Artificial cranial modification on a female ... - Wiley Online Library

International Journal of Osteoarchaeology

Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 21: 464–478 (2011) Published online 13 January 2010 in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI: 10.1002/oa.1153

Artificial Cranial Modification on a Female Skeleton From the Byzantine Site of Maroneia (Thrace, Greece) PARASKEVI TRITSAROLI* Wiener Laboratory, American School of Classical Studies, 54 Souidias street, Athens GR-106 76, Greece

ABSTRACT

Artificial cranial modification is one of the most often documented types of intentional intervention on the human skeleton in the anthropological record. A female cranium exhibiting headshaping recently came to light at the Early Byzantine site of Maroneia, in Thrace, northern Greece. Headshaping was practiced by several different population groups during the migration period (1st–9th c. AD), but was unknown in Byzantine customs. Homogeneity in burial customs, evidenced by the skeleton’s position and orientation and by cemetery topography, strongly supports the hypothesis that this burial belonged to a Christianised citizen who had the right to be buried in a common Christian cemetery. Headshaping provides strong evidence for the cultural adaptability and complexity of Early Byzantine society at Maroneia, an important provincial urban centre of the Byzantine Empire. Copyright ß 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Key words: circular cranial modification; burial customs; migration period; Byzantium; Greece

Introduction Early Byzantine period (4th–8th c. AD) was marked by frequent geopolitical changes and significant population movements into and within Europe, including the Balkans. Historical sources indicate that people from different religions and ethnicities were not always in conflict with each other during Byzantine times, but peacefully coexisted within the generally Christian, Orthodox society. Furthermore, the large territorial extent of the Byzantine Empire had lead to the creation of a much diversified population. Different population groups were distinguished by their origin, language, religious beliefs and customs (Lefort, 2006). This study attempts to explore the cultural diversity of the Early Byzantine society through the first case of artificial cranial modification that was uncovered at the site of Maroneia in the northern Greek region of Thrace. The expansion of cranial modification in the area of Europe is related to the migration period during the 1st–9th c. AD (Fo`thi, 2000). Several artificially modified skulls from historical times have been uncovered in Western Europe (Delisle, 1889; Kiszely, * Correspondence to: Wiener Laboratory, American School of Classical Studies, 54 Souidias street, Athens GR-106 76, Greece. e-mail: [email protected]

Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

1978; Simon, 1978; Duday, 1983; Formicola & Scarsini, 1987; Buchet, 1988; Maureille et al., 1995; Benˇusˇ et al., 1999; Kusta´r, 1999) indicating the presence of elements originating from the East (Buchet, 1988; Buchet, 1997). Dingwall (1931) recounts that ‘head deformation produced by the application of wads, pads and bandages to the head is prevalent throughout the Tiflis area [the region around the Caucasus and the Black Sea] among Armenians, Jews, Greeks and Ossetes, and the result is to flatten the forehead’. More precisely, artificial cranial modification is associated with the Alans, Avars, Quades, Goths, Gepids and Huns. Several cases close to Greece are reported in Romania, Bulgaria, the area of formerYugoslavia, Hungary and Italy, dating from 2nd to 8th c. AD (Kiszely, 1978). This period covers the transition from late antiquity to the foundation of the Byzantine Empire and extends to the so-called ‘Dark Ages’. Consequently, headshaping in Byzantine Greece did not arise in isolation from practices in surrounding regions. Artificial cranial modification was not a customary practice in Christian tradition and culture, and never documented before in Byzantine cemetery populations from Greece. The discovery of the skeleton with the shaped head at the site of Maroneia suggests the presence of an individual with a cultural background distinct from that of the other, non-head-shaped Received 23 February 2009 Revised 11 December 2009 Accepted 18 December 2009

Cranial Modification in Byzantine Greece individuals in the sample. Thus, this specimen represents an additional source of information about culture contact in the Early Byzantine period by the spread of different cultural practices in the Greek territory. The paper describes the individual with the shaped head and combines anthropological information on headshaping with archaeological and historical evidence on burial customs and cemetery topography. At the present state of analysis, there is no reliable evidence available to discuss the origin of this individual. The study addresses two major issues: firstly, evaluate artificial cranial modification as an indicator of regional connections and cultural diffusion; and secondly, investigate the ways in which Early Byzantine society integrated an individual using artificial skull modification as marker of sociocultural difference.

Maroneia in the Early Byzantine period The ancient city of Maroneia in Thrace was founded in the 7th c. BC and continuously occupied until the post-Byzantine period (13th c. AD). Maroneia remained prosperous through antiquity until the Early Byzantine era, when, like other ancient city-states, it was transformed into a Byzantine fortress (DoukataDemertzi, 2005). Several of the site’s occupational phases, including that belonging to the Early Byzantine period, reveal that Maroneia was for many centuries an urban centre with flourishing commercial exchanges and an industrial and agrarian economy (Doukata, 1991a; Doukata, 1991b; Doukata-Demertzi, 1994). Maroneia was also a cosmopolitan city with rich ecclesiastical and secular buildings, whose prosperous port lay on the northern Aegean route to Constantinople, capital of the Byzantine Empire. Considering its strategic location, Maroneia didn’t escape invasions and conflicts with migratory population groups. From the mid 3rd c. AD until AD 382, Maroneia was dominated by Visigoths and Ostrogoths. The Huns also attacked the Balkans twice. They first unsuccessfully threatened Maroneia in AD 441, followed by the Bulgarians (AD 491–515), Antes (AD 517–578) and Avars (AD 583–679) (Tziovas, 1932; Tremopoulos, 1966). Nevertheless, archaeological and historical evidence attest that Maroneia was not abandoned but survived theses trials, retained its population (Doukata-Demertzi, 2008) and soon regained its role as a functional urban centre of the Byzantine State. Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

465

Materials The Byzantine site of Maroneia, situated today in the areas of Paleochora and Aghios Charalambos, lies approximately 3 km southeast of the modern village of Maroneia in southern Rodopi (Figure 1). Burial grounds have been identified both inside and outside the Byzantine city walls of Maroneia (Triantafyllos, 1973; Aliprantis, 1994; Karadima, 1994, 1995; Aliprantis, 1996; Doukata, 1996; Doukata-Demertzi, 1997). Extramural burials presently include graves in the area of the ancient theatre (Figure 2) and distributed among contemporary farms located mainly to the north and east of the fortified city. Archaeological and historical research reveals that cemeteries during the Early Byzantine period were only allowed outside city walls, whereas burials in later periods could be placed within fortified cities (Marki, 1990; Kourkoutidou-Nikolaidou, 1995; 1997; Doukata-Demertzi, 1997). Burials from the extramural cemetery at Maroneia consequently belong to the Early Byzantine period. Furthermore, archaeological evidence shows that the ancient theatre was abandoned in the 5th c. AD; this date represents a terminus post quem for the cemetery burials. The individual

Figure 1. Map of Greece showing the location of the site of Maroneia (Department of Rodopi, Thrace).

Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 21: 464–478 (2011)

466

P. Tritsaroli

Figure 2. Ancient theatre of Maroneia (courtesy of C. Karadima, archives of the IQ EPCA, Komotini) (top) and Early Christian graves at the ancient theatre (drowning by N. Hatzidakis, archives of the IQ EPCA, Komotini (bottom). This figure is available in colour online at wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/oa.

01/T05 with the shaped head comes from cist grave N5, which was excavated in 2001 on the west slope of the ancient theatre (Figure 2). Archaeological findings within the intramural city suggest Maroneia’s Early Byzantine period ended in the early 6th c. AD. The Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

basilica at Paleochora inside the city walls was destroyed and the site converted to a cemetery during the Dark Ages (Doukata-Demertzi, 1999). Thus, the chronological succession of the two cemeteries, along with the topographic evolution of the burial grounds, dates the Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 21: 464–478 (2011)

Cranial Modification in Byzantine Greece

467

burials from the extramural cemetery, including the burial of the woman with the shaped head, between the 5th and early 6th c. AD. Burials from the extramural cemetery were single (n ¼ 30) and double (n ¼ 3). Cist, pit and tile graves were used. The deceased were orientated west-east, some of them with little northwest-southeast deviation, in a supine position with forearms folded on chest or abdomen, in accordance with common Christian custom. The skeleton 01/T05 comes from a single primary burial in a cist grave covered with roofing stone slabs. No offering or accompanying objects were found in the burial. To date 36 individuals (32 adults and 4 subadults) have been analysed. For the purposes of the present study, only adults were considered. A total of 28 adult skulls were examined, and these are of varying degree of completeness.

Methods Determination of sex was carried out using dimorphic aspects of the pelvis (Bruzek, 2002), while age-at-death was estimated from morphological changes of the pubic symphysis and auricular surface, in accordance with Buikstra & Uberlaker (1994). Stature calculations focused on femoral length (Olivier, 1960; Olivier & Tissier, 1975a; Olivier & Tissier, 1975b) to achieve results comparable with other Greek skeletal series from the same time period (Tritsaroli, 2006a). Several bone and dental paleopathological lesions were recorded (following Buikstra & Uberlaker, 1994). Although detailed results of the general skeletal features of this sample are provided elsewhere (Tritsaroli, 2006b), including paleodemography, skeletal markers of occupational

stress and paleopathology, lesions are noted in the present report that differentiate the individual displaying headshaping from the other adults examined. Artificial cranial modification and headshaping are terms used to describe changes of skull shape by means of ‘dynamic distortion of the normal vectors of the infantile neurocranial growth through the agency of externally applied forces’ (Moss, 1958). In living populations, a distinction is made between unintentional and intentional (or artificial) modification, but in archaeological skeletal material, such a difference is difficult to demonstrate. In the present paper, evidence of headshaping was assessed on the basis of metric analysis, visual, x-ray and CT inspection. These features are employed in order to: (1) differentiate between pathological conditions, unintentional positional causes and intentional causes for modified head shapes, and (2) indicate the type of modification, and consequently the method used to achieve the particular cranial shape observed. Metric analysis uses the adult skulls as a whole while the rest of the methods focuses on the modified skull. A set of 33 standard measurements were taken (as in Buikstra & Uberlaker (1994) for skulls and mandibles on adult males, females and individuals of unknown sex, in order to quantify the morphological effects of headshaping on the cranium 01/T05 compared to the unmodified skulls. Because of the fragmentary nature of the sample, the total number of adult skulls represented is not reflected in the measurement sets, as only the individual with the shaped head yield a full set of data. In order to obtain reliable results, 19 measurements taken for less than five adult skulls and mandibles were not included in the statistical analysis. Table 1 presents standard deviation values that were estimated for 14 measurements of more than five unmodified adult

Table 1. Number of cranial and mandibular measurements, means and standard deviations (SD) for the adults and the modified skull according to sex determination. The left side was included for the pair measurements. Measurements (in mm.)

N

Males

Females

Unknown sex

Means

SD

Skull 01/T05 (female)

Basion-bregma height Maximum frontal breadth Foramen magnum length Porion-bregma height Biauricular breadth Maximum cranial breadth Parietal arch Occipital arch Mastoid length Mandibular length Bigonial width Mandibular angle Minimum ramus breadth Maximum ramus height

