An Examination of Service Advertising Effectiveness

Abhigyan Vol. XXXV No. 4 (January - March 2018)

ISSN - 0970-2385

An Examination of Service Advertising Effectiveness

Due to their unique nature that distinguish services from goods, it is widely accepted in the academic community that services require to be advertised differently. Accordingly, specific approaches to advertise services have been proposed in literature. Set in India, this study examines the effectiveness of select service advertising execution styles: documentation, physical representation and visualisation as well as appeals in advertising services: emotional and rational. Further, type of services: experiential and utilitarian which has emerged as an important contextual factor in service advertising research has also been considered. The study findings demonstrate the effectiveness of the service advertising execution styles and appeals in terms of customer's attitude towards service provider and purchase intentions. The study also brings forth results that conflict findings of prior research mostly conducted in the U.S. and U.K. thereby showing that past research cannot be generalised to other contexts such as in India. Keywords: Services, Service Advertising Effectivenes, Advertising Appeal, Service Advertising Execution Styles, India.

ntroduction

Aditi Naidu Assistant Professor, Jaipuria Institute of Management, Indore.

Rekha Attri Assistant Professor, Jaipuria Institute of Management, Indore.

The services sector is the key driver of India's economic growth with the sector with the Central Statistics Office's (CSO) provisional estimates of Gross Value Added (GVA) in FY 2016-17, indicating that the service sector grew 7.74 percent year-on-year to Rs. 21.43 trillion (www.ibef.org/industry/services). Research in the marketing of services in India therefore has accordingly become vital in the country (Naidu, 2017). Specifically, in terms of research in advertising of services, while the service advertising topic has received some research attention in the UK and US, however, here as well; especially in the area of effectiveness of specific service advertising strategies has had to heed the call for further research. Stafford, et al., (2011) put forth that while studies have attempted to meet Tripp's (1997) call for development of the service advertising topic, much still needs to be done. Reviewing 70 articles between 1995 and 2010 on the service advertising topic, Stafford, et al., (2011) outline the need for research that would promote an understanding of how consumers respond to different message and media strategies. The authors conclude that despite growth in the service advertising research, the topic is in a state of 'arrested development' (Stafford, et al., 2011, pp. 147). Dearth in research in the area of service advertising strategies has been brought forth also by Mortimer (2008); Hill, et al., (2004) and Stafford (1996).

Paper received on January 23, 2017

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Specific to India, such research is particularly sparse. This study addresses the need for both furthering research in service advertising strategies to advance knowledge in the area, especially with conflicting results having been reported as well as to address the need for research in services, particularly in India, where the service sector is set to grow further and practitioners would benefit from research carrying specific managerial implications. Research in service advertising has primarily put forth a well-established proposition that services, being different from goods require different approaches for their advertising. Accordingly, various specific ways of advertising services have been proposed. There has also been research in the effectiveness of service advertising examining which service advertising styles and appeals are more effective in terms of different variables such as attitude, purchase intention, repurchase intention and the like. Another aspect of service advertising research is the type of service which forms the context in which service advertising has been examined with respect to its effectiveness. Accordingly, in this study, three service advertising styles from Berry and Clark's (1986) typology -documentation, visualisation and physical representation have been examined alongwith two advertising appeals-rational and emotional across service types classified along Stafford and Day's (1992) classification of experiential and utilitarian services to determine how different service advertising approaches vary in their effectiveness in terms of customer attitude towards service provider and purchase intentions. II. Review of Literature and Development of Hypotheses That services are different from goods (Bateson, 1979; Zeithaml, et al.,1985), thereby requiring special treatment in marketing them especially in terms of advertising of services has been well established in the academic community (Hill Research in service advertising has a n d G a n d h i , 1 9 9 2 ; Parasuraman, et al., 1985; primarily put forth a well-established Shostack, 1977; Hill, et al., 2 0 0 4 ; N a i d u , 2 0 1 7 ) . proposition that services, being different S p e c i f i c a l l y, s e r v i c e advertising strategies have been developed to address from goods require different approaches the unique characteristics of s e r v i c e s : i n t a n g i b i l i t y, heterogeneity, perishability for their advertising. and ownership issues (Mortimer, 2002); that had let to Hill and Gandhi (1992) categorically putting forth that services requiring special and specific advertising treatments (Naidu, 2017) Services advertising has seen various managerial frameworks developed by George and Berry, 1981, Hill and Gandhi, 1992 and Mittal, 1991(Mortimer, 2002). These frameworks mostly suggest ways to make the service offering more tangible. For instance, Hill and Gandhi (1992) suggest managing the intangibility issue in service advertising by incorporating the physical evidence such as showing the physical facilities like the service delivery sites; associating the service with concrete, specific language and symbols and using concrete phrases to describe the intangible service. Similarly, Berry and Clark (1986) have proposed advertising strategies to include association, physical representation, documentation and visualisation. Association refers to linking the service to an extrinsic person, place or object as in the case of the Merrill Lynch bull. Physical representation, on the other hand, refers to showing the tangible elements of the service that are direct or peripheral parts of the service such as buildings, vans or employees. Documentation is the featuring of objective data and factual information. Visualisation is a service advertising technique which, through the use of vivid material, exhibits the core service value by showing customers enjoying the inherently intangible service benefits. Hill, et al., (2004) state that while these strategies seem to provide practical and feasible solutions, not much empirical evidence has been established for the effectiveness of these strategies. Stafford (1996) and Trip (1997) also have brought out this lack in research. Stafford, et al., (2011) in their extensive literature review of service advertising till date found that while researchers have heeded Tripp's (1997) call for further research in the area, much still needs to be done. 54


