been limited to sporadic successful implementations of technology in specific contexts, and not to a systematic change of educational systems towards a desired horizon. The expected revolution did not take place. The big majority of teachers still make use of traditional formal and frontal teaching methods, although now computers connected to the Internet are to be found in almost any school in the Western world and in many cases - in every class. Educators still struggle with traditional challenges, such as how to increase students motivation, how to address students specific needs and preferences, how to go beyond knowledge-transfer into the realm of inducing understanding and commitment to ethical values, how to bridge gaps and lastly - how to achieve all that in a cost-effective manner that will additionally be sustainable and reproducible. 1 Resurrection, since these were just later versions of the progressive conceptions of learning that flourished already in the 1920's and then again during the 1960's and 1970's. 2 Here too this combination of constructivism and social understanding of learning was not new. It was central already to Dewey's conception of education.

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The only significant change that can be detected in this area is the change of language: terms reflecting the constructivist discourse have successfully penetrated the system, "active learning", "problem based learning", "experiential learning", "collaborative learning", "reflective learning" "learning strategies" etc - have all become common in educators' vocabulary. These changes may reflect a change in educators aspirations, if not in actual teaching, although they might as well reflect just a passive attempt at adaptation and conformism. It is too early to tell. It is however clear that no correlation between the change in language and changes in action is to be found. What may the possible reasons for this situation be - in addition to the reasons identified above in regards to the "computer euphoria" era, that unfortunately still reside - ? 1. Production costs were significantly high, cost-effectiveness was harmed and therefore efforts were joined to create less, though larger, applications 2. Black-box architecture limited language adaptability, made it hard to upgrade and update and turned maintenance into a costly and dangerous responsibility that was often renounced. 3. Design efforts were focused on the environment and its visual components, while learning content creation continued to be handled in traditional ways. 4. Teachers alienation has grown even deeper. 5. The new wave of emphasis on "standards", allegedly reflecting the acquisition of necessary knowledge, sweeping the West in the last decade, contradicts to a large extent the language and aims of constructivism that dominated this era and impedes its implementation. (Aviram 2001, Aviram 2004b, Aviram &Richardson 2004, Part b) Moment 3 -

The super-highway information; The Internet as the Panacea leading to educational revolution

The 1990's brought the promise of the internet, that have virtually changed the way we conceive of work, economy, entertainment and consequently learning. But apart from a perceptual change, what genuine change has been achieved in regards to educational system? Hopes, as always, have been high. Adding the "e" prefix to learning and thus turning it to a distinguished member of the e-revolution family, has meaningfully enhanced what may be called the "constructivist hopes". It brought the vision of "constructing knowledge", of "learning as inquiry", of "problem" or "project-based learning" and "collaborative learning" into what has seemed to be its promised land. Peer-to-peer collaboration has been expected to enable the organic emergence of learning and interest groups, and the overcoming of alienation and social exclusion barriers. Student-teacher online interaction has been expected to dramatically increase teachers' availability and ability to provide instruction and guidance in real-time. Network connectivity would enable "just on time" learning, and thus overcome time and space limitations, open-ended research based learning will at last be enabled due to the availability of the world-wide-web ever-updating and pluralistic data base. Students involvement

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would be dramatically increased due to customization and personalization options, authoring and publishing capabilities. But how many European schools really implement even a fraction of these wonders? And for those who do - has it ever been established that any of the expected results were achieved? Do students learn better? Do they feel more motivated, less alienated, more socially integrated? Have students achievements improved? And if so, is it due to eLearning? Has the gap been bridged between the more and the less privileged? The current point of time may be too early to judge - so it may be claimed. All this may very well still happen. But why hasn't the revolution taken place yet? How come educational system still faces similar challenges to those it had faced ten, twenty and thirty years ago? One possible explanation for the fact that the revolution has still not come would put an emphasis on the availability of ICT. Maybe when every student has a personal computer connected to the internet, the grounds for a radical change will be finally set. Another explanation would highlight the fact that technology is still immature to carry the "weight" of such comprehensive revolution. Other explanations would appeal to the pedagogical "rules" that are encouraged by ICT, namely non-linear open-ended unstructured surf and "chat" (as opposed to linear sequence and discussion). These characteristics of ICT culture may be discouraging to structured target-oriented learning, that is measured against objectivist standards. A last set of explanations would point out organizational-political factors as the reason for the revolution's late arrival: there seems to be a structural conflict between standards-oriented policies mentioned above and the learning-as-"surfing" practice encouraged by ICT. Another structural conflict may be seen between the compelled disciplinary curriculum and the user-focused and personalized nature of e-Learning, and a third conflict can be claimed to exist between school system organization (that, in fact, hasn't been significantly changed since the 18th century) and the new dynamic e-culture that emerged in the last several years. In addition, teacher training, being still based on traditional conceptions of schooling, may be a factor that obstructs the realization of the revolutionary vision. It may even be the case that even if changes did occur in children performances, our research tools and methods, being still "tuned" to the traditional conception of learning, simply cannot detect them. (Aviram, 2001, 2004a, Aviram & Richardson 2004 Part C)

The Post-Messianic Era What can and should we do to make a change happen, to gain control over its direction, and to make it direct educational systems into desired horizons? We have to accept, adopt and embrace ICT into education, not because it will automatically raise achievements or reduce gaps, not because it will necessarily increase students motivation and interest, and not because it will, by itself, revolutionize learning. We have to adopt ICT into education because ICT is a major constituent of the reality in which we live, and one that constantly alters our living environment, culture, language and creates a whole new set of human behaviors. Schools must adapt to this radical change that society has been subject to since the Internet

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has become common practice in the Western world. Otherwise it will be left behind, regarded "irrelevant". But this adaptation must be radical: not introducing computers to classrooms, but rather introducing ICT culture into school and mobilizing it to desired goals (Aviram 2001, 2002, 2004b, 2004c)). Adaptation can be done passively, e.g. by learning from the rapid and successful adaptation of ICT into training in commercial organizations, or proactively, by analyzing the risks and the benefits of new technologies and forming strategic plans for their adoption and their mobilization to serve a critically defined educational agenda. There is no guarantee whatsoever that passive or proactive adaptation will lead to "paradise scenario" where technology is "tamed" by education. But to act proactively - as policy makers, educators, learning-tools and content designers, and as theoreticians - seems like the least we can do assure that the wedding of ICT and Education is orchestrated with mindful care and with the best interest of the new generation in mind.

Bibliography Aviram, A. (2001), "ICT and Education: From ' Computers in the Classroom' to Critical Adaptation of Educational Systems to the Emerging Cyber Culture," Journal of Educational Change 1,4,pp. 331-352 Aviram, A. (2002) Will Education Succeed in Taming ICT?" Keynote presentation in the II European Conference on Information Technologies in Education and Citizenship: A Critical insight, Barcelona, June 26-28, 2002 Aviram, A., (2003) "The Myths Guiding the Integration of ICT in Education"- a Paper Presented at a Colloquium of the Department of Educational Policies- London Institute of Education, London, June 18, 2003 Aviram, A, & Richardson J, (Eds. ; 2004) On What Does the Turtle Stand : Rethinking Education of the Information Age, Dodrecth: Kluwer Aviram, A. (2004a) "On what Does the Turtle Stand?" , Introductory Chapter to: Aviram, A, & Richardson J, (Eds. ; 2004) On What Does the Turtle Stand : Rethinking Education of the Information Age, Dodrecth: Kluwer Aviram, A.(2004b) "Why Should Children go to School?" in Aviram, A, & Richardson J, (Eds. ; 2004) On What Does the Turtle Stand : Rethinking Education of the Information Age, Dodrecth: Kluwer Aviram, A. (2004c), "ICT in Education: Should It Necessarily be a Case of the Recurrent Reinvention of the Wheel?" in Hernandez, F., Sancho, J.M., Hargraeves, A., & Goodon, I., (eds.), The Geographic of Educational Change. London: Kluwer (forthcoming) 55.

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The evolution of Pedagogies, Learning Cultures and Organisational Structures Dr Nikitas Kastis, Lambrakis Research Foundation

This presentation argues that there is a lot to change in education systems in order for ICT name it advanced technologies - to deliver their potential. This observation has already been justified in a number of studies, papers and surveys, and it is much related to an emerging paradigm shift, which is challenging our education as a social-cohesion-building system of public interest, in our times. Despite these observations and various statements from experts, not to mention the officials, evidence across Europe shows that our education and training systems are still structured and run more or less in the same way, since a rather long time, with marginal changes as implemented in the last 50 years. These changes usually have to do with syllabus and curriculum amendments and developments and with a sometimes impressive influx of investment on ICT, equipping schools, universities and other education institutions, in most of the cases with public money, especially during the last couple of decades. Yet, unfortunately, these changes and the corresponding policies and actions - at macro- (the education authorities) and micro-level (the education organization) - are barely enough to sustain the requested shift of effectiveness of the public - or publicly funded - school and university systems in Europe, thus putting under serious risk any other human capital growth policy, including the risk of increasing the social divides (the so-called digital divide risk). One could only see what is happening in the broader environment of the economy and production systems, in order to find useful similarities to what is, or better, is not happening in the schools and universities and the training bodies as well. An interesting case to start with is Inditex1, the Spanish clothing manufacturer and retailer, the company best-known for its 550-strong chain of Zara fashion stores across Europe. This organization would have been expected to have state-of-the-art information systems, in order to handle an ever-changing range of 11,000 garments each year! Instead, Inditex runs low1 Relevant cases and experts quotations have been brought up from the article Wringing the Changes, by S. London, FT 28 April 2004.

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tech, low-budget ICT solutions, where Zara's sale terminals run on DOS, the antiquated computer operating system. Sales data is collected by store managers at the end of every day using 3.5in floppies. The figures are uploaded to headquarters using dial-up modems. Inditex is an example of what numerous studies have shown: a weak correlation between ICT spending and ICT effectiveness. As Erik Brynjolfsson, a professor of management at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology's Sloan School of Management, says "… investing in IT is not like buying a certificate of deposit. You can't just put your money in, sit back and expect to get a return…" Studies by Prof Brynjolfsson and others show that productivity gains arising from IT investments can take years to emerge. Part of this lag is due to the time it takes fully to implement software and train employees. A further explanation is that working practices and processes need to change before the technology can deliver its full potential. "… One of the things that is under-appreciated is the amount of innovation that goes on throughout organisations following the introduction of new technology …" says Prof Brynjolfsson. "Technology typically makes a lot of information available to people at very low cost. You want to encourage people to find new ways of using that information." In this way, organizations that are managed in a top-down, hierarchical manner will be disadvantaged. See the case of school systems in most European countries A study published earlier this year by Accenture, based on the results of interviews with 580 senior executives in 18 countries, concluded that companies - see organizations - fall naturally into two groups, the innovators and the non-innovators. The innovators were generally inclusive (looking for new ideas from virtually any source), flexible (ready to adapt processes and strategies to meet changing market conditions), and structured (having formal processes to encourage innovation instead of leaving it to chance). When it came to using ICT to meet strategic goals, the innovators were far ahead: two-thirds of their recent ICT initiatives were judged a success, compared with less than one-third among the less innovative group. Michael Hammer, the consultant who led the "business process re-engineering" movement in the mid 1990s, makes the distinction between product innovation and business process innovation. He points out that companies with a knack for the latter - think of Dell, Wal-Mart, Progressive Insurance, Southwest Airlines - were the big winners of the 1990s. While, Prof McAffee, from Harvard University, observes: "… these projects (read reengineering of organizations) are not only more technically challenging, they also involve changes in the distribution of power, authority and status through out the organisation". Now, take the case of the education actors and the processes and decision-making in the European education and training systems. Do we really hope that they can survive the corresponding - necessary - transformations while meeting their increasingly demanding role for an ever upgrading learning offering to increasing number of citizens, students, adults and professionals? No chance, unless major and well-targeted changes are undertaken in a three-tier process model: - Changes in the "content" production, reusage, quality assurance process level, how is curriculum and learning content produced, certified, distributed and repurposed:

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think about knowledge sharing, shared content production, peer networking, open source movement etc. - Changes at the learning process level, where skills and competencies are changing, theories and practice of cognition are broadening the scope of learning and roles are dramatically and continuously challenged - from the learner to the tutor, the peer and back.

- Finally, changes in the work-flow process level, how is decision-making addressed and authenticated: think about communities of learners, authors, e-governance and the pursuing of public good. I would really appreciate some cohesion in problem definition and some guidance for consensus building, which needs to find the right balance between the local, the regional and the global!

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"Life in Winter": Interdisciplinary ICT-approach at secondary schools *Bogner, F.X. & **Girwidz, R. (* University of Bayreuth, Centre of Math & Science Education, Faculty of Biology) (** University of Education Ludwigsburg, Institute of Natural Sciences)

Project Background Science teacher pre-service training and enhancement as well needs to consider new frameworks and new teaching practices as well. New perspectives on teaching tend to conflict with the pre-service teachers' previous and dearly held conceptions of teaching. Every pre-service teacher is itself an insider concerning the future profession due the individual school experience. Therefore, any implementation of new teaching strategies tends to face conflict. However, changing teaching practices at any point of a teacher career is a difficult and stressful process due to complex social and intellectual frameworks that both enable and constrain efforts to change. However, the pre-service training as an individual struggle period for an formation of an own professional identity as a particular kind of teacher might provide the most likely time period to achieve the goal. For in-service and pre-service teacher as well, any understanding of natural phenomena within every day life and the environment requires an interdisciplinary methodology. Any didactical reduction of most complex biological systems calls for an integrated application of contents of the different subjects within different disciplines of science at least. Modern approaches, therefore, try to overcome the century-long division in the three separate subjects Biology, Chemistry and Physics without falling back into the natural history tradition of the 19th century. This subdivision of Natural Sciences has a long history within the education sector. Even within every subject further sub-subjects are established such as molecular biology or genetics. Additionally, we can include the returns of computer sciences (for instance, for modelling relationships or documentation purposes) without neglecting the advantages of hands-on-science. Integration of such a subject-integrative approach with an ICT focus should be obvious to the science teacher training in order to make them competent to the section of needs.

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Science education is not taught as a subject in German universities. We even do not have a single word for "science" in the specific term as it is used in the English language. In German schools there is a "Physics Education", a "Biology Education" and/or a "Chemistry Education". Consequently, teachers generally emphasize the individual disciplines, their differences and distinct domains rather than the coordinating and complementary aspects when they mean science education. However, new introduced curricula demand science education although teacher in general are not being trained in this context.

Programme The unit "Life in Winter" provides a specific example of interdisciplinarity. It is a 6-lesson unit and due to its self explaining structure it could be introduced to every secondary school class (9th grade). Specifically it was designed for the Medium Stratification [Realschule] but is also suitable for a freshman course at university. The participants are working in tandem groups or alone on a computer. The overall structure of the unit is displayed in Table 1. Both subjects, Biology and Physics, are integral part of the programme and are always linked to each other, i.e. the unit is suitable for Physics and Biology classes as well. The central unit builds upon a animal which has to survive harsh winter conditions. Students learn about the biological and physical details and they have to use this knowledge to "design" an artificial animal called "Nigno" (providing sufficient insulation, considering the body size, allowing for nutrients etc.). The students have to take into account the potential loss of body energy due to convection, energy transfer, radiation and evaporation, as well as simultaneously the given opportunities to avoid energy losses. Knowledge from both subjects, Biology and Physics, has to be integrated in order to reach optimal conclusions. Although few static diagrams cannot show the design of the interactive programme, for a short illustration, five different scenes are detailed below. Additionally a mapping plan gives an imagination of the integrative design.

"Interactive" Animal

Interactive applet detail of insulation (example of a mammal [polar bear])

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Calculation detail of a physical example

Calculation detail of a biological example

Interaction model of energy inputs and outputs in our atmosphere Many significant concepts in science (not just in biology or chemistry or physics) cross our arbitrary disciplines continuously while discipline-centred teaching builds upon the philosophers of science. Nevertheless, universities around the world house their science teacher preparation programs in individual science departments, leading to separate programs for biology education, chemistry education, and confining them in separate compartments. This department fragmentation escort numerous problems, especially since few teachers have the time or opportunity to study the pedagogy as offered in each of the science departments and in most countries few teachers have the luxury of teaching only one subject. Therefore, the question arises whether trainee teachers should not be offered an opportunity to study with teachers with strong backgrounds in other subjects rather than in disparate discipline-centred programs? This would be even more important due to the lack of any evidence that chem-

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istry teaching relies on different underlying research related to how students learn, how excellent teachers teach, or that classroom climate in chemistry must be distinctly different than the classroom climate in biology or physics. An important task of Science Education is making science more relevant to students, more easily learned and remembered, and more reflective of the actual practice of science. Furthermore, overcoming the compartmentising of the different subjects is increasingly requested. This approach is accompanied by the belief that most students learn best working with meaningful problems and issues in real-world, and in collaborative groups where communication is of the essence. Additionally, most problems in science are closely linked to each other, for instance, studying photosynthesis is difficult to perform without studying the physics of light, the chemistry of light reactions, and energy flow and use in the cell. Consequently, as in the real world where successful people integrate their knowledge as they resolve the problems they face, children in our schools should learn to integrate all of their knowledge, bringing all of their resources to bear on whatever problem they are facing. Similarly, science topics could feature problems and issues that require the use of specific science concepts and skills from various science disciplines where students are expected to use this same combined language in their responses. Students should be taught in ways that they recognize knowledge as a powerful means for solving problems and that it can be useful also in everyday life. Therefore learning and instruction should be anchored in meaningful situations and connected with important events (Brandsford et al., 1990). Furthermore problem solving is seen as a means for learning, not just as a goal. Students should learn a range of topics from all the major disciplines, emphasizing active learning and the simple use of tools such as, for instance, computers. Therefore the described approach follows an object-oriented and conservation-related approach (c.f., bird migration) as well as a process-oriented rationale (c.f., visual process). A selection of those contents facilitates a subject-integrative approach by highlighting a practice-related access, a content-relatedness of factual knowledge, an access to different methods of work and a problem- and hands-on-related access as well. Many students (and teachers as well) complain a lack of skills of teaching integrated science due a lack of knowledge to teach all three subjects simultaneously and of and confidence of science. Consequently, appropriate opportunities to learn in integrated settings are required which enables students to match current standards by being inquiry-oriented, activity-centred, and overtly constructivist in approach. Students should be given sufficient opportunity to develop more maturity, communication, and laboratory and reasoning skills in the context of learning science in an active learning environment. This also belongs to the consequences derived from his studies. An inquiry-centred, integrated curriculum provides students with numerous problems and activities in science to gaining a concrete experience with materials, a systematic development of science concepts from direct experiences, leading to appropriate applications. Many of the activities should include true experimentation. As a result, studying fewer topics with more depth, will lead to better understanding and retention of concepts rather than attempting to cover more material in the same period of time. Consequently, for the training process of pre-service teacher, the contents focus on * the use of pictures and illustrations for different purposes in science education (Levin, 1981, Issing, 1983, 1990, Girwidz, 2002) and offer multiple codings. We combine this with an introduction of modern techniques in order to visualize selected contents: Students learn about basic principles of digital photography as well as document adjustment to websites; this includes a designing of real websites as well as its didactical appliance with a science educa-

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tional framework. * material development which favour a "situated learning" (Brown et al., 1989, Lave, 1988, Lave & Wenger, 1990, McLellan, 1995), providing a visual access to daily-life situations (including those which in general may not be available within classroom situations). Subsequently contents and problems may easier be detailed in a natural context (which by itself is generally seen as a precondition of a situative learning environment).

Bibliography Bransford, J.D., Sherwood, R. D., Hasselbring, T. S., Kinzer, Ch., K., Williams, S. M. (1990). Anchored instruction: Why we need it and how technology can help. In D. Nix & R. Sprio (Eds), Cognition, education and multimedia. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Associates. Brown, J.S., Collins, A. & Duguid, S. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational Researcher, 18(1), 32-42. Girwidz, R. (2002). Visualization and multimedia in science education. GIREP conference proceedings, GIREP 2002. Issing, L. J. (1983). Bilder als didaktische Medien. In J. L. Issing, J. Hannemann (Hrsg.), Lernen mit Bildern. Grunewald: Institut fur Film und Bild in Wissenschaft und Unterricht. Issing, L. J. (1990). Visualisierung von Lehrtexten durch Bild-Anaolgien. In K. Bohme-Durr, J. Emig, N. M. Seel (Hrsg.), Wissensveranderung durch Medien. Munchen: Sauer. Lave, J. (1988). Cognition in Practice: Mind, mathematics, and culture in everyday life. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1990). Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Levin, J. R. (1981). On functions of pictures in prose. In F. J. Pirozzolo & M. C. Wittrock (Eds.), Neuropsychological and cognitive processes in reading (pp. 203-228). New York: Academic Press. McLellan, H. (1995). Situated Learning Perspectives. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.

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Free-Choice Learning in The Digital Age: Challenges and Chances for School-Museum Cooperations By Kathryn Haley Goldman and Martin Storksdieck Institute for Learning Innovation, Annapolis, Maryland, U.S.A

A. Abstract The information age has become the learning era, with technology giving traditional learning settings new possibilities. Museum-school collaborations hold the potential to break down barriers between the formal and free-choice science education communities, by providing a framework that allows for close coordination between these sectors while simultaneously building on each sector's educational strengths. Technology promises to provide the means to overcome some of the organizational and pedagogical barriers that currently these collaborations. The existence of learning potential in any particular technology project in no way suggests that that potential was or will be realized. This paper proposes that to understand the learning potential of the digital revolution more fully, we need to understand what it is that influences learning in each of these settings and we need to develop a better understanding of how the learning that takes place in each of these settings inter-relates and connects. Exploring issues such as these will lead to better understanding of the nature of a virtual museum-school experience and the factors that contribute to learning on-line will enable the field to use virtual technology or other IT based communication tools to create school-museum partnerships in more meaningful and effective ways.

B. Introduction Globally, societies are witnessing a virtual explosion in out-of-school learning. From the proliferation of educational programming through film and television, museums, zoos and aquaria, there are more opportunities for self-directed and free-choice learning than ever before. In 1997, 60% of US adults visited science-related museum settings at an average rate of 2.2 per

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year [1]. In a typical day, an individual might surf the Internet to track down a certain science fact while reserving a book in a local library, attend a play or a book discussion group, watch a nature documentary on television or interact with exhibitions at the local museum. All of these events are free-choice learning experiences: self-directed, voluntary, and rather than following a set curriculum, are guided by the individual learner's needs and interests [2]-[3]. We learn, constantly and everywhere, and no other medium has combined our desire to know and be enlightened with our wish to do so on our own terms as the Internet. Museums used to be the traditional venues for free-choice learning. While many museums today struggle with the challenges of competing for the attention of "learners" who as Internet users or consumers of an ever increasing number of television channels have easy and cheap access to current information. However, an increasing number of museums are embracing new media to update their offerings and to create new bridges to free-choice as well as formal learners. To understand the learning potential of the digital revolution more fully, we need to understand what it is that influences learning in each of these settings and we need to develop a better understanding of how the learning that takes place in each of these settings interrelates and connects. Museum-school collaborations hold the potential to break down barriers between the formal and free-choice science education communities, by providing a framework that allows for close coordination between these sectors while simultaneously building on each sector's educational strengths. Technology promises to provide the means to overcome some of the organizational and pedagogical barriers that currently plague school-museum collaborations and partnerships. School-museum collaborations have the potential to provide a broad range of benefits to learners [4]-[5], but one important benefit is often overlooked: learners (i.e., students) are introduced to a more fluid relationship between learning resources. Rather than dividing learning environments sharply into formal and free-choice, school-museum partnerships can integrate the various opportunities for learning. As the attributes of any learning experience fall on a unique continuum of many factors, museum-school collaborations provide a model that enables students to acquire a much broader perspective on what, how, where, and with whom to learn. These collaborations are models for a new learning society, where learning is life-long, venue-independent, and to a large degree under the control of the learner [3]. Further, museum-school collaborations provide a new model of "field trips beyond field trips." Technology enables students to explore out-of-school learning environments as resources for classroom learning in new and previously impossible ways, even without the need to visit the physical venue. Virtual and augmented reality, real-time data streaming from museum to the classroom and vice versa, data recording, individually programmed learning pathways, and other types of technology-based enhancements of the traditional school field trip have the potential to build a field trip model that blends the strength of classroom instruction (curriculum based, building logically and successively on prior knowledge which has previously been learned, content selected based on societal consensus) with the benefits of free-choice learning (opportunities to explore topics of personal interest and relevance in ways that make sense to the learner either alone or with people they choose to visit with, high levels of motivation, strong connection to the learner's biography). Opportunities to use IT and other forms of emerging and partially established communica-

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tion technologies to expand the classroom of tomorrow abound. However, technology is but a tool in the education arena, a tool that needs to be used wisely, effectively, and efficiently, and most of all in ways that are congruent with the nature of learning. The language labs of the 70s remind us that technology serves the learning process, it doesn't determine it. Since modern communication technology can have multiple levels of interaction between formal and free-choice settings, there is an even greater need for research and evaluation in this area than in classroom learning supported by technology or free-choice learning supported by technology. The existence of learning potential in any particular technology project in no way suggests that that potential was or will be realized. Thus, on a more practical level, better understanding of the nature of a virtual museum-school experience and the factors that contribute to learning on-line will enable the field to use virtual technology or other IT based communication tools to create school-museum partnerships in more meaningful and effective ways. It is critical that practioners in this area be aware of both the issues at stake and the research done so far, so that the use of modern technology in school-museum partnerships does not become a technology in search of an educational purpose, in the same way in which virtual museums should not be reduced to flat de-contextualized versions of the their physical equivalents [6].

C. Contextual Model of Learning In order to better understand the issues and possibilities of virtual museum-school collaborations, we have turned to a framework for thinking about learning that tried to accommodate much of the diversity and complexity surrounding free-choice learning, called the Contextual Model of Learning. There are hundreds of factors that contribute to museum learning experiences in one way or another, and each learner is influenced by their own selection of factors that are important for their individual learning outcome. The model suggests that among those hundreds, 12 suites of factors, clustered into three broad contexts (Personal, Physical & Sociocultural), have emerged through research as those which individually and collectively influence the meaning-making process of visitors to free-choice learning settings like museums the most [2]-[7]: Personal Context 1 Motivation and expectations (including visitor agenda, levels of personal motivation, and expectations for outcomes of the visit) 2. Prior knowledge and experience 3. Prior interests and beliefs 4. Choice and control Sociocultural Context 5. Within group social mediation 6. Facilitated mediation by others

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7. Cultural background and upbringing Physical Context 8. Advance organizers 9. Orientation to the physical space 10. Architecture and large-scale environment 11. Design of exhibits and content of labels 12. Subsequent reinforcing events and experiences outside the museum No one single factor may be dominant, indeed the interaction of these factors is unique to every individual; however, the model has proven to be a convenient way to think about learning: learning as an individual process of meaning-making, whereby knowledge and understanding is constructed over time, influenced by the learner's personal characteristics like prior interest, knowledge, attitudes, or experiences (the personal context), the social dimension of their learning process (who they are learning with and from, or their sociocultural context), and the exposure and quality of the learning environment (the physical context). Institute researchers and other researchers have used this model to frame recent research on learning in and from museums [7] and on museum-school systems [4]-[5]. The 12 factors have been shown to be robust and to validly describe the nature of learning within the physical museum. Research demonstrates that the learning process is more fruitful when visitors have choices about what, when, how and with whom to learn - in other words, learning is enhanced when the learner feels in control of his/her learning. This research has been used to effectively influence practice with successful museums working to incorporate aspects of visitor choice and control into their exhibitions and programming. Just as these factors contribute to and influence the visitor experience in museums, it seems prudent to think that they, and perhaps other factors, play a role in virtual museum-school experiences, albeit likely in different ways. The model could thus form an effective foundation for a research agenda in this area. For example, choice (visitors making choices about what they see and do based on their interests, attitudes and prior experiences) and control (visitors' actual and perceived control over the experience) are factors that greatly influence a visit to a physical museum, and are likely to influence students on virtual field trips. Yet the factors of choice and control in virtual settings may currently be underestimated. In addition, it is highly possible that some of the twelve suites of factors are not as critical to a virtual school-museum partnership or that there are other suites of variables that emerge as important specifically to understanding learning in virtual environments. For this paper, we'll focus on using the factors in the Contextual Model of Learning as they apply to the virtual museum, and a visit to a virtual museum could be seen as one way in which school-museum partnerships change due to modern communication technology. The other option is a school visit, facilitated by technology. We have chosen to focus on specific factors within the Contextual Model of Learning that may have different implications in the virtual

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world and thus make sense to investigate and incorporate into an on-line learning research agenda. These factors include: - interactivity; - the need for advance organizers for the experience and subject matter; - choice and control; and - social interaction. Interactivity Virtual field trips represent one way through which institutions are trying to provide interactive, facilitated experiences for virtual visitors. In these cases, a physically distant school group might take part in a virtual tour at a pre-arranged time with museum staff members as facilitators and interpreters. Virtual field trips are sometimes, if not often, the only way in which students may visit a particular venue (for instance, Swedish students the Louvre; French students the British Museum). Virtual trips thus offer the next best alternative to an otherwise unlikely or impossible experience. Virtual field trips, however, are more than electronic versions of text books or museum guides: they offer the opportunity for two-way communication, allowing students to ask questions or educators to tailor the material to the group's needs. Two examples for virtual field trips from the US might illustrate what we mean when students are able to virtually visit places they would not be able to otherwise: The Liberty Science Centers' Live From: Cardiac Classroom near Manhattan (Recipient of the Association of Science-Technology Center's 2002 Innovation Award) and the Museum of Science and Industry's Live at the Heart project in Chicago. During these virtual visits, students are able to view open heart surgery, while asking questions and talking to the surgeons after they perform the surgery. In similar "field trip" project, the Jason Project , students are able to work with scientists in diverse environments such as rainforests and wetlands. These projects highlight the possibilities of the Internet as a science learning resource for students, but are unavailable to the average Internet browser. Some institutions have dealt directly with the issue of social interaction by focusing specifically on the relationship between the physical and virtual site and encouraging the distant visitor to make a journey to the location some time after their virtual visit, so that the virtual visitor continue a relationship with the physical museum. Some institutions have pioneered different methods of "co-visiting," primarily through physical robots [8]-[9] or museum wearables [10]-[11]. Robots are equipped with a camera, microphone and speakers and are connected to the Internet. Virtual visitors connect with the robot over the Internet and are able to literally visit the physical location, not only viewing the exhibition or event, but also participating and influencing the outcomes at hand since the robots allow for mediated communication between those present in the institution and those who are connected online. Unfortunately, little research has been conducted so far to understand the impacts of such visits. In the near future, virtual field trips have the possibility of being augmented by the use of museum wearables. Like robots, museum wearables also involve a camera, microphone and

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speakers, are connected to the Internet, but in contrast to robots, wearables are carried by an actual individual visiting the physical site. This allows a geographically distant group to virtually visit an institution, provided one of the members of the group can be at the physical site with the appropriate equipment, and provided that the experience can be streamed into the classroom. The drawbacks to this approach are that the virtual experience is dictated by the constraints of the physical site: the exhibition and the (expensive, sensitive, and staff intensive) equipment needs to be available, the institution needs to be open, etc. In addition, it seems unlikely that teachers would send one of their students as ambassador on a field trip, while the other students remain back in the classroom. However, a EU-funded pilot project (CONNECT) is currently developing educational pathways for the use of augmented realities (utilizing wearables) that address the issue of field trip practice. Other institutions have experimented with creating virtual personas to facilitate the visitor's experience. The best of these software agents can accommodate user interests and preferences and enhance the user interface; the worse of them, such as the Microsoft paperclip, merely annoy and interfere [12]. The agents may take the form of digital animations with dialogue, based interactions built in [?], equipped with a knowledge base that allows them to greet users, answer questions appropriately and provide customized information [13]. It is still not clear how this form of social interaction influences learning, but it is clear from evaluation studies that users prefer animations which have as many human-like characteristics as possible. As argued by Bertoletti, Moraes et al. [14], a primary benefit to these agents is their ability to compensate for user unfamiliarity with the site, thus enhancing navigation and operation. In addition, the personalization features of these agents allow for rich records of user actions, providing useful evaluation and research data on the system and great potential to be "intelligent systems" that could remember the visitor on a return trip and help him or her extend the previous visit. One of the more unique uses of virtual personas was developed to help provide historical, cultural and social context for works of art [15]. Project Art-E-Fact is a collaboration of several institutions in four European countries. The user interacts with multiple personality-laden personas, who help provide context by their interaction with each other and the user. Using software agents in this format is much more akin to museum theatre than to a guided tour. This interaction with virtual characters taken to the natural extreme has led to the development of role-playing activities which educate virtual visitors through a game-like situation. Examples include the Chicago Brookfield Zoo's In Search of the Ways of Knowing Trail, where virtual visitors learn about an ecosystem by interacting with animated characters as they journey through an African forest. Other developers have experimented directly with adapting established gaming technology to provide virtual immersive educational environments [16]. In the Virtual Leonardo project, visitors are able to direct their software agents to interact with other visitor's agents in the multi-user virtual museum. This virtual social interaction suggests many questions, including "how does the virtual nature of the experience change the interaction? Are visitors more likely to interact with strangers in a virtual environment than they would be in at a physical museum?" Solely [?] virtual facilitation would be an interesting area of research in this domain. As institutions struggle to provide more content and more interactive experiences for their virtual visitors, they must make choices on how to deal with several issues, such as real-time

