Anaerobic Performance: Assessment and Training

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recording of a mechanical performance online and calculation of other performance ...... E. Transfer of the motor skill from “dry land” training to the take-off.
Anaerobic Performance: Assessment and Training

Michal Lehnert Rudolf Psotta Miroslav Janura Erika Zemková Tomáš Malý Dušan Hamar František Zahálka Daniel Jandačka Miroslav Vavák Filip Neuls Jana Hoffmannová Michal Botek Luděk Šebek

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AUTHORS doc. PaedDr. Michal Lehnert, Dr. 1) doc. PaedDr. Rudolf Psotta, Ph.D. 1) prof. RNDr. Miroslav Janura, Dr. 1) doc. Mgr. Erika Zemková, Ph.D. 2) PaedDr. Tomáš Malý, Ph.D.3) prof. MUDr. Dušan Hamar, Ph.D. 2) doc. Ing. František Zahálka, Ph.D. 3) Mgr. Daniel Jandačka, Ph.D.4) doc. Mgr. Miroslav Vavák, Ph.D. 2) Mgr. Filip Neuls, Ph.D.1) PhDr. Jana Hoffmannová 1) PhDr. Michal Botek, Ph.D.1) Mgr. Luděk Šebek, Ph.D.1) 1) 2)

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Faculty of Physical Culture, Palacky University in Olomouc Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, Comenius University in Bratislava Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, Charles University in Prague Pedagogical Faculty, University of Ostrava

REVIEWERS doc. PaedDr. Ludmila Zapletalová, Ph.D. doc. PaedDr. Tomáš Perič, Ph.D. This publication is supported by the research project of the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports No. 6198959221 ―Physical Activity and Inactivity of Inhabitants of the Czech Republic in the Context of Behavioral Changes―.

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CONTENTS Preface................................................................................................5 1 Sport-Specific Assessment of Anaerobic Performance ..................7 (Zemková/Hamar) 1. 1 Isokinetic Cycle Ergometry ...........................................................7 1. 2 Tethered Running on the Treadmill ............................................ 24 1. 3 Rebound Jumps on Jump Ergometer........................................... 32 2 Strength Assessment Using Isokinetic Dynamometry ................ 38 (Malý/Zahálka) 2. 1 Isokinetic Dynamometry as a Diagnostic Method in Sport .......... 39 2. 2 The Role of the Isokinetic Strength of Lower Limb Diagnostics in Soccer ................................................................. 45 2. 3 Examples of the Use of Isokinetic Strength Monitoring in Soccer Players........................................................................ 46 2. 4 Unilateral Comparison ............................................................... 51 2. 5 Bilateral Comparison ................................................................. 53 2. 6 Design of Individualization in the Training Process and Its Verification in an Example of a Professional Soccer Player ........ 56 3 Assessment of Intermittent Anaerobic Performance .................. 64 (Psotta) 3. 1 Physiological Characteristics of Intermittent Maximal Intensity Exercise....................................................................... 65 3. 2 Tests of Intermittent Anaerobic Performance .............................. 67 3. 3 Research on Assessment of Intermittent Anaerobic Performance............................................................................... 69 3. 4 The Use of Intermittent Tests for Assessment of Individual Specificity of Physical Performance ........................................... 86 3. 5 Conclusions ............................................................................... 88 4 Kinetics of the Take-off in Ski Jumping ...................................... 90 (Janura/Jandačka) 4. 1 The Take-off in Ski Jumping on a Jumping Hill ......................... 91 4. 2 Take-off Training – Laboratory and Field Conditions ................. 96 4. 3 Conclusions and Recommendations for the Practice ................. 110 3

5 Anaerobic Training and Its Individualization in Volleyball ..... 113 (Lehnert/Vavák) 5. 1 Adaptations to Anaerobic Training ........................................... 113 5. 2 Muscle Strength in Volleyball Game Performance and Training............................................................................. 114 5. 3 Training of Take-off Power in Volleyball Using the Plyometric Method................................................................... 118 5. 4 The Individual Effect of Toning in Top Volleyball Players during Their Preparation for a Match........................................ 125 5. 5 The Individual Reaction of the Autonomous Nervous System of the Volleyball Players in the Training Micro-Cycle with an Increased Strength Load............................................... 131 6 Individualization in Sports Training ......................................... 135 (Lehnert/Hoffmannová/Neuls/Botek/Šebek ) 6. 1 The Theoretical Foundation of Individualization ...................... 135 6. 2 The Foundation for Implementing Individualization in Sports Training .................................................................... 138 6. 3 Individualization and Training Process Control ........................ 144 Summary ....................................................................................... 146 References ..................................................................................... 149 Index ............................................................................................. 182