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Type of Service and Service Advertising Hill and Gandhi (1992) make it clear that an interrelationship between the characteristics of services and the advertising guidelines exists (Mortimer, 2001), the implication being advertising guidelines need to consider the type of services according to their characteristics. Mortimer (2000) and Grove, et al., (1995) also endorse this, finding that research in service advertising effectiveness becomes more meaningful when characteristics of services are considered (Mortimer, 2001). While services have been classified in a number of ways (Bowen, 1990; Lovelock, 1983; Berry, 1981; Mills and Margulies, 1980; Stafford and Day, 1995) service advertising research has mainly concerned itself with the impact of service advertising on services classified along the Stafford and Day's (1995) experiential-utilitarian categories (Albers-Miller and Stafford, 1999). While Experiential services have been described as those that are similar to value expressive services, characterised by higher levels of employee contact and customisation, are directed towards people rather than objects, have strong people orientation, being personal in nature, addressing There has also been research in the customers' individual attitudes and the consumption of which is effectiveness of service advertising h e d o n i c i n n a t u r e ; Utilitarian services, on the examining which service advertising other hand, have been described as those services, styles and appeals are more effective in which are more rational and f u n c t i o n a l i n n a t u r e , terms of different variables such as directed towards equipment or objects, the consumption attitude, purchase intention, repurchase of which is motivated by rational needs (Albers-Miller intention and the like. and Stafford, 1999, Naidu, 2017). Literature has provided travel experience on a cruise ship as examples of experiential services, which banking and insurance services as instances of utilitarian services. Type of service-experiential and utilitarian has been brought forth as an important context in service advertising: the effectiveness of service advertising depends on the type of service. It is accordingly hypothesised that: H1a: Customer attitude towards service provider varies significantly across the types of services: experiential and utilitarian H1b: Purchase intention varies significantly across the types of services: experiential and utilitarian Effectiveness of Service Advertising Execution Styles Different execution styles in service advertisements-visualisation, physical representation and documentation have been examined for effectiveness in research. Stafford (1996) reported that documentation was found more effective for a hotel service and an auto repairs service, whereas physical representation did not have any significant result on the measures considered in the study. However, based on content analysis of effective service advertisements, Mortimer (2008) found physical representation to be prevalent in effective service advertising. She proposed that the use of physical representation in effective service advertisements implied customers seek something tangible to associate the service with. Also arguing in favour of physical representation, Shostack (1977) put forth that since services are intangible, they are abstract and hence reliance needs to be placed on peripheral tangible cues such that the customer can judge the service before using or buying it on the basis of the tangible evidence that surrounds the service. Stafford and Day (1995) found rational appeals-a type of documentation style (Hill, et al., 2004) to be more effective in retail services of both types-experiential and utilitarian. Similarly, comparing visualisation and documentation styles, Stafford and Stafford (2001) found documentation to elicit more favourable evaluations than visualisation for both types of services: services with 'high preference heterogeneity'-services equivalent to experiential services and services with 'low preference heterogeneity'-

