Agricultural mechanization interventions to increase the productivity of smallholder irrigation schemes in Zimbabwe Thubelihle A. Thebe1*, Tirivangani Koza2 1
Department of Irrigation ZW, Ministry of Agriculture, Mechanization, and Irrigation Development, Block C Mhlahlandlela Government Complex, 10th Ave/Basch St, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe 2 Department of Mechanization, Ministry of Agriculture, Mechanization, and Irrigation Development, Ngungunyana Building, No. 1 Borrowdale Road, Harare, Zimbabwe *Corresponding author. E-mail:
[email protected] Abstract Emphasis on improving the productivity of smallholder irrigation schemes in Zimbabwe is usually on water management issues with limited consideration of farm power systems. Smallholder irrigation in Zimbabwe is dominated by hoe cultivation and draught animal power communities with these types of farm power system facing the challenge of social and economic issues such as AIDS and migration. The main objective of this study was to evaluate the current farm power systems in Zimbabwean smallholder irrigation and explore agricultural mechanization interventions that could be implemented to increase the productivity of smallholder irrigation schemes. The methods used in the study started with an assessment of the current status of smallholder irrigation schemes in Zimbabwe using databases at the Ministry of Agriculture, Mechanization, and Irrigation Development. A sample of three smallholder irrigation schemes from one of the country’s eight administrative provinces that transcended irrigation technologies and socio-economic environments was then studied in greater detail through case studies. The farm power systems at these schemes were evaluated in terms of adequacy, timeliness, appropriateness, quality of work output, and production levels under the different scenarios. The alternative mechanization interventions obtained from the work programmes of the Departments of Mechanization and Irrigation were then assessed based on literature and basic simulations. Land preparation and harvesting were the farming operations that were identified as critical to be improved for increased productivity. The 100m lengths of run in the furrow and border-strip irrigation schemes limit the commercial applicability of conventional tillage and harvesting machinery. Of the interventions evaluated, unconventional tillage such as conservation tillage offer affordable solutions, while due regard has to be given to the modernization of the irrigation systems to limit labour input in water application and to limit the need for further farm power in land levelling operations before planting. In line with general recommendations of the FAO, the government of Zimbabwe should make these interventions with a participatory approach with findings from this study being valuable for the process to address mechanization challenges in the smallholder irrigation sector. Key words: farm power systems, productivity, Zimbabwe. 1. Introduction Agriculture is the foundation of the Zimbabwean economy contributing about 19% of annual Gross Domestic Product. 20% of Zimbabwe's agricultural production comes from irrigated lands. Smallholder irrigation schemes contribute 15000ha to Zimbabwe's total functional irrigation area of 136000ha or 11% of the total irrigation area. Approximately 80% of these smallholder irrigation schemes are equipped with surface irrigation systems with 20% being under drag-hose and semi-portable sprinkler irrigation systems.
In the context of this paper, a smallholder irrigation scheme refers to an irrigation scheme that is located in the Communal Lands of Zimbabwe, areas that are held under the Traditional Land Tenure System as defined by Rukuni (1984), and is collectively owned and managed by a group of farmers who reside in that area and are allocated land within the total area of the scheme for irrigation purposes. The land that is allocated to the farmers is on average 0.5ha but ranges from 0.1ha to 1ha. The farmers are responsible for the farm operations on their plots as part of the broader activities of the group. Rukuni (1984) notes that these smallholder irrigation schemes were developed in the Communal Lands to contribute to increased food security, increasing agricultural production, and for the introduction and propagation of modern technology among farmers. Production at these schemes has however been declining in previous years and attention to improving the agricultural production of these schemes has tended to focus on improved water management premised in part on international studies such as the Challenge Programme on Water and Food (Molden, 2007) and guidelines from the World Bank on irrigation investments (O'Mara, 1990) that did not specifically address the issue of mechanization in measures that ensure the sustainability of smallholder irrigation schemes. Zimbabwe’s Draft National Mechanization