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PREFACE Since a period of widespread interest in sport and exercise physiology in aerobic performance between the 1960s and 1980s, a great number of findings about muscle power and anaerobic performance of a human being have been gathered. Such a development is logical. The performance in many sports and their attractiveness for the spectators is conditioned, without a doubt by the athlete’s ability to produce a high level of muscle power in smartly coordinated movement actions. This fact is true for speed-power sports, typical of a fewseconds performance, as well as for sports games and martial arts However, endurance sports do not stand apart either. The performance in these sports is primarily determined by aerobic metabolic processes, but some episodes of a competition demand a very high level of muscle performance of a short duration and can be the key moments for success. A human anaerobic performance is not only connected to elite sports. A significant volume of the evidences already exists concerning the fact that physical activity in children as well as adults has the character of alternating between very short intervals of high intensity and those of lower intensity rather than in the form of continuous load. Youth and young people prefer movement activities of a speed-strength character. Besides the traditional interest in sports games, the attractiveness of dynamic, ―adrenalin‖ sports is evident. These bring suspense, risk and emotional excitement with a simultaneous manifestation of muscle power and movement speed. The aim of this scientific publication is to present information about the current methodological approaches to the diagnostics of muscle power, anaerobic performance and capacity and their use during training and practice. This book includes the original results of verifying validity, reliability, sensitivity and practical feasibility of methods for assessment of anaerobic power and capacity, which fulfill the requirement of sports-specific diagnostics. The ways to use the results of the diagnostic examinations for the planning of further 5

training of athletes with regard to the determined strengths and weaknesses in the structure of anaerobic predispositions are presented. In connection to this the book presents results of two training experiments and a case study connected to the effect of plyometric training, muscle toning before a volleyball match to improve lower extremity muscle power and to individualize strength training. The problems of take-off strength itself are specific and related to the motion pattern and external conditions of the take-off, as is documented in the chapter devoted to the take-off in ski jumping with the use of biomechanical analysis. This book was created with the conviction that the evidence-based training also requires a development of diagnostic tools, which are specific according to sport activity and sensitive enough for assessment of the organism’s adaptation to the training. For the team of authors Rudolf Psotta and Michal Lehnert

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1 SPORT-SPECIFIC ASSESSMENT OF ANAEROBIC PERFORMANCE Anaerobic capabilities play an important role in performance of many sports, thus their assessment should be considered an integral part of the functional diagnostics of these athletes. Contrary to aerobic abilities, the anaerobic capabilities have to be assessed by measurement of mechanical power produced by activated muscles. For this purpose, specific ―all-out‖ bouts of exercise similar to the particular sports are preferred (jumping, weight lifting, cycling, stairs, uphill running, paddling, rowing, tethered running, tethered swimming, etc.). This chapter deals with the assessment of anaerobic performance under such sports-specific conditions. 1. 1 ISOKINETIC CYCLE ERGOMETRY An isokinetic cycle ergometer features feedback regulation of braking resistance keeping the revolution rate constant, regardless of the force applied to the pedals (Hamar, Gažovič, Schickhofer, & Komadel, 1994). As long as the revolution rate remains below the preset level, e.g., 60 rpm, there is no active braking force produced by the system. Under such conditions the resistance comes from inertia and the minimal friction within the system. If the force applied is higher than the force resulting from inertia, a friction acceleration of movement of the pedals above the preset level takes place. In order to keep the cadence constant, the control system rapidly increases the braking force. Consequently, the revolution rate drops down below the preset level. In this moment, the control center releases the brake and consequently the force applied to the pedals accelerates the revolutions above the preset level. In this moment the system increases the braking force again to slow down the movement of the pedals and the entire control cycle starts again. So, in fact, the revolution rate fluctuates 7