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or asynchronous communication. Is the process dependent on someone in the physical museum, so that timing may be limited? Does the process provide communication with actual humans or is the connection with a virtual human? Are the resources available to the general public, or are they primarily targeted for schools? Each of these decisions on how to provide a communication-rich experience has benefits and limitations in terms of the strength of connection, dependency on the physical site and the restriction of the audience. Advance Organizers Various authors have addressed the usefulness of advance organizers, orientation sessions, and overviews to prepare students for the out-of-school learning experience [17]-[19]. Content preparation is most important when unusual or complex issues are being discussed at the out-of-school setting. Planetarium visitors, for instance, learned more if they were told about the important concepts and terms before the planetarium show [20] or were supplied with advance organizers and clustering as learning mediators [21]. Similar recommendations have been derived from museum studies where advanced organizers and thematic orientation have been shown to help visitors in connecting the information of various subject-related exhibits [22]. One danger in the development of new technology is the impact of the novelty of the equipment on the learning experience. One major factor in determining the learning outcome of a visit to an out-of-school setting is the so-called 'novelty effect', a concept introduced by John Falk and colleagues in a series of research articles [23]-[27]. Falk and colleagues reported that the anxiety creating novelty effect of a setting can interfere with learning. Students tend to socialize and interact more with one another in order to reduce anxiety, which in turn interferes with concentration and attention, may lead to disruptive behavior, and thereby limit learning. Falk and colleagues found that students in novel settings may learn about the setting itself, but not about the concepts conveyed there [28]. Likewise, students introduced to new technologies to learn about something else than the technology may actually only learn about the technology itself. A classic result from a novelty study reported that elementary students on a field trip to a zoo who had been given a road map for the visit outperformed children who had been provided with relevant content information prior to the trip, suggesting that students not familiar with the setting spent most of their time acquainting themselves with the setting itself rather than concentrate on other learning-related aspects [23]. Gottfried [29] also observed that children on a field trip to a science center exhibited diversive exploratory behavior first: they randomly searched the room for stimulation, and thereby gained an overview of the location. After that they engaged in specific tasks. The novelty effect seems to affect older students as well. Ridky [30] reported a mystique effect that inhibited conceptual learning in eighth-grade students who visited a planetarium. The mystique effect could be controlled by an orientation session that explained the planetarium equipment, thereby reducing the novelty of the setting. Even though the unknown creates learning-impeding low-level anxiety and necessitates time for orientation, a moderate amount of novelty seems to enhance learning while in settings where novelty is either extremely high or small learning will be inhibited [23]-[26]. Optimal learning, therefore, seems to occur in settings of moderate novelty and when students are

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informed about organizational aspects of the visit [31]-[32]. It is up to the teacher to define that optimal degree of novelty, where students feel comfortable, yet are not bored. Falk and Balling [33] suggested that some variation from the normal script, some moderate surprises, help in recall and hence, in learning itself. Applied to modern communication technology it seems evident that more preparation will be necessary - at least in the short-term and so long as many of today's technologies seem novel to many students. The research thus suggests that effective field trip experiences necessitate appropriate advance organizers and orientations to technology to reduce the distractive effect of the novelty effect, particularly when new, novel, or so-far unusual equipment is used that visitors are likely not familiar with. We need to better understand whether and under what circumstances the novelty of the co-visiting experience focuses on or detract from the content matter of the exhibition or event. Do students spend more time due to the novelty of the equipment? Does the initial effort to become oriented to the equipment interfere with the learning process? Often stated common wisdom is that children adapted to new technologies extremely rapidly and that novelty will therefore interfere little with actual learning (provided the equipment works as intended). Yet research in the field shows that this perception is only partially true. One pilot project, The Virtual Gorilla Project [34], discovered that its proposed virtual reality headsets involved too much time and material costs to overcome the novelty factor, causing radical changes in the project's hardware approach. Research such as this will allow professionals to make more informed choices about designing experiences. As part of the CONNECT project, for instance, a major usability study will address the issue of familiarity with wearables and augmented reality. Who Controls the Visit? Issues of choice and control are complex in all learning arenas. As Falk and Dierking state in their book, Learning from Museums, "Learning is at its peak when the individual can exercise choice over what and when they learn and feel that they control their own learning." [3] There has been much rhetoric that the Internet can provide boundless choices and absolute user control, however, the actual choice and control factors are significantly more nuanced. Even mundane aspects, such as dial-up speed and the availability of plug-ins, may influence the virtual visitor's perception of their own choice and control. If a classroom has a slow connection speed and the content takes a long time to download, the class may feel frustrated, and not in control of the experience at all. When a pair or group of people, either schoolchildren or co-workers, take part in a joint virtual visit, their experience differs from a group making a physical visit in other key ways. In a visit to a physical museum, group members gather and split away, look at two different displays simultaneously and generally interact as if they were molecules, joining together, moving in one direction, then splitting and going elsewhere, then rejoining, in a frequent pattern. A group can walk through the same exhibition hall, more or less together, and yet see entirely different pieces of the hall based on their particular interests and pace. And they will continue to talk about their experience with each other as they explore the center. This allows individuals, even children, to control aspects of the visit by choosing what to focus their attention on.

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By contrast, the virtual field trip takes place in a flat, non-surrounding medium - the screen. One person, often the teacher, is the person in control of the mouse, the driver in the driver's seat, though the entire class may discuss the content and make choices together. Students may even choose to look at different aspects of the same screen. Still, it is fundamentally only one person who controls what the others view. This means that details of the visit and the pacing is tightly regulated for everyone by one person. Knowing how this impacts the visit might allow designers to change the experience so that it is engaging for those who are not in the driver's seat; or possibly develop sites that allow multiple persons interaction, much like a multi-player game does. Social Interaction Investigators over the years have documented the highly social nature of visits to physical museums [3]. Visitors view their visits as not only a chance to learn, but a chance to interact with family members and friends; in fact this may be their primary motivation in visiting. Learning about family members, or how to learn collaboratively are important social learning outcomes of physical visits. This within-group social mediation is not only key for visit satisfaction, but plays a strong role in meaning-making for individuals [35]-[43]. The other type of social interaction that occurs during physical museum visits is visitor interaction with staff and volunteers. This can take the form of a guided tour, an on-the-spot lab demonstration, a facilitator demonstrating an interactive, or a live performance or theatre piece, to name a few methods. On first glance, it would appear that the Internet would be a poor place to integrate facilitated mediation by staff or volunteers. Yet the research and developments in this field, both for the Internet in general and for museums specifically, indicates a wide variety of opportunities in use and others in development. One hopes that as the Internet medium continues to develop, designers and educators will remember one of the greatest strengths of the Internet, as well as its original application - the ability to communicate. Real-time contact, of course, must be scheduled in advance. Real-time contact may be limited to "chat events" or may extent to something closer to webcasts where institutions are generally able to "broadcast" live over the Internet, and users may communicate via telephone [44] or via e-mail [45]. Like a television show with some surrounding interactive features, a webcast is generally a live "broadcast" over the Internet, allowing a tour or demonstration for all those interested and online at that time. The Exploratorium in San Francisco offers the ability to communicate with staff via e-mail both before and during the actual webcast, and then archives past webcasts for virtual visitors to view later. On an experimental basis, the Exploratorium has even explored physical visitors interacting with virtual visitors in real time. One might hypothesize that the impact of this type of programming could be very similar to attending programming in person at the Institution.

D. Conclusions We are now in the midst of the Information Age, an era which might be more aptly called the age of learning. The availability of digital tools has spurred a new awareness and hunger for

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free-choice learning. It is vital that we embrace these new opportunities to connect with learners if we are to function in the new age. It is also critical that we use the technology as a tool, to promote our strengths, to solve problems and to push boundaries, and not as a means to an end, technology for technology's sake. Museum-school collaborations hold the potential to break down barriers between the formal and free-choice science education communities, by providing a framework that allows for close coordination between these sectors while simultaneously building on each sector's educational strengths. These collaborations are model for a new learning society, where learning is life-long, venue-independent, and to a large degree under the control of the learner. Technology promises to provide the means to overcome some of the organizational and pedagogical barriers that currently plague school-museum collaborations and partnerships. The existence of learning potential in any particular technology project in no way suggests that that potential was or will be realized. To maximize the benefits and minimize the difficulties, practioners need to address the novelty effect of any equipment used, utilize opportunities for choice and control to maximize involvement and integration. Research has made us realize the social nature of learning; we then need to incorporate elements of social interaction into the learning experience. Exploring issues such as these will lead to better understanding of the nature of a virtual museum-school experience and the factors that contribute to learning on-line will enable the field to use virtual technology or other IT based communication tools to create school-museum partnerships in more meaningful and effective ways.

E. References: 1 2 3 4

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National Science Board (1998), Science &Engineering Indicators - 1998. Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation (NSB-98-1) Falk, J. H., & Dierking, L. D. (2002). Lessons without Limit: How Free-Choice Learning Is Transforming Education. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press. Falk, J. H., and Dierking, L. D. (2000). Learning from museums. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press. Kisiel, J.F. (2003). Revealing teacher agendas: An examination of teacher motivations and strategies for conducting museum fieldtrips. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Southern California, Los Angeles. Storksdieck, M. (2004, in press): Testing a Model for Understanding Field Trips in Environmental Education. Berlin, Germany: Wissenschaftliche Verlagsgesellschaft. Haley Goldman, K. and L.D. Dierking (in publication). Free-Choice Learning Research and the Virtual Science Center: Establishing a Research Agenda in E-learning and Virtual Science Centers. Idea Publications. Hershey, PA Falk, J.H., & Storksdieck, M. (in revision). Using the Contextual Model of Learning to Understand Visitor Learning from a Science Center Exhibition. Science Education. Goebel, S. and A. Hoffmann (2003). Designing Collaborative Group Experience for Museums with Telebuddy. Museums and the Web, Selected Papers from Museums and the Web 2003. Pittsburgh, Archives & Museum Informatics.. Giannoulis, G., M. Coliou, et al. (2001). Enhancing Museum Visitor Access Through Robotic Avatars Connected to the Web. Museums on the Web, Seattle, Washington.


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17 18 19 20

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Chalmers, M. and A. Galani (2002). Can you see me? Exploring co-visiting between physical and virtual visitors. Museums and the Web, Selected Papers from Museums and the Web 2002. Pittsburgh, Archives & Museum Informatics. Sparacino, F. (2002). The Museum Wearable: Real-Time Sensor-Driven Understanding of Visitors' Interests for Personalized Visually-Augmented Museum Experiences. Museums and the Web, Selected Papers from Museums and the Web 2002. Pittsburgh, Archives & Museum Informatics. Economist, (2001). "Son of paperclip", Survey, March 24, 2001 Almeida, P. and S. Yokoi (2003). Interactive Character as a Virtual Tour Guide to an Online Museum Exhibition. Museums and the Web, Selected Papers from Museums and the Web 2003. Pittsburgh, Archives & Museum Informatics. Bertoletti, A. C., M. C. Moraes, et al. (2001). Providing Personal Assistance in the SAGRES Virtual Museum. Museums and the Web, Selected Papers from Museums and the Web 2001. Pittsburgh, Archives & Museum Informatics. 15 Iurgel, I. (2003). Experiencing Art on the Web with Virtual Companions. Museums and the Web, Selected Papers from Museums and the Web 2003. Pittsburgh, Archives & Museum Informatics. Calef, C., J. Goodwin, et al. (2002). Making It Realtime: Exploring the use of optimized realtime environments for historical simulation and education. Museums and the Web, Selected Papers from Museums and the Web 2002. Pittsburgh, Archives & Museum Informatics. Barnes, B.R., & Clawson, E.V. (1975). Do advance organizers facilitate learning? Review of Educational Research, 45(5), 637-659. Delaney, A.A. (1967). An experimental investigation of the effectiveness of the teacher's introduction on implementing a science field trip. Science Education, 51(5), 474-481. Melton, A., Feldman, N.G., & Mason, C.W. (1936). Experimental studies of the education of children in a museum of science. Washington, DC: American Association of Museums. Hunt, J.L. (1993). Visual Design in the Planetarium. Paper presented at the Art, Science & Visual Literacy: Selected Readings from the Annual Conference of the International Visual Literacy Association, 24th, Pittsburgh, PA, September 30-October 4, 1992. Giles, T., & Bell, P.E. (1982). Investigating Learning Mediators in the Planetarium Classroom. Pennsylvania. Koran, J.J., Lehman, J.R., Shafer, L.D., & Koran, M.L. (1983). The relative effect of pre- and post-attention directing devices on learning from a "walk-through" museum exhibit. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 20(4), 341-346. Falk, J.H. (1997). Testing a museum exhibition design assumption: Effects of explicit labeling of exhibit clusters on visitor concept development. Science Education, 81(6), 679-687. Falk, J.H. (1983a). A cross-cultural investigation of the novel field trip phenomenon: National Museum of Natural History, New Delhi. Curator, 26(4), 315-323. Falk, J.H. (1983b). Field trips: A look at environmental effects on learning. Journal of Biological Education, 17(2), 137-142. Falk, J.H., & Balling, J.D. (1980). The school field trip: Where you go makes the difference. Science and Children, 17(6), 6-8. Falk, J.H., & Balling, J.D. (1982). The field trip milieu: Learning and behavior as a function of contextual events. Journal of Educational Research, 76(1), 22-28. Falk J.H., Martin, W.W., & Balling, J.D. (1978). The novel field-trip phenomenon: Adjustments to novel settings interferes with task learning. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 15(2), 127- 134.

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Gottfried, J.L. (1980). Do children learn on school field trips? Curator, 23(3), 165-174. Ridky, R.W. (1975). The Mystique Effect of the Planetarium. School Science & Mathematics, 75(6), 505-508. Balling, J.D., Falk, J.H., & Aronson, R. (March 1995). Pre-trip programs: An exploration of their effects on learning from a single visit field trip to a zoological park. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching, San Francisco, CA. Balling, J.D., Falk, J.H., Aronson, R., White, J., Herman, J., & O'Connell, R. A. (1982). Improving the quality of single visit field trips to the National Zoological Park. Journal of Museum Education, 7(4), 19-20., Falk, J.H., & Balling, J.D. (1992). The role of context in facilitating learning. Mimeograph. Hay, K. E., Crozier, J., & Barnett, M. (2000). The Virtual Gorilla Project Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, LA Dierking, L. D., (1987). Parent-child Interactions in a Free Choice Learning Setting: An Examination of Attention-Directing Behaviors. (unpublished Ph.D. diss., University of Florida). Borun, M., M. Chambers, and A. Cleghorn, (1996). Families Are Learning in Science Museums, Curator 39, 2:123-38. Borun, M., and J. Dritsas, (1997). "Developing Family-friendly Exhibits," Curator 40, 3: 178-96. Borun, M., J. Dritsas, J. I. Johnson, N. Peter, K. Wagner, K. Fadigan, A. Jangaard, E. Stroup, and A. Wenger, (1998). Family Learning in Museums: The PISEC Perspective (Philadelphia: The Franklin Institute). Crowley, K., and M. Callanan, (1998). Describing and Supporting Collaborative Scientific Thinking in Parent-child Interactions, Journal of Museum Education 23, 1: 12-17. Crowley, K., J. Galco, M. Jacobs, and S. R. Russo, (2000). Explanatoids, Fossils and Family con versations. (paper presented as part of a set, Museum Learning Collaborative: Studies of Learning from Museums, at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans). Schauble, L. and M. Gleason, (2000). What Do Adults Need to Effectively Assist Children's Learning? (paper presented as part of a set, Museum Learning Collaborative: Studies of Learning from Museums, at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans). Luke, J., U. Coles, and J. H. Falk, (1998). Summative Evaluation of DNA Zone, St. Louis Science Center, St. Louis, MO, Technical report (Annapolis, Md.: Institute for Learning Innovation). Dierking, L. D., and D. Anderson, D., (1998). Summative Evaluation of World We Create, Louisville Science Center, Louisville, KY, Technical report (Annapolis, Md.: Institute for Learning Innovation). Jacobson, G. and L. Swiader (2003). Integrating Real Time Communications Applications in a Museum's Website. Museums and the Web, Selected Papers from Museums and the Web 2003. Pittsburgh, Archives & Museum Informatics. Steinbach, L. (2001). Using Interactive Broadband Multicasting in a Museum Lifelong Learning Program. Paper presented at the Museums and the Web Annual Conference, Pittsburgh.


Dancing with the Muses: How Educational Technology Might Help Bridge the Gap between Formal and Informal Science Learning

Sherman Rosenfeld Davidson Institute of Science Education, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel [email protected]

Abstract Until recently, formal and informal science learning were considered as being quite different. Each approach was developed by different communities of practice which were relatively isolated from each other. Today, the divisions between these two approaches are blurred, largely due to the impact of information technologies but also due to educational research, which shows that both approaches are based on the same principles of learning. Today, there is a growing recognition that science learning can be advanced by bridging the gap between formal and informal science learning. How might information technologies help bridge this gap? The "gap" metaphor suggests these technologies might act as "bridges," to help transport educational tools and resources in both directions, between different communities of practice. But members of the "receiving communities" should be involved as co-designers. This perspective is illustrated by two examples: (a) an intranet software environment for ProjectBased Learning, ("The Golden Way") and (b) a dynamic web-based collection of science museum resources, geared to formal science standards

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("The Bay Area Museum Collaboratory"). These examples illustrate the importance of combining technological and social design, so that technology continuously evolves to fit teacher and student needs.

A. Introduction: Metaphors We Live By Because learning is so integral to being human, we often seem to take it for granted. Lakoff and Johnson [1] suggest that our thoughts and actions are governed by our own metaphors, of which we are unaware. For example, most of us unconsciously regard arguments in terms of war. As they write, our everyday language is colored with this unconscious metaphor (e.g., "Your claims are indefensible." "His criticisms were right on target."). If it is true that "metaphor is as much a part of our functioning as our sense of touch, and as precious," then perhaps we should ask ourselves: "What are our metaphors of learning and teaching? About the process of developing technologies to promote learning and teaching?" One metaphor is connected to Greek myths surrounding the Muses, daughters of Zeus who presided over the arts and sciences. People who were engaged in these pursuits often sought the inspiration of the Muses in special shrines called "mouseion," the basis of the modern word for "museum." I suggest that we think of learning and teaching, as well as the process of developing technologies to promote learning and teaching, in terms of "dancing with the Muses." (See Fig. 1) [2] I will use another metaphor when discussing informal and formal science education: "bridging the gap." [3] These two metaphors - dancing with the Muses and bridging the gap - will help guide the central argument of this paper.

Fig. 1. Apollo Dancing with the Muses

B. A Tale of Two Learning Cultures 1. Background. In the past, science learning was characterized as taking place in two different contexts: formal and informal. Even the terms positioned these "two cultures" as opposite from each other. Formal learning took place in schools; it was compulsory, structured, teacher-led, teacher-centered, with fewer unintended outcomes and focused on solitary work. Informal learning took place in places like museums; it was voluntary, unstructured, learnerled, learner-centered, with many unintended outcomes, and focused on social intercourse. [4]

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Moreover, these two cultures, on the whole, were isolated from each other. A different "community of practice" was connected with each culture. Curriculum and research efforts in formal science learning were guided by academic institutions and Departments of Education, while efforts to promote informal science learning environments were undertaken by different people - museum curators and volunteer staff [5]. These two communities of practice rarely interacted with each other; their concerns seemed to be different, they participated in different conferences and published their educational research in different journals. 2. A New Reality. This remarkable isolation is no longer the norm. Informal science education is now a "mainstream topic" within the mainstream science education community, at least in the United States and U.K. Research articles on "free-choice learning" are common in journals that once refused to publish them. [6] Organizations to connect informal science learning environments with schools exist in the U.S. and Europe. [7] In short, the "dichotomy" approach, presented above, has given way to a "hybrid" approach, in which formal learning contexts (such as schools) are encouraged to adopt informal learning methods (such as free-choice exploration). A major reason why the distinctions between formal and informal learning have become blurred is because of the advances of information technology, especially computer-mediated communications, and modern society's shift from an industrial-based to a knowledge-based society. [8]-[9]. Also, educational research shows that both formal and informal learning are based on the same principles of learning, and that both learning contexts can include a variety of learning methods. For example, it is increasingly clear that school learning needs to be based on "learner-centered" environments, i.e., "environments that pay careful attention to the knowledge, skills, attitudes and beliefs that learners bring to the educational setting." [10] However, while informal learning experiences can enrich school science, "we have a poor idea about how these experiences can best be integrated into the (school) curriculum." [3] How might educational technology can help "bridge the gap" between formal and informal learning environments? The "gap" metaphor suggests these technologies might act as "bridges," to help transport educational tools and resources in both directions, between what are still different communities of practice. But who should design these bridges and determine their criteria of success? My perspective is that the "receiving communities" should be involved in the "bridge-building" efforts, as co-designers. In the following paragraphs, I present two examples of such efforts. 3. The Golden Way. "Project-Based Learning (PBL) in Science and Technology is a teaching and learning approach which has been developed and implemented in Israeli schools for the past 14 years at the Weizmann Institute. [11]-[13]. Its goal is to incorporate students' "freechoice learning" into the formal science and technology curriculum, using PBL. In order to guide teachers and their 7th-12th grade students in this approach, a networked software environment was developed, called "The Golden Way," which included detailed. [14] Using the metaphor of a "guided journey," which students undertake with subject-matter topics of their choice, the software was designed to provide specific pedagogical guidance (see Fig. 2).

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Fig. 2. The Golden Way software environment. The "Journey's Map" has 6 common stages and 15 "task pathways." Each pathway presents tasks, examples of student products and guidance. The software was co-designed by a community of practice to support its shared PBL practices. The software was pilot-tested and co-designed with practicing PBL teachers over several trials, spanning a number of years. Each revision reflected an improved user interface and more effective student activities. Participating teachers from about 50 schools communicate with each other online and via regular conferences. This community of practice makes it possible for the teachers to distribute and learn about "best practices" while participating in the codesign of new PBL activities and software applications. 4. The Bay Area Science Education Collaboratory. How might science museum resources be aligned to the science standards and effectively used by practicing teachers in their schools? This question catalyzed an ambitious effort to make accessible the online and physical resources of 6 San Francisco Bay Area science museums, including the Exploratorium, to 6th grade science teachers. The resulting dynamic website is being co-designed and used by an "online design and learning community" of 6th grade teachers (Fig. 3). This community of practice engages in professional development on three levels: as consumers/users, as resource contributors and as coaches/editors. [15]

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Fig. 3. The Bay Area Science Education Collaboratory. This web-based resource is being co-designed by a community of teachers, in a professional development program. An evaluation of this project showed that the participating teachers increased their use of museum web services in the design of their classroom teaching. [16] C. Conclusions These examples illustrate how information technology can help bridge the gap between formal and informal science learning. Note that each technology (networked software and a dynamic web-based resource, respectively) brings "free-choice learning" into the formal classroom. Each technology serves as a "bridge" for connecting two (once separate, now overlapping) communities of practice. It is crucial to recognize the role that "participatory design" played in the design of these technologies, both used as integral parts of professional development programs. In the former case, practicing 7th-12th grade PBL teachers were engaged in co-designing the software and its implementation in their schools. In the latter case, practicing 6th-grade teachers were engaged in co-designing the web-based resource they use in their classrooms. Each product resulted from combining technological and social design, so that the technology continuously evolved to fit teacher and student needs. It is also necessary to note the limitations of these examples, in order to avoid the common pitfalls of educational technology. [17] For example, in each case the "participatory design" of the teachers worked well during the professional development framework, when outside experts were involved. But when the teachers were "on their own," without outside support, their use of these technologies dropped significantly. Nonetheless, these examples illustrate the importance of linking participatory design with the evolution of technological tools. In effect, these examples illustrate how diverse individuals -- teachers, museum professionals, students, research scientists, subject-matter experts, software designers and the like -- can be linked together as co-creators, "dancing with the Muses"

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in the process of learning. In this dance, sometimes one gains inspiration from others and sometimes one gives inspiration to others. A community of practice engages in the creation of a technology to help reinforce its own shared practices, and the technology enhances the community's practice, so that both the community and the technology co-evolve over time. [18]

D. References and Notes 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

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Lakoff, G. and Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors We Live by. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. There are many other possibilities. For example, see "Learning Metaphors" by Lawley and Thompkins. http://www.devco.demon.co.uk/LearningMetaphors.html Hofstein, A. and Rosenfeld, S. (1996) "Bridging the Gap Between Formal and Informal Science Learning." Studies in Science Education, 28:87-112. Modified from Wellington, J. (1990). "Formal and Informal Learning in Science: the Role of the Interactive Science Centers," Physics Education, 25. 247-252. Historically, the function of public education in museums, zoos and aquaria, (for school groups and the casual visitor) evolved relatively late, after the function of collecting and conserving the collections. It is worth noting the important role played by John Falk, Lynn Dierking and their colleagues from the Institute of Learning Innovations, in this development. CILS (the Center for Informal Learning in Schools) is an NSF-funded organization in the US. An European counterpart (PENCIL) has just been formed. For an excellent discussion of how the Knowledge Age will continue to affect education, see: Trilling, B. and Hood, P. (1999). "Learning, Technology and Education Reform in the Knowledge Age, or, 'We're Wired, Webbed, and Windowed, Now What?'" Educational Technology, MayJune, pp. 5-18. Stewart, T.A. (1997). Intellectual Capital: The New Wealth of Organizations. N.Y.: Doubleday. Stewart quotes 1991 as the year when U.S. spending for information technology (computers and telecommunications hardware and software) was greater than its spending for Industrial Age capital goods: 1991. He calls this "Year One" of the Knowledge Age. Bransford, J., Brown, A. and Cocking, R. (Eds). How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience and School. Washington: National Academy of Sciences. Rosenfeld, S. and Ben-Hur, Y. (2001). "Project-Based Learning (PBL) in Science and Technology: A Case Study of Professional Development." In Valanides, N. (Ed), Science and Technology Education: Preparing Future Citizens: Proceedings of the 1st IOSTE Symposium in Southern Europe. Paralimni, Cyprus. Rosenfeld, S., Loria, Y., Scherz, Z and Eylon, B. (1999). "An 'Interlocking Loops' Model to Support Teacher Development and School Change in Project-Based Learning." Proceedings of the European Association of Research on Learning and Instruction (EARLI). University of Gothenburg, Sweden. For educational and activities relating to PBL, see www.PBLnet.org Loria, Y., Shaltiel, L., Pieterse, E., Rosenfeld, S. (1999). "The Development of Software to Support Teachers and their Students in PBL: 'The Golden Way'." Conference Proceedings of the European Association of Research on Learning and Instruction (EARLI). University of Gothenburg, Sweden. DesignWorlds for Learning, "Bay Area Science Education Collaboratory."


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http://www.designworlds.com/Hewlett/BA_ScienceCollab/index.html Kahn, T. and Rockman, S. (2003). Bay Area Science Education Collaboratory Project: Final Report. See "Links" on website listed in [14]. Cuban, L. (1986). Teachers and Machines: The Classroom Use of Technology Since 1920. N.Y., Teachers College Press. One of the most significant questions, in this collective work, is how to guide people from different disciplines (each having different priorities, thinking styles and values) to cooperate effectively. An excellent treatment of this problem (with practical solutions) can be found in: Kim, S. "Interdisciplinary Cooperation." In Laurel, B. (Ed.) The Art of Human-Computer Interface Design N.Y.: Addison- Wesley, pp. 31-44.

E. Acknowledgements The author would like to thank Ted Kahn for discussions on an earlier draft of this paper.

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Lab@Future: A collaborative platform of constructive learning in a virtual 3-Dimensional world

George Zissis1, Elias Kalapanidas1, Costas Davarakis1

Abstract: Lab@Future is a software platform aiming at integrating these aspects of the technological evolution in computer applications for the sake of ameliorating the constructive learning. The platform exhibits a flexible collaboration model, assigning a range of roles to the participating agents, handling floor control within synchronous phases, and provides with a flexible and scalable networking architecture. Using a combination of multimedia and virtual 3-dimensional worlds for the knowledge representation, the students can browse through the static and dynamic learning content respectively and exchange their experiences. A mixture of synchronous and asynchronous exploration of the world is achieved: Collaboration and communication between students (peers), as well as collaboration and communication based on teacher involvement. A number of scenarios have been developed around the subject of agriculture, accomplishing the knowledge targets of cultivation technology, field cultivation in the prehistoric times, in the ancient times, in the middle ages and in the modern times.

A. Introduction A frame that prevails in the designing of collaborative educational applications is that of computer supported collaborative learning (CSCL) [1]. Most approaches in this frame are structured around the user (user-centered) [2]-[4], contrary to the traditional learning schemes, found in most of the curricula of the educational institutions, which are oriented towards the content (domain-centered). 1: Systema Technologies, 215 Mesogion Av., GR 115 25, Athens, Tel.: +30210 6743243, Fax: +30210 6755649

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The Lab@Future project [5] explores the feasibility of novel synthesis between state-of-theart computer technologies and pedagogical insight so as to facilitate and enhance innovative approaches to teaching and learning in European high schools. In order to accomplish this responsibility, learning theories are exploited that highlight the significance of social and cultural aspects of teaching and learning practices in context. The current results of the project [6] are expanded and evolved in order to provide seamless integration between 3-dimensional world navigation and multimedia exploitation. The pedagogical and technological effectiveness of the developed system will be evaluated at real educational sites i.e. school laboratories, educational venues e.g. museum and rural sites. The main key issues that arise during the design and implementation of Lab@Future are: - E-learning and m-learning - Open learning environments - Constructivism, Activity Theory and Theory of Expansive Learning - Communication and collaboration platforms for learning - Shared virtual learning environments - Evaluation processes for learning - Human-computer interaction - Virtual Reality - Multimedia - Hypermedia - Internet sites - Databases - Open architecture Design (based on the 3-tier model)

One scenario that is developed for the Lab@Future platform by Systema enables the student into activities that make him strive to explore the learning objective of the agricultural technology.

B. Theoretical framework and Pedagogical Context Lab@Future incorporates concepts from three major pedagogical theories: activity theory, the theory of expansive learning, and social constructivism. The pedagogical target is the capitalization of the dialogical aspects of these theories so as to facilitate positive debate towards teaching and learning from the viewpoint of these three theories. The core commitment of a constructivist position in relation to learning is that, knowledge

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is not transmitted directly from one knower to another but is actively constructed or built up by the learner. The social constructivist pedagogical stance is supported and enhanced by enabling the learner to engage in relevant activities that involve problem-solving and critical thinking. Activity theory and the theory of expansive learning go a step further [7] in that 'subjects' or participants (e.g. students and teachers) in a learning activity consciously and unconsciously are engaged in dynamic learning goal or object formation. This entails that the construction of novel practical activity systems and artefacts for use in real life contexts (the outcome from a learning experience or activity) cannot always be predicted because it will be influenced by several factors (disturbances or conflicts) operating within the contextual environment or community in which teaching and learning takes place.

Figure 1: Activity triangle model of a Lab@Future activity system A useful tool drawn from both activity theory and the theory of expansive learning is the activity triangle [8]. Lab@Future uses this model to portray key theoretical aspects incorporated in the various elements of a certain scenario, seen as an activity system in the context of these two theories. Elements of the activity system incorporate the various components and mediational relationships that exist within and amongst stakeholders in an activity system. An example of such an activity system is illustrated in figure 1.