Strategy (Ministry of Agriculture, 2006) rightly notes that the performance of the agricultural sector is directly related to the level of farm mechanization. Farm mechanization is however dependent on the availability of mechanization inputs locally, through importation, the supply chain system, and utilization at farm level. Agricultural mechanization is the application of mechanical technology and increased power to agriculture, largely as a means to enhance the productivity of human labour and often to achieve results well beyond the capacity of human labour and includes the use of mechanically-powered, animal-powered and human-powered equipment, implements and tools, and also includes irrigation systems, food processing and related technologies and equipment that enhance the production potential of farmers (FAO and UNIDO, 2008). Its benefits include increased productivity and reduced labour requirements. Smallholder irrigation farmers presently use mainly draught animal power systems and handhoe cultivation. These farm power systems when coupled with the dominant surface irrigation systems are mainly labour intensive, and with most communities facing the challenge of urban migration and the pandemic AIDS disease there is a need for the Government of Zimbabwe to make mechanization interventions that will enhance the productivity of smallholder irrigation schemes. Recommendations from an FAO expert meeting on investment in agricultural mechanization (FAO, 2009) placed the lead role of infrastructure investments on Governments. The Government of Zimbabwe is however faced with challenges in facilitating the provision appropriate farm mechanization inputs for improved productivity due to the varied requirements of smallholder irrigation schemes. This study gives an overview of interventions that can be made based on case studies of selected smallholder irrigation schemes. Consideration is given to the fact that the two approaches to satisfying the need for farm power are increasing the supply of farm power or reducing the need for it (Sims and Kienzle, 2006). Zimbabwe is a semi-arid country and receives rainfall in the summer months of November to April. Only 37% of the country receives rainfall that is adequate for crop production during this period. The rainfall received decreases as you move from North to South and as you move from East to West. Smallholder irrigation schemes therefore play a pivotal role in supporting the livelihoods of people in the Southern and Western parts of the country. This study focuses on three irrigation schemes in the South-Western province of Zimbabwe being Matabeleland North Province. The main objective of this study was to evaluate the current farm power systems in smallholder irrigation schemes in Zimbabwe and explore agricultural mechanization interventions that could be implemented to increase the productivity of the smallholder irrigation schemes.
2. Methods and materials 2.1 Study area
Figure 1. Map of Zimbabwe showing provincial boundaries and the location of the three irrigation schemes used as case studies in Matabeleland North Province Lungwalala Irrigation Scheme is located at coordinate points 17°56’14.60” S and 27°33’40.19” E in Kariyangwe communal lands, Binga District. The scheme measures 110ha in area. 218 farmers hold 0.5ha (consisting of 0.25ha on any two blocks) each and the other hectare is allocated to Kariyangwe Mission Hospital. The crops grown at Lungwalala Irrigation Scheme are maize and vegetables in the summer, and wheat and sugar beans in the winter. Fanisoni Irrigation Scheme is located at coordinate points 18°56’29.97” S and 28°52’16.31” E in Nkayi District. The scheme measures 15ha and is sub-divided into four blocks with each of the 55 farmers holding a total of 0.27ha in plot sizes. Redwood Irrigation Scheme is located at coordinate points 19°44’40.88” S and 28°24’37.46” E in Umguza District. 33ha are equipped for irrigation and the scheme has 40 farmers as registered members giving a total of 0.825ha per farmer. The irrigation scheme is however not demarcated into individual plots and the farmers farm the entire area collectively. 2.2 Methods The three schemes were selected on the basis of their geographical spread and irrigation technology used. Databases from the Ministry of Agriculture, Mechanization, and Irrigation Development were used to classify and categorize the irrigation schemes. Case studies of the three selected schemes were then carried out to identify the farm power systems, irrigation practices, and general mechanization requirements. Alternative technology interventions were explored from a list of recommended technologies available from the Draft National Mechanization Strategy (Ministry of Agriculture, 2006). The mechanization alternatives were evaluated in terms of total production, timeliness and labour requirement and recommendation were given on the appropriate mechanization intervention.
