ASIA LIFE SCIENCES 24(2): 647-659, 2015 The Asian International Journal of Life Sciences
Body image, body mass index and the experience of Hiya in physical education among Filipino female university students ZYRA RUTH T. BREBANTE1,* and JONATHAN Y. CAGAS2 Body image dissatisfaction has been found to be associated with either high or low body mass index (BMI) among Filipino women (Aquino et al. 2009). Hiya, a very distinct Filipino characteristic that may be referred to, but not necessarily equivalent to shame, may be experienced by a person who has high body image dissatisfaction which may then become a barrier to physical activity participation. The relationships between body image, BMI, and hiya have not been explored in previous literature. Therefore, the purpose of this present study is to examine the relationships between body image, BMI, and hiya in the context of physical education (PE). Three hundred sixty-two female Filipino university Questionnaire (BSIQ: Rowe 1999) and a measure of hiya BMI was computed from one-site measured height and weight. Results of correlation analyses higher perception of fatness, and had more negative feelings towards their bodies. Results hiya in PE. Female students hiya in PE. Keywords: body image, body mass index, hiya, physical education, female, university students 1
Department of Physical Education, College of Human Kinetics, University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City 1101, Philippines. 2 Department of Sports Science, College of Human Kinetics, University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City 1101, Philippines. e-mail:
[email protected] * Received 12 June 2014; Accepted 19 August 2014 ©Rushing Water Publishers Ltd. 2015
Printed in the Philippines
Brebante & Cagas 2015 INTRODUCTION
The global pursuit of thinness as well as the media’s mass influence of the ideal body (Fallon & Hausenblas 2005) is one of the reasons why women suffer from poor body image. For Filipino women, these can be one reason for them to experience hiya – an indigenous concept which may be referred to as being ashamed about their bodies and selves. Torres (2012) reported that young Filipino women were dissatisfied with their bodies and this may stem from unreasonable weight concerns and extreme drive for thinness. Body dissatisfaction may then lead to unhealthy eating habits which can develop into eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa and bulimia (Torres 2012). Women and body image. Body image is the way individual see their bodies and the mental representation they have of it. “It relates to an individual’s perception, feelings and thoughts about one’s body and incorporates body size estimation, evaluation of bodily attractiveness, and emotions associated with body shape and size” (Grogan 1999 as cited in Burgess et al. 2006). Simply put, it is how a person feels about her appearance. Developing and nurturing a positive body image is considered part of a healthy mental attitude and is crucial to a person’s happiness and wellness (Aquino et. al. 2009). Hudson (2008) explained that dissatisfaction with body image affects quality of life, as well as the individual’s self esteem, interpersonal confidence and eating and exercise behaviors. Furthermore, it was said that the negative effects of body image dissatisfaction include elevated anxiety, depression and somatisation as well as decreased social functioning, peer relationships and self satisfaction (Hudson 2008). Disturbances in body image are prevalent in women than in men. Davis and Cowles (1991) stated that women were more dissatisfied with their bodies and placed greater importance on their appearance as an influence on their feeling of well-being. Downs, James and Cowan (2006) reported that “for college women, higher levels of body surveillance and body shame were associated with higher prioritizing of physical attractiveness relative to physical competence”. This is further supported by Furnham, Badmin and Snead’s (2002) study that girls associate body dissatisfaction with the concept of self-esteem while body dissatisfaction in boys on the other hand does not affect their self-esteem. Hence, because there is a strong relationship between body dissatisfaction and self-esteem among young people (Van den Berg et. al. 2009), it is more likely that women exercise to try to lose weight and consequently increase self esteem and body image (Ingledew et. al. 2002). One way to improve body image is to engage in regular aerobic activities such as dance. Most women prefer aerobic dance activities as dancing gives “impressive health benefits compared to gym workouts” (De Mille in “Dance Your Way to Fitness” 2007). Exercise and body image. Physical exercise according to Vocks et al. (2009) has a reinforcing effect on the immediate body image and mood improvement particularly to those who have higher body image disturbances. Ionescu, Voicu and Ulmeano (2010) reported that physical exercise increases self-image. Their study revealed that exercise done at least twice a week has an effect especially in the
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High body image dissatisfaction and hiya among Filipino females minds of the women by improving the physical self and their self-image. Daniels and Niekerk (2011) further affirmed that a moderate aerobic exercise program has a positive effect in improving body self-image of women in middle adulthood and that such a programme “has a positive influence on the way middle adult women think and feel about their bodies”. Appleton (2012) also reported that there was a significant change in various aspects of body image following an exercise routine notwithstanding no changes in body weight and shape. It was conveyed that these changes in body image were “mediated by body perceptions as opposed to actual body indices”. Dance-oriented activity provides not only physical but also psychological health benefits. Gondoh et al. (2009) studied the effects of aerobic exercise on brain structure and psychological well-being. Their findings suggest that ‘insula graymatter volume (region involved in multimodal sensory integration and plays a great role in the generation of affective states in response to emotional stimulation) may possibly be maintained with aerobic exercise’ (Gondoh et al 2009). They also found out that those who engaged in aerobic dance exhibited a decrease in depressive symptoms and an increase in identity. Bartholomew and Miller (2002) further affirmed that there is an overall improvement in affect following an aerobic dance exercise. Furthermore, they reported that those who have performed highly gained greater increase in affect than of low-performance participants. Ravelin et al. (2006) attributed dance as a medium for ‘developing one’s body image’. Burgess’ et al. (2006) also studied the effects of a 6-week aerobic dance intervention on body image and physical self-perceptions in adolescent girls. Their results showed that participation in 6 weeks of aerobic dance significantly reduced body image dissatisfaction. Henry, Anshel and Timothy (2006) on the other hand, suggested that it is more beneficial to improve body image with an interval program of aerobic, anaerobic and strength training program than with aerobic exercise alone or no exercise at all. The finding that aerobic self-efficacy was a stronger predictor of body image than strength self-efficacy likely reflects women placing greater value on aerobic exercise than strength training as a means for losing weight and managing body image concerns (Prichard & Tiggemmann 2008). Increased confidence in doing aerobic exercise could create a sense that the exerciser is getting closer to the body ideal, thus enhancing body image (Martin Ginis et al. 2012). Body composition and body image. Body mass index (BMI), a measure of body composition, influences the development of body image. Several studies have reported that BMI is significantly associated with body dissatisfaction (Ingledew & Sullivan 2002). According to Chung (2005), “the degrees of body dissatisfaction and social physique anxiety are influenced by the level of BMI of individuals”. Fallon and Hausenblas (2005) also reported that “BMI was the positive predictor of body dissatisfaction and social physique anxiety for females.” There is a positive relationship between BMI and body image (Olds 2010). According to a study done by Aquino et al. (2009) ‘body image satisfaction among urban Filipino women were associated with BMI, waist circumference, and waistto-hip ratio’. However, their result indicated that only waist-to-hip ratio was
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Brebante & Cagas 2015 a significant variable affecting image satisfaction. According to the authors, fat deposition that results to changes in body shape affects body image satisfaction among Filipino women. Sira (2003) stated that the best predictor of satisfaction with physical appearance among women was BMI. According to Sira, “women who have higher BMI were associated with lower scores on perceptions of physical appearance, and higher BMI was negatively related to satisfaction with physical appearance as well as global self-worth”. On the other hand, an elevated BMI has negative effects towards the individual’s quality of life. These include “physical illness, psychological illness, such as eating disorders, and social stigma” (Hudson 2008). Branch, Adair and Agustin (2010) demonstrated the widespread prevalence of body image dissatisfaction among Filipino women, as well as the importance of changing social and economic influences in this population undergoing the nutrition transition. Aquino et al. (2009) reported that Filipino women satisfied with their body image had a lower BMI, waist circumference, and waist-to-hip ratio. Their findings revealed that body image dissatisfaction exists in seven out of ten Filipino women in depressed urban community. They also suggested that further studies should be done on the causes of body image dissatisfaction to identify other factors not included in their study and consider these in planning health programs. The effect of body image dissatisfaction on various psychological, biological and other conditions can be studied in our local situation. Hiya as a possible outcome to poor body image. Hiya is a very distinct Filipino trait or characteristic. There are several definitions of Hiya according to different authors. Hiya, although not equivalent to, may be associated as shame or the loss of Amor Propio (Philippine Culture 2008). This is similar to Guthrie’s (1971 as cited in Tabbada 2005) definition of Hiya, a “feeling of inferiority, embarrassment, shyness and alienation which is experienced as acutely distressing.” Enriquez (1999 as cited in Tabbada 2005) defined Hiya as being ashamed and is a temporary state-of-being or mode-of-being. According to him, “it is temporal aspect-no such thing as permanent. It is transcendent experience of Hiya; something that is temporal and transient”. Lynch and Hollsteiner (as cited in Bobis 1997), on the other hand, viewed Hiya as a social context. According to them, Hiya is defined as an “uncomfortable feeling that accompanies awareness of being in a socially unacceptable position, or performing a socially unacceptable action”. Furthermore, Lynch asserts that Filipinos have three aspirations, namely: social acceptance, economic security and social mobility. In the second study of Hollsteiner (as cited in Bobis 1997), he further defined Hiya as “a universal social sanction that regulates the give and take of reciprocity and, in general, all social behavior. It may be translated as ‘a sense of social propriety’, as a preventive; it makes for a sense of shame, a realization of having failed to live up to the standard of the society”. Quito (1988 as cited in Tabbada 2005) said Hiya is “an ambivalent value containing positive and negative aspects. It is negative as it arrests or inhibits one’s action while it is also positive as it contributes to peace of mind and lack of stress in not even trying to achieve”. The Hiya phenomenon, according to Tabbada (2005),
