Bioenergy from Biofuel Residues and Wastes - Ingenta Connect

Bioenergy from Biofuel Residues and Wastes B.S. Choudri1, Mahad Baawain2*

ABSTRACT

Research Reviews

This review includes works published in the general

Ji (2015) conducted an assessment of current and

scientific literature during 2015 on the production of

near future agricultural residue resources in China at

bioenergy and biofuel from waste residues generated

national scale. This paper gives the theoretical quantity,

during bioethanol and biodiesel production with a brief

collectable quantity, usable quantity and potential quantity

overview of current and emerging feedstocks. A section of

for liquid biofuel production of agricultural residues in

this review summarizes literature on culturing algae for

China. The spatial and seasonal distributions of crop

biofuels including bioreactors and open pond cultivation

residues were also analyzed and this review will be helpful

systems with the utilization of inorganic and organic

for commercialization of bioenergy industry and their

sources of nutrients. New methods applicable to the mass

market-oriented development strategy.

culture of algae are highlighted. Algal cell harvesting and

Zhang et al., (2015) reviewed big bluestem‫׳‬s

oil extraction techniques tested and developed for algae

potential as a bioenergy crop with respect to both biology

discussed alongwith policies and economics are also

and

provided.

adaptation of big bluestem, ecotypes and varieties currently

KEYWORDS: algae, bagasse, biodiesel, biofuel, biofuel

studied, production management, and disease and pest

residue, biorefinery, butanol, ethanol, feedstocks, glycerine,

control. Conversion includes discussion of the conversion

hydrogen, lignocelluloses, lipids, methane, stillage.

of big bluestem biomass to bio-ethanol and bio-oil. Overall,

doi: 10.2175/106143016X14696400495217

various constraints and potential applications of big

conversion.

Biology

includes

distribution

and

bluestem as an energy crop are analyzed in the final section ————————— 1

of this paper.

Center for Environmental Studies and Research, Sultan Qaboos

University, Sultanate of Oman; 2*

Farinas (2015) provided a review review is on

e-mail: [email protected]

recent developments in Solid-state fermentation (SSF)

Department of Civil and Architectural Engineering, College of

processes for enzymes production, and the application of

Engineering, Sultan Qaboos University, Sultanate of Oman; e-

such techniques in the bioenergy sector. Further an

mail: [email protected]

overview of the enzymes required for the conversion of

1446 Water Environment Research, Volume 88, Number 10—Copyright © 2016 Water Environment Federation

biomass, and novel SSF configurations is provided.

phase catalytic conversion processes as less exogenous

Authors concluded that information gathered together in

water inputs would be needed.

this paper will assist in the development of SSF processes

Stolarski et al., (2015) analyzed the chemical

that enable efficient future production of the enzymes

composition of biomass of willow, poplar and black locust,

required for the conversion of biomass.

depending on the method of soil enrichment and harvest

Guo

et

al.,

(2015) provided

reviews on

cycle as potential feedstock in the production of second-

worldwide history, current status, and predictable future

generation bioethanol. The average content of cellulose in

trend of bioenergy and biofuels.

Overall, authors

biomass of black locust harvested in a 3-year cycle was the

highlighted that the global development and utilization of

lowest. Of the species under study, the highest content of

bioenergy and

lignin was found in biomass of poplar, both in the 3-year

biofuels will

continue to

increase,

particularly in the biopower, lignocellulosic bioethanol, and

and 4-year harvest cycle.

biogas sectors. It is expected that by 2050 bioenergy will

Victor et al., (2015) studied Pine cones which are

provide 30% of the world’s demanded energy.

usually a waste utilized for the production of bioethanol.

Monforti et al., (2015) provides an estimate of

Dilute alkali treatment was found to be effective for the

available agricultural residues and related potential energy

removal of lignin from the pine cones. Microwave

production obtainable without impacting the EU soil

irradiation accelerated the acid hydrolysis of holocellulose

organic carbon (SOC) stock showing how SOC content

to fermentable sugars (xylose and glucose) relative to the

preservation imposes the application of different collection

conventional hydrothermal process. It is conclude that Pine

rates for agricultural residues across the EU, depending on

cones from P. radiata form a potential and sustainable

factors such as climate, soil type, current farming practices

feedstock for ethanol production.

and pre-existing cultivation history.

Chow et al., (2015) studied a recombinant

Feedstocks for Biofuel Production

cyanobacterium strain with increased photosynthesis rate,

Bioethanol Feedstocks. Yang et al., (2015)

cell growth and carbohydrate production efficiency through

analysed to better understand the potential of feedstocks,

genetically engineered by co-expressing ictB, ecaA, and

the biomass composition of Agave tequilana and Opuntia

acsAB in Synechococcus elongatus PCC7942. This study

ficus-indica. This study indicated that both species had

showed cyanobacterial biomass could be effectively

lower lignin mass fractions, thus yielding lower heating

hydrolyzed with dilute acid achieving a nearly 90% glucose

values, but had higher water and ash mass fractions than

recovery at a biomass concentration of 80 g/L. Bioethanol

most woody biomass feedstocks. Further, the high water

can be produced from fermenting the acidic hydrolysate of

mass fractions of these species (85–94%) could prove

S. elongatus PCC7942 via separate hydrolysis and

advantageous for biomass deconstruction and aqueous

fermentation.