5 5 5 6 6 7 8 11 14 7 7 9 10 5

2 3 1 3 3 3 3 4 3 4 4 4 4 3

3 2 3 3 3 4 5 5 6 2 2 3 3 1

0 0 1 0 0 0 0 2 5 1 1 2 3 1

139 117 34 128 119 134 130 111 34 73,1 98 27,9 33,6 64,6

5.8 4.8 1.9 6.9 5.1 3.1 9.6 7.5 3.4 5.27 8.35 6.19 2.5 5.59

144 116 30 136 116 126 113 113 37 70 93 27 32 59



P. Tritsaroli

468 skulls and mandibles, with statistical significance set at 0.05. Finally, bivariate plots analysis was undertaken using cranial measurements to compare heights, breadths and arches; analysis focuses on the four following sets: porion-bregma height versus basionbregma height; maximum cranial breadth versus maximum frontal breadth; maximum frontal breadth versus parietal arch and maximum cranial breadth versus parietal arch. Unintentional modification can be caused by nutritional, hormonal or genetic factors, but also habitual positioning or commonly preferred postures during sleep (Dingwall, 1931; Rhode & Arriaza, 2006; Lekovic et al., 2007); the most common features which are typically associated with intentional headshaping are cranial synostosis and positional deformations. Cranial synostosis is a pathological condition that describes the premature fusion of one or more sutures of the skull (Cohen, 1980). When sutures fuse prematurely, head growth occurs along the axis of the fused suture (Glass et al., 2004). The effects of artificial cranial modification and cranial synostosis appear similar, but headshaping is produced by environmental factors, while many cranial synostoses seem primarily to be genetically induced (O’Loughlin, 1996). For the individual 01/T05 premature cranial synostosis is scored as present or absent (White, 1996). Premature synostosis is identified by a marked differential fusion between one suture and other major vault sutures (the suture scored as presenting premature synostosis must be obliterated both endocranially and ectocranially when other sutures are still open). Positional deformations, also called deformational modifications of the calvarium, may result from accidental and prolonged application of pressure on the posterior portion of the skull through, for example, sleeping regularly in a supine position on a relatively hard surface during infancy and childhood (Ortner & Putschar, 1981; Di Rocco et al., 1998; Bridges et al., 2002; Tubbs et al., 2006). The most common form of positional deformation is deformational nonsynostotic plagiocephaly; it is characterized by significant asymmetry that affects the cranial vault, face and skull base (Littlefield et al., 2005). In order to exclude the possibility of asymmetries on the skull 01/T05, nakedeye observation is used. Analyses of intentional cranial modification consider both skull shape and deforming devices, such as boards, pads or stones applied to the head of a newborn when the cranium and calvaria are malleable. The abnormal concavities and convexities on the modified skull’s ectocranial surface are recorded; additionally, Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

modifications on diploic bone are confirmed by using x-ray and computed tomography (CT). Radiographic analysis (50 kV, 0.15 mA, 90 cm, 0.25 sec), conducted at the Wiener Laboratory (ASCSA) in Athens, employed an Agfa Automatic X-ray Film Processor. CT Imaging was achieved using a Toshiba Aquilion 16 (16-slice CT scanner) at Evangelismos General Hospital in Athens. The morphology of the cranial face and base is also noted since it can be influenced by changes in the growth pattern of the cranial vault that are externally derived (Anto`n, 1989; Kohn et al., 1993; Frieß & Baylac, 2003). The small sample size and the fragmentary nature of the skulls, analysed here, allow neither for comparisons to be made on the frequency of sutural bones nor investigations into the aetiological relationship between headshaping and the occurrence of supernumerary ossicles (Ossenberg, 1970; Gottlieb, 1978; Anto`n et al., 1992; Konigsberg et al., 1993; White, 1996; O’Loughlin, 2004). It is also noted that age-related sutural changes and obliteration can be misleading; consequently, observations on sutural complexity should be made only on adults who have not exceeded 40 years of age, as determined by patterns of cranial suture fusion (Meindl & Lovejoy, 1985), which is the case of the specimen with the shaped head examined here. Therefore, a brief reference will be made on the degree of interdigitation, and the absence or presence of 10 sutural bones will be mentioned, as these are listed in O’Loughlin (2004). The data on sutural complexity could potentially be used in future research, when a larger sample will be excavated and other cases of headshaping will be identified from the same cemetery.

Results Analysis of the adult sample (Tritsaroli, 2006b) showed eight males and nine females. Most of the adults (16 of 19 for whom age-at-death could be estimated) were over 30 years old. Stature was estimated at 169.8 cm for males (n ¼ 6) and 156.2 cm for females (n ¼ 4). Signs of healed trauma were identified on upper limbs, clavicles, thorax and the vertebral column. Three of the four individuals showing trauma were females. Low incidence of caries and periodontal disease coupled with a high incidence of calculus suggest that men’s diet contained more meat, while women frequently consumed food rich in carbohydrates (cereals, bread) and sugar (fruits) (Tritsaroli, 2006b). The skeleton 01/T05 with the shaped head belongs to a female 44–50 years old, very well preserved. Her Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 21: 464–478 (2011)

Cranial Modification in Byzantine Greece skeletal stature was estimated at 153.2 cm, which is similar to the rest of the sample. Contrary to most of the other females, however, this individual presents low incidence of caries and high incidence of calculus. Moreover, horizontal bone loss in most upper and lower jaws’ molars and premolars is attested. Five healed rib fractures, located between the fourth and ninth ribs (three on the right, two on the left), and a possible fracture on the distal shaft of the right ulna were recorded and present similar degrees of healing. Metric analysis shows that differences between the modified skull and the rest of the adults are mainly located on the cranial vault. Two measurements, maximum cranial breadth and parietal arch, showed a clear distinction between the modified skull and the rest of the adult sample since they are significantly smaller for the modified skull (Figure 3). Moreover, the modified skull’s basionbregma height and porion-bregma height are located at the upper limits of statistical significance while foramen magnum length and biauricular breadth are located at the lower limits of statistical significance (Figure 3). Studies have shown no significant effect of artificial shaping on most mandibular measurements (Cheverud & Midkiff, 1992), but antero-posterior (AP) modification can affect the remodelling process of the mandibular angle and lead to a smaller mandibular angle in adulthood (Ogura et al., 2006).

469 No differences were found for the mandibular dimensions of the modified skull (Figure 4); however, the minimum ramus breadth and maximum ramus height approached lower limits of statistical significance. Comparison using bivariate plots analysis shows that: (1) porion-bregma height versus basion bregma height of the modified skull is grouped with males (Figure 5), (2) maximum frontal breadth of the modified skull is placed among females (Figure 6, Figure 7) and (3) parietal arch versus maximun cranial breadth of the modified skull are evidently smaller from both males and females (Figure 8). Measurements taken on four individuals, two females, one male and one of unknown sex, although not appropriate for statistical analysis, showed notable differences between these unmodified skulls and the modified skull 01/T05 (Table 2). These measurements pertain mostly to the face: frontal arch, nasal, upper facial and orbital heights. All of them were found to be higher for the modified skull. The metric features taken together show that the skull 01/T05 is narrower and higher than unmodified skulls, resulting from intentional modification. The skull presents no depressions or grooves at the level of the sutures that could indicate premature closure. Furthermore, all cranial sutures show similar degree of fusion and thus premature cranial synostosis is scored as absent. In superior view, the skull is

Figure 3. Means and standard deviation values for the cranial measurements for the modified and the unmodified adult skulls. Black square, modified skull. Standard deviation values are reported in Table 1.