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services representing utilitarian services (Naidu, 2017). Contrarily, 'narratives'-a type of visualisation style, have been reported as being more suitable in advertising of services (Pladgett and Allen, 1997; Adaval and Wayer, 1998; Matilla, 2000; Hill et al., 2004; Naidu, 2017). Additionally, Hill et al., (2004) found visualisation to be effective for both utilitarian and hedonic (experiential) services, while documentation was found effective for only hedonic, not utilitarian services (Naidu, 2017). While research contains contradictory findings with respect to effectiveness of service advertising styles, studies have demonstrated effectiveness of specific service advertising styles-visualisation, physical representation and documentation-do indeed vary in their effectiveness in shaping customer responses. Accordingly, it is expected to find similar differences in the effectiveness of these service advertising styles in terms of customer responses and hypothesise: H2a: Customer attitude towards service provider varies significantly across the service advertising execution styles: visualisation, physical representation and documentation H2b: Purchase intention varies significantly across the service advertising execution styles: visualisation, physical representation and documentation Effectiveness of Advertising Appeals in Service Advertising Service advertising research has also focused on the type of appeal used or should be used, with a number of studies focusing on rational versus emotional appeals. Advertising using rational appeals assumes that consumers purchase on rational and logical basis, purchase decision making involves information processing and accordingly While research contains contradictory are designed to affect the customer's belief about the findings with respect to effectiveness advertised brand through the use of persuasive arguments of service advertising styles, studies have and/or reasons about brand attributes; while emotional demonstrated effectiveness of specific a p p e a l s s t r e s s o n t h e emotional and experiential facets of consumption, motivating purchase by service advertising styles. inducing either positive or negative emotions (AlbersMiller and Stafford, 1999; Naidu, 2017). Further, emotional may be related to feelings such as adventure, fear, romance and status (Cutler and Javalgi, 1993) and which, according to Johar and Sirgy (1991), involves a match between the product's value expressive attributes and the customer's self-concept (Mortimer, 2008). On the other hand, rational appeals primarily involve the presentation of factual information in a direct manner, characterised by objectivity (Stafford and Day, 1995); has been referred to as informational advertising (Puto and Wells, 1984) and which, according to Johar and Sirgy (1991), involves a match between beliefs of the product's utilitarian attributes and consumer's ideal attributes (Mortimer, 2008). Young (1981) put forth that in services, the traditional hierarchy does not apply, instead a 'feel-do-think' pattern applies in the customer making a service choice and accordingly services use more of transformational advertising that features more of 'feel appeals' or emotional appeals (Tripp, 1997). Unwin (1975) proposed that emotional appeals such as peace of mind can be effective for services (Mortimer, 2002). Cutler and Javangi (1993) reported higher usage of emotional appeals in service advertising than in product advertising (Mortimer and Mathews, 1998). The matching principle that type of appeal should match the type of product i.e. rational appeal for utilitarian products and emotional appeals for experiential products as suggested by Johar and Sirgy (1991) has found its application in service advertising too with Day (1992) finding that experiential services (such as travel) used less quality cues (quality can be considered a part of rational cue) in their advertisements as compared to utilitarian services (Mortimer, 2001). Albers-Miller and Stafford (1999)