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High body image dissatisfaction and hiya among Filipino females consists of objective and subjective aspect. Objective aspect means “being ashamed of something” and the subjective aspect means “being ashamed for something”. Hence, it is possible that poor body image may result to feelings of Hiya which may then hinder an individual to participate fully in physical activities. The Present Study. The relationship between body image and BMI had been supported in the literature. However, there is a need for more information with regards to what causes having body image dissatisfaction, how physical activity may influence the development of positive body image, and how media and health practices affect body image (Torres 2012). Furthermore, some evidence suggests that cultural values may have some influence on body image (McCabe et al. 2013). Exploring the relationship of Hiya to body image and BMI in the context of physical activity may be a worthwhile endeavor. This study, therefore, aimed to explore the relationship between body image, body mass index (BMI), and Hiya in the context of dance-based physical education.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Participants. A total of 362 female students from a large public university enrolled in various dance-based PE courses during the first semester of the academic year 2012-2013 participated in this study. Average age of the participants was 17.70 ± 1.64 and ranging from 15-25 years old. Instruments of the study. Body Image. Modified Body Self-Image Questionnaire (BSIQ, Rowe 1999) was used to measure body image. The modified BSIQ is a 31-item Likert-type scale with items pertaining to feelings and attitudes about one’s body. Responses ranged from 1 (not at all true of myself) to 5 (completely true of myself). It consists of nine subscales, three of which are evaluative. The following are the nine subscales of the modified BSIQ: (1) Overall appearance evaluation (OAE) of overall estimation of one’s appearance; A sample item is “My body looks good.” (2) Fatness evaluation (FE) -estimation of overall fatness of one’s body; A sample item is “My body is fat overall.” (3) Health/fitness evaluation (HFE)estimation of one’s overall physical fitness/health status; A sample item is “My body is healthy.” (4) Health/fitness influence (HFI)-the degree to which one’s health and fitness influences the way one feels about his or her body; A sample item is “My body image is influenced by the state of my health.” (5) Attention to grooming (AG) -the amount of time and effort spent in manipulating one’s appearance; A sample item is “I’m usually well dressed.” (6) Social dependence (SD) -effect of social situations or social acceptance on one’s body image; a sample item is “I’m more aware of my body when I’m in social situations.” (7) Height dissatisfaction (HD) -desire to be taller or shorter; A sample item is “I’ve often wanted to be taller.” (8) Negative affect (NA) -the negative thoughts and feelings associated with one’s body; A sample item is “My naked body makes me feel sad.” and (9) Investment in ideals (II) -importance of and aspirations to achieve a perfect body; A sample item is “Muscle definition is important to me.” Body mass index (BMI). Height and weight were based on self-report. BMI is the ratio between the individual’s weight in kilograms and the square of height in meters. World Health Organization’s (2004) data classification for BMI indicated
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Brebante & Cagas 2015 values less than 18.5 kg/m 2 as underweight, 18.5-25.0 kg/m2 as normal, 25.1-30.0 kg/m 2 as overweight and 30.1 above as obese. Hiya. An instrument measuring hiya was developed specifically for this study. An 11-item inventory resulted from an elicitation study and an exploratory factor analysis of the pilot instrument. During the elicitation study, a small number of participants (n = 21) were asked to indicate situations, states or reasons they experience hiya in physical education. Based from their responses, a 12-item pilot inventory was developed. The same participants were then asked to rate how much they experience hiya based on each item. They were asked to rate each statement using a Likert-type scale ranging from 1, “Hindi Nahihiya” (Not at all feeling ashamed)* to 10 “Labis na Nahihiya”(Strongly feeling ashamed)*. Item and factor analysis were then conducted to establish the instrument’s reliability and validity. Two factors emerged from factor analysis and were subsequently named hiya hiya-competence (8 items; hiya as discussed by Lynch and Hollsteiner (as cited in Bobis 1997) and Quito (1988). Internal consistency reliability coefficients of the two factors were highly acceptable. Procedure. Permission to conduct the study was granted by the Graduate Studies Program of the academic institution where the first author completed her master’s degree. Female university students enrolled in different dance-based PE classes were invited to participate in the study. Each participant was provided with a copy of the questionnaire with a cover letter stating the purpose of the study and participant’s consent. The cover letter indicated that participation was purely voluntary and those who did not want to participate may simply return the questionnaire unmarked. They were further informed that data collected from each participant shall be pooled together for analysis and shall only be used for research purposes. Those who agreed to participate were asked to answer each item as honestly as they can as their answers will not in any way affect their grades in PE. It took the participants an average of 5 minutes to complete the survey. Data analysis. Data were encoded and analyzed using a standard statistical package (IBM SPSS 20.0). Preliminary data screening was conducted to identify missing data and possible outliers. After which, descriptive statistics were generated. Pearson’s product moment correlation coefficients were computed to explore the relationships between variables.