470

P. Tritsaroli

Figure 4. Means and standard deviation values for the mandibular measurements for the modified and the unmodified adult skulls. Black square, modified skull. Standard deviation values are reported in Table 1.

symmetrical without the possibility of occipital or positional plagiocephaly (Figure 9). The symmetry of the modified skull’s shape and the absence of paleopathological lesions on its surface show that the modification did not result from pathological processes or unintentional practices. Taphonomic deformation is also excluded. The skull shows obvious points of pressure in the frontal, post-coronal and occipital regions. A concavity

in the middle of the frontal bone associated with a postcoronal transverse groove and a concavity at the squamous portion of the occipital were also observed (Figure 10). The bone is strongly convex and elevated at the bregma. The bunning of the skull’s nuchal area is, in fact, suggestive of artificial modification, while the shape of the frontal bone is a type of distortion that can only be achieved by manipulation with pressure, which causes the frontal bone to recede posteriorly at an

Figure 5. Bivariate plots of porion-bregma height vs. basion-bregma height. Analysis made on six individuals. Open circles, female unmodified skulls; open triangles, male unmodified skulls; black square, modified female skull.




471

Figure 6. Bivariate plots of maximum cranial breadth vs. maximum frontal breadth. Analysis made on six individuals. Open circles, female unmodified skulls; open triangles, male unmodified skulls; black square, modified female skull.

increased rate (Schendel et al., 1980). The superiormost portions of the occipital and parietal bones extend posterosuperiorly resulting in a long loaf-like appearance in superior view (Dingwall, 1931; Anto`n, 1989). The aforementioned distortions are also confirmed by evidence from the sagittal section of the skull by CT scan (Figure 11a) and x-ray (Figure 11b): the diploe¨ of the cranial vault is underdeveloped in the frontal, postbregmatic and

occipital regions where pressure has been applied, resulting in an undulation of diploic bone. In frontal view, the shaped head 01/T05 is swollen symmetrically in the region of the squamosal suture. This distortion probably resulted from movement of the brain as it adapted to the changing shape of its container (Gerszten, 1993). The orbits are also very deep, while the interorbital region has become very wide. Regarding sutural complexity, the Maroneian

Figure 7. Bivariate plots of parietal arch vs. maximum frontal breadth. Analysis made on six individuals. Open circles, female unmodified skulls; open triangles, male unmodified skulls; black square, modified female skull.



P. Tritsaroli

472

Figure 8. Bivariate plots of parietal arch vs. maximum cranial breadth. Analysis made on eight individuals. Open circles, female unmodified skulls; open triangles, male unmodified skulls; black square, modified female skull.

woman is of advanced age with an elevated degree of suture closure. As far as observations can be made, however, sutural interdigitation seems low and all sutural bones are recorded as absent. In summary, evidence obtained by metric analysis is consistent with visual, x-ray and CT observations and shows morphological changes mainly on the cranial vault, but also on base and face. These features describe clearly a skull with intentional modification; they allow for identification of the type of modification, and consequently the method used to achieve the particular cranial shape.

Discussion Artificial cranial modification (headshaping) is among the most common manifestations of culturally induced modifications of head shape during infancy (Ortner & Putschar, 1981; Aufderheide & Rodriguez-Martin,

1998; Ortner, 2003). It is a cultural marker that serves to define territory or social boundaries, reaffirm ethnicity, and maintain and strengthen exchange networks (Wobst, 1977; Schijman, 2005). Headshaping, moreover, is performed to demonstrate group affiliation (Gerszten & Gerszten, 1995; Hoshower et al., 1995; Tubbs et al., 2006), elite status (Snorrason, 1946; Gerszten & Gerszten, 1995) or as a product of fashion and imitation. The anthropological record contains numerous cases of skulls intentionally modified dating from prehistoric to modern times that were documented in geographically diverse areas (Gerszten & Gerszten, 1995; Lorentz, 2009). This global distribution suggests that artificial cranial modification originated independently in various regions of the world (Gerszten & Gerszten, 1995). In the territory of modern Greece, several cases of headshaping are reported from different time-periods (Lorentz, 2009). The first skull was found about a hundred years ago at Trikeri, Volos, but ‘neither its origin

Table 2. Row measurements for the frontal arch, interorbital breadth, nasal height, upper facial height and orbital height (left) on four adult skulls and the modified skull. Measurements (in mm.) Frontal arch Interorbital breadth Nasal height Upper facial height Orbital height (left)

1st (female)

2nd (female)

3rd (male)

4th (unknown sex)

Skull 01/T05 (female)

115 24 50 63 38

110 22 49 61 34

114 24 50 59 32

– 18 50 61 33

124 27 55 70 36




473 Neolithic samples indicates that headshaping was used as a marker of social differences (Lorentz, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2009). Finally, evidence of headshaping dated to the Roman period is reported from the Athenian Agora (Lorentz, 2009). The skull of the skeleton 01/T05 from the extra mural cemetery of Maroneia shows evidence of headshaping, a practice that so far is undocumented in Early Byzantine cemetery samples from Greece. This case is compared with two main types of headshaping that are commonly adopted for classification, in accordance with the methods used to achieve the particular cranial shape (Anto`n, 1989; Kohn et al., 1993): (1)

Figure 9. Superior view of the modified skull 01/T05. This figure is available in colour online at wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/oa.

nor its ethnic place are known’ (Kiszely, 1978). Two important series of shaped skulls come from the Neolithic cave cemetery in Tharrounia, Euboia and the Neolithic settlement of Khirokitia in Cyprus (Manolis et al., 2000; Lorentz, 2009). Extensive study of

Figure 10. Left lateral view of the modified skull 01/T05 without the mandible.


AP type, including the tabular forms (tabula erecta and tabula obliqua) of Dembo & Imbelloni (1938). AP modification results from pressure applied on the frontal and occipital bones by binding the head with pads or affixing it to a cradleboard. Skulls with AP modification are characterized by the flattening of the frontal and occipital bones and the compensatory lateral expansion of the parietal bones frequently accompanied by plagiocephaly of the erect type (Dembo and Imbelloni, 1938). (2) Circumferential or circular type (C), including Hrdlicˇka’s Aymara type (Hrdlicˇka, 1922) and the annular (erecta and obliqua) type (Dembo & Imbeloni, 1938). Circumferential modification involves use of bandages or wrapping materials applied circumferentially on the head (Dingwall, 1931). Skulls with circumferential modification extend posterosuperiorly. A posterior elongation of the superior portion of the cranial vault including the frontal, parietal and occipital regions characterizes the circumferentially modified skull. This extension of the skull results in a long, loaf-like appearance in superior view, while the cranium becomes ovoid. All morphological features observed on the Maroneian skull 01/T05 are characteristic of the circumferential type of modification. The post-coronal transverse groove suggests bandage marks. This morphology may have been induced by a bandage running over the point bregma and under the mandible, a method of artificial modification that would explain the post-coronal depression and parietal bulge (Meik¨ zbek, 2001). Underdevelopment lejohn et al., 1992; O of the diploe¨ of the frontal bone is observed in circular band deformations (Molleson & Campbell, 1995). Judging from all these features, it seems likely that the skull from Maroneia was intentionally shaped by means of bandages rather than boards. Since no modifications were observed on the mandible, a single or double Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 21: 464–478 (2011)