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also reported rational appeals were found more prominent in utilitarian services and emotional appeals more, in case of experiential services. However, conflicting results have been reported such that while Stafford and Day (1995); Stafford, (1996); Stafford and Stafford (2001) found rational appeals to be more effective for all types of services, including experiential and utilitarian; Mortimer (2008) contended that services, including high involvement services, are chosen more for emotional reasons and as such, emotional appeals are more effective in services (Naidu, 2017) Despite contradictory findings in service advertising regarding the effectiveness of appeals-rational and emotional used in services, it becomes clear that these two appeals are considered to vary in their effectiveness in service advertising. Accordingly, it is hypothesised: H3a: Customer attitude towards service provider varies significantly across the service advertising appeals: emotional and rational H3b: Purchase intention varies significantly across the service advertising appeals: emotional and rational. III. Methodology A descriptive study was conducted in a major tier 2 city of India-Indore, whereby a sample of 350 respondents-a number considered adequate for this study-were asked to complete pre-structured questionnaires requiring them to rate their attitudes towards the service provider and purchase intentions on the basis of a booklet carrying service advertisements shared with them. In all, the respondents were shown 12 mock, print service advertisements which In this study, it was found that the varied across two types of services-experiential and utilitarian; three types of service advertising execution type of service-experiential and styles-visualisation, physical representation and utilitarian did not account for documentation and two types of appeals-rational and significant differences in the customer emotional. Mock service advertisements were attitude towards service provider nor designed and used in the study, to allow researchers a in the purchase intentions. greater control in the study as well as to eliminate any prior impressions formed by real life service advertisements. These advertisements were designed by an advertising professional based on the instructions provided by the researchers. Further, each advertisement was presented with specific simulated buying situations allowing the sample to respond accordingly. The advertisements were compared for measures of customer attitudes towards service provider and purchase intentions using one-way ANOVA and t tests at a confidence level of 95percent. Customer attitude towards service provider and purchase intentions were measured on a seven point semantic differential scale developed by Spears and Singh (2004) : according to the scale developed by Spears and Singh (2004), customer attitude towards the brand or the service provider was measured along five bipolar adjectives: unappealing-appealing; bad-good; unpleasant-pleasant; unfavourable-favourable and unlikable-likable while purchase intention was measured using five bipolar adjectives: never-definitely; definitely do not intend to buy-definitely intend; very low purchase interest-high purchase interest; definitely not buy it-definitely buy it and probably not but it-probably buy it (Naidu, 2017). IV. Analysis and Findings Descriptive Statistics of the Sample Based on the analysis of the initial 50 filled questionnaires, the Cronbach Alpha was found to be high at 0.972, thereby establishing the reliability of the data.

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The sample comprised of about 80percent males and 18percent females; in age groups between 25-35 years (about 60percent); between 35-45 years (27percent); between 45-55 years (9percent) and above 55 years (3percent); with monthly incomes of Rs10,000- Rs. 30,000 (8.3percent); Rs. 30,000- Rs. 50,000 (31percent); Rs. 50,000-Rs. 70,000 (12percent) and above Rs.1,00,000 (5percent).; in various occupations: business (41.1percent); government services (7percent); professionals (8percent) and salaried employment (42percent). 1a. Customer Attitude towards Service Provider based on Type of Service Average customer attitude towards service provider was found as 4.78 and 4.77 for experiential services and utilitarian services respectively. However, the differences in customer attitude towards service provider across the two types of services-experiential and utilitarian was not significantly with p=0.823 as elicited by a t test. Accordingly, H1a was rejected. 1b. Purchase Intentions and Service Type: The average purchase intention as elicited in experiential services is 4.41 while that elicited in utilitarian services is 4.34. This difference was however, not found significant, with p=0.137 as per a t test at 95percent confidence level. Accordingly, H1 b is also rejected. With H1a and H1 b, both being rejected, no significant differences were found in the effectiveness of advertising between utilitarian services and experiential type of service as measured by customer attitude towards the service provider and purchase intentions. Specifically, effectiveness of service advertising as measured by customer attitude towards service provider and purchase intentions does not vary across service types: experiential and utilitarian. Table - I ANOVA- Customer Attitude Towards Service Provider and Purchase Intentions based on the Service Advertising Execution Styles I (A): Test of Significant between Customer Attitude Towards Service Provider across the 3 Service Advertising Execution Styles Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. .000 Between Groups 40.488 2 20.244 10.235 7707.711 3897 1.978 Within Groups Total 7748.200 3899 I (B) Test of Significant between Purchase Intentions across the 3 Service Advertising Execution Styles Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Between Groups 2 20.684 10.924 .000 41.368 7379.046 1.894 3897 Within Groups Total 3899 7420.414 2a. Customer Attitude towards Service Provider based on Advertising Execution Styles When customer attitude towards service provider was compared across the three service advertising execution styles, through a one-way ANOVA, it was found that the average attitude towards service provider varied significantly across the three service advertising execution styles- visualisation, physical representation and documentation. The average attitude towards service provider for Physical representation was 4.91; for Visualisation: 4.73 and for Documentation: 4.65. This differences in the average customer attitude towards service provider as elicited by the three separate service advertising