Acidogenic anaerobic fermentation route was

especially in Brazil. This paper presents A. aculeata and

explored for the production of bioethanol and volatile fatty

some points that allow compare with other crops. Several

acids (VFA) from the press mud (PM) obtained from sugar

related aspects are covered in this paper, such as

mill by Kuruti et al., (2015). This study observed that

economics, botanical description, the extraction and

thermal acidic pre-treatment of PM was essential and

compositions, physical and chemical properties of crude A.

process efficiency in terms of bio-ethanol and VFA

aculeata oil and fatty acid composition of A. aculeata.

production was better with enriched mixed microbial

Jahirul et al., (2015) extracted oil from Beauty

culture compared to mixed microbial culture.

leaf tree seeds through three different oil extraction

Biodiesel Feedstocks. Ghazali et al., (2015)

methods. The results show that mechanical extraction using

analyzed the performance and emissions of biodiesel from

a screw press produces oil at a low cost, however, results in

different feedstocks. The results showed that different

low oil yields compared with chemical oil extraction. High

sources of biodiesel feedstocks give different results to

pressure and temperature in the extraction process increase

engine performance and emissions and some of the

oil extraction performance. Therefore, the findings of this

research yielded favourable results towards the biodiesel as

study are expected to serve as the basis for further

compared to pure diesel. The study concluded that

development of Beauty leaf as a feedstock.

biodiesel can be used in compression ignition engine as a

Residues/Wastes from Biofuel Production Processes

replacement of diesel fuel to fulfil the global energy

Cane Sugar-to-Ethanol Residues. de Souza

demand.

Dias et al., (2015) briefly described about technologies Chen et al., (2015) studied a sequential

usually employed in sugarcane mills in Brazil, along with

optimization of the culture medium, based on response

opportunities for process improvements and suggestions for

surface methodology (RSM), employed to increase the

the future of the sugarcane industry. The study suggest that

palmitic acid (PA) production in Schizochytrium and lower

technologies used in Brazil can be improved, adapted and

the process cost. As a result, the PA production by

replicated to other countries using new technologies and

Schizochytrium sp. S056 increased from 14.69 ± 0.62 g/L

alternative feedstock throughout the world.

to 25.95 ± 0.11 g/L using the optimal conditions and the

Agrobacterium radiobacter NBRC 12665 cells

quality analysis of the crude lipid showed that the lipid

were immobilized in the loofa sponge matrix and used to

produced by the microbial process is a promising feedstock

produce succinoglycan by Ruiz et al., (2015). The best

for biodiesel production.

results were obtained using sugar cane molasses (14.0 g/L)

Cesar et al., (2015) examines the opportunity of

and lactose (12 g/L) at 7.5% with immobilized cells. The

biodiesel production from A. aculeata as a potential source

study concluded that technique of immobilization in loofa

for future energy supply, particularly for biodiesel,

sponge and use of sugar cane molasses as a low cost carbon


source produced significant and effective results for the

of lignin removal on enzymatic hydrolysis of FSSB

industrial production of succinoglycan.

pretreated with NaOH and Ca (OH)2 was different. The

Silalertruksa

et

al.,

(2015)

evaluated

the

lignin removal was the main factor influencing the

sugarcane biorefinery and molasses ethanol production in

enzymatic hydrolysis of FSSB pretreated with NaOH,

Thailand using the combined environmental and economic

while Ca (OH)2 was more capable of removing surface

sustainability indicator.

lignin.

The results show that the

biorefinery system of mechanized farming along with cane

Umagiliyage et al., (2015) determined optimal

trash utilization for power generation yields the highest

alkali (lime: Ca(OH)2 and lye: NaOH) pretreatment

eco-efficiency.

conditions to obtain higher yield of total reducing sugar Residues.

while reducing the lignin content for biofuel production

Sequential batch fermentation from sweet sorghum juice

from sweet sorghum bagasse (SSB). This study showed

concentrated by membrane separation to increase sugar

that alkali pretreatment was effective in removing lignin

contents, was investigated by Sasaki et al., (2015). Increase

from SSB. Some hemicellulose and a small amount of

of cell density in the concentrated sweet sorghum juice was

cellulose were also removed which was consistent with

observed during sequential batch fermentation, as indicated

previous studies.