C. The Collaborative platform Five main entities are identified in the frame of the collaborative platform: session, user, administrator, tool and rights. In figure 2 these entities are interconnected in a schematic way, as an entity relationship diagram. A collaborative e-learning session (referred to later as a session) is constituted by a group of persons working collaboratively, handling experiment specific data, performing experiment specific applications and using a set of groupware tools as support of their work. The groupware tools provide the basic communication and collaboration services to the users registered in the session. Each session is comprised of two phases: an asynchronous phase and a syn-

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chronous phase. During the asynchronous phase, only asynchronous communication tools, like E-mail or news groups, are available to the users. Session states and phases are depicted in figure 3.

Figure 2: Lab@Future ER diagram Figure 3: Session status diagram

Figure 4: User status diagram When a synchronous phase is running, it is the responsibility of each user to explicitly join/leave this synchronous phase. As a consequence, all the users, who have joined a synchronous phase of a session, are aware of each other, and may use different synchronous collaboration and communication tools to work together and implement a pedagogic scenario. It is important to notice that the asynchronous and synchronous phases are not mutually exclusive and may coexist. That is, when a synchronous phase starts, the asynchronous phase keeps

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active. Figure 4 graphically presents the user states and the possible transitions among them. A session is created, configured and deleted by an administrator. Besides the administrator role which is associated with the user in charge of the management of the session, four additional user roles have been defined, which are respectively: teacher, student, observer and expert. The association between user roles and collaboration/communication rights are completely defined by the administrator when configuring the session. They may be modified during the lifetime of a session. The floor represents a temporary permission to access and manipulate the shared resources. A typical solution to the floor control is the chaired-based control [9], where a human facilitator is in charge of explicitly granting and releasing floor. In the context of the Lab@Future platform, the shared resources are the different collaboration tools that can be executed during the synchronous phase. Collaboration and communication services are implemented by a set of tools. This set belongs to the PLATINE prototype environment designed for synchronous communications (http://www.laas.fr/~vero/PLATINE_TEST/). PLATINE consists of the following tools: - Multipoint video/audio conferencing and Chat, allowing users to directly communicate the ones with the others through audio, video and text messages while the collaborative activity takes place. - Shared whiteboard and Collaborative browsing, allowing users to concurrently look at the same documents and possibly to edit them in a controlled way. - Application sharing and the Video streamer, allowing users to concurrently handle video-based information.

D. Defining the activities: The learning objective of agri culture technology A scenario for the Lab@Future is being developed at Systema; its learning objective is the cultivation of the earth, the agricultural technology used for this task, and the evolution of this technology through time. The student becomes aware of the initial processes of cultivation: ploughing (tillage), dragging, seeding and watering. Based on the aforementioned learning objective, the teacher initializes the session of "Manufacturing in the Modern Times" which relates to the machine-dominated agriculture of modern times. The students should join the session in order to explore a three-dimensional world in which they can find relative objects and domains. The student after learning to assemble the agricultural tractor -a basic agricultural tool- from its scattered parts uses it in combination with a line of pulled in accessories for the implementation of the first three agricultural stages. The student recognizes the three agricultural tools (plough, drugging tool, sower) and the tasks that they are used for, receiving information directly from the virtual 3dimensional microcosm, or indirectly from the multimedia information that accompanies the application. Information about the discoveries that each student makes can be communicat-

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ed through the use of the document sharing or the informal communication tools, available by the platform.

E. Conclusions Lab@Future defines a generic platform addressing issues of the constructivist theory of learning, in combination and dialogue with activity theory, especially the theory of expansive learning. It provides a constructivist and expansive framework that introduces innovative features to e-learning, which can serve successfully as a common teaching environment in schools throughout Europe.

F. References 1

2 3

4 5

6

7

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Koschmann, T. (1996), Paradigm shifts and instructional technology: An introduction, In T. Koschmann (Ed.), CSCL: Theory and practice of an emerging paradigm, 1-23, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Haake, J.M., and Schummer, T., (2003), Some experiences with collaborative exercises, in Proc. CSCL 2003, pp. 125-134, Kluwer Academic Publ., Dordrecht. Xenos, M., Avouris, N., Komis, V., Stavrinoudis, D., Margaritis, M. (2004): Synchronous Collaboration in Distance Education: A Case Study on a Computer Science Course, Proc. IEEE ICALT 2004, Joensuu, FI, September 2004 Benford S., Greenhalgh, C., Rodden, T., Pycock, J. "Collaborative virtual environments", Communications of the ACM, v.44, n.7, p.79-85, July, 2001. Baudin, V., Faust, M., Kaufmann, H., Litsa, V., Mwanza, D., Pierre, A., and Totter, A. (2004): "LAB@FUTURE 'Moving Towards the Future of e-Learning'", World Computer Congress/ IFIP, Toulouse 2004, Proceedings published by Kluwer. Courtiat, J.P., Davarakis, C., Faust, M., Grund, S., Kaufmann, H., Mwanza, D., and Totter, A., (2004), "Evaluating Lab@Future, a collaborative e-learning laboratory experiments platform", EDEN 2004 Annual Conference, 16-19 June 2004, Budapest. Mwanza, D., and Engestrom, Y., (2003), "Pedagogical Adeptness in the Design of E-learning Environments: Experiences from the Lab@Future Project", Proceedings of E-Learn 2003 International conference on E-Learning in Corporate, Government, Healthcare, & Higher Education. Phoenix, USA. Engestrom, Y., (1987). "Learning by Expanding: An Activity-Theoretical Approach to Developmental Research." Helsinki: Orienta-Konsultit Oy, Finland. Dommel, H.P., Garcia-Luna-Aceves, J.J. (1997): Floor Control for Multimedia Conferencing and Collaboration, Multimedia Systems, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 23--38, 1997.

G. Acknowledgments The Lab@Future project (the project full name being - 'School LABoratory anticipating FUTURE needs of European Youth') is a research and development project, funded by the European Union (EU) as part of the Information Society Technologies (IST) program.

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THE EUDOXOS PROJECT TEACHING SCIENCE IN SECONDARY EDUCATION THROUGH A ROBOTIC TELESCOPE Nicholas Andrikopoulos, Georgios Fanourakis, George Th. Kalkanis, Stavros J.Savas, Nikolaos Solomos, Sofoklis A. Sotiriou

Abstract The Eudoxos project1 aims at using the possibilities the Internet offers in order to transform the classroom into a research laboratory. The project studies the applicability of the emerging technology in the school sector and provides a platform that allows the students to use the robotic telescopes of the Eudoxos National Observatory for Education and Research in the framework of their school curriculum. The Eudoxos project aims at demonstrating in practice how e-learning can improve and enrich the quality of the learning and teaching process in science and technology and thus should constitute an element of a new educational environment.

The project’s background The sky is a vast and unique laboratory of science, always in operation, accessible to everybody at all times, where all sorts of interesting physical phenomena take place most of which is impossible to reproduce in any scientific laboratory. The project takes advantage of the natural tendency of children and youngsters to pursue pleasure and research in their activities and the fact that the observation of the sky always fascinated mankind and motivated the studies of nature and the physical laws. Furthermore, the project provides students, even from 1 The Eudoxos project is funded by the European Commission within the framework of the action Preparatory and innovative actions - eLearning action plan DG EAC/25/01. The project started in October 2002 and has duration of 18 months. The partnership consists of 8 institutions from 4 European countries (National Research Centre "Demokritos", Ellinogermaniki Agogi, University of Athens, University of Cadiz, Management Centre Innsbruck and a network of 4 schools).

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remote schools with elementary technological infrastructure, the possibility of using a technologically advanced research instrument, to comprehend scientific issues. The aim of the Eudoxos project is to utilize the “Andreas Michalitsianos” (TAM) and “Apolon” (HTA) telescopes of Eudoxos Observatory in order to develop a framework to teach science subjects to High School students through an interdisciplinary approach. The robotic telescope (TAM), is a 60cm Cassegrain type remotely controlled robotic telescope with large-format CCD camera (Fig.1).

Fig1. The Andreas Michalitsianos robotic telescope on location (Ainos mountain, Kefallinia island, Greece). The robotic telescopes are installed in the Eudoxos National Observatory on the Ainos mountain of Kefallinia Island (Ionian Sea), Greece, executing and providing nightly and solar respectively observations. Those large scientific instruments has been developed with funds from the Greek Government. The Eudoxos project is a collaboration of the Institute of Nuclear Physics at the National Centre for Science Research “Demokritos”, the Greek Naval Academy, The Pedagogical Institute and the Prefecture of Kefallinia and Ithaki, to be used for educational and research purposes as a working example for Distance Learning and Research [1]. The TAM telescope was installed in August 2001 and it is now operational. As well HTA telescope was installed in September 2003 and it is now operetional. One is able to remotely request a specific observation schedule and subsequently receive the resulting photographs via the Internet, to be used for educational purposes or for scientific analysis.

The project’s pedagogical approach The Eudoxos pedagogical approach cross cuts the traditional boundary between the classroom, home, scientific laboratories and research institutions as distinct learning environments. It aims at involving the users (students, teachers) in extended episodes of playful learning. Learning involving a fun element can be more effective [2]. According to Lepper and Cordova [3] learning embedded in a motivating setting (such as an observatory) improves the learning outcomes. One implication of this model is that students should be assigned activities that

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reflect the application of the content knowledge as it is practiced outside the classroom. The goal is to induce the learner into a “culture of practice” which makes the knowledge meaningful. Within this general framework the new technology application of Eudoxos project supports the pedagogical method of autonomous self-directing learning and allows for a self-directed acquisition of skills to meet users individual communication and learning needs. The self-learning method is supported by elements of entertainment (play and learn) in order to enhance learning by using the new communication technologies to transfer the magic of an observatory into the classroom. A learner support is supplied through an on-line manual that acts as an on-line tutor. The on-line tutor serves as the guide to the students’ work. Methodologically it is based on the learning scenarios and the lesson plans that have been developed in order to support the project’s application.

Project’s Activities In the framework of the project a user-friendly web based educational environment is being developed in order for the telescopes to be operated via queue based scheduling by high school students and their teachers (Fig.2). The development of the educational environment is the outcome of the collaborative effort of scientists, pedagogical and software experts, technicians, teachers and students.

Fig2. An advanced remote robotic telescope is tranferred into a typical classroom enabling the students to perform their own astronomical observations. The partnership plans to adopt a heavily user-centered approach in the development of the tool. In order to do so the project’s implementation includes two cycles of school-centered work in real school environments. For the first cycle an adapted curriculum have been developed around a solid educational framework that captures the main learning objectives of the project (observation of the sun, the moon, planets, galaxies, nebulae, variable stars, eclipsing binaries), while during the second cycle the students and teachers of the participating schools have the chance to design and perform their own projects by using the telescope (as for example the determination of the orbital elements of asteroids and other ambitious projects and experiments) from their own direct astronomical observations. The project was set on experimental operation for one year in five Greek schools. Following the sucessful completion of this pilot operation, a two cycle school centered work was designed. During the first cycle it was implemented in schools in Greece, Italy, Spain and Austria, while

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during the second cycle of the school centered work more schools has been allowed in the network from other European countries. The project’s evolution relies in parallel on the further development of the telescope (improvement of the access to it through the development of a higly user-friendly user interface, in order to be used for educational purposes) and the design and development of a pedagogical framework for the introduction of the scientific inquiry in science teaching at school level. The pedagogical framework includes the necessary adjustements to the normal school curriculum, teachers training (on-line seminars and workshop) and support, development of lesson plans (Fig3.) for the project’s implementation in the classroom and development of educational material (conventional and electronic).

Fig3.: By observing the moon craters and with the use of elementary mathematics students can measure the height h of a moon crater through its shadow (L). With this lesson plan they are able to understand the relative positions of the earth, the sun and the moon and realize that the source of light is the sun.

Project’s Objectives The main aim for the Eudoxos project is to take advantage of the popularity of the subject of Astronomy and the attraction of the idea of using directly a first rate scientific instrument, in particular a high grade telescope, to teach students concepts and ideas of science, of a multidisciplinary nature spanning through the areas of mathematics, statistics, chemistry, physics etc. and of cource astronomy, astrophysics and cosmology. The objectives of the project are: - The development of a pedagogical framework that allows for successful application of the advanced technology in science teaching: The project develops an innovative educational approach, which guides students through the learning process in science, by using real-time astronomical observations as possible subjects of both formal and informal investigation. - The enhancement of a constructionist approach in science teaching: Usually pre-designed experiments are used in science teaching. In the framework of the project students use the telescopes to set up their own experiments and observations, which they conduct autonomously. In this way the procedure of scientific inquiry is fully simulated: formulation of hypothesis, experiment design, selection of time and sky area, implementation, verification or rejection of hypothesis, evaluation and gen-

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eralisation are the steps that allow for a deeper understanding of science concepts. - The enhancement of motivation of students: Students are more likely to feel a sense of personal investment in a scientific investigation as they actively participate in the research procedure and add their own aesthetic touches to their observations. - The development of critical capacity: Too often students accept the readings of scientific instruments without question. When students get involved in the project’s activities they should as a result develop a healthy scepticism about the readings and a more subtle understanding of the nature of scientific information and knowledge. - To make connections to underlying concepts: In the framework of the project’s application to the school communities, students are asked to design their own projects. During this procedure students figure out what things to measure and how to measure them. In the process they develop a deeper understanding of the scientific concepts underlying the investigation. - To understand the relationship between science and technology: Students participating in the project gain firsthand experience in the ways that technological design can both serve and inspire scientific investigation and vice versa. - The development of new learning tools and educational environments: The Eudoxos project gives the opportunity to use remotely controlled telescopes in a realtime, hands-on, interactive environment to students around Europe. It enables the students to increase their knowledge of astronomy, astrophysics, mathematics and other science subjects; improve their computer literacy; and strengthens their critical thinking skills. A User friendly Interface has been developed to be an adding tool that bridges science teaching and technology. This software educational tool supports teachers and students in a new learning environment and is at the same time compatible with graphics and analysis software components, so students can easily investigate trends and patterns of the data they collect by using the telescope. Students are able to graphically view all quantities under study and the data correlations through a scatter diagram on the computer screen. This specially developed interface is also used for data download (transfer from the telescope), analysis and presentation of data, in an organized educational way. The project also has an equally important goal at the level of the social dimension of learning. It attempts to overcome the limits of the classroom by having a network of schools gathering and processing the same type of data and asking the students to compare their findings and exchange their ideas. Research thus becomes a collective process, whereby the interactions are not merely at the level of data analysis but also at the level of the formulation of hypotheses, exchange of opinions, announcement and communication of results using the collected data that are regularly submitted to a Web database. - The development of a concrete evaluation scheme of the educational and technological aspects: Evaluation of both aspects of the project (technology and pedagogy) is done according to well-defined methodologies. The aim is to develop a better theoretical framework on how different types of tools and instruments support different types of thinking, reasoning and understanding. The research process that is adopted in order to study the impact of the proposed educational approach includes both measurements (achievement tests) and on field observations (video

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captures of the activities). In the educational aspect there will be a complete evaluation of the student’s learning and of the pedagogical framework, while in the technological aspect there will be a complete evaluation in the quality, the user-friendliness, the flexibility and durability of the products. The evaluation of the didactic approach will be performed on three aspects: evaluation of student’s learning, evaluation of the underlying pedagogical framework and ethnographical evaluation.

Added Value Although the Eudoxos project is using a front-end technological device, the aim is not to test this technology but to focus on the results and changes on the qualitative upgrade that it can produce in the teaching procedure. The Eudoxos challenges the most difficult objective of the development of a better understanding of the opportunities, which are associated with e-learning methods, contents and resources and their impact in education in terms of organisation and management. The partnership believes that the new systems and educational tools have to start from the user. They have to be so transparent that the user can understand them and be in control of what she or he is doing. Recent studies normally describe science lessons by means of negative indicators. Students behave passively and their learning outcome is mostly not seen as a basis for the acquisition of new knowledge and for further activities in the area [4]. Students seem to be far away from skills proposed by “scientific literacy” to become reasonable and responsible acting citizens [5], meaning in short they are far away from presenting, discussing and criticising science related topics of society. The Eudoxos project contributes in changing the present situation by implementing the following innovations: - Teaching science through the use of an advanced scientific instrument The new technology offers to the participating students and teachers a unique possibility to use a scientific instrument remotely. The students are able to observe the sun, the planets, the stars, the galaxies on line. In this way their classroom is transformed into a scientific laboratory. The partnership believes that students can come to view the astronomical observations as a craft that rewards dedication and precision but simultaneously encourages a spirit of creativity, exuberance, humour, stylishness and personal expression. - Reinforcing interdisciplinary approaches The main link usually missing in the learning process is that students do not learn sufficiently through experience but through a systemic model based approach, which should be the culmination of learning efforts and not the initiation. A particularly disturbing phenomenon, that is common knowledge among educators, is that students fail to see the interconnections between closely linked phenomena or fail to understand the links of their knowledge to everyday applications. Therefore, in recent years, there is a clear focus on interdisciplinary education. This approach supports that educational experiences should be authentic and encourage students to become active learners, discover and construct knowledge. Authentic educational experiences are those that reflect real life, which is multifaceted rather than divided into neat subject-matter packages. The Educational context of Eudoxos is not transmitted in a the-

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oretical way but rather in a biomatic way in the form of a real life experience. Observing the sky and using a telescope is a highly interdisciplinary subject and its implications give topics for discussion in Astronomy, Cosmology, Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics, Mechanics and clearly expanding the learning resources for students. Additionally, teachers are faced with a real challenge. Having specialised in an academic discipline may cause frustration to them when it comes to creating interdisciplinary, cross-curricular activities. Such activities demand considerable knowledge in many areas, something they may lack. Collaboration with their colleagues may help them overcome this challenge, develop positive attitudes to interdisciplinary learning and gradually adopt it and make it part of their teaching practice. - Promoting behaviour and process oriented learning After the familiarization of the students with the use of the telescope, projects are assigned to them. They are let free to approach the phenomena and the astronomical objects (sun, planets, stars, galaxies, etc) they want to study. The students are requested to develop real problem solving practices, letting themselves free to handle situations and study them. By using the telescope and the user interface to compose their own scientific inquiring strategy, the partnership expects students to be able to engage in more meaningful and motivating science-inquiry activities. In this way these assigned projects promote creativity through new forms of content combining highly visual and interactive media with the use of innovative ways of design, delivery, access and navigation. The versatility of the tool and results is one of the most compelling factors of the project. The students are encouraged to present and further develop their results in settings that go beyond the school boundaries. Finally, the partnership believes that at the end of the project students will not see the advanced electronic equipment like the telescope and other similar measuring devices as black boxes, but as something that can “take it apart and built it again”.

Future plans The project is now (July 2004) on its fifteenth month of operation, the user interface has been developed and the second stage of the implementation is planned to finish in two months. The project will be further developed and optimised through the following tasks: - The development of a web based educational software that will give the opportunity to students across Europe to control the telescope and perform observations. In this way the observatory could be operated via a queue-based schedule and a network of astronomical observatories in schools across Europe will be established. - The collection of input of information to the database from other more powerful telescopes including the Hubble telescope and radiotelescopes or other astronomical instruments located on earth or in space, will also be used to enhance the validity of the scientific ideas and the educational value of the project. - The addition of new exercises to the lesson plans to cover as many scientific topics as possible.

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- The development of a model telescope with the use of LegoÂ® toys and the Lego MindstormsÂ® software which will resemble the real telescope and simulate its motion. - The organisation of “Astronomy Nights” which will include real time observations with the AM telescope, speeches of invited scientists and other events. - The optimisation of the internet connection of the telescope through the Greek satellite to be launched in the forthcoming months. Towards this direction a collaboration between NRC “Demokritos” and the Greek Telecommunications Company (OTE) for the remote operation of the telescope has already been developed.

References 1.

2. 3. 4.

5.

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Polykalas, S., Solomos, N., Arageorgis, I., Fanourakis, G., Markoyiannaki, M., Hatzilau, I.,Koukos, I., Irakleus, I., Mavrogonatos, A., The Networking Aspects of Eudoxos: synergetics of technologies of the first robotic observatory in Greece, in proceedings of the 5th Hellenic Astronomical Conference, Crete 2002 C.N. Quinn, Engaging Learning, ITFORUM paper, www.tech1.coe.uga.edu/itforum/paper18/paper18.html M.R. Lepper and D.I. Cordova, A desire to be taught: Instructional Consequences of Intrinsic Motivation, Motivation and Emotion, 16(3), 187-208, 1992 Baumert, J., Lehmann, R., Lehrke, M., Schmitz, B., Clausen, M., Hosenfeld, I., Koller, O. & Neubrand, J. (1997). TIMSS - Mathematisch-naturwissenschaftlicher Unterricht im internationalen Vergleich, Opladen: Leske + Budrich. Fischer, H. E. (1993). Framework for conducting empirical observations of learning processes. Science Education, 77(2), 131-151.


The COLDEX Project: Collaborative Learning and Distributed Experimentation Nelson Baloian*, Henning Breuer, Kay Hoeksema*, Ulrich Hoppe, Marcelo Milrad Depto. de Ciencias de la Computacion Universidad de Chile, Santiago [email protected] University of Applied Sciences Potsdam, Germany [email protected] Institute for Computer Science and Interactive Systems, University of Duisburg-Essen, Germany {hoeksema, hoppe}@collide.info Center for Learning and Knowledge Technologies (CeLeKT), Vaxjo University, Sweden [email protected]

Abstract Our Challenge Based Learning (CBL) method can be described as a special form of problembased learning, in which the problems are of realistic, open-ended nature. Additionally, CBL contains features of experiential and project-based learning approaches. CBL is supported by the provision of Digital Experimentation Toolkits (DExTs) which comprise materials, initial instructions, references to web resources and specific software tools. Within the COLDEX project, a number of remote sites which generate data for analysis in such a DExT scenario is established. Among these is an observatory with a semi-professional telescope and a network of seismic measurement stations in Chile. Technological challenges lie in the ease of use in accessing these data and in communicating the learners' requests and specifications to the remote sites. Within this article we describe several classroom scenarios for the usage of DexTs in schools. Examples are the calculation of the epicentre of an earthquake, the calculation of lunar heights and the definition of strategies for navigation in a maze.

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A Introduction The COLDEX project (www.coldex.info) is about developing scenarios for distributed collaborative learning in an intercultural setting. To develop our scenarios, we adopted a different approach than traditional Problem-based Learning or Discovery learning by providing tools, which teachers and students can use for carrying on the experiments and analyse and process their results not as freely and undefined as in discovery learning but giving more possibilities for the learning group to define themselves new challenges. This approach is similar to provide a LEGO construction kit with a booklet about which constructions are possible to achieve. In this paper we present this approach which we called "challenge-based learning" and three scenarios implementing it.

B Challenge Based Learning Vygotsky's sociocultural theory [1] promotes the importance of social interaction and the use of artefacts for knowledge acquisition. Three principles have been proposed for the design of educational environments derived from Vygotsky's works [2]: First, the notion of authentic activities proposes the modelling of activities and tools derived from professional practices. Second, "construction" refers to learners creating and sharing artefacts within their community. Third, educational environments should be designed to involve a close collaboration between learners and their peers as well as between students and experts. Regarding these principles several educational scenarios have been developed within the COLDEX project. The underlying pedagogical approach is the Challenge Based Learning method (CBL). It can be described as extended problem-based learning, but it contains also some components from the experiential, project-based and decision-based learning perspectives. Project-based and problem-based activities are usually focused on a driving question or problem [3]. In CBL the question or the problem is replaced by a challenge. This challenge is initiated either by the COLDEX project, a teacher or a student group. The assignments or "challenges" to be solved might include ways to develop, design and implement solutions for problems related to scientific phenomena. A meaningful learning activity consistent with CBL is to present learners with a challenge scenario and to ask them to think about a number of possible solutions using a variety of interactive tools. Such an activity serves to centre thinking around meaningful problems and is typically effective in facilitating small group collaboration. Regarding collaboration it is important that the need for it is not artificially imposed on the community of learners by the system but grounded in the nature of the task. Only if collaboration is needed to accomplish the task learners will appreciate the value of and seriously engage in collaborative activities such as sharing information, discussing partial research results and come with shared decisions and synthetic solutions.

C Classroom Scenarios in the COLDEX project To support educational classroom scenarios according to the Challenge Based Learning approach several so-called "Digital Experimentation Toolkits" (DExTs) have been developed within the COLDEX project. A DExT includes experimental instructions, scientific background information, modelling and simulation tools, access to real scientific data, and the for-

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mulation of initial challenges. What we want to provide is an open-ended learning environment that stimulates learners to identify and solve a challenge according to the educational premises of CBL. Interactive tools for modelling and simulation enable learners to generate and try out hypothesises, and show the experimentation results. These DExTs are intended to be handed out to schools to be used in but not only in normal school lessons. They provide innovative use of interactive media to enrich the curricula. Teachers should be enabled to integrate these new resources easily in their lessons. As only a few teachers have time to spend on courses or time-consuming studies for "learning" to use these toolkits they are mostly self-describing and trouble-free. DExT/s are not to be seen as expert systems which present themselves as authoritative and definitive. Our toolkits adopt a more post modern position on the problems of practice, celebrating difference, contextually and a democratic form of interaction that allows the user to create and direct instead of being directed. In this sense, they are perhaps best located as a means of representing and sharing practice, rather than a way of privately receiving advice on one's own practice [4]." DExT's count in tools for modelling or simulation and experimentation. The modelling tool is used when the students make a view about their thoughts early in a project, some kind of previous knowledge statement, or when the students are going to design something later on. Different simulation tools are used for testing estimated values and outcomes concerning different influences of events. Our experimentation tools are a prerequisite for the students to construct, visualize and confirm their thoughts in the learning progress. Essential for the toolkits is to get access to modelling and collaboration tools, and to a common repository. This is done through the Internet. A small number of remote sites will be established which generate data. One conclusion within our classroom scenarios according to the CBL is a change in the teachers and students roles. The students role gets a stronger focus on being a more self- (or group) regulated 'researcher' collaborating by using construction and designing tools. Due to the open ended scientific nature of the examined research question the teachers role focuses more on being a coach or co-experimenter.

D Scenario Examples The seismo scenario In this work, students learn how to analyse earthquakes and compute some characteristics of the seismic phenomena. For this, a network of six seismographs were installed in different schools of the Metropolitan Region of Chile. When an earthquake occurs, the computers attached to the seismographs generate a file with the seismographic wave. Since every seismograph is located in a different place, they will register different data.

Figure 1 earthquake epicentre calculation

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By determining the time difference between the first (horizontal) and the second (vertical) hit of the earthquake's wave registered by a single seismograph the students can determine the distance from the seismograph to the hypocenter, but not the direction. If three or more groups exchange their data and/or results it is possible to define three semi spheres. The point where these semi spheres intersect each other is the point where the epicentre is located. For enabling students to do these calculations easily, we developed a tool (see Fig.1) with which they can download the data from a seismograph (which has been previously uploaded by the group of the school where it is located), draw the wave and calculate the time difference between the two hits of the wave. Then they can draw the circles of the semi spheres on a map of the region and graphically find the intersection, as shown in the picture. An interesting aspect of this approach is that collaboration in this case is naturally required for achieving the goal and not artificially imposed by the system. The astro scenario Within our astro scenario the students are enabled to calculate lunar heights by using moon images taken by themselves or retrieved from a repository via the internet. Within the COLDEX project we have access to several different sized telescopes in Europe and America (Chile). All the telescopes are remote controllable and accessed through web serv- Figure 2 lunar height calculation ices so there is no change needed on the client side software when choosing another telescope. To calculate lunar heights, the students need to be able to model calculation networks. Mathematical background are the sentence of three and the theorems of similar triangles. In a first step they have to discover the needed relationship between several measurements (crater shadow length, distance crater-terminator,..) by using a dynamic 2D-geometry model. After deciding how to proceed they can take measurements out of their moon image using a special measurement tool (e.g. including zooming, ..) storing the measured values automatically into produced input nodes in the same (possibly network shared) workspace. The students then can calculate the lunar heights by using a visual language to define calculation networks. Fig. 2 shows the measurement tool and a calculation network having the taken measurements as inputs. Several competitive or cooperative scenarios using the described environment are possible. Within a collaborative school project "building a moon lexicon" one chapter could be about the biggest mares and highest or deepest craters. Therefore tasks could be distributed like: - developing the needed formula / calculation network - producing / retrieving moon images (when to take? Which are the best?..) - working on different areas of the moon An example of a competitive scenario using the described environment could be a "moon measuring contest": At the begin of the contest the students get access to the dynamic geom-

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etry model, to the telescope image repository and the names of the craters which are part of the contest. Within a predefined time limit they have to understand the calculation principle and to measure the heights of the craters as exact as possible to them. Therefore they could e.g. use different images, process their images and build the averages out of their results. The effectiveness of such a group work will be related too how the students distribute the different parts of the work within their groups. This could be a focus on the following discussion. A more detailed scenario description can be found at [5].

Figure 3 Virtual maze environment The maze scenario Figure 4 Physical environment The leading challenge within this scenario is to define a maximally general strategy to let a robot escape from a maze. Although this question has its own history [6] the parallelism to the little (at least partial) autonomous acting robots sent to mars over the last years also inspired us within COLDEX to create this scenario. The robot "senses" its direct neighbourhood (free or wall in front, to the right or to the left) and searches for a given rule how to behave in this situation. A very easy to implement strategy is "wall following", which will not assure the escape out of mazes with "islands". These can be solved by more sophisticated algorithms using additional information (absolute heading). A special feature in our scenario is the possibility of "reactive programming-by-example" The robot has to react to the current situation description. It starts with an empty memory. In a situation to which no existing rule applies, the user/learner will be prompted to enter a new action. Each user-defined reaction will be added to the memory as a rule which will be applied under the same circumstances. Rules can be generalised by replacing concrete elements of situation descriptions by jokers which would match any value. The user will only react by defining actions in concrete situations without having to define global control strategies (local reactive programming). Our maze scenario consists of a physical (wooden maze, RCX-driven Lego Mindstorms robot, communication via PDA or PC, see Fig 4) and virtual environments (Software plug-in for our Cool Modes environment [7] (see Fig. 3) and a tiny PDA environment). Developed rule sets can be stored in and retrieved from a local server within a WLAN. This scenario fits e.g. for competitive group work building a maze the other groups robots cannot deal with / developing rule sets to be able to escape from the other groups mazes. A more detailed scenario description can be found at [8].

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E References 1 2

3

4

5 6 7 8

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: the development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Bellamy, R.K.E. (1996). Designing Educational Technology: Computer-mediated Change. In B. A. Nardi (Ed.), Context and Consciousness: Activity Theory and Human-Computer-Interaction (pp. 123-146). Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. D.H. Jonassen (1999). Designing Constructivist Learning Environments, Ch. 10 in InstructionalDesign Theories and Models: A New Paradigm of Instructional Theory, vol. II. C.M. Reigeluth (ed.) Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Beetham, H (2002). Developing learning technology networks through shared representations of practice. In Rust, C (Ed) (2002) Improving student learning through learning technologies. Oxford: Centre for Staff and Learning Development. K. Hoeksema, M. Jansen, U. Hoppe: Interactive Processing of Astronomical Observations in a Cooperative Modelling Environment. To appear in Proc. of ICALT 2004. Joensuu, Finland. Abelson, H. and A. diSessa, Turtle Geometry, MIT Press, Cambridge (USA), 1982. Pinkwart, N. (2003). A Plug-In Architecture for Graph Based Collaborative Modeling Systems. In: Proc. of AIED 2003, pp. 535-536. Amsterdam, IOS Press. M. Jansen, M. Oelinger, K. Hoeksema, U. Hoppe (2004). An Interactive Maze Scenario with Physical Robots and Other Smart Devices. In: Proc. of WMTE 2004, Los Alamitos, California (USA), pp 83-90

F Acknowledgements Parts of this work have been supported by the European IST project no. 2001-32327, COLDEX.

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The ASH Project: A Virtual Control Room Jorgen Boegh, DELTA Danish Electronics, Light & Acoustics, Denmark

Abstract The European Commission funded project IST-1999-10859 ASH (Access to Scientific Space Heritage) has built a Virtual Control Room that gives students access to knowledge about space and astronomy. The Virtual Control Room is a vision of a future learning environment. Here school classes can plan and carry out virtual space missions. Students get involved by playing the roles of scientists, engineers, and mission control managers. The Virtual Control Room emphasises the importance of collaboration between students for achieving results. New Virtual Reality technologies and simulation tools provide a powerful user interface, which enhances the learning experience. The Virtual Control Room groups students on 'islands' placed around a large central screen. This concept provides a modular, scalable and flexible learning environment offering new pedagogical opportunities.