P. Tritsaroli

474

Figure 11. Left lateral scan section (a) and left lateral x-ray (b) of the modified skull 01/T05.

bandage running over to the point of the occipital squamous, then up to the frontal bone and the postcoronal region, seems to have been applied. Consequently, an annular modification was achieved by circumferentially wrapping the cranial vault (Tritsaroli, 2008) with a binding that was progressively adjusted (Schijman, 2005). In addition to the circular skull modification, paleopathological features taken together appear to distinguish this woman from the rest of the sample, particularly other females, with respect to her labour and nutritional habits. The injury near the wrist may have resulted from a fall, since an individual, when falling, instinctively extends one or both arms to minimise trauma risk. The fractured ribs on both sides may be due to accidents, falls or direct blows to the chest. The dental and alveolar lesions coupled with periodontal disease suggest consumption of large quantities of meat. With respect to the Maroneia sample, these lesions suggest a diet more characteristic of male nutritional habits. In contrast to other women buried in the cemetery, this female individual, apparently following traditions linked to a different cultural background, seems to have adopted a lifestyle with higher risk of trauma and a diet rich in calories. Anthropological record includes several cases of circumferentially modified skulls from areas in close proximity to northern Greece (Kiszely, 1978; Schijman, 2005). In Hungary, for example, published skulls dating to the early migration period all show the same circular type of modification (Kusta´r, 1999; Marcsik & Pap, 2000), with many of them attributed to Germanic groups. In Italy, a possible case of artificial modification Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

has also been identified dating to the 5th–7th c. AD (Saponetti et al., 2005). Finally, the Huns are known for having frequently practiced a pronounced form of circular modification and for spreading this type of modification throughout the Eurasian steppes after AD 200 (Torres-Rouff & Yablonsky, 2005). In particular, they are known to have practiced cranial vault modification in order to give themselves a more ferocious and terrifying appearance as warriors. Artificial cranial modification was also practiced by subjugated groups assimilated into Hun culture. Historical research indicates that during the 5th c. AD relationships between the Byzantine Empire and the Huns were tense (Ostrogorsky, 1996) and mainly based on warfare and economy. Attila unified the Huns in AD 434 and gained military and diplomatic superiority over his rivals by creating a vast empire that extended from the Danube to the Dnieper. The Huns became extremely dangerous for the Byzantine Empire when they threatened the Byzantine Danube frontier. Anthemios (404–414), the Praetorian Prefect of the East, repelled the Huns installed at the Danube frontier; many prisoners were transferred to Asia Minor, among them were members of German tribes who allied themselves with the Huns. In AD 430 the Huns forced the Byzantine Emperor to pay tribute which amounted to 350 pounds of gold; in AD 435 this tribute increased at 700 pounds, and in AD 443 at 2.100 pounds (Christofilopoulou, 1993). In AD 447, Attila turned the Huns against the Byzantine Empire and rampaged through the Balkans as far as central Greece. They reached Constantinople in AD 448, but refrained from attacking the city. Attila’s devastating invasion of Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 21: 464–478 (2011)

Cranial Modification in Byzantine Greece the Balkans and Thrace, which ended in AD 449, probably razed over 70 cities. Frontier zones like Thrace are areas that facilitate social and cultural intercourse. Under the conditions described above, culture contact emerged between the Huns and the Byzantines at some regions of Northern Greece including Thrace. The presence of headshaping, a practice unknown to Christian customs, is of great importance because it allows for evaluation of regional connections and cultural diffusion. The circular type of modification exhibited by a female individual, whose burial dates to the 5th–6th c. AD, coincides with or may slightly post-date the presence of the Huns in Northern Greece, especially at the city of Maroneia; this case of cranial vault modification, therefore, is most likely linked to Hun tradition (Tritsaroli, 2008). Headshaping is tied up with sociocultural practices related to the care of children, which may be seen as traditional and slow to change (Lorentz, 2009). In Byzantine culture, the newborn baby was washed and swaddled in woollen wrappings (fasciae) during seven days in order to straighten its body and make it beautiful (Koukoules, 1951). On the contrary, the period of time required to produce a permanent cranial modification can vary, ranging from a few months after birth up to one year or until the child can walk (Schendel et al., 1980). Additionally, this practice needs a considerable length of time in order to be appreciated, and for this reason it cannot be adopted through sporadic culture contact. In the case examined here, it seems improbable that headshaping was practiced by the Byzantines. Consequently, headshaping likely indicates the presence of an individual with a distinct cultural background rather than the adoption of the practice itself by the Early Byzantine society of Maroneia. Additional information regarding the place and role of the woman with the shaped head within the Early Byzantine society is provided by cemetery topography and burial customs. Byzantine cemeteries were often organised on the basis of social, ethnic, or other criteria. Literary evidence indicates that the Byzantines reserved special burial places for foreigners who did not have the means to pay for their own funeral (Koukoules, 1951). Analyses of grave typology and decoration at the Early Byzantine cemetery of Thessaloniki, moreover, have led to the identification of various ethnic groups including Jews and Goths (Marki, 2006). Graves of Goths were often grouped within the cemetery to maintain family and ethnic identity (Marki, 2006). A large number of anthropomorphic graves found in the city of Veroia were also Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

475 attributed to Goths, who were present in the city during the 4th and 5th c. AD (Pazaras, 1978). Another example of ethnic differentiation comes from the Early Byzantine cemetery at Akraiphnio (Tritsaroli, 2008), where the position and orientation of one of the skeletons suggested an association with Muslim traditions. At Maroneia, the generally homogeneous burial customs and scarcity of offerings and accompanying objects within burials seem to indicate no differences in ethnic, cultural or religious affiliation among the deceased. The single primary burial of the woman with the shaped head in question, therefore, appears to resemble the rest of the burials in the cemetery, as well as other funerary samples from the same time period studied elsewhere in Greece (Tritsaroli, 2006a).