Sweet

Sorghum-to-Ethanol

by increased OD600. Further, utilization of sweet sorghum

Wang et al., (2015) conducted life cycle

juice as the sole source, membrane separation, and S.

assessment

to

evaluate

the

energy efficiency

and

cerevisiae was a cost-effective process for high ethanol

environmental impacts of a bioethanol production system

production.

that uses sweet sorghum stem on saline–alkali land as

Kalil et al., (2015) evaluated the exploitation of

feedstock. Study showed use of vinasse to produce pellet

juice and bagasse of five varieties of sweet sorghum for

fuel for steam generation significantly improves energy

bioethanol production which can further improve the

efficiency and decreases negative environmental impacts.

energy yield of the crop. The sweet sorghum varieties, GK-

Corn Starch-to-Ethanol Residues. Application

coba, Mn-1054, Ramada, Mn-4508 and SS-301, were

of

hydrolytic

and

other

enzymes

for

improving

analyzed for their productivity, and sugar and fiber

fermentation performance and oil recovery in corn dry-

contents. All varieties significantly differed in yield of

grind process was optimized by Luangthongkam et al.,

stripped stalk, juice and bagasse.

(2015). This study indicated that treatments with non-starch

Yan et al., (2015) investigated the impact of

hydrolytic enzymes have potential to improve the

lignin removal on enzymatic hydrolysis using fermented

performance of corn dry-grind process including oil

sweet sorghum bagasse (FSSB) delignified by NaOH or Ca

partitioning into thin stillage.

(OH)2 pretreatments. Results demonstrated that the impact


Banasal et al., (2015) performed polymerization

and cellulose than when either of them was used. Dilute

of styrene (St) and methyl methacrylate (MMA) by surface

HCl was more helpful in converting the cellulosic materials

initiated (SI) and activator generated by electron transfer

to reducing sugars. Further, indicated that cassava wastes

(AGET) systems of atom transfer radical polymerization

actually could be transformed to chemicals for use as fuels,

(ATRP) using renewable expanded corn starch (ECS) as a

biochemicals, synthetic intermediates etc.

support. The high temperature stability of ECS makes it

Wei et al., (2015) evaluated the influence of

recyclable catalytic system for AGET-ATRP. The polymer

parameters genotype, growth location and harvest time on

synthesized by AGET-ATRP has advantage of being

cassava stem starch contents and yields as well as

catalyst/metal free and hence has wider applications.

consequences in ethanol production. In general, the study

Zhang et al., (2015) investigated the use of

showed positive correlation between the stem and root

calcined-lime mud from papermaking process (CLMP)

starch, suggesting a promising potential of using stem

pretreatment to improve fermentative hydrogen yields from

starch without reducing root starch production.

corn-bran residue (CBR). Results showed Hydrogen yield

Chen et al., (2015) studied the fermentation

increments increased from 27.76% to 48.07%, compared to

process for high yields of fatty acid and neutral lipid

the control. Further, the CLMP hydrolyzed more cellulose,

production from cassava bagasse hydrolysate (CBH) by

which

heterotrophic Chlorella protothecoides. The fatty acid

provided

adequate

substrates

for

hydrogen

production.

profile analysis showed that the intercellular lipid was

Men et al., (2015) synthesized copolymer of

suitable to prepare high-quality biodiesel. This study

starch grafted with polystyrene (starch-g-PS) with high

demonstrated the feasibility of using CBH as low-cost

grafting percentage by utilizing the ionic liquid 1-ethyl-3-

feedstock to produce crude algal oil for sustainable

methylimidazolium acetate ([EMIM]Ac) as solvent and

biodiesel production.

potassium persulfate as initiator. Results indicated that

Cellulose-to-Ethanol Residues. Fockink et al.,

ionic liquid dissolution of starch, prior to polystyrene

(2015) investigated production of cellulosic ethanol from

grafting, is a versatile methodology for the synthesis of

two cotton processing residues after pretreatment with

amphiphilic,

dilute sodium hydroxide. Results showed that both residues

polysaccharide-based

graft

copolymers,

having high grafting percent.

derived from cotton ginning had high cellulose contents

Cassava Starch-to-Ethanol Residues. Elemike

and a good potential for ethanol production after a mild

et al., (2015) utlised cassava cellulosic waste (Manihot

alkaline pretreatment. These results are promising due to

esculenta) obtained from starch processing for bio-ethanol

the simplicity of the pretreatment method used in this

production. The results showed that combination of

study.

enzymatic and acid hydrolysis recovered much of the starch


Lever (2015) modelled a farm-scale process for

Comparison of results with the Algerian standard showed

converting wheat straw to ethanol in order to assess its

that biodiesel has properties of diesel and biodiesel addition

energy performance. The modelled process resulted in high

improves cetane number and some other parameters.

energy yield ratios, a net surplus of on-site heat and

Adewale et al., (2015) provided a comprehensive

electricity, and substantial reductions in the energy required

review trends and techniques in biodiesel production from

to produce and transport the cellulase compared to

animal fat wastes (AFWs). A critical overview of

commercial preparations. The improvements in energy

homogeneous and heterogeneous (one- or two-step)

efficiency and environmental impact suggest the modelled

catalytic transesterification of AFWs is presented. Finally,

process may merit further investigation.

cutting edge advances in assisted transesterification

A bioethanol production optimization model is

processes for biodiesel production are critically reviewed.

developed and implemented to assess the feasibility of

Behcet et al., (2015) examined two biodiesels

producing Taiwan's target volume of cellulosic ethanol by

named as fish oil methyl ester (FOME) and chicken oil

Wen et al., (2015). This study estimates that a usage rate of

methyl ester (CFME) produced from low-cost waste fish

90% on two million metric tons of agricultural waste would

and chicken oils using the transesterification method. It is

produce a potential maximum 410 million liters of

concluded that blend fuels derived from waste oils/fats in

bioethanol, enough to meet 40% of Taiwan's demand for

diesel engines as an alternative to D2 fuels because both of

transportation fuel.

them clear waste oil from the environment and their Fat-to-Biodiesel

exhaust emissions have positive effects on the environment.

