AMERICAN JOURNAL OF HUMAN BIOLOGY 13:539–547 (2001)
Body Size, Composition, and Blood Pressure of High-Altitude Quechua From the Peruvian Central Andes (Huancavelica, 3,680 m) STEFANIA TOSELLI, EDUARDO TARAZONA-SANTOS, AND DAVIDE PETTENER* Dipartimento di Biologia evoluzionistica sperimentale, Area di Antropologia, Universita´ di Bologna, via Selmi, Bologna, Italy
ABSTRACT Although much information is available about the effects of high altitude on physiological characteristics, less is know about its effect on body composition. In the present study, anthropometric and body composition variables were investigated in a sample of 77 adult Quechua males from the Peruvian Central Andes (Huancavelica, 3,680 m). The subjects are shorter in relation to body weight than other ethnic groups, whereas body proportions are macrocormic (indicating a long trunk relative to the lower extremities), with intermediate values of the acromial-iliac index. All skinfold thicknesses are low (∼15th percentiles of NHANES reference values for the triceps and subscapular skinfolds), but tend to be higher than in the other Quechua populations. Similar results are obtained when percentage fat is estimated. Somatotypes are dominant in mesomorphy with very low ectomorphy. Comparison with a sample of high-altitude Kirghiz (3,200 m), previously studied with the same methods, shows higher values in the Peruvian sample for all variables related to adiposity. The presence of low adiposity in the Quechua population could be associated with stresses of the high-altitude environment. Mean values of blood pressure are very low and there is no correlation with age. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 13:539–547, 2001. © 2001 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
High-altitude regions of the world constitute a multistress environment inhabited by several million people, mainly in America, Asia, and Africa (Pawson and Jest, 1978). Although the main environmental stress in these regions is the low partial pressure of O2, important roles are also played by poor nutrition, cold, socioeconomic problems, and geographic isolation (Picon Reategui, 1978; Leonard, 1989a,b; Pretell, 1992; De Meer et al., 1993; Leatherman et al., 1995). Many studies throughout the world have considered the effect of high altitude on physiological characteristics (Baker, 1976, 1978a,b; Baker, 1996; Greksa and Beall, 1989; Greksa, 1991; Frisancho, 1969, 1988; Ballew et al., 1989; Beall and Goldstein, 1990; Tarazona-Santos et al., 2000; Fiori et al., 2000a,b, in press; Leonard et al., 1990; Stinson, 1982; Picon Reategui, 1961b). However, less is know about the effect of high altitude on body composition and somatic structure. The purpose of this study was to provide detailed data about the body size, composition, and blood pressure of a native Quechua population from the Peruvian Central Andes (Huancavelica, 3,680 m), and to investigate the relationship between these characteristics and the multistress highaltitude environment. This population has also been studied in relation to high-
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altitude adaptive characteristics (TarazonaSantos et al., 1997, 2000). In addition, data for the Andean sample from Huancavelica are compared with a Kirghiz high-altitude sample from Central Asia (3,200 m), previously studied with the same methodology. MATERIALS AND METHODS Population and sample The study was carried out in Huancavelica (3,680 m), the main town of the Huancavelica Department in the Central Andes of Peru. Huancavelica was founded by the Spanish in 1572, as a result of the presence in the valley of a rich mercury deposit, the Santa Barbara mine. Mercury was indispensable for the extraction of gold and silver, and Huancavelica became a thriving mining center during the 1600s. The mine attracted people from diverse places of the Peruvian Andes until 1640, when an earthquake marked the beginning of the town’s decline. With the depletion of the mines, demographic and economic decline led to increased isolation, which has
Grant sponsor: Italy-MURST COFIN 9905277319-002. *Correspondence to: Davide Pettener, Dipartimento di Biologia evoluzionistica sperimentale, Area di Antropologia, via Selmi, 3-40126 Bologna, Italy. E-mail:
[email protected] Received 13 July 2000; Revision received 2 October 2000; Accepted 3 October 2000
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persisted to the present time. In the 19th century commercial and mining activities decreased and a yellow fever epidemic hit the area in 1855; war between Peru and Chile also affected the area in 1880 (Salas Guevara, 1993). The town is presently inhabited principally by communities of Quechua speaking farmers and herders (Pettener et al., 1998). They live in a valley and are dependent on agriculture. Crops such as varieties of potatoes, quinoa, and some endemic Andean tubers are cultivated. Sheep, cobaya, alpaca, and llama are also raised as sources of protein and fiber. The population of the region is characterized by low rates of admixture with nonindigenous populations (Pettener et al., 1998; Simoni et al., 2000; Luiselli et al., 2000). The sample included 77 healthy, unrelated adult males, who were natives of the Province of Huancavelica and belonged to the Quechua ethnic group. The subjects were permanent residents of the area and 73% were manual laborers, mainly farmers. The mean age was 38.3 ± 11.3 years and ranged from 20 to 69 years. The age distribution of the sample is reported in Tarazona-Santos et al. (2000).