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execution styles considered, was found significant with p=0.00 at a confidence level of 95percent [Please see Table I (A)] Accordingly, H2a is supported. In terms of effectiveness in eliciting a positive attitude towards service provider, physical representation is most effective, followed by visualisation and finally, by documentation. 2b. Purchase Intentions based on Service Advertising Execution Styles: Average purchase intentions were found as 4.52, 4.306 and 4.303 for physical representation, visualisation and documentation respectively. A one-way ANOVA test confirmed the differences in average purchase intentions as elicited by the three service advertising execution styles as significant with p = 0.000 at a 95percent confidence level [Please see Table I (B)], leading to the support of H2b. Physical representation is most effective in terms of purchase intentions, followed by visualisation and then documentation. Table - II Independent Samples Test - Customer Attitude towards Service Provider and Purchase Intentions based on the Advertising Appeals II(A): Test of Significance of differences in Customer Attitude towards Service Provider across the 2 Appeals t-test for Equality of Means Levene's Test for Equality of Variances average

F

Sig.

t

df

Equal variances assumed

19.706

.000

3.375

Sig. (2-tailed) 3898

3.432 3692.374

Equal variances not assumed

.001 .001

II (B): Test of Significant of Differences in Purchase Intentions across the 2 Appeals Levene's Test for Equality of t-test for Equality of Means Variances Sig. (2F Df Sig. t tailed) .904 3898 .008 Equal variances assumed 2.648 .015 average

Equal variances not assumed

2.648 3896.357

.008

3a. Customer Attitude towards Service Provider based on Advertising Appeals: When attitude towards service provider was compared across appeals-emotional and rational, it was found that rational appeals led to a higher customer attitude towards service provider than emotional appeals for all service advertisements. The average customer attitude towards service provider were 4.86 and 4.71 as elicited by rational and emotional appeals respectively. The difference in the average customer attitude towards service provider as elicited by the two appeals: rational and emotional was found to be significant with p=0.001 via a t test at a confidence level of 95percent [Please see Table II (A)], thereby supporting H3a. Specifically, the findings showed that rational appeals lead to more positive customer attitudes towards the service provider than emotional appeals. 3b. Purchase Intentions based on Advertising Appeals: Average purchase intentions ratings as formed by rational appeals were found as 4.43, and as formed by emotional appeals was found as 4.31. The difference in the average purchase intentions between rational and emotional appeals is significant with p = 0.008 at a confidence level of 95percent [Please see Table II (B)] providing support for H3b. In terms of generating stronger purchase intentions, rational appeals are more effective than emotional appeals. 59


With both H3a and H3b being supported, it is evident that the two appeals-rational and emotional as used in service advertising do indeed lead to significantly different customer attitude towards the service provider as well as purchase intentions. In terms of both the measures of advertising effectiveness considered in this study: customer attitude towards service provider and purchase intentions, rational appeals were found as more effective than emotional appeals. V. Conclusions and Discussion Prior research (Hill and Gandhi, 1992; Mortimer, 2001; Grove, et al., 1995) has indicated the importance of considering the characteristics of services in terms of types of services both for selection of service advertising guidelines as well as in making service advertising research more meaningful. The types of services considered in most of service advertising research are services classified along the Stafford and Day's (1995) experiential-utilitarian categories. However, in this study, it was found that the type of service-experiential and utilitarian did not account for significant differences in the customer attitude towards service provider nor in the purchase intentions. Conflicting prior literature, it was found, the type of service does not have an impact on the effectiveness of service advertising, especially, when measured in terms of customer attitude towards service provider and purchase intentions. Rational appeals were found more effective than emotional appeals in influencing both, customer attitude towards service provider as well as purchase intentions. While this finding conflicts with Vakratsas and Amler's (1999) claim that experience and service brands need more creative and affective advertising which may provide higher returns than industrial or search brands which require cognition or informational advertising; goes against the findings of Cutler and Javalgi (1983) that service advertising uses Rational appeals were found more more of emotional appeals as well as contradicts Abernethy and Butler's (1992) report that service effective than emotional appeals in advertising use far fewer information cues; the study, influencing both, customer attitude supports the findings of Zinkhan, et al., (1992), that towards service provider as well as services overall use more of informational or cognitive purchase intentions. ads. That rational appeals are more effective than emotions appeals, also supports Stafford and Day (1995) who reported rational appeals to be more effective in service regardless of their types. This finding however, refutes the matching principle in which emotional appeals are more suitable for experiential services and rational appeals are more suited for utilitarian services with rational appeals being found more effective than emotional appeal: it seems the Indian customer finds rational appeals more appealing than emotional appeals. This is further corroborated in actual service advertising practices in India as evidenced in service advertisements that have appeared in some renowned magazines of India, such as India Today and Outlook wherein rational appeals are prevalent among a number of service advertisers that include, both experiential as well as utilitarian services: for instance, rational appeals are evident in the advertisements of 'Travel House' (tourism); Muhtoot Fincorp and Vijaya Bank (both financial service providers); Spice Jet (airlines); Fed Ex (delivery services); Australia tourism (tourism). Both customer attitude towards service provider and purchase intentions varied significantly across the three executional styles-visualisation, physical representation and documentation such that the dependent variables were rated highest in physical representation, followed by visualisation and then documentation. These results confirm with the actual practices in advertising adopted by service providers in India: GRT Hotels and Resorts, 'Vijaya Bank', 'IFMR' (an educational institute); 'Birla International School', 'Asian Institute of Medical Sciences' are among those that have primarily used physical representation as a service advertising execution style in their advertising. This conflicts the findings of Stafford (1996) who reported documentation being more effective in services with physical representation having no significant effects. The study also conflicts studies that have reported narratives