Conclusions During the turbulent Early Byzantine period, the city of Maroneia experienced continuous occupation and development that chiefly resulted from its strategic location at a crossroad between the Balkans and the East. Maroneia’s survival through these trials can be attributed in large part to the ability of the local people to adapt to changes imposed upon them. The practice of annular cranial modification now detected at Maroneia seems to indicate the presence of an individual possessing a different culture, (Buchet, 1988; Pilet et al., 1994; Buchet, 1997) who made an effort to demonstrate group cohesion (Torres-Rouff, 2002) while also maintaining the physical identity of a larger, contemporary or recently eclipsed population group. The specimen examined in the present study exemplifies the biocultural complexity of Early Byzantine Maroneia. Absence of differential burial treatment, accompanying objects and artifacts, however, suggests this Maroneian woman with the shaped head, while maintaining different traditions, was an integrated member of the local Early Byzantine society. Based on skeletal, archaeological and historical evidence, we can conclude that this so-far unique burial at Maroneia belonged to a Christianised citizen who bore a distinctive mark of her cultural heritage, but who still had the right to be buried in a common Christian cemetery in accordance with the customs of the city’s other inhabitants. The assimilation of an individual with artificial skull modification into Early Byzantine Maroneian society provides strong evidence of cultural variability and reflects the cosmopolitan character of the city. Future biogeochemical analysis, along with greater understanding of the geochemical and environInt. J. Osteoarchaeol. 21: 464–478 (2011)

476 mental settings of Northern Greece and the Balkans, will allow for inferences to be made regarding the origins of the female with the shaped head and other individuals buried in the Maroneia cemetery. Such additional study will also begin to elucidate migration patterns in Maroneia during the Early Byzantine period.

Acknowledgements The analysis of human skeletal remains from Maroneia was part of a project funded by the 2005–2006 J. Lawrence Angel Fellowship in Human Skeletal Studies (Wiener Laboratory, ASCSA). My thanks go to the archaeologist and excavator of the site Chryssa Karadima of the IQ EPCA at Komotini for giving me permission to study this sample. I am grateful to Sherry Fox, director of the Wiener Laboratory, for x-ray analysis, but mostly for her advice during this project. I also extend my gratitude to Dimitrios Chondros, Director of the Radiological Unit of Evangelismos General Hospital in Athens, tutor Dimitrios Exarchos and technician Dora Sidiropoulou for completion of the CT. Finally, I would like to thank Anastasia Papathanasiou (EPASPE at Athens), Sophia Doukata (12th EBA at Kavala), Florent Detroit (MNHN in Paris), Nathan K. Harper (University of Nevada) and Eleanna Prevedorou (ASU) for their comments and suggestions.

References Aliprantis T. 1994. Byzantineˆ Maroneia. Anaskafeˆ ston Aghio Charalambo A’. Thessaloniki. Aliprantis T. 1996. Porismata erevnoˆn ston Aghio Charalambo Maroneias. AEMTH 10B: 865–869. Anto`n SC. 1989. Intentional cranial vault deformation and induced changes of the cranial base and face. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 79: 253–267. Anto`n SC, Jaslow CR, Swartz SM. 1992. Sutural complexity in artificially deformed human (Homo sapiens) crania. Journal of Morphology 24: 321–332. Aufderheide AC, Rodriguez-Martin C. 1998. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Paleopathology. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge. Benˇusˇ R, Mascinova´ S, Lietlava J. 1999. Intentional cranial vault deformation in a Slavonic population from the medieval cemetery in Devin (Slovakia). International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 5: 267–270. Bridges SJ, Chambers TL, Pople IK, Wall SA. 2002. Plagiocephaly and head binding. Archives of Disease in Childhood 86: 144–145. Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

P. Tritsaroli Bruzek J. 2002. A method for visual determination of sex, using the human hip bone. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 117: 157–168. Buikstra JE, Uberlaker DH. 1994. Standards for data collection from human skeletal remains. Arkansas Archaeological Survey Research Series 44: Arkansas. Buchet L. 1988. La de´formation craˆnienne en Gaule et dans les re´gions limitrophes pendant le haut Moyen Aˆge. Son origine-sa valeur historique. Archeólogie Me´die´vale XVIII: 55–71. Buchet L. 1997. Les de´formations craˆniennes artificielles dans l’e´tude des mouvements de population en Gaule du IVe au VIIe sie`cle. In Anthropo Logiques De´formations Craˆniennes Artificielles: Histoire, Recherches et Hypohte`ses, Awazu Pereira Da Silva M, et Poirier B (ed.). Museé de Pontoise: Pontoise; 13–14. 11 octobre–23 novembre 1997. Cheverud MJ, Midkiff EJ. 1992. Effects of fronto-occipital cranial reshaping on mandibular forma. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 87: 167–171. Christofilopoulou E. 1993. Byzantineˆ Istoria A’. Vanias: Thessaloniki. Cohen MM. 1980. Perspectives on Craniosynostosis. The Western Journal of Medicine 132: 507–513. Delisle F. 1889. Sur les de´formations artificielles du craˆne dans les Deux-Se`vres et la Haute-Couronne. Bulletin et Me´moires de la Socie´te´ d’Anthropologie de Paris 12: 649–659. Dembo A, Imbelloni J. 1938. Deformaciones Intencionales Del Cuerpo Humano de Caraćter e´tnico. Anesi J.: Buenos Aires. Di Rocco C, Scogna A, Velardi F, Zambelli HJL. 1998. Posterior plagiocephaly: craniosynostosis or skull molding? Critical Reviews in Neurosurgery 8: 122–130. Dingwall EJ. 1931. Artificial Cranial Deformation: A Contribution to the Study of the Ethnic Mutilations. John Bale, Sons & Danielsson: London. Doukata S. 1991a. Maroneia. ArchDelt, Chronika B’2 46: 356–357. Doukata S. 1991b. Evrimata Palaiochristianikeˆs kai Byzantineˆs Periodou stin Paliochora Maroneias. AEMTH 5: 497–513. Doukata S. 1996. Maroneia, Thesi Paliochora. ArchDelt, Chronika B’2 51: 588–590. Doukata-Demertzi S. 1994. I Byzantineˆ Maroneia apo ta kinita evrimata tis anaskafeˆs stin Paliochora. AEMTH 8: 360–370. Doukata-Demertzi S. 1997. Mesobyzantino naidrio sti Vasilikeˆ tis Paliochoras Maroneias. AEMTH 11: 645– 661. Doukata-Demertzi S. 1999. Paliochora Maroneias 1999. AEMTH 13: 15–28. Doukata-Demertzi S. 2005. Symvoleˆ stin erevna tis Metabyzantineˆs Maroneias, Metabyzantineˆ Thraki (15th–19th c.). Praktika tritou Diethnous Symbosiou Thrakikoˆn Spoudoˆn. Ekdose Periferias Anatolikeˆs Makedonias–Thrakes: Komotini; 461- 479. Doukata-Demertzi S. 2008. Paliochora Maroneias. I anaskafeˆ tis Palaiocrhistianikeˆs vasilikeˆs kai tou Mesobyzantinou oikismou. Ypourgeio Politismou: Kavala. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 21: 464–478 (2011)