Residues. Lopez et al., (2015) studied the enzymatic

Biomethane from Residues/Wastes. Carlini et

production of biodiesel by esterification of free fatty acids

al., (2015) analysed the bio-methane potential from

(FFAs) from used vegetable oil (UVO) and the microalga

anaerobic digestion of Olive Mill solid Waste (OMSW)

N. gaditana. The optimal conditions for the esterfication of

with inoculum and co-digestion of OMSW with cattle

FFAs with methanol were established with FFAs from

manure (CM) and cattle slurry (CS). From the tests carried

UVO and the maximum ED attained was reproduced with

out with a batch stirred tank reactor results OMSW with pit

FFAs from the microalga N. gaditana (92.6%).

has better performance if used in co-digestion with other

Vegetable

Oil

/

Animal

The synthesis of biodiesel by transesterification

substrates.

of vegetable oils was carried out by Selaimia et al., (2015).

The lipase obtained from Aspergillums niger was

Two varieties of oils are used in this work, the first type is

applied to promote the hydrolysis of food waste for

the waste oils used in frying and the second are olive-

achieving high biomethane production by Meng et al.,

pomace oils and determined some physicochemical

(2015). The study used two stragegies; One (Group A) was

properties of the oils used and biodiesel obtained.

to pre-treat food waste to pre-decompose lipid to fatty acids


before anaerobic digestion, and another one (Group B) was

Cengiz et al., (2015) utilized glycerol fraction by

to add lipase to anaerobic digester directly to degrade lipid

converting it to fuel gas or to chemical feedstock. In this

inside digester. The results showed that Group A achieved

study, the concentration of glycerol feedstock solution and

higher biomethane production than those of Group B. It is

the catalyst concentration were 50 g/L and 5 g/L,

concluded that such strategy may efficient for biomethane

respectively. Experiments were performed with pure and

production from food waste.

crude glycerol samples in the absence and the presence of

Meng et al., (2015) employed batch anaerobic

homogeneous acidic and alkali catalysts, namely H3PO4,

digestion to investigate the performance of the floatable oil

KH2PO4, K2HPO4, and K3PO4. These were used to obtain

(FO) skimmed from food waste (FW) and the effect of

higher gasification efficiencies and hydrogen and/or

different FO concentrations on biomethane production and

methane yields.

system stability. The results showed that FO and FO + FW

Biohydrogen Production

could be well anaerobically converted to biomethane in

Biohydrogen from Stillage and Distillery

appropriate loads.

Wastewater. Fuess et al., (2015) assessed continuous

The biogas production potential and biomethane

biohydrogen production in a packed-bed reactor operated

content of teff straw through pretreatment by NaOH was

under thermophilic conditions (55°C) using sugarcane

investigated by Chufo et al., (2015). The result showed

stillage as the substrate. The results indicated that the

that, using 4% NaOH for pretreatment in 80 g/L solid

acidogenic reactor presented a capacity for recovering from

loading produced 40.0% higher total biogas production and

performance losses, regardless of their cause. pH proved to

48.1% higher biomethane content than the untreated sample

be a key factor for obtaining continuous hydrogen

of teff straw. Further, it is revealed that NaOH pretreatment

production, and the optimal results were observed in a pH

changed the structural compositions and lignin network,

range from 5.1 to 5.2.

and improved biogas production from teff straw.

Gadhe et al., (2015) investigated influence of

Methane from Glycerol. Zhang et al., (2015)

nickel oxide (NiO) and hematite (Fe2O3) nanoparticles

investigated the feasibility of simultaneous production of

(NP) on biohydrogen production. The results of this study

acetate and methane from glycerol by selective enrichment

impeccably implies that the co-addition of Fe2O3 and NiO

of

extreme-

NP is about 1.2-4.5 order more effective for enhanced

thermophilic (70 °C) fermentation. The yields of methane

hydrogen recovery from complex distillery wastewater

and acetate were close to the theoretical yields with 0.74–

compared to control, and sole nanoparticles addition.