Introduction In March 2004 the European Space Agency (ESA) launched the Rosetta spacecraft from Kourou in French Guiana. This marked the beginning of an expedition into the solar system planned to last for more than 10 years. The ultimate target for the Rosetta mission is the comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko. Rosetta is one of the most challenging missions ever attempted and it will be the first mission ever to land on a comet. The Rosetta spacecraft will bounce around the inner solar system like a cosmic billiard ball. It will circle the sun almost four times and make close flybys of Mars and Earth. When reaching the comet it will enter an orbit about 25 km above the nucleus and after a detailed mapping of the comet surface a landing site will be selected for Philae, its 100 kg lander. The complications of sending a small spacecraft halfway across the Solar System and making a soft landing on a small comet are immerse. We hope that Rosetta will provide some answers to a very fundamental question: How did life begin on Earth? Did Earth provide the right conditions for life to start spontaneously? Or did

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life come to Earth from somewhere else in universe? We don't know, but today most scientists believe that Earth is not the only planet in the universe where life exists. Scientists also think that there are links between the different 'civilizations'. In other words, life is able to travel through the universe. A possible explanation is that comets could be the carriers of the building blocks of life. If we are looking for traces of life outside the Earth the comets are therefore good places to look. Comets spend most of their time far away from the Sun and are as such representing the most pristine material in the solar system. The ASH project has built a Virtual Control Room that makes it possible for school classes to plan and carry out a virtual mission to the comet to look for traces of life. The students will play the roles of scientists, engineers, mission control managers etc., and they will experience the excitement of making new discoveries. The inspiration for the Virtual Control Room comes from the Mission Control Center in Houston, which became famous in the sixties with the Apollo missions to the Moon. In these days people were fascinated with science and technology. Much has changed since then. People are now much less concerned with technology. This also influences the young generation and can be seen by the serious lack of skilled engineers, in particular in Europe. One of the aims of the ASH project is to provide a learning environment that will fascinate school children and make them interested in becoming engineers or scientists.

The Concepts The Virtual Control Room is a new vision of a learning environment. The intention has been to create a unique set-up that will fascinate and motivate students, thereby increase the learning effect. The Virtual Control Room is primarily an educational tool, but with a strong emphasis on making learning as exciting as playing a computer game. When developing the concept we had high school students at the age of 16 - 18 in mind, but the concept has shown it potentials for both younger and older students. The Virtual Control Room has a look and feel similar to a real space mission control center with a big screen and a number of work places. The students are seated at these work places. For pedagogical reasons work places are grouped in islands. An island has three work places each equipped with a touch sensitive screen. Two students can share a work place. This means that an island can accommodate between 3 and 6 students. Furthermore, each island has a big screen (island screen) used to provide additional common information. The islands are grouped around the big screen. A standard Virtual Control Room configuration includes four islands in order to accommodate a school class with up to 24 students. However, the number of islands can vary according to specific needs and physical constraints. This makes the Virtual Control Room concept flexible. The Virtual Control Room is based on the following principles: - Realistic interaction with science: The Virtual Control Room provides realistic models of the physical world, the behavior of objects like planets, space crafts, and rockets through a simulation of their real behavior based on the laws of physical. - Collaboration between students: The Virtual Control Room encourages co-operation between students in order to give the experience of both the necessity and the

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strength of working together when exploring complex physical phenomena. The different episodes of the mission are designed with collaboration in mind. - Pedagogical presentation of science: The Virtual Control Room provides access to knowledge about natural sciences and astronomy through simulated space missions. The students will experience the laws of physics and will be introduced to the concepts of space travel. They will need to apply mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, geology, astronomy etc. The missions are carefully planned from a pedagogical point of view, in order to maximize the outcome for the participants. - High quality user interface: The Virtual Control Room provides an intuitive 3D virtual reality based user interface. It makes use of high quality material available from ESA (European Space Agency) and ESO (European Southern Observatory). The user interfaces to the system are touch sensitive screens and a special Personal Interaction Panel (PIP). The PIP allows students to manipulate 3D objects in a very intuitive and user-friendly way. The user interfaces and collaborative pedagogical approach of the Virtual Control Room provide a learning environment with qualities beyond current state of the art. The illusion of being in a control room and working together is an important part of the concept.

The Mission The main idea is that students together plan and carry out a space mission in the Virtual Control Room. The inspiration of the mission implemented in the ASH project comes from the ESA mission Rosetta. The Rosetta mission was launched on 2 March 2004. The spacecraft will make a nearly ten years journey through the solar system before it reaches its target. On its way it will pass the asteroid belt and observe asteroids from a distance of a few thousand kilometers. The first planet encounter will be in March 2005, when Rosetta flies by Earth for the first time. It will pass Mars in February 2007 and make a swing-around back to Earth in November 2007. The third Earth fly-by will be in November 2009. Finally the spacecraft will reach the comet Churyumov-Gerasimenko in 2014. This complicated orbit takes advantage of the gravity of Earth and Mars to give the spacecraft the necessary energy to reach the comet. When the spacecraft approaches the comet scientists will use the onboard scientific instruments to get detailed information about the comet, including a map for selecting a suitable landing spot. Eventually the spacecraft will be inserted into orbit around the comet. The climax of the mission will be in 2014 when a lander is released and put down on the comet's surface. This will be the first landing on a comet. Currently the educational material available for the Virtual Control Room covers the main parts of the Rosetta mission. The specific tasks are the following: - An introduction to the planets and the solar system, visualizing size and distance - Presentation and categorization of some of the spacecrafts scientific instruments - Spacecraft orbits in the solar system and application of gravity assist maneuvers - Spectral analysis, chemical composition of the comet - Mapping of the comet and selection of landing spot

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- Determine the mass of the comet using Keplers third law by entering orbit - Determine chemical elements using Alpha X-ray spectrometer - Determine properties of the comet outer layers using seismic monitoring The Rosetta mission is very interesting from a teaching perspective. It is an exciting mission searching for traces of life, it includes many facets of space exploration and astronomy, and it can illustrate topics from mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, geology and so on. The concepts of time and space are covered and an understanding of life and its building blocks is fundamental. The Rosetta mission was selected for demonstrating the concept of the Virtual Control Room because of the possibility to cover many topics from the students' curriculum. However, it must be emphasized, that this is just one example and the Virtual Control Room could be used for many other missions, both from space science and from other areas.

The Experiences So Far A full-scale prototype version of the Virtual Control Room was presented to the public in the beginning of 2002. In addition a formal usability test was conducted. The test included three teams of three high school students from the same class at Rungsted Gymnasium in Denmark. The students were 17-19 years old and specialised in mathematics and physics. In addition, the Virtual Control Room has been tried out by several other groups of students. It was clear that the students liked the system. The Virtual Control Room environment fascinated the students and created a motivating atmosphere for learning. The strength of collaborative learning was fully demonstrated. It was also clearly shown that groups motivated for working together solved the problems much easier than groups working individually. This is a very important result for the development of a full scale commercial Virtual Control Room. Of course the usability test also revealed a number of usability issues that needs to be solved before a Virtual Control Room can be put into commercial use. However, the usability test confirmed the Virtual Control Room concept and was very encouraging for the project team. The students liked the Virtual Control Room. Typical reactions include the following: - "A great experience - a good way to learn about space and astronomy" - "Very impressive - good details" - "I was positively surprised" - "It was very exciting because of the futuristic computer technology" - "Interesting excercises, which one can spend a long time on" An additional result, which should not come as a surprise, is that it is very difficult and time consuming to develop good educational material to the Virtual Control room. It is well known that it requires a considerable effort to develop material for computer supported teaching, and the Virtual Control Room setup add another dimension of complexity to this task. However, we have seen from student trials that the teaching material exploiting the possibilities of the Virtual Control Room really motivates the students.

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The ASH Project The ASH project IST-1999-10859 (Access to Scientific Space Heritage) was partly funded by the European Commission as part of the IST (Information Society Technologies) programme. The general aim of the IST programme is to help to create a user-friendly information society by building a global knowledge, media and computing space, which is universally and seamlessly accessible to ALL through interoperable, dependable and affordable products and services. The ASH project consortium together provided the expertise needed for developing the Virtual Control Room. Three partners, EuroPlanetarium in Genk, Royal Observatory in Belgium, and Tycho Brahe Planetarium (Copenhagen) were responsible for planning and developing the mission. Three other partners, DELTA Danish Electronics, Light & Acoustics (project coordinator), Space Application Services (Belgium), and the Technical University Vienna have designed and implemented the distributed system architecture, simulation models and advanced 3D user interface of the Virtual Control Room. The ASH project started on 1 January 2000 and ended in July 2002. The project has involved representatives from different interested parties by organizing a series of user workshops. The first user workshop took place in May 2000. This workshop focused on user requirements. The second user workshop took place in March 2001. This workshop focused on system design and pedagogical aspects of the mission. The third user workshop was held in January 2002 and showed a prototype of the Virtual Control Room. The feed back from pedagogical experts, planetarium and science center directors, scientists and others participants have been very encouraging at all three workshops. A small follow-on project, partly supported by the Danish Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, was carried out during the winter 2003-04 involving DELTA and three high schools in the Copenhagen area (Frederikssund Gymnasium, Rungsted Gymnasium, and Stenlose Gymnasium). In this project some new educational material was developed in close collaboration with teachers from the involved schools and a visit to the Virtual Control Room was part of the curriculum of the students from three selected classes. Conclusion The ASH project provides a new approach to increasing students' awareness and appreciation about space and astronomy. The Virtual Control Room offers an exciting environment for learning about space by conducting a simulated mission to a comet searching for traces of life. The application of multimedia technology gives a feeling of realism and heightens the intensity of the experience. The Virtual Control Room emphasizes a collaborative pedagogical approach to learning. The Rosetta mission is targeted at high school level students but the Virtual Control Room concept could be used for other educational levels and in many other applications beside space and astronomy.

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Interaction Between Research Scientists and Students of Secondary Education in Digesting Principal Ideas of Science Nikolaos Uzunoglu Microwave and Fiber Optics Laboratory National Technical University of Athens

Abstract Understanding scientific principles has a paramount importance in learning process and ability to develop reductionist model in conceiving physical phenomena, parallel to historical paths followed by mankind in developing science the last 2600 years. The concept of Laboratory which was developed during European renaissance, although was the basis of many scientific achievements throughout sixteen to twenty centuries, had also negative impacts in learning process since distance from real world decreases students attraction to science. The importance of involvement of Research Scientists in Secondary Education Physics Education is emphasized.

1. Introduction In every level of Education and in any field of learning it is very important the new knowledge to became "Property" of the student which could be expressed as "Embeding Knowledge" by the learner rather than "Acquiring knowledge". In Natural Science the importance of Establishing Principles was recognized Ionian Philosophers as early as 600 B.C. and was the foundation of Scientific Throughout as is recognized now. The most classic example is the foundation of Specific Throughout as is recognized now. The most classic example is the foundation of Euclidean Geometry which influencing human throughout more than two Millenia. One has to consider the fact that Geometry was established in the effort to understand everyday life phenomena. However the important step was the abstraction of geometrical objects and the interrelation between of

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them by applying the reductionist principles. The mechanism of assuming the existence of "undefined quantities" and establishing "Axioms" which are taken as Postulates resulted into a self-consistent system which facilitated human learning throughout centuries. In teaching scientific and especially physical principles numerous difficulties and encountered such as: - In many instances real world observations could lead into misconceptions. A classical example is the Aristotelian concept of falling of objects to earth. The questioning of this assumption was one the foundations of Newtonian Mechanics. - During the last 50 years in Science teaching "Quantity" has superseded "Understanding Principles". - Experience shows that very few scientists have understood the Principles and Essence of Phenomena such as: - Newtonian Laws and association of them with every day phenomena. - Maxwell Equations. - Black body Radiation. - Statistical Physics. The Origins of the faced difficulties can be attributed to various reasons such as: - Subjective interpretation of observed natural phenomena which could easily leads to misconceptions in accepting wrong fundamental principles. - Neglence of the Principle that Natural Sciences must be based on Experimental Observation and then establishment of Postulates. - Separation of Mathematics and Physics. - Non-exploitation of Historical Experience and Explaining Evaluation of Scientific Throughout of Human History. It is an unfortunate international development in teaching science the basic fact that science aims to explain natural phenomena is neglected. Simplicity in understanding science is also overlooked. The results of this attitude is well seen in many educational systems, such as: - Inefficient Education. - Loss of Human Potential to follow Scientific and Technological studies. Decrease of Scientific Human Force. - Significant Economic and Social Impact.

2. Facts to be Learned from History It is very important to include in Secondary education curricula elements of History of Science, such as:

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- The case of Thales of Milletus who after collection of thousand year experience of Mesopotamia and Egypt developed the concept of establishing physical Principles. - The case of Archimedes and Euclide representing the apogy of ancient Greek Science. - The case of Galileo and Newton in establishing mechanics and their influence to technological developments. - Establishment of Modern Science such as Electromagnetism, Thermodynamics, Quantum Physics and Relativity. Such a review will provide a very important insight of understanding Principles and will provide a very significant foundation in understanding science. The concept of "Laboratory" appeared first time of "Museum and Library of Alexandria" in 2nd century B.C. which was the first "Research University" as we name today. The concept of Laboratory and "isolated universe" used to understand natural phenomena was extensively used during the last 500 years. European science started to develop as the reshaping of Europe beginning of 15th Century and re-invention of Ancient Science and Aristotelian Texts which prevailed human thought more than 2000 years.

3. Embedding of Scientific Principles to New-Learners In addition to the use of Historical Accounts, in teaching scientific principles on use the following approaches: - Experimental Observations in Laboratory. - Experimental Observation in Natural World. - Deduction of Law-Postulates based on numerous Observations and generalization of Laws describing Experimental observation. - Optimum use of Mathematical Instruments-Concepts to describe Fundamental Physical Laws. - Emphasizing the parallelism and similarities between various braches of Physics. - Use new-technologies and visualization techniques to explain "Unseen Physical Quantities". In this context the understanding of the essentials of Newtonian Mechanics is of paramount importance since is the first step in understanding more advanced theories. The above concepts were the motivation in the IST project "Lab of Tomorrow" which was implemented by a European Consortium during the time period 2000-2004n under the coordination of the Institute of Communication and Computer Systems - Athens - Greece. The basic technologies developed in the "Lab of Tomorrow" project were based on the following principles:

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- Two Camera Systems to measure the Coordinate of a Point in Three Dimensional Space-Euclidean Geometry. - Use solid state technology accelerometers to obtain direct measurement of applied forces. - Use of Wireless technology to remote the measured quantities. - Measure Biometric Quantities. The Experiments are carried out at a "Game Environment" of the School rather then an "isolated Laboratory" which aims to increase students involvement and learning through playing.

4. Conclusions The concept of isolated physics laboratory alone is not sufficient in teaching fundamental laws of physics. The real world experiments by using advanced measurement techniques could improve the learning process. The IST European Union Research Project "Lab of Tomorrow" focused on Newtonian Mechanics. Future research activities should focus on Electromagnetism, Thermodynamics. Wave Phenomena, Quantum Mechanics and Relativity.

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The "Lab of Tomorrow" project: Designing and developing the school science laboratory of tomorrow M. Orfanakis* , G. Babalis1, M. Apostolakis1, V. Tolias1, S. Sotiriou1, S. Savvas1, N.K. Uzunoglu2, R. Makri2, M. Gargalakos2, P. Tsenes2 F. Psomadelis3, S. Skarvelis3, K. Giannakakis3

Abstract There is sufficient evidence to suggest that both the persistence and the quality of learning are highly enhanced when the student is actively participating in the learning process. Juxtaposing this ideal with the current reality of organized learning in school environments creates the impression that the school is not connected at the desirable degree with daily life experiences. One particular and most striking example is science teaching. Throughout history science has advanced through observation, inspection, formulation of hypotheses, testing of the hypotheses by means of experiments and collection of data, rejection or acceptance of the hypotheses, formulation of topics for further research. It seems that in schools this process of acquisition of scientific knowledge gets reversed. Science is presented as a coherent body of knowledge, the experiment is the illustration of the phenomenon, and the questions are answered even before they are asked. The result is that the student acquires shortterm knowledge targeted at standardized test questions, and in many instances this "forced and inefficient" learning lacks on long term sustainability. The Lab of Tomorrow project is introducing innovation both in pedagogy and technology. It aims at developing tools that will allow for as many links of teaching of natural sciences as possible with every day life. In the Lab of Tomorrow project the re-engineering of the school lab of tomorrow is proposed by developing a new learning scheme based on the production 1 Ellinogermaniki Agogi, Research and Development Department, Doukissis Plakentias 25, 15234, Chalandri, Greece 2 National Technical University of Athens, Iroon Politechneiou 9, 15780, Athens, Greece 3 ANCO S.A., Singrou Aven. 44, 11742, Athens, Greece

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of computational tools and pedagogical material that allow high-school students to use their every day life environment as the field where they will conduct sophisticated experiments experiencing the applicability of the theoretical background given at school.

A.

Description

The Lab of Tomorrow1 project is introducing innovation both in pedagogy and technology. It aims at developing tools that will allow for as many links of teaching of natural sciences as possible with every day life. The Lab of Tomorrow project is developing a new learning scheme by introducing a technologically advanced approach for teaching science through every day activities. The connection of tangible phenomena and problems provides students with the ability to apply science everywhere and not only in specially designed experiments under the laboratory's controlled conditions [1].

Fig. 1 Lab of Tomorrow contributes to the connection of science teaching with every day life. Within the framework of the project the partnership proceeds with the development of wearable technology, a series of "artefacts", called axions, which allow students to conduct sophisticated experiments and which, in many cases, involve data collection over extended periods of time. The axions embedded in toys or in clothes are used in order to collect data during students' activities. Important factors of their design are ergonomics and economy, so they will not stay on a test bench nor used by a small number of users. The data collected by the axions are presented with the use of advanced programming tools compatible with graphing and analysis software components so that students can easily investigate trends and patterns and correlate them with the theory taught at school.

B.

Technological Innovation

Wearable computers represent a new and exciting area for technology development, with a host of issues relating to display; power and processing design still to be resolved. Wearable computers also present a new challenge to the field of ergonomics; not only is the technology distinct, but with the manner in which the technology is to be used since the relationship between the user and computer has changed in a dramatic fashion. Within the light of the above in Lab of Tomorrow, new wearable and embedded computer based technologies have been developed in order to foster the design of the new science lab1 Lab of Tomorrow project is co-financed by the European Commision under the School of Tomorrow action line of the IST 5th Framework Program (IST-2000-25076). The partnership of the project consists of the following institutions: National Technical University of Athens, University of Dortmund, University of Birmingham, Ellinogermaniki Agogi, ANCO S.A and a network of 5 schools (Austria, Germany, Greece and Italy).

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oratory of the school of tomorrow. Artefacts like a ball (Figure 2) that has a 3D accelerometer embedded represent innovative technological development of the project. A T-shirt (called sensvest) with several wearable sensors (Figure 2) is another state of the art educational toy. The sensvest has embedded a heart pulse meter, a temperature sensor, a body accelerometer and an arm accelerometer some interconnected with embedded wiring and others wirelessly to a data local storage and communication board. The body, arm and ball accelerometer data as well as the data of the body temperature and pulse rate can be used for the qualitative and quantitative study of several activities like walking, running, jumping etc. In addition the senvest consists of a leg accelerometer module capable of measuring both the acceleration and the step rate of the leg for extended time periods. Leg acceleration data are also transmitted wirelessly to the base station and can be presented with information and data of the other toys in order to perform even more complicated experimental analysis. As an example we can refer to the correlation of the acceleration data recorded by the axion ball and the leg accelerometer module aiming at comparing the forces exerted to the leg and the ball during a kick and thus used for studying the third Newton's law.

Fig. 2. The axion ball shown on the table left transmits data wirelessly to the base station next to it. In the picture at the right the student wearing the sensvest kicks the ball. Acceleration data of the ball, body, arm and leg are collected and correlated in a continuous base. Finally a system called LPS (Local Positioning System) based on two CCD cameras is used for the location of 3D coordinates in space of selected objects with high accuracy. The two CCD cameras are situated in two orthogonal planes in space. The information deriving from the recorded images of the cameras combined with simple geometrical arguments (Figure 3) is used to calculate the position of the objects in space with a few centimetres accuracy.

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Fig. 3. The LPS system is based on the combined use of the visual information of two CCD cameras that are situated in perpendicular planes The data collected are synchronized, presented and analyzed with the use of a specially designed User Interface based on the concrete needs of the Lab of Tomorrow advanced teaching and learning "toys" and tools. Figure 4 illustrates two characteristic pictures that give a characteristic impression of the User Interface. The User Interface as the core node tool for an effective pedagogical use of the Lab of tomorrow systems is a very user friendly environment, easy to use even by novices and allows for many different ways of data representation and analysis. Students through a sequence of steps involving, data accessing, plotting data on a graph, creating a mathematical model to fit the data and relate the graph with the motions of the axions provided by the user-interface, gain deeper understanding of the phenomena. Moreover the user can easily export selected experimental data to other programmes like MS Excel or other specialized software for mathematical representation and analysis.

Fig. 4. Aspects of the Lab of Tomorrow User Interface

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C.

Implementation

Within the framework of the project, a user scenario-based design methodology is used as a means of defining suitable applications of wearable technology. A series of lesson-plans (scenarios) has been developed. These lessons are implemented in the science curriculum of the participating schools during the cycles of the school-centered work. The aim is to familiarize students and teachers with the new approach and toys as well as investigate possible qualitative upgrade of science teaching comparing with the conventional classroom lesson. The first school centered cycle was aiming at introducing students to the ideas and concepts of experimenting science lessons with Lab of Tomorrow. Moreover, during this cycle the developed toys were tested and evaluated in the different environments of the participating school and thus this cycle used to be called the test run phase. The conclusions derived by this phase formed the basis for the redesign of the axions and the determination of the implementation parameters for the successful application of the project's approach during the final run phases. The test run phase was followed by two other school centered working cycles, the final run phase A and the final run phase B. The two final run phases of the project lasted until May 2004 and were remarkably succesful. In these two phases the new approach in science teaching was systematically implemented and evaluated. To assure maximal usability of the new tools, optimal adaptation to the local environments and realistic evaluation of the pedagogical effects, the Lab of Tomorrow project utilized a student-center approach that was fully expressed fully in final run phase B. The final run phase A was based on the implementation of specially designed experimental lesson plans that were in accordance with schools' national educational curricula. This kind of implementation was systematically monitored for evaluation purposes so as for the teachers to be able to record possible qualitative upgrade of their teaching performance and effectiveness. At the third school centered implementation cycle, the final run phase B, the students and teachers (having been used with the idea that scientific investigation is a process in which they can take part, day-to-day, creatively and pleasurably) had the opportunity to design their own scenarios for exploring phenomena of their everyday lives. The constructivist approach on Science teaching and learning became a reality and the students took an insight look of the connection of physics and science laws with their physical environment. These new experimentation ideas of the students will provide input for the development of new artifacts and the improvement of the Lab of Tomorrow prototypes.

D.

Evaluation

The evaluation of the proposed didactic was initiated at the two last cycles of school centered work, namely the final run phases A and B respectively. The evaluation of the project evolved in parallel with the final run phases and it was performed on three aspects: evaluation of student's learning, evaluation of the underlying pedagogical framework and ethnographical evaluation. - Evaluation of the student's learning. In assessing student's learning, student's engagement in science as inquiry was primarily examined. It is believed that the activ-

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ity of designing projects and experiments provides a powerful way for students to become meaningfully involved in scientific inquiry. In this way the dimension of selfexpression is introduced, something that is often missing in science education.. - Evaluation of the pedagogical framework. The major theoretical issue underlying the Lab of Tomorrow project is whether the implementation of the emerging technologies (e.g. wearables) could offer a qualitative upgrade to the science teaching at the high school level.

- Ethnographic evaluation. The project took advantage of the different school environments across Europe and will study the attitudes of students and teachers with different cultures towards the implementation of IST in education as well as the attitudes between students themselves coming from different countries. The evaluation design for the Lab of Tomorrow project's implementation in schools was organized as a semi-experimental process. The main assessment tool was the "Third International Mathematics and Science Study" (TIMSS). These assessment tools have approved scales describing students' performance and they are available in different languages. The experimental group consisted of the Lab of Tomorrow classes in the participating schools while the control group was built up by classes that were taught in traditional way, but on the same topics as the experimental group.

E. Conclusions and future activities Currently the project has completed its implementation phases (June 2004) and a six month evaluation and analysis period follows. So far, the evidence of implementation in schools is very encouraging. Students are very positive with the new approach and Lab of Tomorrow project gives the opportunity for students to easily investigate a lot of new concepts experimentally with high accuracy and above all in a more experiential manner. New educational and technological aspects were investigated and put together in an open and exploratory fashion, encouraging educational innovations, within this project. The new ideas, concepts and technologies were tested and evaluated in relation to real school environments. In Lab of Tomorrow project students and teachers will come together with researchers, psychologists, designers and technologists to re-engineer the lab of the school of tomorrow. The aim is to help both teachers and students reach beyond "cliches" to the areas in which they can make the most valuable contributions, and potentially increase their role on the world stage afterwards.

References 1

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Nachtigall, D. (1992). Was lernen die Schuler im Physikerunterricht? Physikalische Batter. Vol.48, No.3, pp.169-173


CONNECT: DESIGNING THE CLASSROOM OF TOMORROW BY USING ADVANCED TECHNOLOGIES TO CONNECT FORMAL AND INFORMAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS Nikolaos Ouzounoglou, Michael Gargalakos, Rodoula Makri, Petrow Tsenes National Technical University of Athens Sofoklis Sotiriou, Eleni Chatzichristou, Anastasia Pyrini, Stavros Savas Research & Development Department, Ellinogermaniki Agogi 25 Doukissis Plakentias, 152 34, Chalandri, Greece [email protected] Lynn D. Dierking Institute for Learning Innovation Salmi Hannu Sakari HEUREKA - The Finnish Science Center Avi Hoffstein, Sherman Rosenfeld Weizman Institute of Science

ABSTRACT The main objective of the CONNECT project is to develop an innovative pedagogical framework that attempts to blend formal and informal learning, proposing an educational reform to science teaching. The project will create a network of museums, science centres and schools across Europe, to develop, apply and evaluate learning schemes by pointing to a future hybrid classroom that builds on the strengths of formal and informal strategies. The proposed approach will impact upon the fields of instructional technology, educational systems design and museum education. It will explore the integration of physical and computational media for the design of interactive learning environments to support learning about complex scientific phenomena. The project will be implemented on an advanced learning environment, the Virtual Science Thematic Park, developed upon emerging technology that

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will allow for ubiquitous access to educational and scientific resources. The CONNECT project will evolve through a systematic, multi-step assessment process involving the collection and interpretation of data. The current paper presents the project's framework, the initial ideas and the future plans of the consortium. KEYWORDS: Formal/Informal Learning, Contextual Learning, Instructional Technology, Augmented Reality

1. INTRODUCTION During the last decade some attempts have been made to evaluate the impact of efforts and investments made in Science and Technology Education worldwide, for example the Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMMS, 1994) and the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA, 2000). These two large scale studies have explored the achievement and the attitudes towards Science and Technology (S&T) of the students' population in many countries of the world. The main findings of these studies are that the average achievement of the students' population is relatively low in most of the Southern European countries. Additionally while the vast number of students hold positive attitudes towards S&T at the early schooling stages (70-80% of the 4th graders in all countries), this situation is considerably moderated at the latest stages (8th grade). These findings suggest that the educational systems need to shift from the traditional paradigm of the teacher-directed learning and the dissemination of knowledge to the learner-centered curricula that promote the development of lifelong learners who can think critically, solve problems and work collaboratively (King, 1996). Sfard (1998) argues that learning becomes a process of discovery and participation based on self-motivation (informal learning) rather than on more passive acquaintance with facts and rules (formal learning). The importance of visualisation and of hands-on experiences as vital components to the learning process has also been stressed (Bransford et al. 1999). From the beginning of the nineties there has been a considerable growth and development of the research on learning in science museums. Changes in accepted paradigms and definitions of learning have resulted in studies that point to the considerable richness of learning that have the potential to emerge from experiences in informal settings. There was widespread acceptance of the cognitive, affective and social value of experiences in museums and similar institutions (Rennie & McClafferty, 1996), and Falk and Dierking (1992) had drawn attention to the physical, social and personal contexts in which learning occurs. Science centres are no longer isolated hands-on workshops created by a couple of 'science freaks', but have become part of a larger movement promoting public understanding of science. They are influenced by not only the scientific community, but also by other groups in society and vice versa (Falk and Dierking, 1992). Science education is not only a question of advancing technology or of demands for a scientifically qualified workforce, but it is also a question of social goals. As Coombs summarises: 'The aim is not solely to produce more scientists and technologists; it is also to produce a new generation of citizens who are scientifically literate and thus better prepared to function in a world that is increasingly influenced by science and technology'.

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With such an idea in mind, Gardner (1991) has brought a powerful message of educational reform to practitioners within the respective fields of education and museum education. In this message, he challenges schools and museums to combine the evocative learning that takes place within experience-oriented museums with the rigor and structure of a cognitive apprenticeship. Museum educational reform has pushed museums to give education a higher priority, by incorporating it into their mission statements and into every organisational activity. Such a goal requires the redefinition of museum-school collaboration. Informal learning should no longer be regarded as an inferior form of learning whose main purpose is to act as the precursor of formal learning; it needs to be seen as fundamental, necessary and valuable in its own right (Coffield 2000). The evocative learning that takes place within experience-oriented environments (such as museums) should be combined with the rigor and structure of a cognitive apprenticeship (as it takes place in schools). Therefore, effective learning processes should be designed in such a way so as students would have the chance to engage in an active and self-guided learning process. Exploring the integration of informal learning experiences within the formal school curriculum could make an important contribution to the field of science education by helping students to develop critical capacity and deeper understanding of the concepts underlying scientific investigation. It will further provide students with first-hand experience of the ways that technology can both serve and inspire scientific investigation. This will later affect their career choices and will provide a scientifically qualified workforce (Falk, 1999). It will furthermore significantly enhance the learning of science for diverse and heterogeneous populations of future citizens, promoting the public understanding of science and the development of lifelong learners who can think critically, solve problems and work collaboratively (King, 1996).

2. THE CONNECT PROJECT The CONNECT project1 is a step towards an ambitious comprehensive educational reform, pointing to a future hybrid classroom that builds on the strengths of formal and informal strategies. It is an innovative approach that crosscuts the boundaries between schools, museums, research centers and science thematic parks and involves students and teachers in extended episodes of playful learning.

1 The CONNECT project is co-financed by the European Community, within the framework of the Information Society Technologies (IST) priority, Sixth Framework Programme . The CONNECT consortium is composed by the following partners: Institute of Communication and Computer Systems (Greece), Fraunhofer Institute of Technology (Germany), INTRASOFT (Belgium), University of Duisburg Essen (Germany), Vaxjo University (Sweden), University of Bayreuth (Germany), University of Birmingham (UK), Ellinogermaniki Agogi (Greece), HEUREKA (Finland), @BRISTOL (UK), Evgenides Foundation (Greece), ECSITE (Belgium), Institute for Learning Innovation (USA), Weizman Institute of Science (Israel), International Environment and Quality Services S.A. (Greece), Ministerio da Educacao (Portugal), Universidade do Minho (Portugal).

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Figure 1: The CONNECT project's aim is to demonstrate an innovative approach that crosscuts the boundaries between schools, science museums, research centers and science thematic parks and involve students and teachers in extended episodes of playful learning.