RESULTS
Descriptive statistics of all study variables are reported in Table 1. Body image scores ranged from 1 to 5 hence scores above 3 were interpreted as high, and scores below 3 were interpreted as low. Filipino female students reported to have high levels of investment in ideals, social dependence, attention to grooming, overall appearance evaluation, health and fitness influence and height dissatisfaction.They also reported to have low levels of health/fitness evaluation, negative affect and fatness evaluation. Scores for hiya ranged from 1 to 10. Mean scores indicated that *
not a direct translation
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High body image dissatisfaction and hiya among Filipino females Table 1. Descriptive statistics of body image subscales, hiya Subscales and body mass index. Mean SD Skewness Kurtosis Body Image Investment in Ideals (II)
3.40
0.81
.78
-0.22
-0.51
Health/Fitness Evaluation (HFE)
2.79
0.74
.84
0.22
-0.13
Social Dependence (SD) Negative Affect (NA) Attention to Grooming (AG) Fatness Evaluation (FE)
3.19 2.00 3.23 2.55
0.88 0.80 0.81 0.97
.64 .84 .71 .88
-0.15 1.10 -0.19 0.31
-0.56 1.02 -0.24 -0.71
Overall Appearance Evaluation (OAE)
3.12
0.72
.77
-0.15
-0.30
Health/Fitness Influence (HFI)
3.57
0.75
.62
-0.18
-0.12
Height Dissatisfaction (HD) Hiya – Social Hiya – Competence BMI
3.63 4.35 5.39 20.51
1.19 2.18 1.88 2.91
.86 .84 .91
-0.66 0.17 -0.06 0.82
-0.56 -0.57 -0.42 1.37
the respondents reported low level of hiya-social but a slightly high level of hiyacompetence. Body image and BMI. There is a moderate and positive correlation between Fatness Evaluation (FE) and Body Mass Index (BMI) (r =0.60, p =0.000). BMI is negatively correlated with Overall Appearance Evaluation (OAE) (r = -0.34, p = 0.000) and Health Fitness Evaluation (HFE) (r =-0.14, p=0.007). Negative Affect (NA) is positively correlated with BMI (r = 0.29, p = 0.000). Attention to Grooming (AG), Health Fitness Influence (HFI), Social 0 (SD), Height Dissatisfaction (HD) and Investment in Ideals (II) are not significantly correlated with BMI. Body image and Hiya. Hiya-Social and Hiya-Competence had negative and weak correlation with Overall Appearance Evaluation (OAE) (r = -0.30, p = 0.000 and r = -0.26, p=0.000, respectively), and Health/Fitness Evaluation (HFE) (r = -0.23, p = 0.000; and r = -0.17, p= 0.001, respectively). Additionally, both dimensions had positive and weak correlation with Fatness Evaluation (FE) (r = 0.14, p= 0.01 and r = 0.17, p = 0.001, respectively). Hiya-Social is positively correlated with Height Dissatisfaction (HD) (r = 0.13, p = 0.014) and Negative Affect (NA) (r = 0.22, p = 0.000). However, it is negatively correlated with Health/Fitness Influence (HFI) (r = -0.11, p=0.04). On the other hand, Hiya-Competence is positively correlated with Social Dependence (SD) (r = 0.20, p=0.000), Negative Affect (NA) (r = 0.32, p = 0.000), Investment in Ideals (II) (r = 0.11, p = 0.030) and is positively highly correlated with Height Dissatisfaction (HD) (r = 0.18, p= 0.001). There is no significant correlation between Hiya-Social, Attention to Grooming (AG), Social Dependence (SD), and Investment in Ideals (II). The correlation between Hiya-Competence, Attention to Grooming (AG) and Health/Fitness Influence (HFI) is also not significant.