3. Results and Discussion of Case Studies 3.1 Irrigation technology Lungwalala Irrigation Scheme is a gravity-fed irrigation scheme drawing its water from Lungwalala Dam that is about 8km away from the scheme. Water gravitates to a night storage reservoir at Lungwalala, whereas at Fanisoni Irrigation Scheme the water is pumped from a weir along Shangani River into the night storage reservoir. Both schemes do not have a nearby source of electricity. The gravity method of water abstraction is sustainable for Lungwalala whereas diesel-powered pumps that are used at Fanisoni make the operation of the scheme challenging in terms of economic viability. The use of electric-powered pumps will prove as a significant intervention at Fanisoni Irrigation Scheme and the Government of Zimbabwe is already moving in this direction by having plans to develop electricity supply infrastructure. The farmers at the two schemes regulate the amount of water that is abstracted from the night storage reservoir into the main canal. The irrigation method used by the farmers for final field water application is the border-strip surface irrigation system. Famers abstract water from the field canals into their plots using polyethylene siphons. This irrigation method is labour intensive as farmers have to regulate the flow of water along the border strips. It also requires zero or minimal cross-slopes and a gentle slope along the border strip for even water distribution. Consideration has to be given to the use of field water distribution methods that demand low power but reduce labour input from the farmers such as gated pipe surface irrigation systems under gravity while the availability of electricity will offer a wide range of modernization options for Fanisoni. In contrast, Redwood Irrigation Scheme relies on groundwater from Nyamandlovu aquifer as its water source. The scheme has therefore got a developed electricity supply network. The scheme had abundant water resources but farmers were limited in the area that they could irrigate to about 3ha due to the high power costs for water abstraction and high labour requirements when using the uncontrolled flooding surface irrigation systems soon after its inception in 2004. The Government of Zimbabwe intervened by developing a semi-portable sprinkler irrigation system on 33ha to increase the production area eleven fold in 2007. This increased the productivity of the Irrigation Scheme and consequently economically-empowered the farmers who now create employment by offering members of their community jobs in moving the irrigation laterals. This method of intervention is generally recommended where there are existing electricity supplies and market access such as Redwood Irrigation Scheme based on the success recorded there but provided that the total area in not sub-divided into small plots that limit technology applicability. 3.2 Farm power systems Farmers are responsible for all field operations on their plots at Lungwalala and Fanisoni Irrigation Schemes. The agricultural extension workers who are employed by the Government to support the farmers in terms of agronomic practices avail a cropping programme that has to be followed by the farmers at any particular time. The farmers have to carry-out their field operations in line with the cropping programme issued by the extension workers. Farmers use ox-drawn ploughs for tillage. 95% of all the farmers own their own ox-drawn ploughs at Lungwalala whereas the figure is 97% at Fanisoni. The draught animal power is provided by their own oxen or those that are hired from other farmers. A small number of farmers, estimated at 5% and 3% of the total number of farmers for Lungwalala and Fanisoni respectively who do not own cattle and cannot afford to hire oxen for tillage draught animal power use hand hoes for tillage. The limitation in the viability of using hand hoes for tillage is also enhanced by the high rate of urban migration (estimated at 50% of the total number of young men and women in the 15years-34years age group) that has left many families with few members available for field operations. There is no history of tractor use at Lungwalala
irrigation scheme because none are available for hire in the vicinity of the scheme. The farmers at Fanisoni Irrigation Scheme do not hire tractors due to the high costs of tractor hire from private contractors are a hindrance to the use of tractors for tillage. The Government’s District Development Fund is incapacitated to provide adequate tillage services. Shah et al. (2002) reported that smallholder farmers generally have long histories of dependency on parastatals or government departments for tillage and are reluctant to hire commercial service providers. The reliance on hired draught animal power leads to delays in completing tillage for the farmers who do not own oxen as those with oxen first use them for tillage on their plots. Delays in planting are widely noted during wheat production. After tillage, the farmers have to level their fields using hand hoes at Lungwalala and fanisoni Irrigation Schemes. This land-levelling operation is necessary for improved water distribution. There is no alternative form of mechanization other than the hand-hoe that is available to the farmers for land-levelling. Farmers typically spend 3 days ploughing their 0.5ha plots and approximately 6days doing land-levelling that is typically done by a team of 3 people from the farmer's household or hired labour. The land-levelling operation requires major intervention at Lungwalala Irrigation Scheme with irrigation system modernization being the most viable intervention method. In contrast, farmers at Redwood Irrigation Scheme purchased a second-hand 60kW tractor together with a three-dish disk plough at a cost of $12000 after a successful harvest in October 2011. The farmers were already benefitting from a highly mechanized irrigation system that increased their productivity and led to high returns that they are converting into higher returns by