Cranial Modification in Byzantine Greece Duday H. 1983. La se´pulture de Routier (Aude). Etude des restes humains. Bulletin de la Socie´te´ d’Etudes Scientifiques de l’Aude LXXXIII: 57–64. Formicola V, Scarsini C. 1987. Contribution to the knowledge of the Late Epigravettian human remains from Arene Candide cave (Linguria, Italy): a peculiar-shaped skull. Homo 38: 160–170. Fo`thi E. 2000. Anthropological conclusions of the study of Roman and Migration periods. Acta Biological Szegediensis 44: 87–94. Frieß M, Baylac M. 2003. Exploring artificial cranial deformation using elliptic Fourier analysis of procrustes aligned outlines. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 122: 11–22. Gerszten PC. 1993. An investigation into the practice of cranial deformation among the Pre-Columbian peoples of Northern Chile. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 3: 87–98. Gerszten PC, Gerszten E. 1995. Intentional cranial deformation: a disappearing form of self-mutilation. Neurosurgery 37: 374–382. Glass RBJ, Fernbach SK, Norton KI, Choi PS, Naidich TP. 2004. The infant skull: a vault of information. RadioGraphics 24: 507–522. Gottlieb K. 1978. Artificial cranial deformation and the increased complexity of the lambdoid suture. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 48: 213–214. Hrdlicˇka A. 1922. Aymara deformation in America. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 5: 400. Hoshower LM, Buikstra JE, Goldstein PS, Webster AD. 1995. Artificial cranial deformation at the Omo M10 site: a Tiwanaku complex from the Moquegua Valley Peru. Latin American Antiques 6: 145–164. Karadima C. 1994. Maroneia, Thesi Kambana, ArchDelt, Chronika B’2 49: 618–619. Karadima C. 1995. Maroneia, Thesi Kambana, ArchDelt, Chronika B’2 50: 659–660. Kiszely I. 1978. The Origins of Artificial Cranial Deformation in Eurasia from the Sixth Millennium B.C. to the Seventh Century A.D. BAR International Series: Oxford; 50 Supp. Kohn PAL, Leich SR, Jacobs SC, Cheverud JM. 1993. Effects of annular cranial vault modification on the cranial base and face. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 90: 147–168. Konigsberg LW, Kohn LAP, Cheverud JM. 1993. Cranial deformation and nonmertic trait variation. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 90: 35–48. Koukoules P. 1951. Vie et Civilisation Byzantines. tome IV: Athe`nes. Kourkoutidou-Nikolaidou E. 1995. Filippoi. Apo ten palaiochristianikeˆ stin byzantineˆ poli. Praktika Diethnous Symbosiou ‘Byzantineˆ Makedonia 324–1430 A.D.’, Makedonikeˆ Vivliothiki N882, Etaireia Makedonikoˆn Spoudoˆn: Thessaloniki; 171–182. Kourkoutidou-Nikolaidou E. 1997. Apo ta Ilyssia Pedia ston Christianiko Paradeiso. Ypourgeio Politismou: Thessaloniki. Kusta´r A. 1999. Facial reconstruction of an artificially restored skull of the 4th to the 5th century from the Copyright # 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

477 site of Mo¨zs. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 5: 325–332. Lefort J. 2006. Population et De´mographie. In Le Monde Byzantin II. L’Empire byzantin (641–1204), Cheynet J-C (ed.). Presses Universitaires de France: Paris; 203–219. Lekovic PG, Baker JB, Lekovic MJ, Preul CM. 2007. New world cranial deformation practices: historical implications for pathophysiology of cognitive impairment in deformational plagiocephaly. Neurosurgery 60: 1137– 1147. Littlefield TR, Hess RM, Kelly KM, Pomatto JK. 2005. Cranial remodelling: from cultural practice to contemporary treatment of cranial deformities. Biome´trie Humaine et Anthropologie 23: 43–52. Lorentz KO. 2003. Cultures of physical modifications: child bodies in ancient Cyprus. Stanford Journal of Archaeology II. http:www.stanford.edu/dept/archaeology/journal/newdraft/2003_ Journal/lorentz/paper.html Lorentz KO. 2004. Age and gender in eastern mediterranean prehistory: depictions, burials and skeletal evidence. Ethnographisch-Archaologische Zeitschrift 45: 297–315. Lorentz KO. 2005. Late Bronze Age Burial Practices: Age as a Form of Social Difference. In Cyprus: Religion and Society from the Late Bronze Age to the End of the Archaic Period, Karageorghis V, Matthaüs H, Rogge S (ed.). Mohnesee-Wamel: Bibliopolis; 41–55. Lorentz KO. 2009. The Malleable Body: Headshaping in Greece and the Surrounding Regions. In New Directions in Skeletal Biology of Greece, Schepartz LA, Fox SC, Bourbou C (ed.)., OWLS: Princeton, New Jersey: 75–98. Hesperia Supplement 43. Manolis SK, Petroutsa E, Heiletes H, Sampson A. 2000. Tehneteˆ kraniakeˆ paramorfose stous Neolithikous katoikous tou spelaiou Tharrounia (Evoia), Praktika 22ou Panelleˆniou Synedriou EEVE–Skiathos, 25–28 May 2000: 156. Marcsik A, Pap I. 2000. Paleopathological research in Hungary. Acta Biologica Szegediensis 44: 103–108. Marki E. 1990. To telos tes archaiotetas kai i eisagoˆgeˆ toˆn nekroˆn stin poli. I periptosi tes Thessalonikes, Dekato Symbosio Byzantinis kai Metabyzantinis Archeologias kai Technis: Atheˆna: 41–42. Marki E. 2006. I nekropole tes Thessalonikes stous ysteroromaikous kai palaiochristianikous chronous, Ypourgeio Politismou, TAPA, Atheˆna. Maureille B, Castex D, De´pierre G, Bar D. 1995. Les craˆnes de´forme´s de Saint-Etienne (Beaune, Coˆte d’Or, V-VI sie`cles). Donneés archeólogiques et anthropologiques. Bulletin et Me´moires de la Socie´te´ d’Anthropologie de Paris 7: 49–67. Meiklejohn C, Agelarakis A, Akkermans PA, Smith PEL, Solecki R. 1992. Artificial cranial deformation in the Proto-Neolithic and Neolithic Near East and its possible origin: evidence from four sites. Paleórient 18: 83–96. Meindl RS, Lovejoy CO. 1985. Ectocranial suture closure: a revised method for determination of skeletal age at death based on the lateral anterior sutures. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 68: 57–66. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 21: 464–478 (2011)