The CONNECT project is a joint initiative of pedagogical, cognitive science and technological experts, museum educators and psychologists, that research the possibilities of using advanced technologies for educational purposes. The CONNECT project develops an active learning environment the Virtual Science Thematic Park that functions in two distinct and equally important, from a pedagogical point of view, modes: the museum mode and the school mode. The Virtual Science Thematic Park allows for ubiquitous access to educational and scientific resources and will incorporate all the innovative use of technology for educational purposes. The partnership aims at providing students with a variety of learning methods that will incorporate experimental, theoretical and multidisciplinary skills that will eventually enable them to become independent learners. The suggested educational scenarios include field trips (virtual and conventional visits to science museums and parks) that are tangential to the curriculum, pre- and post-visit curricular activities (including the use of internet resources), 'minds-on' experiments and models of different kinds into everyday coursework heavily involving 'real' remotely controlled experiments in the "student-friendly" and engaging environment of a thematic park or a remote observatory. The working hypothesis of the CONNECT project is that the amendment of the traditional scientific methodology for experimentation with visualization applications and model building tools will help students and learners in general to articulate their mental models, to make better predictions and to reflect more effectively. The CONNECT project will take advantage of the fact that students enjoy visits to museums tremendously and that the resulting increased interest and enjoyment of science activities constitute extremely valuable learning outcomes that persist over time (Ayres & Melear, 1998). The CONNECT project will provide students with observations and experiments that have the potential of showing to them that some of their beliefs can be wrong; will create the circumstances where alternative beliefs and explanations could be externalized and expressed and design activities that give students enough time to restructure their prior conceptions. A systematic evaluation methodology in order to identify the impact of the proposed approach in the learning procedure is under development. The idea is to use scenario-based design methods to define suitable educational applications of the proposed approach and to explore the educational potential of the proposed approach in different educational settings. As the project runs in schools, museums, science parks and research laboratories in different countries there is the possibility to conduct an ethnographic research and evaluation of different attitudes against the use of advanced technologies in different cultures.

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2.1 Pedagogical innovation of the CONNECT project The CONNECT project is developing a new science learning scheme by introducing a technologically advanced approach for teaching and learning and by connecting a wide range of learning environments (school, home, science museums, research centers, science thematic parks exhibitions) and bridging the theoretical and applied aspects of every day personal activities. The pedagogical approach underlying the development of this learning scheme is the Contextual Model of Learning (Falk & Dierking, 2000). This model suggests that three overlapping contexts - the Personal Context, the Sociocultural Context, and the Physical Context - contribute to and influence the interactions and experiences that people have when engaging in free-choice learning activities such as visiting museums. Thus, the experience, and any free-choice learning that results, is influenced by the interactions between these three contexts. The Personal Context describes all the personal characteristics that a person brings to a freechoice learning situation including his or her interests and motivations, learning style preferences, prior knowledge and experience, each very critical components of successful experiences (and learning). Motivation and emotional connection also play an important role in this context. However, personal factors are not the only influence on successful free-choice learning experiences. Learners rarely engage in free-choice learning alone and the Sociocultural Context encompasses factors that recognize that learning is both an individual and a group experience. What someone experiences and learns let alone why and how someone engages in such experiences, are inextricably bound to the social, cultural and historical context in which that experience and learning occurred. More often than not, free-choice learning experiences are shared experiences, opportunities for collaborative learning. And even those learners that choose to learn alone become a part of the sociocultural milieu of the learning setting itself, in the case of a museum, a world of other visitors, staff and volunteers. In addition, there are all of the cultural overlays of what these free-choice learning institutions represent in a society (e.g., elitist or inclusive, modern or antiquated). Interestingly, not only is learning a sociocultural process in the here and now, but the historical and cultural modes of communicating ideas are also sociocultural in nature. This helps to account for the fact that universally, people respond well and better remember information if it is recounted to them in a story or narrative form, an ancient sociocultural vehicle for sharing information. As regards the Physical Context research has shown that people, particularly children, learn better when they feel secure in their surroundings and know what is expected of them, that is, when they have received advance organizers and orientation for the experience. Whatever the learning experience, free-choice learning and meaning-making is influenced by setting, that is, the ambiance, feel and comfort of the place or situation. When people feel comfortable in a learning setting or situation learning is enhanced. This is certainly important in designing how the school setting and the museum setting will be connected. In order to learn science in meaningful ways students need to see connections to familiar problems relevant and important in their daily lives. Additionally, situated learning fosters the ability to transfer acquired knowledge to a variety of different situations. Situated learning is an essential component of acquiring the ability for self-organised and self-regulated learning. The schools of the CONNECT project will provide opportunities for the development of a competence to learn and an ability to be an autonomous learner in the future. This includes the development of meta-cognitive learning competences like e.g. elaboration strategies or learning strategies and their application and usefulness. The learning processes are embedded

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in communicative situations where teaching science offers good conditions for fostering communication and cooperation in students' experimental practices. For the content orientation the planned teaching topics are based on a broad field of knowledge and applications. The teaching sequences are built up in a way that student knowledge can increase and link, in other words be "constructed" by them. The educational material and the adopted instructional strategies are tailored to the abilities and aptitudes of different types of learners. The development of the educational scenarios aims at providing materials and instruction that gives reality and concreteness to scientific concepts (Hofstein & Walberg 1994). In the light of the above the "basic scenario principles" of the CONNECT project can be summarized as follows: (a) Personalization: The learning tasks need to be related to the interests and background of a wide variety of different learners and facilitators and to built upon these individual differences, tapping into intrinsic motivation and providing opportunities for choice and control. (b) Interactivity: The tasks should be "learner-centered" and should provide learners with opportunities to engage actively in the experience. (c) Collaboration: Learning is often enhanced by collaborative efforts. The tasks should promote such collaborative learning, through opportunities for collective work on problems or challenges. (d) Self-regulation: Teachers should help students to plan and monitor their learning, to set their own learning goals and to correct their errors. (e) Authenticity. The learning tasks should be as real-world and authentic as possible. (f) Learning Strategies: When possible, the learning tasks should employ effective learning strategies, e.g., the use of advanced organizers, the use of dynamic explanations, making explicit connections between visible and invisible phenomenon, making explicit connections between linked-phenomena which take place on different scales (micro vs. macro), etc. Another important aspect of the CONNECT project is the promotion of ubiquitous access for students and teachers that will be able to access to the Virtual Science Thematic Park; to visit the exhibits and the experiments; the research laboratories and the advanced scientific instruments. Thereby science education will act as the mediator among people in different countries reducing at the same time prejudices and stereotypes and increasing social cohesion. The direct interaction with science or the doing of science reflect a fundamental pedagogy of the museum to provide learners with personal and direct experiences which can build upon in their own ways. Students will experience the phenomena presented in their own terms, freely choosing what to attend to and interact with, depending on their prior knowledge, interest and expertise. It is important also to note that in the science museums and science centres the exhibits and the related phenomena are embedded in rich real world contexts where visitors can see and directly experience the real world's connections of these phenomena. Finally, a virtual learning community of learners, students, teachers, museum educators and researchers who are involved in the project has been created and will have the possibility to communicate and to collaborate via the CONNECT system.

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2.2. Technological Innovation of the CONNECT project The CONNECT project brings together a real cross-disciplinary know-how, with expertise in e-learning, adaptive interfaces, augmented reality and wearable systems, wireless networks and devices, pedagogical research in science teaching, collaborative systems, usability evaluation and user centred development. The role of technology in bridging the gap between formal and informal learning environments could be summarized to the delivery of scientific visualization and multimedia systems in the areas of virtual (VR) and augmented reality (AR). The possibility of AR and VR to make convergence of education and entertainment is becoming more and more challenging as the technology is continuously optimised and expands to a wide area of applications. The CONNECT project will push the current boundaries further by providing a platform that integrates contextual information into classroom settings, employing advanced, highly interactive visualization technologies, embedded systems and wearable computing and introducing new activities and personalized learning paradigms that fluidly link the use of physical materials with digital technology in creative inquiry and inventive exploration. 2.2.1 Virtual Science Thematic Park The CONNECT project exploits the huge and concentrated knowledge stored in museums, "breaking" the walls of the science park or the science museum and virtually transferring the museum into the classroom and vice versa. Through the innovative uses of educational technology, the virtual visit to an information-rich environment becomes personalized to the exact profile, knowledge level and personal interests of the visitor. The Main technological innovation that the CONNECT project brings in, is the development of an advanced learning environment, the Virtual Science Thematic Park (VSTP), which will act as the main "hub" of all resources available in the CONNECT network of science parks, science museums and research centres. The VSTP serves as distributor of information giving access to large databases, organizer of suitable didactical activities such as conventional or virtual exhibit visits or/and participation to live scientific experiments, and interconnects all the members of the network, allowing for ubiquitous access to educational and scientific resources to students, teachers and independent users from all around Europe. The Virtual Science Thematic Park is able to provide single and multi-user (for groups as large as a school classroom) support, and includes two major components (a) the mobile AR system which the visitor will wear during his/her real visit to a museum/science park, and (b) the CONNECT platform which will facilitate the virtual visits of a remote classroom/visitor to a museum/science park.

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Figure 2: The system's architecture: The CONNECT Virtual Science Thematic Park. 2.2.2 The Mobile AR System The mobile AR system is designed to provide 3D graphics superimposed on the user's field of vision together with other multimedia information, thus allowing to "extending" the real exhibits with virtual objects. This is particularly powerful for visualizing complex concepts in physics that are fundamental yet imperceptible (such as electric or magnetic fields, forces, etc). Furthermore, it allows for remote classes to observe, either on-line or off-line, the activities during the visit to the science museum/park. The mobile AR system consists of several hardware devices, including: a wearable processing unit (heart of the system), personal display units (optical see-through glasses) to project/embed virtual 3-D objects onto the real exhibit environment, tracking sensors to determine the visitors' exact location and orientation (six degrees of freedom), video cameras for recording the students' learning activities and the exhibit augmentation, human interface devices (microphone and headphones for real-time interaction with the exhibit and the remote classroom) and the transmission module to the mainframe computer in order to stream the augmented view to the CONNECT platform. Furthermore, the mobile AR system is supported by a multiplicity of software tools, such as recognition (tracing and identification) of individuals, groups and objects, a user friendly audio-visual interface to allow interaction with virtual objects and to interpret the learning scenario descriptions, natural language and speech interfaces for audio communication, reflexive learning systems (adaptable and customizable) for reviewing experiences, content design facilities, simulation and visualization aids 2.2.3 The CONNECT Platform The purpose of the CONNECT platform is to provide:

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- Teachers with tools in order to facilitate student's learning through managing third party objects, thus making relevant instructional materials accessible in order to enhance the museum exhibits, As such, the platform is a Content Management System. - Students with a web site which will support innovative learning using the AR system. - The AR system with a structured file containing objects and applications to be displayed during the real visit to the museum. - Schools with the means to communicate and to observe museum visits, either realtime or recorded. - Museums and Science centres with the means to manage their exhibit augmentations. The CONNECT platform is thus composed by several components, including specialized and generalized web-services, browsing and content creation tools and a multimedia knowledge database. The role of the content creator of the system is to create educational presentations (scenarios) of the pathways that different students follow. These presentations can be thought as interactive movies, where the part of the movie that is presented to the student depends on where the student is located, on what his/her interactions with the system are. In order to facilitate the content creator in entering, editing or assembling and dissembling new-media objects into meaningful presentations, knowledge management tools allow to build and manage a knowledge database, allowing for persistency, coherence and data integrity. Archiving, cataloguing and indexing tools are employed for the creation of the knowledge repository contents. The CONNECT platform maps the design artefacts into code in an object-oriented language, supporting the mobile's AR system specifications and functionalities. The standards and the information that the mobile AR system uses to transact with the CONNECT platform specify the types of "data objects" which will be stored in the database. These "objects" provide the communication and interaction of the CONNECT platform with the users of the mobile AR system. Furthermore, the developed system guarantees the required efficiency in terms of access speed (for real-time scheduling of the application processes) and available bandwidth (for real-time video-audio communication between AR user and remote classroom). 2.2.4 Integration of the Virtual Science Thematic Park The integrated CONNECT system will provide an ambient learning environment which will function in two distinct and equally important - from a pedagogical point of view - modes: The museum mode and the school mode. In the museum the wearable system will allow augmented reality representations combining real scenes of a museum exhibit including hands-on experiments, with synthetic 3D objects. Based on the student's profile (made by his/her teacher during pre-visit preparations) additional audio and visual information will be available during for the student's use during the visit. In this way personalized and free-choice learning are promoted, as students are encouraged to follow their own learning pathways. At school, on-line collaboration between the visitor of the park or the museum (students, teachers, museum staff) and the remotely located classroom, is enabled through the CON-

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NECT system. During such virtual field trips, a "guide" moves through the Science Park or museum, visiting the students' favorite exhibits to demonstrate and discuss them. The images and sound are transmitted to the school classroom, which in turn sends questions or comments back to the guide. The students in the classroom will have the chance to see the real exhibits mixed in their optical view with the 3-D visual objects and representations that the system is producing and embedding into this augmented world, through the guide's glasses. Thus, the integrated CONNECT system gives for the first time to students ubiquitous access to exhibits and the opportunity to interact with them, no matter how far they are located in space. 2.3. Scenarios of Use The Virtual Science Thematic Park requires the use of augmented reality tools which visually explain with the help of virtual objects projected onto the real setting the physical phenomenon manifested by an experiment inside the museum. By this way many "invisible" parameters in physical phenomena (e.g. forces, fields, waves, charges) will be visualised and presented in the eyes of the students augmented on the real experiments. Haptic feedback could add to the experience of complex physical phenomena. An example is the representation of Lorentz force in space. Other scenarios include, giving life to static exhibits by animating parts of it (e.g. the cloud creation in the water cycle, meteorological movements, tectonic plates movements, sea currents, the propagation of sound waves, etc.) or performing on-line astronomical observations (Sun movement, planets and stars, solar and lunar eclipses, etc.) with the use of a robotic telescope. Furthermore, wearable systems will provide an additional wealth of information, linked to dedicated databases. Example of use: The representation of Lorentz force in space. The 3-D visualization of a physical quantity (in this case a force acting on moving charged particles inside a real 3 dimensional magnetic field) which depends on two other independent quantities, is a vital concept in understanding the physical laws and their applications to real life situations. The picture at the left shows a real experiment which is accompanied by explanatory text only. In the picture at the right the same experiment is shown to the student wearing the AR system with the addition of a virtual object which in this case is a 3-D hand, serving as "a rule of thumb" showing the geometric and physical connection of the three physical parameters involved (q, B, F).

Figure 3: Museum mode: (left) Real hands on experiment (right) Augmented Reality version of the same experiment wearing the device. The real exhibits are mixed in their optical view with the 3-D visual objects and representations that the system is producing and embedding into this augmented world through their glasses. Depending upon orientation of the magnetic field (B) the electron beam is diverted upward or downward. For this change of direction the so-called "Lorentz Force" (F) is responsible. It affects all charged particles, which move in a magnetic field, thus also the negatively charged electrons. The force - and so the diversion - is larger, the stronger the magnetic field is and the faster the particle moves.

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The add-on of the augmented exhibit, compared to a conventional exhibit, is that the students wearing the CONNECT system have at their disposal additional wealth of information. The real exhibits are mixed in their optical view with the 3-D visual objects and representations that the system is producing and embedding into this augmented world through their glasses. In this way all the important parameters of the experiment, all the abstract symbols, which are normally represented in drawings after the experiment, can be visualised. This interactive hands-on experience is recorded on the students' wearable computer for later use. The next day at school (post visit procedure) the students are sharing their personal experience of the visit to the museum with their fellow classmates by projecting it onto a video screen. The fellow students will be able to make a virtual visit to the museum and follow a different tour or make different choices to the same tour through the Virtual Science Thematic Park. Various collaborative activities (discussion forums, mini-projects, writing reports etc) follow the visit in order to provide students with the necessary time and the appropriate tasks to better understand the new information 2.4. Evaluation Methodology To assure maximal usability and optimal adaptation to the local environments, the learning environment will be tested through three subsequent phases of implementation. The results of the associated extended validation and usability studies will be thoroughly evaluated, so that a final optimized ambient learning environment will be formed. In fact, a systematic evaluation methodology is developing within the framework of the project in order to identify the impact of the proposed approach in the learning procedure. Both designers and users will participate actively in the evaluation process; for instance scenario-based design methods will be used as a means of defining suitable educational applications of the proposed approach. 2.4.1 Usability Evaluation Usability engineering involves several methods, each applied at appropriate times, including gathering requirements, developing and testing prototypes, evaluating design alternatives, analysing usability problems, proposing solutions, and testing a site (or other interface) with users. The goal of the usability evaluation in the framework of the CONNECT project is the specification of all tasks that are relevant to the developed system and the evaluation of the user's task on job demands in terms of physical characteristics and environment. The usability evaluation of the CONNECT system concentrates mainly on the efficiency and effectiveness of the proposed system and on the ergonomics of both the mobile AR system (distribution of load around the human body, particularly in terms of muscle activity and loading, and the effect of on-body computers on human mobility) and the CONNECT platform (e.g. easy to use, effectiveness, openness). Many different inspection methods are applied: heuristic evaluation, heuristic estimation, cognitive walkthrough, feature inspection, and standards inspection normally have the interface inspected by a single evaluator at a time; on the other hand, pluralistic walkthrough and consistency inspection are group inspection methods. The importance of the usability evaluation of the CONNECT system cannot be overstated, especially because the nature of the interaction devices (mobile AR devices) imposes several limitations regarding the human-computer interaction capabilities. The results of the users reaction on the usability of the developed infrastructure and services are one of the most important elements of the feasibility study of the CONNECT project.

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2.4.2 Pedagogical Evaluation The pedagogical evaluation will focus on locating evidence that proves the effectiveness of integrating informal learning methods to the curricular activities. It will be performed in three aspects: - Evaluation of students' learning. The students' engagement in science as inquiry is primarily examined through the selection of educational scenarios that address complex physical phenomena that usually students have great difficulties in grasping their essence. The effectiveness of the proposed scenarios will be measured through the portfolio assessment method (Paulson et al., 2001). The evaluation of students' learning will be further assessed through systematic monitoring of the evolution of their knowledge, skills and attitudes throughout the project run. - Evaluation of the pedagogical framework. This will be achieved by the qualitative assessment of the organised activities (connecting the museum and school modes) that is promoting the connection between formal and informal learning and by the assessment of whether qualitative upgrade of science teaching will have been achieved in schools through the implementation of the advanced technologies that the CONNECT project suggests. - Ethnographic evaluation. Taking advantage of the different educational environments (schools, museums, science centres) across Europe, the attitudes of students and teachers towards the use of advanced technologies in education and towards the link of the formal curricula with museum education will be assessed.

3. What Holds the Future The goal of the CONNECT project is to redefine the conceptual framework of education, by designing learning environments and implementing pilot experiences that use state-of-theart digital technologies. Such environments would encourage reflection and collaboration and draw their pedagogical value from the cross-over between education and entertainment. It is hoped that in this way we will enable and encourage students to produce their own content, thus, to create rather than to consume media. To collaborate and communicate with others who share the same interests, goals and needs. And finally to assimilate and use the scientific concepts they have learned to better understand phenomena in everyday life and to use the scientific approach as a tool throughout their lives. The CONNECT project aims at interconnecting multi-media devices while allowing for realistic simulations and embedding in virtual environments. This will enhance the sense of exploration and adventure while conveying dynamic information and learning of the most complex and diverse concepts. Furthermore, by designing interfaces that are immersive and interactive and by directly involving both designers and users in the evaluation process, we hope to create systems that are responsive to people's needs and actions. The CONNECT approach will impact upon the fields of instructional technology, educational systems design and museum education. - In the field of instructional technology, our research will examine alternative instructional systems that attempt to blend informal and formal learning and to situate learning in real-world contexts.

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- In the field of educational systems design, the CONNECT Virtual Science Thematic Park represents an example of designing new systems from the ground up. As such, it may inform current burgeoning theory in the process of educational systems design and in systems theory-such as the SIGGS theory (King & Frick, 1996). Additionally, the CONNECT approach will provide information for one of the key processes of educational systems design, transcendence: it will create knowledge regarding a new class of alternative schooling that will be informative to future educational designers. - In the field of museum education, the CONNECT project will correct three deficiencies that are restricting current reform efforts to expand the educational role of museums: the limited number of model programs, the absence of a body of professional literature, and the lack of contact with the broader field of education. Indeed, the CONNECT project provides a framework for a closer and more effective collaboration between museums and schools, while keeping intact the strengths of these different educational environments. By describing and analyzing the functionalities of the virtual thematic park and by creating operational terminology, the CONNECT projects aspires to guide the design of future museum-school collaborations and to document efforts that seek to bring the worlds of formal and informal learning closer together.

REFERENCES Ayres, R. and Melear, C., T. (1998). Increased learning of physical science concepts via multimedia exhibit compared to hands-on exhibit in a science museum. Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching. San Diego, CA. Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L. and Cocking, R. R. (Eds.). (1999). How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. Coffield, F. (2000). The Necessity of Informal Learning. Bristol: The Policy Press. 80 + iv pages Collier Books. Coombs, P. (1985). The World Crisis in Education. The View from the Eighties. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Falk, J. H. (1999). Museums as institutions for personal learning. Daedalus. 128(3): 259-275. Falk, J. H. and Dierking, L. D. (1992). The museum experience. Washington: Whalesback Books. Falk, J. H. and Dierking, L. D. (2000). Learning from Museums: Visitor Experiences and the Making of Meaning. Lanham, MD: AltaMira Press. Gardner, H. (1991). The Unschooled Mind: How children think and how schools should teach. New York: Basic Books.

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Hofstein, A. and Walberg, H., J. (1994). 'Instructional strategies'. In Fraser, B., and Walberg, H.J. (eds.), Improving Science Education, International Academy of Education, The NSSE Year Book in Science Education, 28-1996 (87-112). King S. K. (1996). Alternative Educational Systems: A multi-case study in museum schools. Dissertation proposal. King S. K. (1996). Alternative Educational Systems: A multi-case study in museum schools. Dissertation proposal. King, K. S., & Frick, T. (1996). Transcending our current educational system: A case study in systemic thinking and application to a Montessori classroom. Unpublished manuscript, Indiana University. Leadership: 60-63. Paulson, F. Leon, Pearl R. Paulson and Carol A. Meyer. (2002) What Makes a Portfolio a Portfolio? Educational perception. European Journal of Psychology of Education, Vol. XVII, 1, 19-34. PISA: Available online from http://www.oecd.org/pdf/M00030000/M00030434.pdf Rennie, L.J., & McClafferty, T.P. (1996). Science centres and science learning. Studies in Science Education, 27, 53-98. Sfard, A. (1998). 'On two metaphors for learning and the dangers of choosing just one'. Educational Research, 27(2), 4-12. TIMSS: Available online from http://timss.bc.edu/timss1995.html

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Pedagogical Analysis of Laptop and Hyperbook Integration in Education C. N. Ragiadakos Pedagogical Institute, Mesogion 396, Ag. Paraskevi, TK 15341, Greece [email protected] and [email protected]

Abstract The METABOOK project (action MINERVA of the SOCRATES programme) proposes the following ICT implementation scenario in education. Every student entering high school receives a portable computer with Wi-Fi facilities, which he uses as reading device for his school hypermedia ebooks, as computational tool in science laboratory as well as a communication device in the school campus and worldwide. In the present work I analyse the effects of this scenario: 1) In the cognitive domain skills: Using the different pedagogical theories (macroscopic and microscopic) we show that the hypermedia features of the hyperbook highly enhance the effectiveness of all the cognitive objectives. 2) In the affective domain skills: The great interest of the youth in the "new electronic gadgets" is expected to increase their motivation to study and play with the hypermedia ebooks. Wi-Fi will facilitate communication between students, which could lead them to recognize and admit the values of Science and Technology. Affective disadvantages may appear from the copyright problem and internet crime. 3) In the psychomotor domain skills: Laptops are expected to cause problems to the psychomotor objectives and some precautions have to be taken. The hyperbook virtual laboratories must not substitute the real science laboratories.

A. Introduction The present work is based on the METABOOK Project [1] in the action MINERVA, which developed a multimedia ebook (hyperbook) in Physics and applied it to six high schools. The

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objective of the project "is the acquisition of experience in developing and implementing multimedia electronic books at schools, in order to achieve the better, more efficient and smoother introduction of this tool in education". Taking account the present technological achievements the Project proposes the following ICT integration scenario in education: "All the 1st year high school students take a notebook with at least a Hard Disk Drive of 30 GB, a DVD/CD-RW Drive, a web camera and a wireless communication (Wi-Fi) facility. The school is equipped with a server connected with internet (DSL) and with all the access points properly distributed in order to cover all the school campus. This equipment will permit the students to connect with the school server, the (virtual) Library, their professors and any other student fro anywhere in the school campus. The hyperbooks will be distributed through the school server to the students' notebooks. They may be written in CDs or stored in the hard disk. At home, students study their lessons, reading the hyperbooks on their notebook displays. They should also afford an internet connection for communication and search in the WWW. This facility could be provided by the state to give access to internet for all students and teachers through a central portal. In the physics classroom, the teacher makes his presentation using his PowerPoint preparation on a large TV display and a touch screen add-on for his own handwriting interventions. The ordinary blackboard will be hardly used. Teacher's presentation with a database of answers to all the frequent questions (FAQs) will be uploaded to the school server for common use." From the economic point of view the proposed scenario will not be more expensive than the present paperbooks. The arguments are: a) the hyperbooks will be less expensive than the paperbooks, b) the operating system and the common applications will be OpenSource Software and free, c) according to the MIT Media Lab OpenSource Hardware initiative [2] after about five years the cost of a portable PC will be about 100 euros, d) the taxation on the portable PCs (not the desktop PCs) and the educational software will be that of paperbooks. More details can be found in the Feasibility Report of the METABOOK Project [1]. Up to now PC is used in the school as an auxiliary device or tool. Its usefulness has been detected in many researches [3]. The proposed scenario is essentially one step toward the complete integration of ICT in education. History has taught us that any substantial technological evolution implies societal and possibly (in the long-term) physiological changes. We think that the proposed scenario is the beginning of such an essential technological change. The purpose of the present work is to make a pedagogical analysis of such a scenario and to look for possible lopsided effects. I point out that ordinary paperbook was not the first medium of transfer of written knowledge. Before the paperbook there were other means less convenient, which were used by mankind to record events and ways of solving practical problems. The first writing method might be considered the prehistoric drawings on the rocks. In ancient Egypt papyrus rolls have been made, on which letters could be written. The first evolution came from Greeks who discovered how to make parchment and vellum from the skin of sheep. Parchment codex is used until Middle Ages, when the Arabs transferred the paper to Europe from China. The first machine to supplant the hand-molding process was introduced the 18th century, while the cheap process of wood pulp making was introduced the 19th century. Johannes Gutenberg first used movable metal types and the printing press in 1455. All these technological discoveries permitted the proliferation of the book production. The transfer of written information became gradually cheap and permitted the expansion of the organized education. The low societal classes were educated and the cast societal system gradually disappeared.

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The generally accepted taxonomy is that of Bloom and collaborators [4] relative to which the educational objectives are classified to the following categories: -

The cognitive domain, which contains the objectives related to the development of cognitive skills and the retrieve of memory;

- The affective domain, which contains the objectives related to the motivation, interests and reactions of the student; - The psychomotor domain, which contains the objectives related to the skills of students to make precise movements in order to accomplish a project. The objectives of the ordinary textbook belong to the cognitive domain. The new features of hypermedia ebook enhance the cognitive performance and give the author the possibility to cover objectives of the affective domain too. The use of multimedia features enhances motivation and may easily create the requested attitudes.

B. Hyperbook effects on the cognitive performances Learning is the neuronal process through which the man (and the other animals) receives knowledge from the environment. Memory is the storage of this knowledge in the neuronal system. These two neuronal mechanisms are related between each other and are actually under intense investigation. This research was originally macroscopic, like in all scientific fields, but very soon achieved the microscopic description of learning and memory through Neuroscience [5]. The recent developments of Neurophysiology have led to a better understanding of the neuronal function of learning and memory. Unfortunately these neuronal processes are not yet completely known therefore here we will often skip from microscopic to macroscopic observations and descriptions in the cases where the first (microscopic) ones are not very well known. In order to avoid any metaphysical misunderstandings I should mention that similar periods have appeared in all the exact scientific fields like Physics, Chemistry etc. The corresponding period (19th century) in physics was the passage from macroscopic Classical Thermodynamics to microscopic Molecular Physics. A fundamental macroscopic observation is that reward and repetition enhance memory. It emerged from the experiments of Ivan Pavlov and it is the basis of behaviourists. Today this phenomenon is explained through the reinforcement of neuronal synapses (Hebb rule). The hyperbook as well as the ordinary book is a priori a data base of organized information, which the learner will study as many times he likes in order to increase his learning. The superiority of the hyperbook comes from its characteristic potentiality to repeat notions without disturbing the learner. All teachers know that a common pupil does not like reading the theory of a lesson and much more dislike returning back to study again the scientific notions he has forgotten. So the number of his unknown scientific terms increases fast. The result is that after some lessons the student will not understand anything, because every scientific lesson is usually based on the previous lessons. The hyperbook seems to have the solution to this pedagogical problem. The definitions of the scientific terms, written in emerging windows, and linked with the corresponding terms appears to be very helpful for the reader to recall the forgotten notions. Skinner's theory of operant conditioning is another related model of associative learning first introduced by E. L. Thorndike. It is based on trial, reward and punishment. In this process

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the relation is between stimulus and (positive or negative) response to an originally accidental behaviour of the subject (man or animal). This may be considered as an extension of the classical conditioning learning, where the relation is between stimuli. Using the ordinary paper book, the learner is a passive receiver of information, since it cannot respond to the reader actions. The interactive features of the hypermedia ebook permit the application of operant conditioning. The fundamental mechanism is the direct response of the device to the reader choices. This is extensively used to the Socratic type motivation questions, the virtual experiments and the revision questions. The activation of conditioning learning may be done through more laborious teaching scenarios. The degree of activation depends on the author's imagination and the quality of graphics, animations and video (multimedia features). The critical stages of the learning process have been discovered and studied by Jean Piaget in the context of macroscopic Pedagogy. The existence of critical stages in the neuronal system have also discovered and studied by Sperry, Hubel, Wiesel and others in the context of Neurophysiology [5]. It is already known that the initial growth of neurons is based on genetic factors. This genetic procedure creates a hyper population of neurons and neuronal "paths". From all these original neurons only those, which will be used until a critical age, will finally survive. This critical age is related to the corresponding neurons. After this critical age every effort cannot revitalize this set of neuronal paths. A characteristic example is squint (strabismus), which appears in some newborns. If it is not corrected by increasing use of the corresponding eye until the age of two, it remains permanent during all the life of the subject. Critical periods have not yet been found in the associative areas of the brain, but it is generally believed that they exist. A typical example might be the apparent declination of the students between linguistic and scientific knowledge around the ages of 12 to 15 years old. It is evident that these phenomena intervene in the development of the curriculum of Physical Sciences. On the other hand the very fast evolution of sciences poses the problem to include more advanced scientific material during the limited 12 year instructive period. For that, more and more abstract or "unrealistic" fundamental notions should be taught in lower ages leaving aside secondary notions, which could be searched in encyclopaedias. Typical examples in Physics are microcosmos, which cannot be seen and the fundamental notion of energy, which is too abstract for young students. It seems that the new multimedia and interactive features of hyperbook will help learners to assimilate the abstract notions.

C. Hyperbook effects on the affective and psychomotor performances The data from many projects and our own METABOOK Project indicated positive effects in the following ways of the affective domain [3]: - 80% of students reported they definitely or usually liked project-based learning and working in collaboration with other students. - 75% of students reported they definitely or usually wish they had more chances to use computers in school. - 75% of students reported they believe that computers made schoolwork more interesting. - Student performance gains were noted in learning to do research, locating informa-

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tion with the computer, writing or publishing with computers, and making presentations with the computer. There are many arguments that behind this increased motivation there is the general interest of the youth to "new gadgets". I think that the kids are not interested in the PCs, because they help them to understand Physics! They look at the computer as a playing machine. They use it in order to play games and especially multi partner games through internet. In any case the educational system has to admit this situation and build on it in order to increase its instructive effectiveness. I should emphasize that this point of view is neither new nor heuristic. Still the old times of poor instructional equipment, a "good" teacher had the ability (among others) to get the attention of his pupils saying from time to time interesting stories, or bringing in the classroom plants, animals and peculiar equipment. It seems that the ages of plants and small animals has finished and the ages of gadgets starts. Hence imaginative hyperbooks will enhance motivation, which is the driving force of knowledge. Communication is the second stronghold of the notebook integration scenario in education. The communication facilities of the recent portable computers will permit electronic mobility and homogenisation of the human values, which are fundamental objectives of e-Europe. The arguments that virtual campus could substitute real schools and teachers are not valid and may be dangerous for our societal structure. Physical contact activates all the affective components of the pupils. It makes them social and active future citizens. School is not just a source of knowledge but a place of physical contact too. It is a micro-society where the pupils learn to interact between each other and to obey the school rules. During the application of our project we have not detected any negative effects of the hyperbook integration on the cognitive skills of the pupils, but we did detected some negative effects on their affective skills. An important negative effect seems to come from a strict application of the copyright law. If the law does not distinguishes the "users" from the "traders" there might appear disastrous justice interventions in the school functioning. We noticed that about all the pupils have and exchange unauthorized applications, they visit the "crack" sites and they like looking for cracks of the computer games. The internet crackers are the modern heroes and especially the dedicated students look for cracks. This negative juridical build up creates the mentality of the "thief" to the students, which mines the abovementioned role of the school as the preparation of the good future citizens. This should be taken very seriously because in the long-term it is going to create social problems. Two other affective disadvantages of the hyperbook are the internet crime problem, which is well known and the language problem. The international communication facility of the laptops is going to impose English as the official language of the education. It will apparently develop cultural problems to all the non-english speaking nations. We hope that the on-line translators may help them bypass this problem. The notebook integration has no direct effects to the psychomotor skills. But there are some lopsided effects, which are related a) to the immobility of the pupils, b) the keyboard problem, which could appear if the current notebooks with keyboards are integrated in primary schools where the handwriting skill is achieved and c) the substitution of the real experiments with the virtual experiments.