investing in farm machinery. This shows that mechanization interventions should not be restricted to Government only but could also be supported by the farmers’ own initiative. Land preparation has the greatest demand for farm power on the surface irrigation systems mainly due to the land levelling operation. Studies by Sims and Kienzle (2006) and BishopSambrook (2005) showed similar findings. The availability of Government Extension workers at the three irrigation schemes leads to nearly uniform cropping programmes. These cropping programmes have sugar beans and wheat in winter and maize and vegetables in summer. It would benefit the farmers if the cropping programmes gave due consideration to the prevailing farm power systems. Delays in planting sugar beans are usually caused by water-logging in the field as this period that runs from the last week of February to the first week of April that would still be during the rainy season. The use of conservation farming techniques (Sims and Kienzle, 2006) to address this challenge will be the most viable mechanization intervention. Farmers at Fanisoni and Lungwalala Irrigation Schemes use hand tools (sickles) for the harvesting of wheat and are content with the practice. There is no other viable technology option that presently exists for these farmers except if serious exploration of imported machinery was done. Farmers at Redwood Irrigation Scheme use combine harvesters that are available from nearby commercial farms for wheat harvesting. Therefore, there are presently limited mechanization intervention requirements for harvesting operations of most crops as the farmers are content with their practices. 3.3 Social issues There is a high incidence of female-headed households (approximately 60%) who are members of the Lungwalala and Fanisoni Irrigation Schemes. This is due to the migration of men who will be household heads to urban centres in search of formal employment or their death mainly due to the AIDS pandemic. These families that are headed by females suffer from a lack of both manpower and draught animal power as inheritance laws are skewed against women in the African customary law that is used to distribute the estates of their late husbands who would have succumbed to AIDS. The surviving female spouse is usually stripped of major possessions such as cattle that are necessary for the provision of draught animal power. The women also struggle to raise money to hire manual labour or draught animal power due to their limited alternative sources of income. Mechanization interventions should therefore put issues of women at their core.
4. Conclusion As shown in paper, farm power systems play an important role in increasing the productivity of smallholder irrigation schemes and increasing their financial viability as in the case of Redwood Irrigation Scheme. Farm power is a crucial input in the agricultural production process and movement towards market-oriented production often requires a greater application of farm power (Bishop-Sambrook, 2005). Mechanization interventions are essential in increasing the productivity of smallholder irrigation schemes but these have to be appropriately selected. The findings from this study show that land preparation is heavily affected by the level of mechanization whereas the impact on harvesting depends on the scale of production. Appropriate mechanized irrigation systems can be installed at irrigation schemes that face land preparation and irrigation challenges to increase productivity and conservation tillage can be used to address land preparation challenges. The increased use of mechanized irrigation systems will foster agro-industrial growth in terms of the setting-up of factories to manufacture this equipment that is presently mainly imported. Highly mechanized harvesting proved to be timely and successful at Redwood Irrigation scheme where it was available to the farmers but the farmers that manually harvested their wheat crop at Fanisoni and Lungwalala using sickles took two weeks to complete the process but recorded minimal losses during harvesting and are content with the practice. The participation of farmers is essential for the success of any agricultural mechanization intervention. Acknowledgements The authors appreciate the support and resources received from the Ministry of Agriculture, Mechanization, and Irrigation Development that were useful in the completion of this research work. References Bishop-Sambrook, C. 2005. Contribution of farm power to smallholder livelihoods in subSaharan Africa. FAO Agricultural and Food Engineering Technical Report Number 2. Rome, Italy: FAO. FAO. 2009. Investment in agricultural mechanization in Africa: Conclusions and recommendations of a round table meeting of experts. FAO Agricultural and Food and Agricultural Engineering Report Number 8. Rome, Italy: FAO. FAO and UNIDO. 2008. Agricultural mechanization in Africa: Time for action. Report of an expert group meeting held in January 2008, Vienna, Austria. Rome, Italy: FAO. Vienna, Austria: UNIDO. Ministry of Agriculture. 2006. Final Draft national Agricultural Mechanization Strategy for Zimbabwe. Harare, Zimbabwe: Ministry of Agriculture. Molden, D. (Ed). 2007. Water for food, water for life. Comprehensive assessment of water management in agriculture. London, UK: EarthScan. O'Mara, G. T. 1990. Making Bank irrigation investments more sustainable. World bank Working Paper Series 420. Wasington, USA: World Bank. Rukuni, M. 1984. Organization and management of smallholder irrigation: The case of Zimbabwe. Agricultural Administration 17:215-229. Shah, T., van Koppen, B., Merrey, D., de Lange, M., and Samad, M. 2002. Institutional alternatives in African smallholder irrigation: Lessons from international experience with irrigation management transfer. International Water Management Institute Research Report 60. Colombo, Sri Lanka: IWMI. Sims, B. G. and Kienzle, J. 2006. Farm Power and mechanization for small farms in subSaharan Africa. Rome, Italy: FAO.