0.80

Furthermore,

hydrogenotrophic

methanogens

mol-methane/mol-glycerol

and

in

an

0.63–0.70

mol-

acetate/mol-glycerol.

an

enhanced

activity

of

ferredoxin

oxidoreductase and hydrogenase at Fe2O3 plus NiO


nanoparticles interface could be a plausible reason for an

to obtain nano-sized particles. Pure CdS and solid solutions

observed highest relative enhancement in hydrogen.

obtained

Mishra et al., (2015) studied biohydrogen production by acidogenic mixed

by

sonochemical

method

have

shown

photocatalytic activity with respect to hydrogen gas

consortia (AMC),

production.

synthetic co-culture (Klebsiella pneumoniae IIT-BT 08 and

Jiang et al., (2015) studied hydrogen production

Citrobacter freundii IIT-BT L139) and pure culture using

from chemical looping steam reforming (CLSR) of glycerol

distillery effluent (DE). Resutls showed Maximum gaseous

by Ni-based oxygen carrier in a fixed-bed reactor. The

energy recovery by AMC was found to be higher by 21.9%

results showed that the Ni-based oxygen carrier synthesized

and 45.4% than that of using co-culture and pure culture

has a dual function and can efficiently convert glycerol and

respectively.

steam to H2 by redox reactions. The coexisting reactions of

Bioethanol Production

glycerol oxidization and steam reforming occurred before

Ethanol from Glycerol. Suzuki et al., (2015)

the steady stage of hydrogen production in the fuel feed

showed that ribosome engineering can be performed for

step, and the conversion of NiO to Ni was obtained.

improvement of fermentative metabolite production, and

Ramesh et al., (2015) carried out low temperature

that it improves ethanol tolerance and ethanol productivity

hydrogen production from stream reforming of glycerol

more than other mutagenesis approaches. Strain TB-83D is

over copper decorated perovskite catalysts under vapor

thus applicable for the improvement of ethanol production

phase reaction conditions. The chemical and structural

from glycerol. It is concluded that this technique can be

properties of catalysts before and after the reaction were

adapted to the acquisition of mutant strains for highly

studied by X-ray diffraction, CO2-TPD and TPR, TGA,

fermented products and is available for product production

TEM and XPS. TGA analysis revealed that copper

from various substrates.

decorated catalyst has better resistance to coke deposition

Zhang et al., (2015) investigated the effects of

compared to pervoskite catalysts.

glycerol on enzymatic hydrolysis and ethanol fermentation.

Go et al., (2015) investigated the performance of

Based on the results of laboratory and pilot-scale

Ni-based Al2O3 catalyst for glycerol reforming has been in

experiments, it was estimated that 0.142 kg ethanol can be

fixed-bed reactor of different operational conditions.

produced from 1.0 kg dry bagasse (a glucan content of

Temperature and pressure tests conducted with this catalyst

38.0%) after pretreatment with acidified glycerol solution.

revealed its superior performance at high temperature and

Hydrogen from Glycerol. Lopes et al., (2015)

atmospheric pressure in terms of increasing H2 production

applied a simple sonochemical method for the preparation

and glycerol conversion by inhibiting carbon deposition on

of Cd1−xZnxS solid solutions. The sonochemical method

the catalyst surface.

has shown to be fast with low energy demand and allowed


Biobutanol Production. Al-Shorgani et al.,

Microbial Fuel Cells. Alavijeh et al., (2015)

(2015) studied a newly isolated strain of Clostridium

studied anaerobic digestion processes and the conductive

acetobutylicum YM1 which has a unique property of

electron transfer approach to describe the bioenergy

producing

aerobic

production processes in a microbial fuel cell (MFC),

conditions. This strain exhibited the capability to grow and

respectively. One-dimensional spatial distributions of the

produce high concentrations of biobutanol under different

different microorganisms, as biocatalysts of processes and

concentrations of dissolved oxygen (DO).

intermediates produced in the different steps were

biobutanol

from

glucose

under

Sakthiselvan et al., (2015) isolated a high

simulated. The results obtained from the simulation were

yielding butanol producing fungal strain Trichoderma

compared to some previous models, as well.

atroviridae SS2 from soil. A maximum butanol yield of

Hernandez-Fernandez et al., (2015) provided a

18.94 g/L was achieved using 80 g/L microbial culture, 4

review on critical and global vision of recent advances in

ml xylanase and a 7 days incubation period respectively. A

microbial fuel cells (MFC) and the potential applications of

narrow peak obtained at 285 nm with a retention time of

this

28.38

Liquid

concerning MFC technology including issues such as new

Chromatography (HPLC) confirms the presence of butanol.

anode and cathode materials, types of membranes, MFC

min

Su combinatorial

using

et

al.,

High

(2015)

lignocellulose

Performance

technology.