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D. References [1] METABOOK project (1/10/01 - 30/9/04) is in the action MINERVA of the SOCRATES programme. The partners are: 1) Pedagogical Institute of the Greek Ministry of Education (Coordinator, Greece) [C. N. Ragiadakos, C. Papamichalis and N. Papastamatiou], 2) Gennadios School Editions (Ilioupolis, Greece) [S. Kessanidis] 3) Zukunftszentrum GmbH (Innsbruck, Austria) [F. Scheuermann and K. Reich] 4) Mary Hare Grammar School for the Deaf (Newbury, England) [Í. Papadovasilakis] 5) The Philips European Greek School of Cyprus (Nicosia, Cyprus) [E. Ierokipiotis]. [2] Negroponte N. : WCIT 2004, Athens. [3] Johnston, J. & Barker L.T.: 1999, Editors of "Assessing the Impact of Technology in Teaching and Learning". Published by: Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan. [4] Bloom, B.S.: 1965, "Taxonomy of Educational Objectives", Longmans. [5] Kandel, E., Schwartz, T. & Jessell, T.: 1995, "Essentials of Neuronal Science and Behavior", Appleton & Lange - A Simon & Shuster Company.

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Making Information and Communication Technologies accessible to all Michail Bletsas Director of Computing MIT Media Lab

A famous joke1 that has been circulating in the Internet for the past few years, attributes the following quote to Microsoft’s founder Bill Gates: “If GM had kept up with the technology like the computer industry has, we would all be driving $25.00 cars that got 1,000 miles to the gallon.” A quote like this would sound better coming out from an Intel employee, given the direct inference from Moore’s law [1]. In any case, despite the rate of progress in computing capability per monetary unit, computers are still something that the 4 billion people that live with less than $2000 annually can’t afford. In that respect, computers are not that much different from cars and although many will question the worthiness of making cars affordable for all of the planet’s human population, far less people would question the nobility of making computers accessible to all. How do we define “computer” in this context though? It is a personal computer serving as an Internet endpoint. Presently, one can argue that the term “computer” is a historical misnomer since PCs are used more and more for communication functions rather than more “traditional” computational ones. Computation and communication are too closely intertwined together to consider them separately in most contexts today, so when one calculates the cost of PCs over time, the connectivity component should always be accounted for. In the remainder of this article, I will describe some of my personal experiences in making Information and Communication Technologies economically accessible to more people and try to extrapolate some useful directions towards that goal.

Rural Cambodia Back in 1996 I was approached by Bernie Krisher, Newsweek’s former Japan bureau chief and currently an active philanthropist based in Tokyo, about donating old computers from the 1 “Bill Gates and GM”

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Media Lab to schools that he was helping setup in rural Cambodia. My first reaction to Bernie’s request was very enthusiastic since I had a large number of older Apple McIntosh machines that could definitely find better use than gathering dust at the lab. Almost immediately though, I started thinking about the logistics of getting the computers to Cambodia and my enthusiasm got severely dampened. Fortunately, Bernie found ways to organize the logistics (i.e. arranged for free transport and customs clearance) and in early 1997 we packed the machines and sent them off to their destination. Although I was very happy with the outcome, packing up a used computer (which has already gone through a significant portion of its useful life) and shipping it half way around the world seemed like an extremely sub-optimal concept. Two years later the question of equipping schools with computers came up again, when Nicholas Negroponte financed the construction of two new schools in Cambodia’s Preah Vihear province. This time, in sharp contrast with using recycled desktops, a decision to procure new laptops was made. Laptops with their built-in batteries and low power requirements are more suitable for environments with intermittent electricity. Furthermore, students can take them home in the evening where they can do their homework, use them for entertainment, and in many cases, as a light source for the family room! Solving the connectivity problem was more challenging. The lack of any kind of communications and electricity infrastructure mandated the use of a two-way satellite link, solar panels and a gasoline generator. The only problem left at that point was how to connect the various schools in the Rovieng District together so that they could share the (expensive) satellite Internet connection. The obvious solution to our connectivity problem was to use wireless networking equipment utilizing the internationally recognized 2.4Ghz ISM band. Equipment compliant with the IEEE 802.11 standard had already become dominant in the market. Consequently, one could procure the necessary equipment in relatively low prices and with the added benefit of being able to provide Internet connectivity all around the village. In parallel, I was involved in another project aiming to provide broadband Internet connectivity to the island of Patmos in Greece [2]. There, after looking at various alternative technologies, we had decided to use 802.11-based wireless equipment. Since the Patmos project was much easier, a decision was made to concentrate on that and apply the lessons learned on the more complicated Cambodian one. After studying the regulations governing the use of the license-free 2.4Ghz band in Greece [3], I realized that my initial assessment about the ease of implementation of a license-free wireless network in Patmos was overly optimistic. Being used to the more liberal FCC2 rules I had overlooked that the maximum allowable effective radiated power in Greece was only 100mW (compared to the 1W FCC limit). With 100mW one can expect to cover only two 2km under line of sight conditions. In order to cover all the towns and villages of the island we ended up having to install a very elaborate multi-hop backbone for our network so that we could comply with the Greek regulations. The most unfortunate consequence of those regulations though, was that the network could not extend to provide broadband connectivity to the neighboring small islands. Left on their own, they stand very little chance of moving beyond dialup connectivity for the foreseeable future (because of their small size and permanent population). What I ended up learning from that experience was that it is definitely easier (and less expen2 Federal Communications Commission, the US telecommunications regulatory authority.

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sive) to deal with the lack of electricity and the heavy foliage of an under-developed country than with a poorly designed regulatory framework of a developed one.

Complexity The joke mentioned in the beginning of this article says that GM issued a press release responding to Gates’ comments emphasizing the unreliability of Microsoft’s operating system. The truth of the matter is that PCs have indeed become unnecessarily bloated and complex systems at the expense of their reliability and overall cost. Despite Moore’s Law, the price of the average personal computer has been declining very slowly in the past 25 years. Computing power has increased between 3 and 4 orders of magnitude. In the same period, human capability for processing information hasn’t changed so computer manufacturers have been trying to enhance the PC’s user interface. Furthermore, with PCs serving as communication endpoints, digital media manipulation capabilities have been added in the recent years, capabilities that greatly enhance the PC’s utility. Unfortunately, the improvements in functionality cannot justify the increased complexity that we all experience in PCs today. Consumer behavior is partly to blame for that. Consumers base their purchasing decisions predominantly on the presence of individual features and to a much lesser degree on the overall stability and reliability of the system. Furthermore, computer manufacturers spend a lot of system resources on user interface cosmetic details, very often at the expense of the machine’s responsiveness and usability. Examples of this can be seen in the transition from Microsoft Windows 2000 to XP and more dramatically in the evolution of NextStep to the current Apple OS X operating system. I joined the Media Lab at the end of 1995, when a lot of my colleagues where using Next Computer’s, NextStep operating system on 90Mhz Pentium machines with 128MB of RAM. When Apple’s beta version of the OS X operating system came out in early 2001 some of these machines were still around. Their graphical user interface was more responsive than that of the 300Mhz Apple G3 machines running OS X (using 256MB of RAM and faster graphics cards). The main difference between the two operating systems lied in the window manager details, details that made the OS X user interface more pleasing to the eye but a lot less usable! Microsoft Office is another interesting example of “featuritis”3: most people only use a very small percentage of the package’s features, yet every time there is a new (bigger) version out, they rush to get it and install it on their machines, even if they don’t know how it is different from the previous one. So in the era of the 25MB text editor (that’s how much memory Microsoft Word 2000 is taking on my machine while I am writing this) and the 26MB web browser (my current Internet Explorer memory footprint) many things can go wrong when so much code is involved in carrying out relatively simple tasks. Feature bundling is something practiced in a lot of other industries (including the car industry) where the user who just wants one new feature has to buy a whole set of them packaged together as an upgrade or a new version. The end result is complex, bloated and unreliable PCs that cost a lot more than they should. What should a personal computer cost though? Given that one can buy a fully functional Pentium-III class laptop for $400 from eBay these days and lots of people are racing to cut this price down by a factor of two in the immediate future [4], I think that efforts should be 3 My term for describing systems loaded with many seldom used features of questionable utility.

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concentrated in further reducing the price by another factor of two (~$100) so that the resulting personal computer becomes truly affordable for the majority of the human population. "Make everything as simple as possible, but not simpler." -- Albert Einstein A lot has been written about the “Digital Divide” and the means to bridge it. My personal experiences have lead me to believe that a lot can be accomplished towards that goal by eliminating unnecessary complexity from personal computer systems. On the communications side of the equation, adopting proper regulatory frameworks can radically decrease costs. Such frameworks should take into consideration current technological developments and tilt the balance towards innovation and the deployment of new services from the traditional favoritism towards the incumbent telecommunications companies.

References 1. 2. 3. 4.

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Gordon E. Moore, “Cramming more components into integrated circuits”, Electronics, Volume 38, Number 8, April 19, 1965 M Bletsas, “Wirefree in Patmos”, British Telecom Technology Journal, Vol 22, No 4, October 2004 (to appear) European Telecommunications Standards Institute, Standard EN 300 328 John Markoff, “Trying to Take Technology to the Masses”, New York Times, August 16, 2004


Satellite Network of Rural Schools - DIAS DIAS Project Elena Tavlaki, Head of Research Programs of OTE, [email protected]

According to Mark Weiser, "The most profound technologies are those that disappear. They weave themselves into the fabric of everyday life until they are indistinguishable from it." Starting from this point, a really successful project or innovative technology, is the one that succeeds to be part of a solution and not of the problem. Research Project DIAS, has three axes: - Advanced Technology. Satellite communication is a perquisite for DIAS project in combination with the Usage of DVB platform for multicast application. Additionally, the project aims to integrate the pre-existing means of communication, specifically ISDN lines that already exist in typical school infrastructure. It is evident that, satellite communication systems offer the major advantage of serving a very large geographical area. Services can be quickly introduced since coverage is available for everyone from day one. The greek area, with a lot of isolated geographical points, is a characteristic example of difficulties in telecommunication access. Additionally, the satellite digital platform offers the possibility of fast developing new services in efficient way. The success of these services, depend heavily on the acceptance of the end-user. Testing the advanced services is a major issue for a telecom operator before their commercial exploitation. - State-of-the-art educational methods. Teaching Methods for multigrade schools. Onthe-job distant learning for professionals, using all forms of educational material. The participating teachers will be trained in designing and implementing cross-curricula applications, projects and activities. Teachers, in the end of the project, will be able to design multidisciplinary and multigraded learning activities accessible to students functioning at the different levels. The training programme includes extended presentation of case studies and examples of good practice on how teachers can use ICT to face the particularities of the multigrade school environment. Teachers will be trained in order to facilitate positive group interaction and to teach social skills and

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independent learning skills to individual students. - Investment in the rural local society. Rural schools are important for the local society. The digital divide is a reality, investments have to be made to bridge the gap. The DIAS partnership has set as one of the main objectives of the proposed project to train teachers to become facilitators of social development of the rural community. This is strongly related on developing a training framework that will support teachers to obtain the role in the society that they should possess in the first place. The DIAS project aims at the preparation of the multigrade school teacher to become the facilitator of the transformation of the multigrade school to a core node in its community. The school as a community center serving as both a resource for life long learning development and as a vehicle for the delivery of wide range of services. School resources such as facilities, technology equipment, and well-trained professional staff could provide a range of educational and retraining opportunities for the community. The DIAS Consortium is comprised of different market stakeholders, each of them conveying its expertise and commitment for the successful delivery of an integrated solution in the conclusion of the project. Namely, OTE, the Greek incumbent operator, specifically focused in innovative telecom services, providing state-of-the-art technological solutions. University of, Aegean with extensive field-work in multigrade primary schools. Ellinogermaniki Agogi, specifically oriented to implement new technological approaches to education. Intracom, the software provider of educational platform MENTOR. HellasSAT, the greek satellite operator. Q-PLAN, focused in developing and implementing the DIAS handbook guide. The project started in the 1st of December 2003 and it will end in 31st of May 2005. It is an 18 months research project, with a round budget of 1 million Euro. The main issues addressed by DIAS approach, aiming to be answered are : - Greece has many isolated areas due to the geographical morphology of the country. Mountainous country with many scattered islands. - Information technologies are not widely accepted in education and internet penetration is low (11% for Greece). - There exist 2.5581 multigrade schools in Greece (43,5 % of all schools). - The teachers of multigrade schools are usually inexperienced and stay only for a year in this school. The main focus of the DIAS project is to deliver a unified solution for professional education to primary multigrade school teachers by developing an advanced learning environment. It includes the development of a training scheme specifically designed for multigrade primary school teachers. This encourages the teachers to overcome the difficulties caused by the fact that they have to use methods and implementing curricula in multigrade schools designed for mono-grade schools. 1 Data provided by University of Aegean

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The multigrade schoolteachers will be trained on multigrade teaching methodologies and instruction strategies so as to be able to meet the requirements and demands of high quality teaching throughout their career. Also, they are trained on the application of incentive-based strategies aiming at increasing the primary school completion levels and mainly they could act as facilitators of the local community development . Additionally, DIAS project will serve as a driving force in : 1. The development of a training scheme specifically designed for multigrade primary school teachers, based on the continuous interaction between theory and practice. 2. The familiarization of multigrade teachers with the use of new technologies and the new roles that are assigned to them in the new school practice. 3. The continuous evaluation of the training scheme and the adoption of a teacher centred approach in the training program's evolution. The technological approach of DIAS project, has four main elements; OTE's Digital Broadcast Platform, the Mentor software for content delivery, the usage of telecom existing infrastructure for the return channel and the IT infrastructure at school classes. The OTE Digital Broadcast Satellite (DBS) platform is operating on a commercial base 8 months now, through the satellite HOTBIRD 3 of the satellite organization EUTELSAT, at 13oE on transponder 74, at the frequency of 12188MHz

OTE premises (DVB Platform) The basic concept of Elearning software (MENTOR) is to deliver interactive computer-based training sessions through collaboration and content presentation tools, namely shared whiteboard, text editor, HTML browser, application sharing etc. In DIAS project, the main characteristics of elearning approach are : The instructor of each session has total control over the shared applications and resources of the system. He/she may allow participants to communicate with him/her or each other, access the shared applications or restrict them from doing so, should he/she believe it is necessary to do so. Synchronous and asynchronous training sessions and presentations. A real-time video stream is broadcast from the instructor's site to all participants and is visible to them at all times. The source of this stream can be a camera pointing to the instructor, or a VCR, or multimedia rich content. All students have the capability to submit their questions or comments, either by typing in the public chat utility or (should they obtain permission to do so) by speaking to their micro-

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phones and letting the platform broadcast their comments to all other participants.. Concluding, DIAS project with its strong partnership (diverse fields of expertise) conveys the promise of delivery the "real" service. With state-of-the art technology solutions that hopefully will "disappear" for the end-user and business considerations concerning the deployment of the service the DIAS Implementation Guide will serve as a practical handbook for all potential stakeholders.

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Usability Evaluation of the SensVest and SensBelt Systems James F. Knight1, Chris Baber1, Theodoros N. Arvanitis1, and Fotis Psomadelis2 1 Department of Electronic, Electrical & Computer Engineering, School of Engineering, The University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, United Kingdom 2 Fotis Psomadelis ANCO S.A. R&D Division, 44, Syngrou Avenues, 117 42, Athens, Greece

Abstract The SensBelt and SensVest are wearable devices designed as part of the Lab of Tomorrow project to house sensors that can measure and record physiological data that can be used by students in science lessons. The usability evaluation of these wearable systems has included an analysis of human error and wearability. By performing a comprehensive human error analysis of the activities carried out when setting up and using the systems the results have shown that there are no failures in design, such that severe errors are inevitable, and redesign is vital. The design of the SensBelt dramatically reduced the overall number of errors and the number of errors rated towards the higher end of the criticality scale. However, some design issues that would further reduce human error were highlighted, these include: belt and accelerometer placement and attachment, the connection of the modules to the belt, and the selection and application of appropriate settings at the workstation. Comfort rating results showed that the SensBelt is not an uncomfortable device to wear with no dimension scoring highly. The results also demonstrate that overall, the modifications made throughout the design process from the original SensVest to the SensBelt, have resulted in an improvement in wearer comfort.

A. Introduction The Lab of Tomorrow project is a European project with partners from Greece, Germany, Italy, Austria and England. The aim of the project is to measure scientific variables from everyday activities, which can be used as the basis of science lessons. The SensVest and

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SensBelt were designed and developed as part of the Lab of Tomorrow project. The aim was to develop a wearable system that would house sensors that could detect aspects of the wearer's physical state and transmit them to a computer. This data could be then be viewed and used by students. A review of the sensors used by physiologists and biomechanists when studying human physical performance indicated that a wearable system that measured heart rate and body temperature would be appropriate in terms of assessing variables related to energy expenditure, and accelerometers could be used for assessing aspects of movement. Incorporating these sensors, as well as the technology to transmit these data, into a wearable form that is reliable, comfortable and easy to use was the aim of the wearables aspect of the Lab of Tomorrow project. The University of Birmingham, UK developed the SensVest as part of the prototyping of the wearable device. The SensBelt was then developed by ANCO, Greece. The following sections report the stages undertaken during the prototyping stages, and reports the findings of aspects of the evaluation of the SensVest and SensBelt systems.

B. Design for wearability In terms of locating the technology on the body, as the device had to be worn while the wearer was engaged in physical activity, the concept of dynamic wearability (i.e. wearable when the body is in motion [1]) was of paramount importance. In addition, locating the technology on the body was somewhat bound by the restraints imposed by the sensors that had to generate reliable and useful data. As such, there were three main criteria set, when the issues of positioning and the method of attachment of the equipment on the body were discussed, these were: 1 the data from the sensors must be meaningful, 2 wearing the devices should not alter performance (i.e. movement), and 3 the device should be comfortable to wear. In addition, constraints on the design of the technology were such that it should be reliable, easy to use and above all safe to use and wear. Figure 1. shows three designs of the garment developed for the SensVest and figure 2 shows two designs of the technology developed for the SensVest. The first design of the SensVest involved housing a display, processor and signal-conditioning unit (Fig. 2, left) in a large zip fastening pocket over the chest, shoulders and upper back of a long sleeve sweatshirt (Fig 1, left). An accelerometer and pulse sensor were fed down the arm and attached to the wrist with tape. A body accelerometer was attached to the hip and held tight with an elastic strip.

SensVest 1

SensVest 2

Fig 1. Design of SensVest and SensBelt garments

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SensVest 3

SensBelt


The second design of the SensVest was based on a modified running vest (Fig 1, centre-left). This made it less bulky, lighter and cooler to wear than the original. Modifications to the technology meant that the display could be detached from the processor after recording had been initiated. The devices on the back were housed in pockets sewn onto the shirt and the shirt could be pulled tight to the body using adjustable Velcro straps. The third SensVest design (Fig 1, centre-right) was constructed based on anthropometric data to ensure that the majority of 16-year-olds could wear it. A redesign of the SensVest technology involved incorporating the processor, signal-conditioning unit and the display into one unit, which was powered from a detachable rechargeable power supply (Fig 2, centre). These units fitted into pockets on the upper-back shoulder region of the vest. There was also room for a communications unit, which would transmit the data to a host PC. With the finding that measuring heart rate from the pulse (by microphone, pressure sensor or plethysmography) was unreliable, the heart rate was measured using a Polar® heart rate monitor, the signal of which was detected by a LogIT receiver strapped to chest with the body-mounted accelerometer. A network of channels was sewn into the shirt, through which all the leads could pass. This had the benefit of concealing the wires so that they were not exposed to the potential risk of being caught on extraneous objects.

SensVest 1 and 2

SensVest 3

SensBelt

Fig 2. Evolution of SensVest and SensBelt electronics The SensBelt saw ANCO take over the manufacture of the wearable devices and with it came a radical redesign. A considerable reduction in size and weight of the electrical components meant that they could be worn around the waist, housed in a Velcro fastening belt (Fig 1 and 2, right). The SensBelt system still uses the polar heart rate monitor, but the receiver is housed in the belt. The accelerometers to the arm and leg are wireless and are held in place with Velcro fastening bracelets. A receiver for the accelerometer signal is housed in the belt, which is connected, along with a unit, which comprises the heart rate monitor receiver, body accelerometer and connector for the temperature sensor, to a communications unit, which transmits the data, wirelessly to the host PC.

C. Evaluation of the SensVest and SensBelt The evaluation of the SensVest and SensBelt has included two usability assessments. These assessments consider the wearability, in terms of comfort; and the setting up and using of the systems, in terms of a human error analysis.

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Comfort assessment of the SensVest and SensBelt The design of the SensVest and SensBelt has been an iterative process where adjustments and modifications have been made to improve the overall product. One of the criteria against which changes to the design have been made has been wearer comfort. The comfort assessment of the SensVest and SensBelt has involved using the comfort rating scales (CRSs). These scales were developed as part of the Lab of Tomorrow project, specifically to assess the comfort of wearable technology [2]; the intention being, that they would be used to assess the wearables developed on the project and determine the efficacy of any changes or modifications in design. The CRSs measure comfort across six dimensions (Emotion, Attachment, Harm, Perceived change, Movement and Anxiety) to gain a comprehensive assessment of the comfort status of the wearer of any item of technology. The CRSs run on a 20-point scale and require that the users rate their level of agreement from 'low' to 'high' to statements associated with each of the dimensions [2]. The comfort assessment of the three versions of the SensVest was made by between 7 and 10 students at the University of Birmingham. The comfort assessment of the SensBelt was carried out by 5 students in Dortmund and 4 in Belfast. To perform the rating each participant was requested to put on the device and carry out a range of activities, involving whole body movements and moving specific body segments, until they thought that they were able to make an informed judgement as to how comfortable they felt wearing the device.

Fig 3. Comfort of the SensVest and SensBelt Figure 3 shows the comfort assessment for the three versions of the SensVest and the SensBelt. For all versions of the technology the dimensions Harm and Anxiety scored low indicating that the devices were not painful to wear and that the participants were not worried about wearing them. Across the other dimensions there was a general decrease in comfort score across the iterations in design, indicating an improvement in wearer comfort. This was specifically true for the Attachment dimension, indicating that the wearers could feel the SensBelt less on their body than the SensVest.

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Usability through error analysis A failure mode, effects and criticality analysis (FMECA) is a tool often used in reliability engineering and safety engineering [3]. FMECA can be used to highlight potential user errors and the effects they may have. By considering these it may be possible to modify the design so that these errors are eradicated or reduced. FMECA is a methodical tool that goes through each stage in a system or process, identifying what failures can occur and determining the effect of the failure. This is done by ascertaining the likelihood that the failure and its effect will take place by rating the probability of the failure and its effect, the invisibility of the failure and its effect, and the recoverability of the failure. The likelihood is then multiplied by a rating of the severity of the effect. FMECA works by identifying all the ways that a component can fail and determines what effect this would have on the whole system. Here, the system under analysis is the whole process of setting up the equipment and collecting and recording data. The whole system includes the wearer, the device (SensVest or SensBelt), the network (radio communications), and the computer and software. The components are the individual steps taken to set up and use the devices to record useful data. In the SensVest and SensBelt FMECAs the analyses considered effects on three levels: 1. Data (i.e. quality and quantity), 2. Equipment (i.e. damage), and 3. Wearer (i.e. comfort).

Fig 4. FMECA data results

Fig 5. FMECA equipment results

Fig 6. FMECA wearer results The results of the FMECAs (figures 4-6) showed that for the SensVest and SensBelt there were no failures that rated so high that immediate redesign would be needed (i.e. errors with a FMECA score greater than 60).

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The data effects for the SensVest and the SensBelt show similar distributions (figure 4). However, their aetiology differed. For the SensVest, the higher scoring errors are due to having leads attaching the sensors and components together, and the calibration of the accelerometers before each use. These are not problems from the SensBelt. Instead, the higher rated failure modes for the SensBelt relate to the use of radio signals from the student set to the base station, belt assembly and attachment, and errors when inputting settings in the software. There was a considerable reduction in the number and magnitude of equipment (Figure 5) and wearer (Figure 6) errors between the SensVest and SensBelt. This is mainly due to the removal of leads attaching the sensors to the devices from the system. This reduces the likelihood of restricted movement and the chances that the wearable equipment will catch on extraneous objects. For wearer effects, a concern for the SensVest was that if the devices should become detached or dislodged from their pocket, although the likelihood is low, the severity is very high. However, the reduction in size and weight of the devices in the SensBelt means that this severity rating is considerably reduced.

E. Conclusions The evaluation of the SensVest and SensBelt has shown that throughout the iterative process of designing the wearable systems there has been a general improvement in wearability and usability in terms of reducing the potential for human error.

F. References [1] Gemperle, F., Kasabach, C., Stivoric, J., Bauer, M., Martin, R. (1998) Design for wearability. In The Second International Symposium on Wearable Computers, (pp116-122). Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer Society. [2] Knight, J. F., Baber, C., Schwirtz, A., Bristow. (2002). The comfort assessment of wearable computers. In The Sixth International Symposium on Wearable computers. (pp65-72). Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer Society [3] Bahr, N. J. (1997). System safety engineering and risk assessment: A practical approach. Taylor & Francis Ltd. London, UK.

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Tells - a facility for web-based, remote real time laboratory experiments Eamonn McQuade* University of Limerick, National Technological Park, Limerick, Ireland [email protected] Andro Rurua* University of Limerick, National Technological Park, Limerick, Ireland [email protected] Ann Joyce University of Limerick, National Technological Park, Limerick, Ireland

Abstract Laboratories, which are found in all engineering and science programs, are an essential part of the education experience. Not only do laboratories demonstrate course concepts and ideas and develop the laboratory skills of students, they also bring the course theory alive so students can see how unexpected events and natural phenomena affect real-world measurements and control. However, equipping a laboratory is a major expense and its maintenance can be difficult. Teaching assistants are required to set up the laboratory, instruct in the laboratory, and grade laboratory reports. These time-consuming and costly tasks result in relatively low laboratory equipment usage, especially considering that laboratories are available only when equipment and teaching assistants are both available. One approach to solve the problem is to use remote laboratories. Remote laboratories are becoming widely accepted in universities for providing distance education and for augmenting traditional laboratories. Emerging technology and the Internet allows implementing remote laboratories that is becoming more convenient to use and justifies the cost of setting up expensive laboratories.

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A. Introduction During the past year, working with a group of undergraduate students, we have been developing Tells, a Labview-web based facility for local and remote access to laboratory experiments. This facility enables lecturers to demonstrate real-time control of experiments in a lecture setting; provides local and remote students with opportunities to control experiments across the web at any time and is a powerful tool for the teaching and learning of Labview for simulation and control.

Fig. 1 Experimental modes Figure 1 illustrates the different experimental modes used including Tells. Hands-on experiments provide opportunities for reinforcing concepts, developing hands-on skills and the ability to explore the effects of parameter in real-time. Properly designed this is a very good approach for engineering and science learners. Simulated experiments provide opportunities for reinforcing concepts and exploring the effects of parameter changes and can include other teaching material and reinforcing commentary to help the learner. Tells, while not providing hands-on experiments in the sense of touching and feeling real equipment, does provide the other advantages of hands-on, real-time experiments and the reinforcing commentary available through simulated experiments. In this sense Tells sits in the middle ground below hands-on and simulated experiments. It provides a learning environment that integrates vision, sound, Labview programming and application with real-time experiments. Tells is being designed so that it can be integrated, as a facility, in an existing Learning Management System (LMS). The main goals of Tells - The provision of lectures augmented with real-time experiments and demonstrations to local and remote learners - The provision of remote and local learner access to real-time experiments on-line for 24 hours a day 7 days a week - Building on standard internet and PC technology and Labview

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In the past a strong feature of lectures was the demonstration of real experiments during the lecture to reinforce student learning by illustrating principles in action. Unfortunately, in many universities, the design and utilisation of lecturing rooms precludes this approach. However, increasingly lecture rooms are equipped with PC, projector and Internet connection. One aim of Tells is to provide the lecturer with the facility to demonstrate real-time experiments across the web so that, to some extent, students see theory applied in practice. This type of facility is particularly useful in subjects such as control engineering, robotics and many aspects of mechanical, aeronautical and general process engineering, for example. It is preferable to a video presentation in that it allows the students to suggest alternatives during the lecture and see the results of their choices directly. In this sense it makes the lecture a much richer and interactive learning environment. Fig. 2 Real-time experiments demonstrated by lecturer to local and remote learners A second aim of Tells is to extend the application of the facility to delivering lectures with demonstrations to remote learners through the web. Thus learners can have access to scheduled lectures as distance learning students or just for interest. In this way industry-based students can learn at their desks and take part in the interaction, with some limitations imposed by the technology. A third aim is to provide students with access to real-time experiments in their own time. This enables local, on-campus and remote students to carry out various tasks and to "play" with the experiments. Fig. 3 Real-time experimentation by local and remote learners on-line An issue of concern in the design of Tells is access control, scheduling and registration to avoid clashes between the various levels of users. The experiments need to be designed so that they are rugged, both theoretically and physically, in this rather demanding environment. This requires that the control

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programme at the experiment end needs careful design to trap out illegal parameter value, for example. In the design of Tells sound and vision are provided. The rationale for including audio is that in many control experiments, such as electrical drives, the sound of the experiment in action is an important feature that the students become aware of. It provides students with a real feel for the physical nature of the response of the process being controlled. In addition it allows for live commentary to be provided at the site of the experiment.

B. Conclusion The Tells system is a facility that enables communication between lecturers, laboratory experiments and students. It is implemented using standard, available hardware and software. It is a resource that can be applied in any experimental discipline where interaction with real-time experiments is a useful learning resource.

C. References 1. 2. 3.

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National Instruments web page www.ni.com for a wide range of applications and examples; "DistanceLearning Remote Laboratories using LabVIEW" Dervis Z. Deniz, Atilla Bulancak, Gokhan Ozcan, "A novel approach to remote laboratories"; 33rd ASEE/IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference, 2003 Harkin J, Callaghan MJ, McGinnity M, Maguire LP, (Jan 2002) "An Internet Based Remote Access Experimental Laboratory for Embedded Systems", Proceedings of IEE Engineering Education 2002, London, UK, Jan 3-4, Pages 18/1-18/6


Oriente - a Transnational Network on Evaluation on ICT in Education / Critical indicators of inno vative practices in ICT-supported learning

Dr. Mario Barajas (University of Barcelona-DOE, Spain) Friedrich Scheuermann (Institute for Future Studies, Innsbruck, Austria) Katerina Kikis (FORTH, IACM, Heraclion, Greece)

Abstract This presentation introduces to the ORIENTE network and presents an analysis done regarding the building of indicators of change in ICT-based learning. The analysis is grounded on a variety of projects funded by several EU programmes and Action plans. It concentrates mostly in the pedagogical factors involved in teaching and learning classroom interactions where different ICT arrangements are set, and in the organisational changes required. The identification of qualitative indicators of change facilitates the valorisation of innovative practices promoted or influenced by the use of learning technologies. New teachers and students roles, predominant patterns of interactions among teachers and students, attitudes of the school actors towards the use ICT, changes on the organisation of the classroom, and affective and socio-cultural factors influencing learning are, among other, some of the categories taken into account when analysing learning in rich ICT-based learning. The institutional changes triggered by ICT use, the organisational changes required as well as the attitudes of promoters and resisters to the adoption of innovation define the scenario in which learning innovations are taking place. The study shows that most of these categories are closely intertwined; qualitative indicators related to these categories are presented, showing trends on how the use of ICT promote innovative practices in the classroom, and in the organisation of learning as a whole. The analysis is essential for informing different stakeholders on the current state of affairs in educational practices, and sheds light to new approaches within the teacher training programs, course design, management and policy making, specially in the light of the spread of eLearning in Europe.