Measurements and analyses The data were collected during the Spring of 1994. Each subject was interviewed to verify ethnic origin and permanent residence in the high-altitude environment. State of health was also determined. All somatometric dimensions were taken by the same investigator (E.T-S.), according to the recommendations of Weiner and Lourie (1981) and Lohman et al. (1988). Nineteen anthropometric dimensions were taken: weight, height, sitting height, bicristal and biacromial diameters, five circumferences (chest, relaxed and flexed upper arm, waist, hip, thigh) and nine skinfold thicknesses (subscapular, suprailiac, abdominal, triceps, biceps, calf, thigh, midaxillary, pectoral) using a Holtain caliper. The body mass index (BMI, weight/height2), cormic index (sitting height/height), acromial-iliac index (biacromial diameter/bicristal diameter), and chest circumference/height index were also calculated. Body composition (percent fat [%F], fat mass [FM], and fat-free mass [FFM]) was estimated with the biceps, triceps, subscapular, and suprailiac skinfolds according to Durnin and Wormesley (1974). Heath-
Carter anthropometric somatotypes were calculated (Carter and Heath, 1990). Systolic and diastolic blood pressures (fifth phase) were measured with a standard sphygmomanometer by the Riva-Rocci Korotoff technique (Hill, 1981). Two successive readings were taken within 5–10 min. In addition to descriptive statistics (means, standard deviations), the normality of the distributions was verified with the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. The Quechua sample was compared with a high-altitude Kirghiz sample. Both populations live in a high-altitude environment, but their nutrition is very different. In fact, in the Peruvian Andes at 3,700 m, the soil is relatively fertile compared to the region inhabited by the Kirghiz (3,200 m). Cultivation of tubers and some endemic cereals is possible in the Andes (Picon-Reategui, 1978). The Central Asia Kirghiz population (Fiori et al., 2000a; Facchini et al., in preparation) is agropastoral. The economy is mainly based on grazing sheep and goats, or raising yaks and horses that are moved to the mountain pastures during the summer. The Kirghiz peopled the highlands during the 17th century; therefore, the presence of genetic changes related to the high-altitude habitat can be reasonably excluded. For the comparison between the Quechua and Kirghiz samples, the homogeneity of variance between the two groups was assessed with the Leven test. Because all variables did not have a normal distribution and the samples were not homogeneous for variance, comparisons were done with the nonparametric Kruskal-Wallis test. In addition, relationships between adiposity, blood pressures, and age were analyzed. RESULTS Table 1 presents the descriptive statistics for the anthropometric dimensions and derived indices. The subjects are heavy for their height. Although the BMI is near the medians of the NHANES II reference (Frisancho, 1990), stature is near the 5th percentile. Body structure, on average, is macrocormic, with intermediate values of the acromial-iliac index. The chest circumference/height index shows a large chest in comparison with height. As shown in Table 1, the skinfolds of the Huancavelica sample are low, at the 15th percentile of NHANES (which unfortunately reports standard values only for the
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TABLE 1. Means, standard deviations and Spearman correlation coefficients (rs) with age in the Quechua of Huancavelica for the considered dimensions and indices Variables