The

overview

covers

all

aspects

designed a sequential,

configurations, their application in the treatment of

pretreatment

different types of wastewaters, bioenergy production,

procedure

(SCLPP) for microbial biofuel fermentation to reduce

modeling and future perspectives.

generation of microbial growth inhibitors and furthermore

Singh and Verma (2015) fabricated a nickel (Ni)

increase sugar yields. Results showed that there were no

nanoparticles- (NPs) dispersed web of carbon micro-

inhibitory effects

nanofibers (ACFs/CNFs) as the electrode of a microbial

when using the hydrolysates as

fermentation substrate. This study demonstrated increase

fuel

biofuel production from agricultural residues rich in

Escherichia coli as a microbial catalyst. The study

lignocellulose is feasible.

concluded that transition metal-CNFs-based electrodes

Kudahettige-Nilsson

et

al.,

(2015)

studied

cell

(MFC)

for

bio-energy

production

using

prepared may be a potentially alternative to the expensive

acetone–butanol–ethanol (ABE) fermentation using acid-

noble metals-based electrodes presently used in MFCs.

hydrolyzed xylan recovered from hardwood Kraft black

Ghasemi et al., (2015) applied three types of

liquor by CO2 acidification as the only carbon source.

proton exchange membranes (Nafion 112, SPEEK and

Results demonstrate the feasibility of biobutanol production

Nafion 117) to micro fuel cells (MFC) and the amount of

from hardwood Kraft liquor-derived xylan as an alternative

produced bioenergy with the feed of a wastewater in 5000

renewable substrate by C. acetobutylicum ATCC 824.

m/l chemical oxygen demand (COD). This study observed


that the MFC working with Nafion 117 as separator

should make the integrated process of fuels and chemicals

produced the highest power among the other MFCs.

production economically feasible and will ensure that

Microalgae for Biofuels. Rebiero et al., (2015)

public and private interest in the development of microalgal

presented the results of a Delphi study aiming to identify

biotechnology is maintained.

the main obstacles and most critical issues affecting the

Microalgae cultivation

potential of large-scale commercialization of microalgae

Open Pond Cultivation Systems. Kumar et al.,

biodiesel and its incorporation into the fuel market. One of

(2015) summarizes the current state of knowledge for the

the key findings is that most of the experts believe that

biomass production in raceway ponds. Authors provided an

production of microalgae biofuels will achieve its full

overview on different research works of various designs of

commercial scale until 2020, and that from 2021 till 2030 it

raceway ponds towards enhancing the vertical mixing and

could represent from 1% to 5% of the worldwide fuel

CO2 residence time. Further, several environmental,

consumption.

engineering and biological parameters that affect the

Paniagua-Michel (2015) reviewed the dual roles

biomass productivity in the open pond system are

exerted by microalgae in bioremediation and the recovery

highlighted.

of pollutant nutrients of wastewater to generate biomass,

Mehrabadi et al., (2015) studied Wastewater

which can be used as feedstock for the production of liquid

treatment high rate algal ponds (WWT HRAPs) are a

biofuels. It is concluded that advances in genomic and

promising technology that could help solve challenges

metabolic engineering in microalgae and their respective

concurrently where climate is favorable for production of

integration with light and mineral ions utilization will

bioenrgy. The current limitations on biodiesel production

contribute to the enhanced production of biofuels.

from microalgae, together with their low lipid content,

Vidhyashankar et al., (2015) characterized thirty

make energy recovery from the whole algal biomass most

two freshwater green microalgae for their biomass

attractive. Finally, it is concluded that a combination of

productivity, fatty acid and hydrocarbon composition under

conversion processes will be needed to maximize total

autotrophic growth conditions. Three best strains viz., S.

energy recovery.

dimorphus (E), Q. lacustris (CC) and O. pusilla (BB) were

Using

multivariate

statistical

tools,

the

identified in terms of shorter doubling time (6.6 h–7.6 h),

composition of the phytoplankton community was related

for higher biomass productivity.

to the characteristics of the domestic sewage used as

Li et al., (2015) reviewed microalgae resources in

culture medium in three high rate ponds (HRPs) submitted

China and their potential in producing liquid biofuels and

to different solar radiation levels by Asemany et al., (2015).

high value products in an integrated biorefinery approach.

According to the regression analysis, the algal biomass in

Authors concludes that ‘high value product first’ principle

HRPs can be maximized mostly taking into consideration


the positive effects of carbon and phosphorus, and the

glycerol and liquid waste in addition, the cultivation of

limiting effect of nitrogen and non-biodegradable organic

microalgae biomass was optimized using these materials.

load.

The highest Chlorella sp. biomass concentration of 2.41 g L−1 was achieved in the growth medium that contained

Growth Systems and Growth Conditions. Han

0.114 g L−1 nitrogen and 2.70 g L−1 technical glycerol.

et al., (2015) studied growth-state-based schemes for cultivation optimization of microalgae Chlorella sp. for the

Algae Species for Biofuels. Song et al., (2015)

lipid enhancement in biodiesel production, compared with

provides overall perspective on feature and applications

common optimization experiments. The results showed that

required for an initial assessment of the development of

excellent enhancement of both biomass dry weight of 1.9

brown algae as a sustainable biofuels resource. The

g/L and lipid yield of 0.6 g/L was achieved. The new and

contribution presents fundamental theme of brown algae

specific cultivation method significantly improved the

and its various applications for biofuels production.

biomass and lipid production compared with other

Authors concluded that integrated biorefinery platform

experiments.

could be proposed to accomplish the biofuels of brown

Valverde-Pérez et al., (2015) presented a

algae more profitable in the near future.