478 Molleson T, Campbell S. 1995. Deformed Skulls at Tell Arpachiyah: The Social Context. In The Archaeology of Death in the Near East, Campbell S, Green A (eds.). Oxbow Monograph 51, Oxbow Books: Oxford; 45–55. Moss LM. 1958. The pathogenesis of artificial cranial deformation. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 16: 269– 286. Ogura M, Al-Kalaly A, Sakashita R, Kamegai T, Miyawaki S. 2006. Relationship between anteroposterior cranial vault deformation and mandibular morphology in a pre-Columbian population. American Journal of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics 130: 535–539. O’Loughlin VD. 1996. Comparative endocranial vascular changes due to craniosynostosis and artificial cranial deformation. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 101: 369–385. O’Loughlin VD. 2004. Effects of different kinds of cranial deformation on the incidence of wormian bones. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 123: 146–155. Olivier G. 1960. Pratique Anthropologique. Vigot Fre`res: Paris. Olivier G, Tissier H. 1975a. De´termination de la stature et de la capacite´ craˆnienne. Bulletin et Me´moires de la Socie´te´ Anthropologique de Paris XIII: 1–11. Olivier G, Tissier H. 1975b. Estimation de la stature fe´minine d’apre`s les os longs des membres. Bulletin et Me´moires de la Socie´te´ Anthropologique de Paris XIII: 297–306. Ortner DJ. 2003. Identification of Pathological Conditions in Human Skeletal Remains. Academic Press: London. Ortner DJ, Putschar GJW. 1981. Identification of Pathological Conditions In Human Skeletal Remains. Smithsonian Institution Press: Washington. Ossenberg NS. 1970. The influence of artificial cranial deformation on discontinuous morphological traits. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 33: 357–372. Ostrogorsky G. 1996. Histoire de l’E´tat Byzantin. Histoire Payot: Paris. ¨ zbek M. 2001. Cranial deformation in a sub-adult sample O from Degirmentepe (Chalcolithic, Turkey). American Journal of Physical Anthropology 115: 238–244. Pazaras Th. 1978. Veroia, ArchDelt, Chronika 33: 273–282. Pilet C, Buchet L, Kazanski M. 1994. Derniers vestiges culturels des ‘peuples barbares’. La mode ‘danubienne’. In La nećropole de Saint-Martin-de-Fontenay (Calvados). Recherches sur le peuplement de la plaine de Caen de Ve s. avant J.-C. au VIIe s. apre`s J.-C, Pilet C (ed.). CNRS: Paris; 96–111. Rhode MP, Arriaza BT. 2006. Influence of cranial deformation on facial morphology among prehistoric south central Andean populations. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 130: 462–470. Saponetti SS, Emanuel P, Scattarella V. 2005. Paleobiologia di un campione scheletrico tardoantico proveniente dal complesso paleocristiano di San Giusto (Lucera V-VII secolo d.C.), in G. Volpe, M. Turchiano (a cura di),


P. Tritsaroli Paesaggi e insediamenti rurali in Italia meridionale fra Tardoantico e Altomedioevo, Atti del 1 Seminario sul Tardoantico e l’Altomedioevo in Italia Meridionale (STAIM, 1) (Foggia 2004) Bari 2005: 315–328. Schendel AS, Walker G, Kamisugi A. 1980. Hawaiian craniofacial morphometrics: average Mokapuan skull, artificial cranial deformation, and the ‘Rocker’ mandible. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 52: 491–500. Schijman E. 2005. Artificial cranial deformation in newborns in the pre-Columbian Andes. Child’s Nervous System 21: 945–950. Simon C. 1978. Nouveaux cas de de´formation craˆnienne artificielle en Suisse occidentale. Archives suisses d’anthropologie geńe´rale 42: 17–22. Snorrason E. 1946. Cranial deformation in the reign of Akhenaton. Bulletin of the History of Medicine 20: 601–610. Torres-Rouff C. 2002. Cranial vault modification and ethnicity in middle horizon San Pedro de Atacama Chile. Current Anthropology 43: 163–171. Torres-Rouff C, Yablonsky LT. 2005. Cranial vault modification as a cultural artifact: a comparison of the Eurasian steppes and the Andes. Homo-Journal of Comparative Human Biology 56: 1–16. Tremopoulos CA. 1966. I Komotini kai oi archaiotites tis periocheˆs tis. Morfotikos Omilos Komotinis: Thessaloniki. Triantafyllos D. 1973. Maroneia, ArchDelt, Chronika B’2 28: 463–466. Tritsaroli P. 2006a. Pratiques Fune´raires en Gre`ce Centrale a` la Pe´riode Byzantine; Analyse a` Partir des Donneés Archeólogiques et Biologiques. The`se de doctorat de 3e`me cycle, Museúm national d’Histoire naturelle: Paris. Tritsaroli P. 2006b. The extra mural cemetery from the Byzantine Maroneia. Bioarchaeological analysis and burial customs. AEMTH 20: 31–43. Tritsaroli P. 2008. Biocultural approaches to the study of mortuary practices in the Early Byzantine populations from Greece; the cases of Akraiphnio, Boeotia and Maroneia, Thrace. American Journal of Physical Anthropology Supplement 46: 209–210. Tubbs RS, Salter GE, Oakes JW. 2006. Artificial deformation of the human skull: a review. Clinical Anatomy 19: 372–377. Tziovas C. 1932. Maroneia. In Thrakikeˆ Stoa, Lefkoma ThrakisMakedonias. Drakopoulos A (ed.). Ap. Antoniadou: Komotini; 60–62. White DC. 1996. Sutural effects of fronto-occipital cranial modification. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 100: 397–410. Wobst HM. 1977. Stylistic behavior and information exchange. In Papers for the Director: Research Essays in Honor of James B. Griffin, Cleland CE (ed.). Ann Arbor: Anthropology papers, Museum of Anthropology: University of Michigan; 317–342.