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Brebante & Cagas 2015 DISCUSSION
The present study explored the relationships between body image, BMI and Hiya among Filipino female university students. While the literature has supported the relationship between body image and BMI, their influence on Filipino value of Hiya has not been studied. Body image and BMI. Moderate to high relationships were found between dimensions of body image and BMI. These results support the findings that BMI influences the degree of body dissatisfaction of individuals (Olds 2010, Chung 2005, Fallon & Hausenblas 2005, Ingledew & Sullivan 2002, Aquino et al. 2009) and that increased adiposity is a strong predictor of body dissatisfaction, particularly among girls (Olive et al. 2012, Sira 2003). The positive relationship found between BMI and body image, specifically, Health/Fitness Evaluation (HFE) was consistent with the findings of the studies of Olds (2010) and Aquino et al. (2009). Overall Appearance Evaluation (OAE) and Health/Fitness Evaluation (HFE) are both negatively correlated with BMI, indicating that the higher the OAE and HFE are, the lower the BMI or vice versa. This is congruent with the findings of Sira (2003) that women who have higher BMI were associated with lower scores on perceptions of physical appearance, and higher BMI was negatively related to satisfaction with physical appearance. Furthermore, Fatness Evaluation (FE) and Negative Affect (NA) have positive correlation with BMI. This is consistent with the fact that women with elevated BMI were more likely to perceive their bodies negatively as a consequence of weighing more (Olive et al. 2012, Sira 2003). It is therefore recommended that physical educators and/or dance instructors should take into great consideration strategies for weight management as well as integrating ways to obtain certain levels of physical fitness in class in order to inhibit body image concerns. Castonguay and Sabiston (2011) further suggested that “higher levels of cardiovascular fitness may act as a protective buffer to body image concerns, regardless of a child’s body composition” and that “strategies aimed at helping individuals with elevated BMIs effectively cope with body- related self-conscious emotions may need to be targeted. Lastly, future interventions may benefit from targeting change in school culture (Castonguay & Sabiston 2011). Body image and Hiya. Significant correlations were found in most of the factors of body image and both factors of Hiya. The negative correlation found between both Hiya-Social and Hiya-Competence with Overall Appearance Evaluation (OAE) and Health/ Fitness Evaluation (HFE) suggests that having high perceptions of one’s overall appearance and health/fitness decreases Hiya in PE. This simply means that an individual may be able to perform better in a dance-based PE class when she has a high estimation of one’s appearance and overall physical fitness/health status. On the contrary, those with low perceptions of OAE and HFE may not be able to perform well in PE or even possibly in front of a crowd. With such, it is recommended that strategies in improving the students OAE and HFE be incorporated in dancedbased physical education classes. Teachers and physical educators alike should
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High body image dissatisfaction and hiya among Filipino females
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Brebante & Cagas 2015 target these specific factors of body image and Hiya in PE in order to encourage students to perform better and consequently, attract more students to enrol in dancebased physical activities.
Limitations and recommendations for future research
While this study contributes to the body of knowledge supporting the relationship between cultural values and body image, and may be the first to investigate the role of body image in the experience in Hiya in a physical activity context, it is not without limitations. First, the respondents in this study do not necessarily represent young Filipino women in general as they all come from one large public university. Second, external factors such as levels of physical activity, cultural and family background, and socio-economic status of the respondents as well as extraneous factors such as the level of training, teaching style and method, dance background of the dance instructors and the location of the class being held were not considered. And third, because of the correlation design, causalrelationships cannot be established. It is therefore recommended to validate these findings in other Filipino student population, and explore if other factors such as level of training and physical activity experience may influence these relationships. Studies using experimental designs may be needed in order to establish causal-relationships between variables. Interventions aiming at minimizing students’ experience of Hiya in PE might help them develop a more positive body image and therefore encourage them to participate more in physical activities.
CONCLUSION
This study sought to understand how body image and BMI may influence the experience of Hiya in PE. Significant relationships between body image and body mass index, specifically in objective appearance evaluation, perceptions of fatness, and negative feelings about the body were found. Furthermore, significant relationships were found between body image and Hiya, specifically between overall appearance evaluation and both Hiya-Social and Hiya-Competence. As this study is exploratory in nature, further validation of the results is needed.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to extend their utmost gratitude to the dance faculty of the University of the Philippines-Diliman for their full cooperation. Also, they would like to thank Professor Gilda L. Uy for her incessant guidance and sound advice.
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