modified enhanced biological phosphorus removal and

Fasahati and Liu (2015) evaluated the impact of

recovery system (referred to as EBP2R) that can produce

alcohol recovery technology on the economics, energy

optimal culture media for downstream micro-algal growth

consumption, and environment of bioethanol production

in terms of N and P content. This study found that the

from

effluent N-to-P ratio and the P recovered are mainly

pervaporation/distillation

dependent on the influent quality rather than on biokinetics

environmentally

or stoichiometry.

emissions, and utility requirements. Further, sensitivity

Dogaris et al., (2015) developed a floating

brown

algae.

friendly

This is

study more

process,

shows economical

with

lower

hybrid and CO2

analysis indicated the highest impact on the economics of

horizontal photobioreactor (HBR) that is inexpensive and

bioethanol production from brown algae.

scalable, as it is manufactured from inexpensive plastic

Dahiya (2015) describes the use of algae biomass

film and is modular. A 65-L floating HBR prototype was

as a sustainable feedstock for biofuel and the brief

successfully deployed for cultivation of the marine strain N.

historical perspective follows different biofuel options from

atomus and indoor experiments confirmed the HBR’s

algae. The challenges in up scaling of algal biofuel

ability to promote high-density algal cultivation.

operations from bench to commercial scales are described

Skorupskaite et al., (2015) investigated several

in the end, followed by the life cycle analysis and economic

potential inexpensive waste materials for microalgae

and environmental effects.

Chlorella sp. biomass production rate including technical


Some Green algae species Chlorella, Spirogyra,

Chlorella

sorokiniana.

Microalgae

successfully

Chlamydomonas, Botryococcus, Scenedesmus, Neochloris,

outcompeted bacteria originating from DF effluent for

Haematococcus, Nannochloropsis, Ulva species and few

acetate and achieved a carbon yield of 55%. The butyrate

species of brown algae, red algae, blue green algae were

concentration was too high to support microalgae growth

chosen to study the effect of temperature and light intensity

but can be degraded by the aerobic bacterial species

on their growth by Singh and Singh (2015). Study showed

initially present in the raw DF effluent.

Scenedesmus species will grow in the ranges from 10 to 40

To produce microalgal lipids that can be

°C and Spirulina species has the ability to grow in

transformed to biodiesel fuel, one isolate with high lipid

temperatures but the temperature affected the protein and

content was identified as Chlorella sp. Y8-1 by Lin and Wu

carbohydrate levels.

(2015). An abundance of lipids were accumulated when Growth.

Chlorella sp. Y8-1 was cultivated under mixotrophic

Mohan et al., (2015) studied heterotrophic cultivation

conditions, suggesting that it has great potential for

systems with simultaneous wastewater treatment and algal

renewable biodiesel feedstock applications. Mixotrophic

oil production. Further, challenges faced during large scale

Chlorella sp. Y8-1 showed higher lipid content and higher

production

lipid productivity than Chlorella sp. Y8-1 cultivated under

Heterotrophic

and

limiting

and

Mixotrophic

factors

which

hinder

the

microalgae growth are enumerated. The study has proposed

autotrophic and heterotrophic conditions.

strategic deployment of integrated closed loop biorefinery

New Methods of Algae Analysis. Lou et al.,

concept with multi-product recovery to exploit the full

(2015) studied brown algae Laminaria japonica gel (CAG)

potential of algal systems.

that was prepared by treatment with glutaraldehyde. The

Practicability of mixotrophic productions of

chemical modification using glutaraldehyde significantly

microalgae in pilot-scale photobioreactors, as a general

changed the surface chemical structure of brown algae and

process considerationby Deschenes et al., (2015). This

the composition of amino acids in fucoidin was grafted

study used an alternate feeding approach effective to

onto the gel. Overall this study showed good stability and

control the bacterial populations, exploiting the intrinsic

selectivity make it a promising candidate for selective

dynamic properties of the algae to provide them with a

recovery of molybdenum from aqueous system.

competitive advantage over bacteria. It is concluded that

Anastasakis and Ross (2015) used hydrothermal

careful optimization to be done for mixotrophic cultures of

liquefaction (HTL) of four brown macro-algae to produce

microalgae.

bio-crude and bio-char in an energy favorable way. HTL

Turon et al., (2015) investigated the use of a raw

conversion of four brown macro-algae produced bio-crudes

coupling dark fermentation (DF) effluent, containing

with similar heating values, however the bio-chars

acetate and butyrate, to support the heterotrophic growth of

produced had a bigger variation in their HHVs. Both


products were found high in N content indicating the

facilitate

the

integrated

use

of

magnetic

carbon

necessity of upgrading before being used as fuels.

microparticles in microalgal biorefineries. It is concluded

Hu et al., (2015) evaluated the interactive effects

the tri-functional microparticles could potentially be

of harmful algae Microcystis aeruginosa and hypoxia on an

applied in various areas such as biomedicine, catalysis,

ecologically important mussel species inhabiting lakes the

magnetism,

triangle sail mussel Hyriopsis cumingii. Results revealed

remediation.