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1 About the network ORIENTE is a European network of researchers specialised in the evaluation of ongoing research tackling educational, institutional, organisational and symbolic aspects of new learning environments mediated by ICT. The network uses different approaches to evaluation, from cluster evaluation, case studies, using quantitative and qualitative methodologies, monitoring progress and appraising outcomes through both external assessment and participatory designs. The network is providing a platform for the exchange of information and communication on any kind of issues related to the use of educational technology and evaluation. ORIENTE is consisting of individual and institutional members from various European countries which are working in the networks professional domain. A Steering Committee is coordinating the network's activities, including the selection and participation of projects, which are funded on a national or European base. Such activities are presented in the section "Projects". These projects are either initiated by the partners of the network themselves or by other international institutions or organisations requesting cooperation in selected areas to which ORIENTE can provide expertise such as: - Evaluation activities of educational approaches and projects - Evaluation research - Pedagogical concepts for educational and learning with information and communication technologies and - technological impact assessment The ORIENTE network was coordinating and participating in several projects of the European Commission such as: - Implementation of Virtual Environments in Training and Education. A Thematic Network (Ivette). Programme Targeted Socio-Economic Research. 1998-2000 - Implementation of Virtual Environments in Training and Education-Workshop (Ivette-W). Programme Improving the Human Potential and the Socio-Economic Knowledge Base, Accompanying Measures. 2000-2001 - Monitoring and Evaluation of Research in Learning Innovations (Merlin). Programme Improving the Human Potential and the Socio-Economic Knowledge Base, Accompanying Measures. 2000-2002. - I-CURRICULUM (Programme Socrates-Minerva), 2002-2004. - Monitoring and Evaluation of Research in Learning Innovations (DELPHI). Elearning Action Plan. 2002-2004.

2 The DELPHI project A good example for the activities of the network is the project DELPHI. The overall objective of DELPHI is to capitalise on the results of a selection of projects in their different contexts, looking for approaches to innovation in projects where ICT play a key role in teaching

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and e-learning processes. The analysis focuses on the outcomes from EU projects of the 5th framework, programmes and actions IST, MINERVA and IHP. A key goal of DELPHI is the implementation of an Internet-based Observatory on learning innovation, to present and disseminate research work of EU funded projects, and to establish a Laboratory as an active networking promoter of researches and as a disseminator of learning innovations. Specifically, DELPHI intends to cluster a selected group of projects, looking for approaches to capitalise on the results of these projects in their different contexts, defining innovation settings where ICTs play a key role in teaching and learning processes. In order to help in the analysis, a series transversal research questions are posed for all projects: 1) What are the new methodological approaches to learning in technology-based learning scenarios and what is their efficiency? What are the new co-operative learning processes, cross-curricular skills and role changes configuring technology-based learning innovations? How effectiveness is considered in the different innovations analysed? 2) What are the consequences for organisations when introducing these new ways of learning, including European cross-cultural issues involved in the process? 3) What are the contributions of ICT to lifelong learning in terms of access to education and training? Does the introduction of ICT stimulate the dual society and thus social exclusion? In this regard the focus of analysis is on - pedagogic innovation -as an emergence of Community RTD activity - institutional/organizational innovation -as an emergence of Community RTD activity focused on the changing paradigms in learning/teaching - socio-cultural and socia-economic innovation - as a consequence of the knowledge base generated by the Community RTD supported actions in the area of "new learning approaches". The project's evaluation orientation was that of cluster evaluation1, a relatively recent evaluation approach. The project evaluative activity was operationalized on the basis of the CIPP evaluation model (Stufflebeam, 2000) as it provides an appropriate framework for the structuring of the projects and clustered components assessment and evaluation. The Model has been chosen due to its strength to identify policy implications at various levels of project activity. Furthermore, the approach is appropriate to evaluate socio-economic concerns, as integrated in its frame, is the in depth review of contextual elements.

1 The label "cluster evaluation" was first used in 1988 by Dr. Ronald Richard, director of evaluation for the Kellogg Foundation at that time. Cluster evaluation is one kind of programme evaluation. As J.R. Sanders states "It is evaluation of program that has projects in multiple sites aimed at bringing about a common general change … Each project develops its own strategy, to accomplish the program goal, uses its own human and fiscal resources to carry out its plans and has its own context" (Sanders, 1997).

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3 Indicators of change Through an iterative process (analysis review, and validation by experts in the area of innovation in education) DELPHI came about with a set of indicators which point out to key traits of projects in the areas studied. The indicators found in DELPHI portray then relevant changes of ICT-based learning that are present in the projects clustered. The definition of the indicators is implicit on the description done below. According to Dale (1998) indicators can be defined as ‘a brief and concise expression about a phenomenon that is studied, used as an approximation of the phenomenon’. They are useful for evaluation progress and, are often proxies for changes taking place. Dealing with a difficult programme that looks at the study of innovations promoted when using ICT tools is a task, which is not without danger. We are usually familiar with quantitative indicators for monitoring progress and evaluating programmes. These indicators could help us to assess progress, to make comparisons across countries, time, etc. But, when we deal with emergent innovations, we are in a territory of uncertainty. Emergent innovations, given its not very well defined characteristics, need for indicators of change of other matter. Qualitative indicators might define phenomena that occur in learning innovations, pointing out to the main dimensions of change. They might not be generalizable, but they would shape the innovations by embodying them with characteristics that could be found in similar innovations that occur in the same or in similar contexts. On the other hand, the fact that we are able to describe indicators of learning innovations, do not necessarily mean that the changes indicators point out are in this case, a cause-effect result of the use of ICT. Causality is the result of many factors and requires a rather in depth and focused study. Through an iterative process (analysis review, and validation by experts in the area of innovation in education) DELPHI came about with a set of indicators which point out to key traits of projects in the areas studied. Our purpose was not to try to generalise these indicators to all educational contexts and sectors in which ICT use is present, but to shed light to innovative characteristics found in ICT-based learning innovations. Likewise, DELPHI does not uphold a cause-effect relation that is that the changes the indicators have recorded are a result of the projects. The indicators recorded in DELPHI portray relevant changes of ICTbased learning that are present in the projects clustered. It should be noted that while DELPHI is well aware of the close relation between pedagogic, institutional and socio-economic and culture factors in shaping ICT based innovation, the focus of this article is mainly on the pedagogical dimensions. The indicators of change outlined in the section that follows pertain mainly the pedagogical dimensions and sub-dimensions and correspond to the findings of the analysed learning innovations. Having this in mind, we will outline in the following section the main qualitative indicators found in each of the dimensions investigated which correspond to the areas analysed.

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4. Pedagogical, organisational and socio-economic dimen sions affecting learning in ICT learning environments. Critical indicators 4.1 Predominant Teacher roles While new pedagogical strategies and ICT-supported learning are closely linked in most of the experiences, it is not clear which of the two triggers innovation in the classroom. The teacher roles identified in the projects are not all innovative or a direct consequence of, but in some way they emerge from a new understanding of the role of the teacher in promoting innovations in ICT-learning settings. It is generally recognised that the roles assumed by teachers are information transmission, leading students' actions, knowledge of fixed and precise contents which are capable of being attained by students. How are these roles changed? Linked to the use of the Web and other multimedia resources, in most of the ICT based learning settings, the role of the teacher as the "knowledge" authority or as the transmitter of knowledge is in danger when using extensively sources of information different than of the teacher, or changing the traditional roles of the teacher. The teachers acted more as learning guides: : "When I used Internet and multimedia, I had to change my teaching style; but colleagues who wanted to keep their traditional style, they just quit". The predominant roles identified are: Teacher as learner in the classroom: This is based on statements found in projects of the kind “quite often roles had been exchanged between teachers and some of their students, especially in case the later ones had been more experienced in using the brand new technology”. Such a collaborative approach leads to the acquisition of ICT competence by both actors. Teachers as tutor: among the many roles supporting the learning process, the tutoring role is one widely recognised. The tutor's role is not just the subject matter expert facilitates learning activities, solves doubts, updates the contents. For instance, in online discussions the tutor facilitates the communication, and it is possible to distinguish one or some tutor roles: - The tutor as modeller, which implies someone who stimulated the learner by creating materials and situations for active learning. - The tutor as coach, consultant, referee, assessor and 'helpline'. - The tutor as scaffold. This role is more of a guide and monitor, bringing parties together as manager, provider or broker. Teacher as collaborator of students: there are many ICT-based activities in which projectbased learning is the pedagogical strategy. In such activities teachers tend to participate as peers together with the students.

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Teacher as developer: Teacher develops learning materials mainly in electronic format, or provides input to professional developers. Teacher as researcher: there is a trend in teachers' professional development that promote the view of the teacher as a researcher of his/her own educational experiences as a way to reflect and internalise the innovations promoted in the classroom. As ICT tools and products are involved in many classroom innovations, teachers alone, or as partner of researchers in educational research are able to use the research outcomes to help with planning and improving pupils' learning experiences with ICT, and to make them appropriate to their needs within the curriculum framework of the school. Teacher as lifelong ICT trainee: ICT literacy is the first step in the professional development of the teachers. Teachers involved in innovations of any kind, and particularly in innovations using ICT get more easily involved in retraining in both pedagogical and technical innovations. Teacher as a member of a team of teachers: In distributed e-Classrooms teachers are more "members of a team of teachers" rather than acting on the individual bases. This is due to the complexity involved in collaborative courses, as the international ones or other types of distributed learning arrangements. 4.2 Predominant Student roles Teachers and students' roles are interdependent. If the role of the teacher is of moderator, tutor, etc, learners need to become self-reliant, active searchers for relevant information. The role of a self-reliant student is connected then to a less directed role of the teacher. This raised the level of students' responsibility in learning. The roles of students appear to depend on: a) the pedagogical approach used in classroom, b) the context but specifically on the roles played by the teacher, and c) the classroom peers. Some of the roles identified include: Student as teacher: Social and active learning can be encouraged by the use of ICT and new pedagogical concepts enable students taking the role of the teacher to be more actively integrated in the teaching/learning process. Student as collaborator: students collaborate with other students and the teacher in projectbased educational activities. This is particularly important in e-learning Student as co-operator: students cooperate in team work where (s)he may undertake various team roles (for example leader, expert, moderator, affective supporter, record keeper etc). In general students tend to gain a more active, motivated, deep & self-regulated learning role. Collaborative rather individual learning tend to occur. Teachers tend to move from a traditional role toward one of a "learning facilitator". Nevertheless, these changes tend to be restricted to learning situations which employ ICT-based "open" applications, as interactive educational programs, use of Internet as an information resource, etc.

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4.3 Teacher-student and student-student interactions The significant changes in interaction among the actors of learning are linked to the changing roles of teachers and students. Team work strategies are crucial not only for the studentstudent relationship but for the teacher-student interaction. ICT-based learning requires a modification of the conventional pedagogic triangle -learner, trainer, content. This is connected to the constructivist pedagogical approach embedded in the strategies adopted in ICT based learning. It appears that interactions among teachers and pupils shift from the traditional logo-centric, teacher-oriented interactions towards informal, exploratory and meaning making negotiation discourse. For students ICT tools are sometimes tools of personal interaction, more than productivity and information exchange tools. A rich ICT learning environment using telecommunications is seen as a catalyst for the generation of communicative learning processes and the adoption of a social mode of thinking. The establishment of interactivity among tutors of learners is being agreed of crucial importance for the success of the learning experiences, no matter are one-to-one (individual learning) or one-to-many (learning in group). In online learning we have identified the following indicators: Online community of learning: the interactions based in the model of the online community of learning are strongly supported by ICT tools. Considerations about the type of communication should be taken into account at the time of studying the interactions: one-direction or bi-directional, communication synchronous or asynchronous, spread geographically or not, one-to-one, small or large groups, moderated or unmoderated, etc. Nevertheless, interactions among learning actors distributed geographically in large groups hold important organizational problems. Online free interactions: free interactions and relatively unstructured discussions amongst the group of learners on the different sites are common in teleconferences, but less in videoconferences. In these environments interactions seems to be richer than in face-to-face learning, if the pedagogical model is transmission-based interaction is less direct than in in-class learning, and possibilities for intervening are less than in traditional educational environments. Limitations of written-based communication: There are other drawbacks in online learning. Communication is currently done mainly by writing. Writing poses many limitations since the style of writing tends to be minimalist the choice of words get a different weight. This can lead to misinterpretations which trigger unforeseeable emotional reactions. 4.4 Information utilisation strategies Role of information in learning: Learning with ICT tends to involve an active role of information. There is tension in the way information is perceived and used, i.e. information as an object versus information as a questionable source and as a means to communicate. This is

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reflected in several learning strategies according to different tasks. Information seeking behaviours: there are emergent patterns of information seeking strategies using different ICT tools (mainly Internet), as for instance identification of needed information, selective search of information, "exploratory surfing" (to find non-previewed information; selection of founded information (by evaluating its relevance); relation of selected information with other information (in a context/net); transformation of acquired information and elaboration of new information; discussion with colleagues and teachers about selected information and about the gathering process; appliance of information acquired. 4.5 Changes in the organisation of the classroom environment In general learning innovations challenge the teaching function and school culture. One of the most significant changes concerns the ways the organisation of the classroom is affected. The changes in the teacher and students' roles and in interactions as a result of using ICT affect classroom organization as a whole. The teachers are required to adapt to these contextual changes. Changes are also connected to the epistemological view of the learning subject, to the learning strategy as are to the organizational institutional matters. Change of organization in the classroom appears to be caused by the combined effect of the media and the approach applied to the teaching of the subject matter, by placing emphasis on the learning processes rather than the outcomes, and on social learning rather than individual learning. The most evident indicators include: - Flexible organization of learning spaces - Flexible class timetable - Local virtual classroom - Virtual-centralised-classroom, - Virtual distributed classroom 4.6 Pedagogical strategies The main pedagogical strategies implied in most of the experiences are linked to cognitivism and constructivism paradigms. According to cognitivism learning is the process in which the learner acquires a proper understanding of the problem space; instruction consists of activities designed to facilitate the acquisition of the correct representation of knowledge by the learner. For constructivists, knowledge is considered to be distributed but constructed individually; the focus is on the development of a suitable environment for acquiring knowledge rather than for its transfer. No major findings in this parameter. Within such a conceptual frame observed have been: - Collaborative learning

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- Project-based work - Self-learning - Communicative approaches to learning 4.7 Cognitive aspects of learning This parameter, central to the research themes reviewed, required special attention in DELPHI's subsequent review phases both in terms of outcomes and methodological considerations made by the projects to allow for the emergence of evidence regarding the effectiveness of ICT in the learning process. It is the view of the research team that while the issue has been considered in the projects reviewed, it has not been investigated in depth, so as to give conclusive results. What does become clear is that there is a strong relationship between "how ICT is used" and cognitive changes in learning. Either implicitly or explicitly stated in the results section of the project cases documentation are other indicators of interest to this theme, these include: Knowledge representation. Exploitation of alternative forms of knowledge representation and less dependency on verbal expression, as for instance concept mapping. Socio-cultural aspects of cognition: socio-cultural aspects of cognition are those that emerge as a result of the changing roles and interaction patterns. For instance, in videoconferencing an interesting finding is that in discussions distance reduce the fear about speaking in one's mind. Cognitive strategies: cognitive strategies used in ICT, as for instance open and scaffolding access to information, self-regulation strategies, etc. Epistemological beliefs: beliefs about how knowledge is influenced by the use of ICT 4.8 Attitudes of teachers, students and trainers towards ICT Teachers' attitudes towards ICT are connected to socio-cultural, professional and technological barriers (national learning patrimony). It is not only a matter of individual attitude, but social, professional and personal attitude. Students conceptions of learning with ICT: Attitudes towards ICT depend on students conceptions of learning with ICT: It was found that students representations of ICT can be organised in a hierarchical way, stemming from a "quantitative conception" (ICT as a way for acquiring or applying knowledge) to a "qualitative one" (ICT as a way of comprehending knowledge). Moreover ICT is also represented as enhancing motivation, reducing information overload, speeding learning, improving computer literacy and a way of getting good grades. With ICT the learning process is seen mainly as an active-collaborative one which involves phases (i.e. screening; selecting; deepening).

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Attitude of teachers towards ICT appear to be depended on the four following indicators: Attitudes towards computers. There is a strong component of teacher awareness for demonstrating in front of the students to have a compelling media competence. Teachers could be uncomfortable students noticing that might fail when using the tools, and this a result that repeats heavily in all the environments in which the teacher plays very directive roles. Teachers are also aware of having abilities enough to produce leaning materials using ICT tools. Serious shortage of these abilities might produce as a consequence that teachers won't feel sure with respect t its use. Finally teachers appreciate the aspect that of products enhance pupils' motivation and partly collaboration and that these products can be used in a variety of different ways. We could barely find mentions about attitudes of administrators towards ICT, which looks a promising area for further research. It has been mentioned in some experiences that attitudes towards ICT-based ODL varies and are connected apparently with cultural differences: Inhabitants of Northern and Western European countries show a significant preference for study with computers than students and professionals from Southern and Central/Eastern European countries). Nevertheless the importance and weight of the facts need o be further contrasted and investigated. Positive attitudes towards the role ICT play in teaching. There is trend on ICT tools been integrated into the regular courses. Teachers appreciated that ICT utilisation strongly refer to course syllabus, and teachers appreciate that these multimedia and online materials can be used in a variety of different ways while enhance pupils' motivation. Generally speaking, teachers and students alike develop positive attitudes, via engagement with ICT tools and products. But, tools which are not seen as delivering sufficient value, or that take too long to do so, tend to be rejected. Tools which offer something unique but important, and do so without taking too much time, stand a better chance of acceptance. Negative attitudes towards the role ICT play in teaching. For many academic staff there is a negative attitude towards online learning as compared to face-to-face interaction; virtual learning represents a drastic departure from prevailing practice that it's incongruous with their understanding of the essential nature of teaching and learning. Other negative attitudes against ICT range from the traditional technophobic presumptions against technology based in wrong dilemmas about the effects of technology in the learning processes, to the socioeconomic effects of ICT in the employability of staff, as for instance the fear of replacing traditional teaching and teachers by ICT tools. Attitudes towards ICT facilitating learning and engage students. Teachers experience concerning planning, implementation and evaluation of the use of ICT in class are strongly referred to the course syllabus and teachers appreciate the aspect that of products enhance pupils' motivation and partly collaboration and that these products can be used in a variety of different ways. Attitudes of students vary and are heavily dependent on the organisation of experiences and on the functioning of the tools. There are examples on how attitudes of students would dramatically change if these two conditions are not met. Attitude of teachers towards ICT innovations according to the main focus of the insti-

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tutions. There may be a difference in attitude in teachers towards ICT innovations according to the main focus of the institutions in which they work. For instance, in the case of universities the institution is looking for prestige through research in teaching, the attitude towards VLE can be positive since many of the innovations in teaching are connected in different ways with the use of ICT. 4.9 Affective factors found in learning innovations with ICT The documentation analysed did not provide us with evidence on the affective level and thus it was difficult to draw up a complete set of indicators. The ones that could be identified include: Teachers professional identity. For teachers, many of the affective factors that influence the use of ICT are very much connected to their professional identity. If the professional identity changes as a result of the needs of the use of ICT and of the new learning approaches used, their professional identity shakes. Teacher identity is personally and socially built, and it is difficult to change. Given this view, it is easy to understand that teachers do not appear confident with respect to mastering knowledge and its classroom application, and that they are concerned that society will not comprehend their new role, for which they wish to be respected. Even if teachers are motivated and willing to apply ICT-based innovations, they confront with the need to reconstructing their own view for themselves as what it means to be a teacher. Working habits: Teachers have limited time to engage in innovations using ICT, so they need to be supported by the institutions at all levels. Furthermore, teachers do have regular working habits that can change as a result of an innovation. A general trend observed is that of teachers adjusting activities to their traditional working habits. Learning motivation. Compared to traditional learning situations, students, when learning with ICT, seem to display better levels of motivation and personal sense of competence. They are especially motivated by multimedia; contents, connectedness; freedom of choice on subjects and navigation; familiar contents; autonomous-collaborative learning; and positive competition. Furthermore, the support of the teachers is seen as very motivating by the students. 4.10 Institutional factors affecting Learning innovations in institutions The issue of institutional change is of crucial importance to the success of any innovation. Institutional change affects staff and managers. Discussion on on-going institutional factors on a wider scale deal with funding needed for ICT infrastructure, collaboration among actors, and an adequate implementation of ICT applications. In this section we outline the most prevalent indicators of change in this area. Culture of collaboration. The impact of ICT is greater when a community of teachers is working together. Many schools work isolated, and there isn't spontaneous collaboration; collaboration promoted by a project in these cases end when the project finished; A case presented by a participant shows that the pressure came from the project managers, since there

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was not a culture of collaboration, of working together. In this situation it is easy the innovations fail. The use of ICT at school introduces the idea of opening the school context by widening the potential interlocutors for students and for teachers. An increasing communication need is foreseen between schools and families and in connecting schools in networks so that the teaching practice is not a "private" situation but is explicated and disseminated in a more explicit way. Flexibility of Curriculum: In many countries the certain curricula are very tight and stuffed with loads of information to be learned. Teachers complain about the amount of content of the curriculum and this fact does not allow them to use innovative forms of teaching and learning within the classroom. They state, that working with computers needs much more time than with common teaching & learning tools. Teachers would appreciate a less tight and less stuffed but more flexible and interdisciplinary curriculum which allows them to foster more deep approaches to learning. However what were often unsatisfying were the difficulties that occurred when asked to understand Internet usage as regular activity that would take place as part of regular classes instead of project weeks. ICT as a window of opportunities. Institutions are usually positive towards the implementation of ICT in the educational establishments. The changes should, nevertheless, be consider neither positive nor negative, but as windows of opportunities for institutions. For instance in the implementation of online learning factors that are considered positive towards full integration in higher education institutions are: - cost-effectiveness: Online learning is a cost-effective way to bring people together without the cost and time-commitments of travel - wider access: Online learning allows to reach large number of people simultaneously and geographically distributed Institutional barriers. There are many barriers to the use of ICT in schools and in other educational establishments -e.g., full access to computing facilities and to the Internet; teachers still suffer from a lack of training and need time to adjust to, and to fully understand the implications of ICT in educational contexts; ICT products need planning before entering the classroom. Teachers still suffer from a lack of personnel preparedness and confidence. It is prominent the resistance to change by the institution's faculty members; they need time to adjust to and absorb the implications of ICT in educational contexts. Another barrier is staff recognition. Currently, the participation of teachers in research activities, as it was done in some projects, has not acknowledgement within the social organisation of school culture.

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4.11 Organisational factors affecting Learning innovations in institutions The organisational conditions of ICT innovations are clearly linked to the institutional situation and changes produced by the implementation of the experiences. At the end an ideal situation would be that the organisational conditions were the less disruptive but effective of the regular day-to-day of the institution, and that innovations were fully adopted by doing the necessary changes inside the institution. A fully embedded innovation within on-going institutional interventions is one that could be considered as successful. Indicators of change here include: - School organisation - Organisation of context of collaboration - Open curriculum 4.12 Staff training and its relation to ICT-based learning innovation Staff training is crucial for the success of innovative approaches using ICT. Teachers need to become acquainted with new methods, to get a full understanding of the educational functionality of technological tools, to become confident in managing the various components of the tasks, while regulate their expectations in order to avoid frustration. General approaches to staff training. Training and new qualifications for teachers and trainers and other participants are absolutely necessary. General approaches pointed out in the cases include the need for: - Staff training awareness-raising type. Many of the lecturers are not happy with the traditional classroom methods. - time allocations for training - online sufficient support provisions for applying the concept in the classroom - training depending on teachers' experience novice, inter-mediate and expert levels - usage of natural settings for training: on-the-job training in the sense of learning by doing and applying the new knowledge in real learning situations - training prior to the introduction/implementation of the innovation in the classroom to avoid frustration of both teachers and students - Training organized on the bases of teamwork so as to allow teachers to talk about their experience and reflect the advantages and/or disadvantages of the Internetmethod for school learning. ICT-based teaching competencies: A set of basic teaching competencies are at the heart of the need for training. Among others this are some of the required ICT-based teaching competencies: - Understanding the learning potential of educational multimedia and telecommunica-

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tions tools, critically assessing advantages and disadvantages. - Practicing ICT teaching and learning strategies: independent responsibility for learning, differentiation of teaching according to audience, process-oriented work, problem-oriented work. - Understanding constructivism, action learning and situated learning, use of students experiences from everyday life. - curriculum design, looking at cross-curricular approaches and holistic learning mix classes - Management skills: information-management (becoming a facilitator), time-management and group-management (co-operative/team learning strategies). An example of the training skills and qualifications in the field of online learning is seen in the table below: Qualifications necessary for teachers/tutors in online learning - knowledge and understanding of the philosophy of distance education. - Mastering of different virtual teaching and learning software - Communication skills with students and with colleagues

Skills for teachers/tutors for online discussions - How to manage anonymity and establishment of a learning community atmosphere - how to motivate and keep the motivation of learners high; how to avoid student frustrations

- Time management for fast and proper reaction

- how to establish and maintain interaction among students, teacher/students and user/system,

- organization strategies of virtual classrooms

- how to moderate discussions.

- ability to work in inter-disciplinary teams

- How to solve communication conflicts

4.13 Efficiency and effectiveness of ICT-based learning innovations Efficiency and effectiveness of ICT-based innovations was underrepresented in the projects analysed. Furthermore, for understandable reasons, projects were very conscious in discussing the issue under concern. Among the issues that appear to require attention from the policy and research community in the future are: Efficiency of virtual learning. Particularly in the case of efficiency of virtual learning has been considered in some cases in terms of:

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- careful spending of means - keep organisation, administration and technical efforts at a minimum - use synergies Effectiveness of virtual learning. Effectiveness of virtual learning hold some characteristics: - good learning results - the best ratio between time spent on preparing the teaching and time needed for learning 4.14 Sustainability and scalability of innovations Constraints to sustainability. The school sector is resistant to sustain ICT-based innovations due to institutional, organisational, hardware availability and staff-related factors (lack of teachers' training). There is a very different situation if sustainability entails an individual or been part of the teachers' (and students') practices or at the level of the whole institution. The participation of schools in a research project does not involve any activity once the research if off. Schools and teachers are not supported anymore and the innovative practice introduced by the project can hardly be continued or reproduced without any sustain in facing with all the boundaries teachers can meet within school organisation. If we want teachers and school directors (when possible) to act as professionals we need to include teachers in the research teams. In general, thee are serious doubts about sustainability of individual projects. Furthermore, since technology changes so rapidly, we can barely measure sustainability by how the innovations become adopted by the institution, but how these innovations are able to adapt to or keep pace with technological changes. Sustainability might then be vicarious of further technological and social trends. Sustainability of online learning. Many think that scalability and sustainability are a matter of economics. For instance online learning in order to be sustainable should be profitable. There is a long term feeling that VLEs may either provide new sources of income or reduce current costs. It seems that at the current level of development of virtual learning, postgraduate and further education have more chances of been sustainable. The concern is about quality, since institutions are just adapting and packaging face-to-face courses and changing the delivery system Support strategies for sustainability. The main issue raised on this concern deals with the idea that innovation can be introduced in institutions if a supporting network of activities are planned and if the didactic activities are consistent with regular school practice planned by teachers. There are different strategies according to sectors. In schools the approach of one of the projects at regional and local level was to contact the educational authorities from the very beginning of the projects.

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Institutional factors affecting sustainability. Other institutional factors affect the potential of innovation sustain under many respects: - Organisational aspects often do not allow the establishment of innovative pedagogical practices (the management of time, space and social boundaries for introducing new didactical practice is often problematic. Schools seem to be a not-flexible organisation). - The space for innovation within the curricula is not always recognisable (especially when teachers have to deal with individual assessment while running cooperative projects). AS with respect to scalability we found little information on projects to the point that we could barely find indicators. Scalability is definitely an area for further research. A key reflection present in the research was the extent and scalability of innovations in general. One important doubt that is always present in all kinds of innovations is if they are applicable to the whole population, or if we intend to be. ICT-based learning innovations are not an exception. As we saw, sustainability and scalability are very much related. In reality only if the projects produce commercial outcomes, there is a possibility for scalability.

5 Conclusions The analysis and reflections carried out in this research aimed at giving responses to a set of questions of transversal nature, which reflect in themselves components of the socio-economic research in the area of ICT-based learning, which should be taken into account in future eLearning activities. The first question is of methodological nature in that it concerns itself with approaches to learning in ICT-based learning settings. A reflection on the results presented above suggests a clear cut approach greatly influenced by organizational and financial aspects, at the school level the effectiveness of the methodology is dependent on the extend to which the didactic activities are consistent with the regular school practices planned by the teachers or school mission in case such elaboration exists. The research can not define a single methodological approach for the multiplicity of the educational settings and learning scenarios where attempted is the use of technology to optimize learning efficiency. In a matter of fact it is still not clear whether it is the pedagogical practice or the ICT support that triggers innovations. One can however describe the progressive shift from traditional paradigms to ones integrating rich ICT-based learning environments. In the later case the shift is towards more collaborative and participative forms of learning which in themselves dictate changes in the interaction process of the educational actors and educational resources. In the case of the tertiary level of education it appears that the interaction of learning resources (human resources included) is stronger than is in the case of

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lower levels of education where the task assigned is mediated by the teacher and therefore takes precedence over content and interaction with resources. The results at hand give little evidence regarding efficiency of the learning process. Instead the results are rather indicative regarding effectiveness of motivation. Students appear to display higher levels of motivation and personal sense of competence when working with ICT. This is related to the concept of self reliance reflected in the expression of roles in the emerging (ICT-based) learning paradigms. It is well documented that students are motivated by multimedia contents; connectedness; freedom of choice of subjects and navigation processes; familiarity of contents; autonomous-collaborative learning and "positive"-not grade dependent, competition. The changing role of the teacher still constitutes another motivational factor. In any case the results at hand suffice for one to conclude that in ICT-based learning the interaction implied in the conventional pedagogical triangle are affected moving towards informal, explorative and measuring making discourse building. In such a learning environment the function and roles of actors take new forms. It appears that cross-curricular skills take precedence over domain based pieces of knowledge. While DELPHI did not elaborate on the information utilization strategies implied in the work of the projects reviewed, the results of the analysis done suggests that learning with ICT tends to involve an active role of information in learning. ICT tools provided to students appear to be perceived more as tools for personal interaction than tools for "productivity" and information exchange. A rich ICT learning environment using telecommunications is seen as an catalyst for the generation of communicative learning processes and tools for the adoption of a social mode of thinking. At a first glance the teachers' roles identified in the projects reviewed do not appear to be at all innovative as a direct consequence of ICT usage. Instead change in the role/function of the teacher emerges from a new understanding of the role he/she comes to play in promoting innovation in ICT-based learning settings. In other words it is the interplay between the innovation and the perceived role that shapes the new support provisions required in technology based learning. The role of the teachers is shifting from an agent for information transmission and designer and leader of student activities to a support agent. This requires a definitive change in the perception of the function teachers play in the process of learning which in turn dictates the development of skills and attitudes that allow for flexibility in their own learning and teaching style. Teachers functioning in ICT environment need to reflect on themselves as learners, as teacher guiding takes multiple forms (modeler, coach, scaffold). In terms of planning the learning activity teachers are transformed to collaborators of students and are called to play roles of content developers as well as researchers. In terms of the learner he/she takes a more active and self-reliant role in the process of learning as the scope and tools for interaction are provided to him/her. In ICT environments students can play roles traditionally executed by the teacher, of the collaborator and co-operator. It should be noted here that the adoption of such roles by students are restricted to situations where employed are "open" ICT-based applications, and in no way should it be generalized to be applicable to all technology based learning situations.