around the preset level. However, if the feedback regulation is tight enough, such a fluctuation can only be detected by a sensitive measuring device, but not perceived by the exercising subjects. From a practical point of view, the revolution rate remains constant, regardless of the force applied to the pedals. In order to measure effective tangential forces, i.e., forces perpendicular to the crank, produced by the subject by applying force to the pedals, on an isokinetic cycle ergometer designed in our laboratory, a special tensometer was mounted to the transmission chain (Figure 1). A typical force-over-time curve during isokinetic pedaling on this cycle ergometer at the frequency of 60 rpm (Figure 2) shows the typical fluctuation due to changing biomechanical conditions for effective force production to the pedals throughout a pedaling cycle. Longer dashes on the X-axis indicate the crank position with the right leg at the top, i.e., at an arbitrary 0 degree of the 360 degree cycle. Figure 1. Computerized Isokinetic Cycle Ergometer with a Braking Reserve of up to 2000 N and 3000 W

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Figure 2. Typical Fluctuation of Effective Forces during Isokinetic Pedaling at 60 rpm

By means of a special software routine it is possible to average the chosen number of cycles (separated by dashes on the time axis) to one, representing a kind of pedaling pattern of a particular subject (Figure 3). This can be employed for an analysis of the effective force applied to pedals at each particular position in one complete cycle. As is obvious from the chart, there is a minimum force at the vertical crank position, which changes to a maximum produced by the right leg in the horizontal position. Furthermore, there is an evident decrease to another minimum in second vertical position followed by a rise to the second maximum produced by left leg. The equipment can be used for the evaluation of anaerobic capabilities. The Isokinetic Principle combined with high braking reserves of (up to 2000 N and 3000 W) allows measuring an all-out force and power output at various revolution rates. In highly trained cyclists mean values of force and power reach 1200 N and 1500 W, respectively, whereas peaks go up to 2000 N and 3000 W, respectively.

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Figure 3. Force over Position Curve Averaged from 30 Completed Cycles of Isokinetic Pedaling at 60 rpm

Reliability of the Parameters of Isokinetic Cycling Ergometry Measurement error of the parameters of the FiTRO Isokinetic Cycle Ergometer (FiTRONiC, SK) ranges from 3.3% to 5.4% (Hamar Gažovič, & Schickhofer, 1994) and is similar or even lower when compared to estimates in previous isokinetic systems. For instance, measurement error of the Spark amounts to 5.8% to 9.6% (Seger Westing, Hanson, Karlson, & Ekblom, 1988).

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Assessment of Maximal Anaerobic Power on the Isokinetic Cycle Ergometer It is known that while the force produced during isokinetic cycling declines with increasing revolution rates, the power increases and after reaching a peak a decrease sets in (Figure 4). From such a power to revolution rates relationship it is clear that similar power can be produced during isokinetic cycling, either at higher or lower revolution rates, with correspondingly lower or higher force. In this way, it is possible to assess the ability to produce power at different revolution rates including the estimation of optimal value, i.e., the one at which the highest power can be achieved. It has been shown that although cycling training generally increases the ability to produce power, there is a tendency toward more pronounced changes at the revolution rates which are preferred in a particular training period (Hamar, 1999b). The individually optimal revolution rate depends mainly on the ratio of fast-twitch and slow-twitch fibers and remains relatively uninfluenced by training. Figure 4. Maximal Force and Power at Revolution Rates from 40 to 140∙min -1 14

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In the following section, some results are provided for laboratory diagnostics using isokinetic cycle ergometry carried out at the Department of Sports Medicine of the Medical Faculty of Comenius University in Bratislava.

Force and Power vs. Revolution Rates in Athletes and Untrained Subjects As shown in Figures 5 and 6, force and power are higher in cyclists than in karate athletes and untrained subjects across all the revolution rates tested (Dzurenková, Zemková, & Marček, 2002). In addition, maximal power in cyclists was achieved at 120 rpm (14.0 W∙kg -1), in karate athletes at 110 rpm (11.1 W∙kg-1), and in untrained subjects at 100 rpm (8.46 W∙kg-1). Figure 5. Force during Short-Term “all-out” Exercise Bouts on an Isokinetic Cycle Ergometer at Revolution Rates from 40 to 140 per Minute in Athletes and Untrained Subjects 12

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Figure 6. Power During Short-Term “all-out” Exercise Bouts on an Isokinetic Cycle Ergometer at Revolution Rates from 40 to 140 per Minute in Athletes and Untrained Subjects 16 14

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Force and Power vs. Revolution Rates in Athletes of Different Age and Performance Levels The power between younger and older karate competitors differs significantly (p