energy

materials,

and

environmental

that toxic algae play an important role on haemolymph

Gerardo et al., (2015) reviewed the developments

parameters alterations and its toxic effects could be affected

in microalgae harvesting and details the underlying

by hypoxia. The microcystin depuration rate of H. cumingii

phenomena of each technology in relation to key physical

is quick, toxic M. aeruginosa and hypoxia exposure history

parameters such as: size, morphology, surface charge, and

influenced its immunological mechanism recovery.

density. Overall, this review highlights that there is

Copin and Chevre (2015) previously developed

considerable scope for further innovation in harvesting

model was used to evaluate effects on substances acting as

processes, especially with synergistic interactions that

photosystem II inhibitors and to other algae. The study

exploit

concluded that the model can be considered to be suitable

simultaneously.

to assess the effects of pulse exposure scenarios for photosystem

II

inhibitors,

such

as

triazines

multiple

physical

and

chemical

properties

Seo et al., (2015) tested oxidized dye wastewaters

and

for their potential to be used as a cheap coagulant for

phenylureas, on S. vacuolatus and P subcapitata in

microalgae harvesting. This study clearly showed that dye

exponential growth.

wastewater, when properly oxidized, could serve as a

Microalgae Harvesting. Lei et al., (2015) used

potent coagulant for microalgae harvesting, potentially

bioflocculant from Cobetia marina L03 for effective

rendering the harvesting cost reduced to a substantial

harvesting of the microalgae Chlorella vulgaris via

degree.

flocculation–flotation. This study showed that bioflocculant

Wang et al., (2015) summarized magnetic

has potential for the high-efficiency harvesting of

particles for microalgae harvesting. The downstream

microalgae and may be useful in reducing one of the

techniques including the extraction of desired products and

barriers to microalgal biofuel production.

the reuse of the culture medium and magnetic particles are

Seo et al., (2015) applied tri-functional (cationic,

also assessed. Finally, the current challenges are outlined

magnetic, and lipophilic) carbon microparticles filled with

and future directions to achieve efficient and economic

magnetite (Fe3O4) through one-step aerosol spray pyrolysis

magnetic harvesting of microalgae are discussed.

in microalgal harvesting and serial microalgal lipid

Kim et al., (2015) attempted a simultaneous

entrapment. This study showed tri-functionality may

process of harvesting biomass and extracting crude bio-oil


from wet microalgae biomass using FeCl3 and Fe2 (SO4)3

production and four Chlorophyceae strains were isolated

as both coagulant and cell-disrupting agent. The study

from North-eastern

showed use of iron salts as reference coagulant in water

Scenedesmus sp. was the best for ensuring wastewater

treatment and microalgae harvesting in particular, serve as

treatment and biomass production. Further it is concluded

a practical route for the microalgae-derived biodiesel

that this microalga offers great potential in treating

production.

wastewater and producing biomass suitable for biofuel

Zheng et al., (2015) demonstrated a new

Tunisia.

Of the

four

isolates,

production.

harvesting technology by utilizing the phase separation of

Economics and Policies. Su et al., (2015)

thermoresponsive polymers and charged copolymers of N-

reviewed the national biofuel policies and strategy plans of

isopropylacrylamide and allylamine. The results indicated

the world‫׳‬s leading states, the government has provided

that thermoresponsive polymers provide a promising

sustained and cost-sharing privileges decreasing subsidies

technology for alga harvesting using recyclable and

for the whole process from feedstock from experimentation

reusable materials.

to industrialization of bioenergy industry in order to reduce Production.

investment risk. Authors concludes that challenge for the

Mendoza et al., (2015) assessed the lipid extractability of

policy makers to continue trends of biofuels production

14 microalgae species and strains using organic solvents.

while complying with sustainable production requirements.

The high variability detected indicated the potential for

Scarlat et al., (2015) provides a review of the

applying this parameter as an additional criterion for

policy framework for developing a bioeconomy in the

microalgae screening in industrial processes such as biofuel

European Union covering energy and climate, agriculture

production from microalgae. The results highlight the cell

and forestry, industry and research. Authors propose an

wall as a determining factor in the inter and intraspecific

analysis of the current status of bioeconomy in the

variability in lipid extraction treatments.

European Union and worldwide until 2020 and beyond.

Microalgae

Extraction

and

Biofuel

Lee et al., (2015) examined the recent progress of

Finally, it is concluded that expected developments in

microalgae-based liquid biofuel production with regard to

livestock breeding and yields increase in crop production

characteristics and applicability of microalgae as feedstock.

will contribute to increasing biomass production.

The review concludes that recent advances in biorefinery

Tyner (2015) explains how the Renewable Fuel

present opportunities to develop sustainable and integrated

Standard (RFS) functions and then examines alternatives to

productions of various liquid fuels from microalgae

the current administration of the RFS. The RFS is critical

biomass in economical way within the next decades.

for cellulosic biofuels and biodiesel, and its elimination

Jabali et al., (2015) studied native microalgae

would likely end use of those fuels. It is concluded that

strains suitable for wastewater treatment and biofuel


corn ethanol, however, is now much less expensive than

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