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6. Recommendations - Call for continued socio-economic research on ICT in education We suggest specific issues that need to be further explored (micro-level) when studying learning innovations mediated by ICT, but we also propose several broad areas that might need a more strategic approach to the research to be undertaken. 6.1 Micro-level research recommendation - Attitudes towards the use of ICT We usually look at early adopters of innovations, but we need to know more about the attitudes of people that step behind the innovation processes. Also, there has been mentioned differences in attitudes when comparing geographic areas in the EU. We suggest to look thoroughly at this factor through comparative research in the near future. This might shed light to an issue for EU future research policy in this area. - Intercultural differences Interesting would be to support studies for developing pedagogy for learning in the knowledge society with focus on the management of cross-cultural and linguistic issues in the framework of an European education space (e.g. transregional/transnational joint courses and/or learning materials development, transnational - eventually joint-student support, transnational collaborative learning, layered approaches of learning platforms, etc.). - Cognitive and affective factors It would be interesting to support research that pays attention to the emotional aspects of learning rich ICT-based learning environments, as for instance those of e-learning type. Interesting problems are those related to the extend to which social and learning skills, selfmanaging skills, and other meta-cognitive capabilities are developed. - New teaching competences Studies in emerging new competences, skills and meta-skills of teachers, tutors and lecturers (as well as managers) for reach ICT-based learning environments: from general skills to specific ones.

6.2 Macro-level research recommendations - Institutionalisation of learning innovations Longitudinal projects dealing with long duration innovations (or with several innovations taking place in particular institutions) should be welcome. This will offer also good insights with respect to sustainability and expansion of ICT innovations within the institutions.

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- Equity, exclusion and gender Fundamental questions to ask are: - How handle new forms of exclusion as a consequence of electronic transmission and access to information? - What are the pedagogical aspects than inhibit /promote social exclusion? - Lifelong learning and ICT We need studies that make the rhetoric of European Life Long Learning more concrete by i) bridging the gap between theory and practice across the different sectors (and different 'patrimonies') of learning; ii) develop a definitive evidence base on 'what works, for whom and under what conditions', with particular regard to the use of virtual learning (e-Learning) in education and training; iii) consolidating knowledge on new ways social inclusion (e-inclusion) and integrating more effectively social inclusion policies with education and training policies. - Long-term learning effects We need to undertake longitudinal studies (long-term study) of the learning effects arising from learning with ICT (as for instance learning in new scenarios combining face-to-face and virtual learning): changing habits of study, new assessment components, long-term teaching effects, promotion of the notion of "classroom observatory" type of activities, etc.

7. Final remarks We tried to present here some of ORIENTE's activities undertaken and results of the DELPHI project funded by the EU-eLearning Action Plan. Further information on the projects can be obtained at: http://www.ub.es/euelearning or the ORIENTE web-site: http://www.oriente.info. Every institution or person is invited to participate in ORIENTE's activities by becoming member of the network.

References Dale, R. (1998) Evaluation Frameworks for Development Programmes and Projects. Sage: New Delhi, p. 132 European Commission (1995). Targeted Socio-economic Research. Work Programme (1994-1998). Brussels. Sanders J. Cluster Evaluation In: Chelimsky E, Shadish W R. (Eds.) Evaluation for the 21 st Century. A Handbook. London: Sage publications, 1997 pp 396-404 Stufflebeam, D.L. (2000). The CIPP model for evaluation. In D.L. Stufflebeam, G. F. Madaus, & T. Kellaghan, (Eds.), Evaluation models (2nd ed.). (Chapter 16). Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

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An Evaluation of the Design and Development of a Virtual Learning Environment (VLE) for Engineering Students. Cathal McHugo*, Timothy Hall, John Horgan, Kevin Johnson and Kimon Karras. University of Limerick, ECE Department, Castletroy, Limerick, Ireland. 00353 87 2556670 [email protected] University of Limerick, ECE Department, Castletroy, Limerick, Ireland. 00353 61 202294 [email protected] Mid Western Lifts, 5A Docklands Business Park, Dock Road, Limerick, Ireland. 00353 61 400123 [email protected] University of Limerick, ECE Department, Castletroy, Limerick, Ireland. n/a [email protected] TEI of Piraeus, Computer Systems Engineering Department, 250 Thivon & P.Ralli Street, Athens, Greece. +032105381127 [email protected]

Abstract Universities are facing challenging times in today's world of education. Many factors are causing this change such as rising costs in education, changing student demographics, a global audience of students, overcrowding, faculty shortages, and the new digital technologies. One of the key challenges facing educators is the redevelopment and implementation of traditional courses using this new digital technology. It is hoped that this new digital technology will both improve the pedagogical approach and increase the flexibility of course delivery. This paper outlines the design and development techniques used to create a Virtual Learning Environment (VLE) for teaching digital electronics to engineering students. The paper reviews the functional requirements/specifications of the VLE will need. By developing a VLE we plan to show the many advantages distance learning has to offer to students in terms of flexibility and usability. A working model elevator is being developed for simulation purposes to deliver both laboratory and remote experiments in digital electronics. The elevator

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also adds the sense of real life problem solving, a factor students appreciate when learning. This virtual reality overlay will allow students to carry out assignments and experiments during scheduled laboratory time. It is also planned to have a website remotely connected to the elevator to provide access whenever a student feels the need to work with the elevator on his/her own time. The website will also have many additional features which will be discussed in more detail in the paper. The elevator will initially be used to teach digital systems (combinational and sequential logic) but it is envisaged that the elevator can also be used as an experiential tool for teaching microcontroller technology and electronic control. This project is in the early stages of development but this paper will describe the design process for the VLE and how the proposed VLE will be implemented.

A. Introduction Universities and other higher educational institutions are becoming more and more interested in delivering courses via an online virtual classroom. Distance interactive learning is an important emerging educational trend [1] and it is via the communication medium called the internet that all of this is becoming possible. The use of graphical user interfaces (GUI's) and dynamic scripting has made it possible to deliver quality experimental exercises and problems to a distance learner over the internet. This is where VLE's have many advantages and gives a student a sense of freedom from the traditional face to face teaching method when learning. It allows students to add flexibility to their learning environment. This new sense of freedom that a student has acquired allows one to set ones own working hours and work at a pace that suites their learning capabilities by removing the time and place constraints of more conventional teaching methods. It also helps to promote a students ability to think and work individually. Digital systems is a core topic area of any ICT course delivered by any university around the world. For the past thirty years the teaching style for this area has not changed significantly. The traditional method has been to teach this subject area using basic electrical circuits on breadboards. This would in turn lead to the design and building of combinational and sequential circuits and finally on to simple state machine design. All of this was carried out on a step by step process with individual experiments at important stages along the way. In theory this method worked perfectly but in reality it was often found that the students felt isolated from the real world when carrying out these experiment and often felt the need for something that they could relate better to. Therefore this method of teaching often failed to engage the interest of most students. Problem based learning (PBL) in conjunction with a VLE offers a different style of thought to this teaching problem. Students are faced with real life problems, in this case the model elevator and are asked to use the material they have learned to solve problems on the model elevator. With this method of teaching students are expanding their skills in a practical way and these practical skills are very beneficial and a necessary requirement for future employment.

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It was found that student's retained more knowledge when they were allowed to interact with teaching materials. Retention of knowledge increased from 20% to 75% [2]. VLE's also help the more reserved student. Shy students are often afraid to ask questions in a classroom environment, in a VLE a student is anonymous so they don't have any fear when it comes to interacting with other students/lecturer. In this paper, we report on the development of a VLE delivering a digital systems course to first year Information Technology (IT) and Electronic Systems students. The digital systems module is taught in the second semester of a student's first academic year here at the University of Limerick, Ireland. The module provides a course in combinational and sequential logic. The aim of this module is to teach these sections of digital system design to the students and hopefully with the aid of the VLE introduce some elementary combinational and sequential circuit design. For the first year module students will be required to build a floor unit that takes user digital input and displays floor and other limited user information. The floor unit will be expected to communicate in real-time with the elevator simulation. This assignment has been chosen because the basic operations of controlling an elevator, illustrating what floor the elevator is on at any point in time and the required safety logic is quite straightforward.

B. Model Elevator Design. In this section, the elevator design is discussed. After much consultation and discussion it was decided that a physical model would be constructed. We researched the idea of prototyping the elevator in a software simulated environment but overall it was considered that a physical elevator would be more suitable to the students needs [3] [4]. The physical model was also considered easier to design and develop. The fact that we had decided to go with the physical model meant we could also meet some of the commercial requirements set down for elevator construction by the different governing agencies. Commercial systems must comply with legal requirements and have a number of series connected mechanical switches that directly operate a contactor in the motor supply. A discussion of the legal requirements and the inclusion of this circuit is a possible extension to the design. Other legal requirements exist, these differ from country to country. The project group was fortunate enough to have the help and advice of local elevator manufacturing and distribution company on board. Mid Western lifts Ltd [5] provided excellent guidance and information on the design and workings of elevators. The objectives for this elevator is to construct the necessary building blocks to provide an elevator capable of carrying eight people or two hundred kilograms to any one of floors in the virtual elevator building. It was recommended by Mid Western lifts to construct the elevator in separate blocks. Mid Western lifts advised the project team to build the floor unit, the display unit, the actually physical elevator part (simple flat panel with features to move up and down over a certain distance) and the elevator door as four separate blocks all interlinked by one micro processor controller. It was considered too complicated to try and put all four parts of the elevator together and it was also felt that breaking the unit into four individual blocks would help improve a students understanding of the internal workings of an elevator. After much consideration is was decided that elevator would need the following system require-

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ments and functionality. - Floor unit (elevator caller button) - External panel or button for calling the elevator. - This button is found at every floor at the entrance to the elevator in the virtual elevator building. In reality we only need one floor unit to work on. - When this button is activated a light is turned on to indicate that the button has been pressed. - Features are available to turn off and on this light when it is necessary. - Floor Selection Buttons. - The user selects the floor they wish to travel to using these buttons - Once the user has selected a floor a light is activated to indicate that button has been selected. - Elevator Request Manager. - Logs passenger floor requests. - Has the facility to check if a request has already been logged for that floor. - A request is stored here until it can be fulfilled. - Requests logged in a First In First Out (FIFO) basis. - Has the required functionality to process the requests stored in a dynamic list. - Elevator Motor Controller. - This motor controller controls the following aspects of the model elevator. - Is the elevator moving up or down? - Is the elevator stopped or moving? - Moves the elevator up and down. - Tracks what floor the elevator is currently at. - Stop/starts movement in the elevator cabin. - The motor controller distinguishes its position on pulses created by a taco on the top of the elevator. For instance 10000 pulses are set as the ground floor and 20000 pulses the first floor. - The motor controller can then gauge its required speed from the pulse reading and use variable voltage Frequency (VVF) to drive the motor. - The motor controller is also linked to a safety circuit which is checked each time before the elevator moves. - The motor controller has car top controls which allow a person to override the elevators current movements. - The motor controller has final limits for how high and low the elevator can travel. - The motor controller is closely linked with the request manager.

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- Floor Number Panel Indication Display. - This display indicates what floor the elevator is currently positioned at. - There is no need for both an internal and external display. As this is only a model elevator one display will suffice. - This panel will contain a button display for each floor. - A light is turned on to indicate what floor the elevator is at. - The light can be turned off once the elevator has left that floor. - Elevator door Controller. - Decides when it is safe to open and close the door of the elevator cabin using landing door contacts. - Tracks the state of the elevator door, i.e. whether the elevator door is open or closed. - A sensor on the elevator door to tracks movement of passengers in and out of the elevator. Fig. 1 shows a basic state machine for the model elevator. The diagram highlights the continuous life cycle and the basic movements of the elevator. From the diagram one can see that when it is not transporting people, the elevator is in the idle state and remains in this state until a passenger calls the elevator. Once a passenger(s) has entered the elevator and requests a floor the elevator controller transports the passenger(s) to the requested destination. Once the elevator has met all the passenger(s) requests, the elevator automatically returns to the idle state and waits for a passenger to activate the cycle again. Safety features have also been taken into account in the design phase of this project and will be implemented in the required sections; this will add a sense of reality to the elevator when students are carrying out experiments on the model. Use case scenarios, interaction models and flowcharts are being created to cover all the possibilities with regards to the workings of the elevator.

Figure 1. Elevator state Diagram.

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C. Website/Front End Design. When designing a system like this a lot of time is spent assessing what are the student needs in relation to the system that you wish to design [6]. Administrative functions also have a significant role to play in the design of any web based system. So far the majority of time spent on the project has been on the elevator, however time has been set aside to highlight the perceived important requirements for the website. It was felt that the following requirements were necessary. - Slow internet connections and dial up configurations must be taken into account. - Students must be able to access the lab at anytime from anywhere. - Both the elevator and the remote users must be able to freely receive feedback from one another. - Students must be able to experiment on real devices from remote positions, in this case they will be using the model elevator. - Provisions must be made to recover the system (elevator) if accidentally brought down by an incorrect student operation. - Students require an individual user login account. - A booking system will have to be developed to prevent the possibility of multiple use of the elevator at any one time. - A discussion board is a necessity on the website; it will allow students to collaborate on experimental problems among themselves. - From an administrative viewpoint the following functions shall be made available to Administrators only. - Accept new users and activate their accounts accordingly. - Assign the correct access level, i.e., Administrator or student. - Username and password fields in the database must be kept secret. Access to these fields must be limited to Administrators. - Editing capabilities with regards all student details must be available to administrators. - Limit what students can and cannot see with regards to website functionality. This kind of confidentiality on information could refer to exercises and laboratory work students have to carry out at a future date. - Editing and commenting facilities on material submitted by students - Check log files, i.e. number of student logins or actual login times - Have the ability to test exercises or equipment before releasing to students. - Control what happens during student study periods. The website will be created using one of the various dynamic scripting languages available. Databases and the accompanying applications will be implemented where needed. Open

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source material will be used wherever it is deemed appropriate. As previously stated the website is only at a very early design stage.

D. Communication between the Model Website.

Elevator and the

Interfacing the elevator and the website promises to be one of the more challenging aspects of the project. It is hoped that the model elevator will communicate with a web server via a serial or USB port. The web server will contain the website that students will access the elevator through. Similar work has already been carried out by another research group here in the University of Limerick for test engineering [7]. The test boards were setup on a bench in a laboratory with the required test equipment connected to the test boards. A web cam is positioned over the test equipment. The web server interfaced with the test equipment and the test boards via a PC serial port and is accessed with a Visual Basic application. When this system activated the students submit test vectors via the test engineering website, which are received and parsed by a CGI interface (python scripting). The information is parsed in order to check validity and to check for the integrity of the data supplied. If the data submitted is correct the Visual Basic application sends signals to the laboratory equipment. The laboratory equipment then returns signals to the Visual Basic application which in turn sends the signals back to the web browser for the student to interpret. This method has been developed to work in conjunction with other applications and it is hoped that this method can be modified to work for the elevator project.

E. Conclusion. This paper presents the concepts behind the development of a "Virtual Learning Environment for Engineering Students". The system requirements and the proposed solutions for the design and implementation of a Virtual learning environment are also highlighted here. The project in question offers a valuable component to remote engineering teaching and distance learning. As previously stated this project is work in progress and in time we perceive that it will provide a qualitatively new level of service in eLearning systems.

F. Acknowledgements. The authors would like to thank the University of Limerick for their support and the EU Socrates Minerva project "ViReC" and the HEA sponsored ICT Learning Centre (ICTLC) initiative for funding this Virtual Learning Environment project.

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G. References [1] George E. Marsh II, Ed.D., Anna C. McFadden, Ph.D., and Barrie Jo Price, Ed.D. An Overview of Online Educational Delivery Applications. http://www.westga.edu/~distance/marsh23.html [2] Ricardo Augusto da Luz Reis, Leandro Soares Indrusiak, Microelectronics Education Using WWW, IEEE International Conference on Microelectronic Systems Education, Arlington, Virginia, July 19 - 21, 1999 [3] Bruce Kneale, Ain Y. De Horta, Ilona Box, VELNET (Virtual Environment for Learning Networking) 6th Australasian Computing Education Conference (ACE 2004), Dunedin, New Zealand. Vol. 30. [4] Shen H et al., Conducting Laboratory Experiments over the Internet, IEEE Transactions on Education, Vol.42, No. 3, August 1999, pp180-185. [5] Mid Western Lifts, 5A Docklands Business Park, Dock Road, Limerick, Ireland. [6] Prof. Dr.-Ing. Alexandru Soceanu, Diplom. Eng. Andrei Foldi, Diplom. Eng. Kurt Sporl, University of Applied Sciences Regensburg, Management System for a Virtual Laboratory, ViReC Information Bulletin, Vol. 1, No. 2. http://cs.ucv.ro/virec/ [7] J. Walsh, I. Grout. Online Laboratory for Electronic Circuit Test Engineering. EdTech 2004. http://www.ilta.net/EdTech2004/

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Consistency vs. fragmentation in Dynamics: evaluating the results of the implementation of MBL technologies in the Physics Laboratory, the University of Athens, Greece Karabarbounis A.*1, Mamalougos N.1,2, Mohl A.2, Papanicolas C.N.1, Stiliaris E.1 Physics Laboratory and Department of Physics, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, University Campus, Ano Ilissia, 15771, Athens, GREECE Tel. Voice: +30 210 7276882; Fax +30 210 7295069 2 Laboratory of Basic and Applied Cognitive Science and Educational Technology, Department of Philosophy and History of Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece University Campus, Ano Ilissia, 15771, Athens, GREECE Tel. Voice: +30 210 727 5506; Fax: +30 210 727 5504 1

A. Abstract Much empirical evidence shows that students hold ideas about force and motion that are not compatible with the Newtonian theory of motion [1]-[6]. However, researchers disagree on how to interpret empirical findings: students have misconceptions in dynamics [2], [7], naive ideas [4]-[5] or students' misconceptions are "synthetic models" [6], [8]. The method of evaluation of the above theories is based upon a multiple choice assessment instrument in Newtonian mechanics [9]. The research was conducted for 10th grade high school students and our freshmen physics students before and after been exposed in instruction concerning Newtonian mechanics. Results were really poor and will be analysed. In contradiction the introduction of Microcomputer Based Laboratories (MBL) in our Physics Laboratory for the 3rd Newton law, focused only to our freshmen students, revealed the advantages that advanced new technologies can offer. We prepared a specially designed introductory course associated with new technologies for our Lab sessions. We analysed the reason for the given wrong answers focusing in some specific cases, explaining to some extent why this happened. The analysis suggested that students' misconceptions maybe explained

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better through a synthetic model approach. In the future we plan to introduce besides MBL, associated simulated stand alone examples, and maybe or specific cases wireless technology sensors, especially for acceleration and force measurements. Virtual reality based sessions are by far a realizable possibility and can be introduced only at a demo level.

B. Introduction The goal to this research is to measure through an assessment instrument what high school students and freshmen students really understand about mechanics. This is because we realize that our students were able to solve correctly many difficult problems in Mechanics and at the same time were unable to answer fundamental questions on various concepts on speed, acceleration or dynamics (Newton's laws). Some argue that students have misconceptions in dynamics (such as the 'impetus' misconception) representing well-formed alternative theories that need to be replaced with the correct ones in the process of learning science. Others argue that student's naive ideas, regarding dynamics, comprise a collection of a large number (hundreds or thousands) of intuitive knowledge elements (phenomenological primitives, p-prims) which are activated in specific contexts. Nonetheless, p-prims individually or as a whole are not systematic enough to be assigned a theoretical character A third position is that students' misconceptions are "synthetic models", i.e. attempts to synthesize the scientific views with a naive framework theory of physics, which is constructed in early childhood and consists of certain entrenched presuppositions. Such a presupposition is that force is a property of objects. Which theory reflects better the real situation is still hard to say. We will give some hints after the discussion of the results.

C. The procedure and the results We used a multiple choice assessment instrument, designed at the Centre for Science and Mathematics Teaching, at the Tufts University to probe high school, college and university students' conceptual understanding in Newtonian mechanics. Students' understanding of Newton's laws was probed by questions of different types, with the students having to choose among 7-9 given answers per question represented verbally or as graphs [9]-[12]. The research was conducted in two phases: In the first phase, a total of 60 tenth-grade high school students and 74 physics students, all freshmen, were administered the FMCE (Force and Motion Conceptual Evaluation) test at the beginning of their class (pre-test). The second phase followed six months later, after making sure that all participating students had been exposed in instruction concerning Newtonian dynamics. In the second phase the same 60 high school students and 88 physics students, among them the majority of those that took part in the first phase, were again administered exactly the same FMCE test (post-test). Next year we introduced new technologies, the Microcomputer Based Laboratories (MBLs') into our freshmen laboratory sessions. This is the only course the students have to attend, so we don't have a biased sample of them. In contradiction to what we saw before, the introduction of MBL in our Physics Laboratory, at the University of Athens revealed clearly for the first time the advantages that new tech-

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nologies can offer in order to really understand concepts of mechanics. We introduced two MBL experiments in our Lab (one introducing new technologies and the other one studying the 3rd Newton's Law). We followed the same procedure as mentioned before focused only to our freshmen students and results showed a systematic improvement with respect to the "standard" way we used to teach experiments on the 3rd Newton's law. Table 1: Results (pre and post tests) for our freshmen students using as a tool the FMCE multiple choice assessment : % of correct answers (all simultaneously the questions of each group) Questions Speed (40-43) Acceleration (22-26) Acceleration: vertical (27-29) Force: vertical …….. (11-13) Force: movement on inclined plane (8-10) 1st Newton's' law (2,14,17) 2nd Newton's' law (1,3,4,7,16,18,19) 3rd Newton's' law "Collisions" (30-34) 3rd Newton's' law "Pushing another car" (35-39)

% correct answers Freshmen / pre-test 82 52,7 31 43 30

% correct answers Freshmen / post-test! 70,5 (-11,5%) 48,8 (-3,9%) 36 (+5%) 44,3 (+1,3%) 30,7 (+0,7%)

47,3 39

45,5 (-1,8%) 33 (-6%)

39

39,7 (+0,7%)

23

17 (-6%)

Table 2: The corresponding results (pre and post tests) for the 10nth grade high school students Questions Speed (40-43) Acceleration (22-26) Acceleration: vertical (27-29) Force: vertical …….. (11-13) Force: movement on inclined plane (8-10) 1st Newton's' law (2,14,17) 2nd Newton's' law (1,3,4,7,16,18,19) 3rd Newton's' law "Collisions" (30-34) 3rd Newton's' law "Pushing another car" (35-39)

% correct answers high school / pre-test 22 1,7 0 0 0

% correct answers high school / post-test! 27 1,7 0 1 0

1,7 0

3,3 0

0

0

0

0

The results give the percentage of correct answers in each group of questions simultaneous-

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ly. As we can see results are really poor suggesting that the teaching of Mechanics confused our high school and freshmen students. Focusing into our freshen students we saw that this have to do with the preconceptions they had. When they start learning the scientific method on Mechanics there are many contradictory ideas in their head that revealed to these results. This is something not unique and found also in other Education Establishments [13]. We can see that freshmen students are quite right when we discuss speed concepts. Acceleration is something they don't really understand with percentages of right answers of the order of 30-40%. The situation becomes similar for the 1st and 2nd Newton's law and even worst for the 3rd law. The situation is even worst for the 10nth grade high school students as we can see in Table 2 [14] The introduction of new technologies was the next step. We redesign the whole program of our freshmen students through the concept of what is a measurement, the uncertainty that we have, making them for the first time participating to the "class". The introduction of the hardware part and associated s/w of the MBL's was also especially designed. We decided to focus on Newton's 3rd law, a case which appeared to be most problematic (see in Table 1). The results before and after the implementation of MBL's for the 3rd Newton's law are given below in Table 3 (pre and post tests). They concern only our freshmen students. Table 3: Results of freshmen students on the 3rd Newton's law before and after the introduction of new technologies Question # 30 31 32 33* 34 35 36 37 38 39

% right (pre MBL) 37 33 40 87 44 39 17 60 11 44

% right (post MBL) 60 60 61 89 66 57 41 71 40 69

% abs. difference +23 +27 +19 +2 +22 +18 +24 +11 +29 +25

D. Discussion and Conclusions It is clear that we have a good improvement because of MBL's. We believe with the experience we have now, we can increase these results in the future to an even better level. Newer, more sophisticated technology, wireless technology and a combination of experimental work along with simulated experiments will even more improve the situation. All these are very welcome and some of them expensive and hard to implement them into a 400 students' class. There are many theories trying to explain why this improvement is happening. It has also to do with the interest that young people show on new technological methods and means, so during their Lab session they are much more actively involved. PC's, sensors, wireless tech-

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nology or not are really of great interest to them. But somehow we have to go deeper investigating the way humans behave and respond to the understanding of new concepts. We mentioned before that our students were able to solve difficult problems but were unable to distinguish the many detailed aspects the FMCE questionnaire reveals. This is happening because they classify in their minds in a very naive and practical way the different kinds of problems too be solved. This is probably the lowest level of understanding somebody can achive. We believe that misconceptions are the result of students' attempts to reconcile information from their initial explanatory framework (the "framework theory") about the workings of the physical world and the counter-intuitive scientifically accepted theories. More specifically 'misconceptions' can be produced as students attempt to assimilate certain aspects of scientifically accepted knowledge to which they are exposed through instruction into their existing knowledge structures. The initial explanatory framework consists of some basic presuppositions about the way the physical objects function in the natural world. Such presuppositions are: Rest is a natural state of physical (inanimate) objects Motion needs to be explained (in terms of a causal agent) Force is a property of physical objects For example the high percentage of correct answers in question #33 needs a closer examination. This question is absolutely similar to question #30 which refers to the head on collisions of two cars with unequal masses. Their (wrong) answer is that the bigger car exerts bigger force to the smaller one. In #33 the masses of the two cars are just equals so their answer (equal forces) is correct, but for a wrong reason! Concluding this paper we would like to stress upon the great advantage that new technologies can offer to the understanding of various Physics concepts. We also believe that more effort should be made in the theoretical field. So far the position is that students' misconceptions are "synthetic models", i.e. attempts to synthesize the scientific views with a naive framework theory of physics, which is constructed in early childhood and consists of certain entrenched presuppositions. Such a presupposition is that force is a property of objects. Which theory reflects better the real situation is still hard to say.

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E. References [1] Clement, J. (1982).Students' perceptions in elementary Mechanics. American Journal of Physics, 50; pp.66-71 [2] McCloskey (1983). Intuitive Physics, Scientific American (1983), 284(4) [3] Viennot, L. (1979). Spontaneous reasoning in elementary dynamics, European Journal of Science Education, 1(2) pp. 205-221 [4] DiSessa, A.A. (1988). Knowledge in pieces. In G. Forman & P.B. Purfall (Eds) Constructivism in the Computer Age (pp. 49-70). Hillsdale, Nj. : Erlbaum [5] DiSessa, A.A. (1993). Towards an epistemology in Physics, Cognition and Instruction, 10, (2&3), pp. 105-225 [6] Vosniadou, S.; Ioannides, Ch. (2002). The changing Meanings of Force. Cognitive Science Quarterly, 2002, 2, 1, p. 5-62 [7] Posner, G.J.; Strike, K.A.; Hewson, P.W.; Gertzog, W.A. (1982). Accommodation of a scientific conception: Towards a theory of conceptual change. Science Education, 66, pp. 211-227 [8] Vosniadou, S. (Ed.) (1994). Conceptual Change, Special Issue of Learning and Instruction: The Journal of EARLI, Vol. 4 [9] Thornton K. Ronald and Sokoloff R. David (1998) Assessing student learning of Newton's laws: The Force and Motion Conceptual Evaluation and the Evaluation of Active Learning Laboratory and Lecture Curricula. Am. J. Phys. Vol. 66, No 4, April 1998. [10] Thornton K. Ronald (1992): Tools for scientific Thinking: Learning Physical Concepts with Real-Time Laboratory Measurement Tools, Article from the book "New Directions in Educational Technology", Ed. Springer - Verlag, 1992, (p. 139-151). [11] Tinker F. Robert and Thornton K. Ronald (1992): Constructing student knowledge in science, Article from the book "New Directions in Educational Technology", Ed. Springer - Verlag, 1992, (pp. 153-170). [12] Sokoloff R. David and Thornton K. Ronald (1997) Using Interactive Lecture Demonstrations to Create an Active Learning Environment. The Physics Teacher, Vol. 35 September 1997. [13] Belcher J., American Journal of Physics, 62 (6), 796-803 (1994) [14] Mol Athanassios G. (2001):" Analysis of errors in Kinematics in first year university students". Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Science Education Research in the Knowledge Based Society (Vol. 1, pp. 99-101).

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Symposium Program

Monday 5/7

Designing the school of tomorrow Chair: Prof. R. Aviram Representative of the Kefallinia - Ithaka Perfecture Representative of the Municipality of Argostoli Representative of the "Information Society" Ministry of Economy & Finance A change that never occuired Dr. S. Savas, President and CEO of Ellinogermaniki Agogi, Greece The Role of the Research Center in Science Inquiry and the Transfer of Knowlenge Dr. G. Fanourakis, Institute of Nuclear Physics, NCSR “Demokritos”, Greece On the Role of the Regional Educational Institutions in shaping the European School of Tomorrow and its Laboratories Dr. N. Solomos, National Observatory of Education "EUDOXOS”, Greece Designing the science laboratory of the school of tomorrow Dr. S. Sotiriou, Head of R&D Department, Ellinogermaniki Agogi, Greece

Pedagogical Considerations Chair: Dr. S. Savas ICT in Education: The dawn of a new era or the development of an accessory? Prof. K. Tsolakidis, University of Aegean, Greece The evolution of Pedagogies, Learning Cultures and Organisational Stractures Dr. N. Kastis, Lambrakis Research Foundation, Greece ICT: Does it enhance or jeopardize learning Prof. A. Aviram, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Head of Center for Futurism in Education, Israel The impact of ICT on education Dr. M. Barajas, University of Barcelona, Spain

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Advanced Technological Applications in Science Teaching Chair: Dr. E. Tavlaki The EUDOXOS Project: Teaching Science with a Robotic Telescope Dr. S. Sotiriou, Head of R&D Department, Ellinogermaniki Agogi, Greece The COLDEX Project: Collaborative Learning and Distributed Experimentation Prof. N. Baloian, University of Chile, Department of Computational Sciences, Chile K. Hoeksema, University of Duisburg, Collide Group, Germany The ASH Project: A Virtual Control Room Rune Andersen, DELTA Danish Electronics, Light & Acoustics, Denmark

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Tuesday 6/7

Advanced Technological Applications and Usability Issues Chair: Dr. N. Kastis Interaction between Research Scientists and Students of Secondary Education in Digesting Principal Ideas of Science Prof. N. Uzunoglou, National Technical University of Athens, Greece The Lab of Tomorrow Project Mr. Michalis Orfanakis, Ellinogermaniki Agogi, Greece Usability Evaluation of the SensVest and SensBelt Systems Dr. Th. Arvanitis, The University of Birmingham, United Kingdom The CONNECT Project Dr. E. Chatzichristou, Ellinogermaniki Agogi, Greece "A Pedagogical Analysis of Laptop and Hyperbook integration in education C. N Ragiadakos, Pedagogical Institute of the Greek Ministry of Education"

Advanced Technologies in Education - Meeting Users' Needs Chair: Prof. C. Tsolakides Making ICTs Accessible to All Mr. M. Bletsas, Director of Computing, MIT Media Lab, USA The ZEUS Project: Satellite Network of Rural Schools Dr. E. Tavlaki, Head of Research Programs Division, Hellenic Telecommunications Organization, Greece The MobiLearn project Dr. J. Knight, The University of Birmingham, United Kingdom Tells - a facility for web-based, remote real time laboratory experiments Prof. Andro Rurua, University of Limerick, National Technological Park, Limerick, Ireland

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Evaluation Methodologies and Tools Chair: Dr. S. Rosenfeld The ORIENTE Network - Observatory of Research on Innovation in Education: New Technologies Evaluation F. Scheuermann, University of Innsbruck, Institute for Organisation and Learning, Austria Mesuring students attitudes towards Science learning Prof. F. Bogner, University of Bayreuth, Germany An Evaluation of the Design and Development of a Virtual Learning Environment (VLE) for Engineering Students Prof. C. McHugo, University of Limerick, ECE Department, Ireland Consistency vs. fragmentation in Dynamics: evaluating the results of the implementation of MBL technologies in the Physics Laboratory, the University of Athens, Prof. A. Karabarbounis, Physics Laboratory and Department of Physics, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece

The Future is now. Examples from schools Chair: F. Scheuermann Implementing innovation in the Greek Curriculum N. Andrikopoulos, Ellinogermaniki Agogi, Greece The classroom of Tomorrow M. Lohr, BG Schwechat, Austria Implementing innovation in the Italian Curriculum G. Cau, Pininfarina School, Italy Advanced Technologies to increase students interest U. Wlotzka, Helene Lange Gymnasium, Germany Discussion

Conclusions (Chairs: Prof. N. Uzunoglou, Dr. G. Fanourakis)

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Moments of the Conference

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Moments of the Observation night

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