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–a special type of visualisation to be more effective in services (Adaval and Wyer, 1998; Matilla, 2000) as well as the findings of Hill et al., (2004) who reported that visualisation led to more favourable customer evaluations. Specifically, supporting Mortimer (2008) and Shostack (1977), the style that emerged as more effective in terms of customer attitude towards service provider and purchase intentions, was physical representation. Further, in India, supporting Stafford and Day (1995) and conflicting the matching principle, rational appeals were found more effective than emotional appeals in services. With the findings of a few studies set in the context of western, developed economies-the US and UK being contradicted in this study, it becomes evident that findings in the context of western, developed economies may not be generalised to the context of India. The major finding and managerial implications of this study is that to effectively advertise services in India, service providers would do well to use rational appeals and the physical representation style in their service advertisements. References Albers, Miller. N.D., & Stafford, M.R. (1999). An international analysis of emotional and rational appeals in services vs. goods advertising. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 16 (1), 42-57. Bateson, John E.G. (1979). Why we need service marketing. In Ferrell O.C., Brown S.W., & Lamb C.W. (Eds) Conceptual and theoretical developments in marketing, pp. 131-146, Chicago: American Marketing Association. Berry, L. L. (1981). Perspectives on the retailing of services, In Ronald W. Stampfli., & Elizabeth C. Hirschman (Eds) Theory in retailing: Traditional and non traditional Sources, pp. 9-20, Chicago: American Marketing Association. Berry L. L., & Clark T. (1986, October- December). Four ways to make services more tangible. Business, 36, 53-54. Bowen, J. (1990). Development of a taxonomy of services to gain strategic marketing insights. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 18(1), 43-49. Cutler B.D., & Javalgi, R.J. (1993). Analysis of print ad features: Services versus products. Journal of Advertising Research, 33 (2), 62-70. Day E. (1992). Conveying service quality through advertising. Journal of Services Marketing, 6(4), 53-61. George W.R., & Berry L. L. (1981). Guidelines for the advertising of services. Business Horizons, 24(4), 52-56. Gronroos, C. (2007). Service management and marketing – Customer management in service competition. New Delhi: Wiley India. Grove S.J., Pickett G.M., & Laband D.N. (1995). An empirical examination of factual information content among service adverts. Service Industries Journal, 15(2), 216-233. Grove, S.J., Grove, S.J., & Stafford M. R. (1997). Addressing the advertising of services: A call to action. Journal of Advertising, 26(4), 1-6 Hill, D.J., & Gandhi, N. (1992). Services Advertising: A Framework to its effectiveness. Journal of Services Marketing, 6(4), 63-76. Hill, D.J., Blodgett, J., Baer, R., & Wakefield, K. (2004). An investigation of visualization and documentation strategies in services advertising. Journal of Service Research, 7(2), 155- 166. Johar, J.S., & Sirgy, M.J. (1991). Value expressive versus utilitarian advertising appeals: When and why to use which appeal. Journal of Advertising, 20 (3), 23-33. Legg, D., & Baker, J. (1987). Advertising strategies for service firms. Add Value to your Service, 163-8.

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