Mean
SD
rs
P
Age, years Height, cm Weight, kg Sitting height, cm Biacromial diameter, cm Bicristal diameter, cm Circumferences, cm Upper arm relaxed Upper arm flexed Chest normal Chest maximum Chest minimum Waist Hip Thigh Skinfolds, mm Suprailiac Subscapular Abdominal Triceps Biceps Calf Thigh Mid-axillary Pectoral BMI, kg/m2 Cormic index Acromial-iliac index Chest circumference/height index
38.3 158.1 60.3 84.8 37.9 27.6
11.4 5.4 6.3 3.1 2.0 1.4
−0.30 0.13 −0.14 0.03 0.20
0.01 0.27 0.25 0.82 0.09
25.3 27.5 92.4 96.2 90.4 84.1 87.5 46.4
1.8 1.9 4.2 4.2 4.2 5.3 3.8 2.4
0.20 0.20 0.21 0.15 0.29 0.39 0.12 −0.07
0.10 0.10 0.07 0.19 0.01 0.00 0.31 0.56
12.8 9.9 10.0 6.4 3.4 4.1 6.5 8.5 6.3 24.2 53.6 72.9 58.5
5.3 2.7 4.5 2.2 0.8 1.1 1.7 4.2 3.2 2.1 1.3 4.5 2.9
0.01 0.07 0.00 −0.10 −0.08 −0.14 0.05 0.07 0.22 0.42 0.17 0.16 0.45
0.93 0.57 0.99 0.42 0.50 0.25 0.67 0.54 0.07 0.01 0.16 0.17 0.00
triceps and subscapular skinfolds), suggesting that the Andean highlanders present, on average, a low level of subcutaneous adiposity. Mean somatotype is endo-mesomorphic (Table 2). In fact, despite the low values of subcutaneous fat, the sample presents large values of arm circumference. The mean blood pressures are very low in the Quechua sample, 104.7 ± 11 and 69.1 ± 8.2 mm Hg for systolic and diastolic pressures, respectively. There is no correlation between age and systolic (r ⳱ 0.09, P ⳱ 0.46) and diastolic (r ⳱ 0.11, P ⳱ 0.33) blood pressures. DISCUSSION Body size Mean height (Table 3) is comparable to other Andean Quechua populations (Frisancho and Baker, 1970; Frisancho et al., 1975, 1995; Leatherman et al., 1984, 1995; Leonard et al., 1995; Picon-Reategui et al., 1960a) and to Bolivian Aymara (Mueller et al., 1980). Mestizos (Tufts et al., 1985), rural Bolivian Aymara (Kashiwazaki et al., 1996), and Chilean Aymara (Mueller et al., 1980) are slightly taller, while the difference is obviously greater with the Quechua of “large
TABLE 2. Means, standard deviations and Spearman correlation coefficients (rs) with age in the Quechua of Huancavelica for body composition and somatotypes Variables FFM, kg FM, kg %F %FFM Endomorphy Mesomorphy Ectomorphy
Mean 49.8 10.0 16.4 83.4 3.1 5.3 1.2
SD 4.9 3.2 4.3 4.2 1.1 0.8 0.6
rs −0.13 0.38 0.45 −0.40 −0.02 0.53 −0.49
P 0.30 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.89 0.00 0.00
size” and with urban Bolivians studied by Frisancho et al. (1975, 1995). Mean weight is also comparable to other Quechua populations (Table 3), although lower values are reported for the rural Bolivian Aymara (Kashiwazaki et al., 1996), Peruvian Quechua (Frisancho and Baker, 1970), and Andeans studied by PiconReategui et al. (1961a). Higher weights are reported for Mestizos (Tuffs et al., 1985) and Quechua of “large size” (Frisancho et al., 1975). The BMI (Table 4) is similar to that of rural Ecuadorean highlanders (Leonard et al., 1995), higher than that of Bolivians (Frisancho et al., 1995), and slightly lower than that in rural Bolivian Aymara (Kashiwazaki et al., 1996). Sitting height is also
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TABLE 3. Age, mean height, mean weight, and standard deviations in Andean populations Age, years Population
Altitude, m
Mean
SD
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.
2,743–4,541 3,700 3,000–3,400 3,700 3,712 3,752–3,980 3,840 3,840 3,850–5,000 4,000–4,100 4,000 4,100 4,000–4,500 >4,500 3,700
27.6 38.3 32.0 34.0 21.1 43.0 21.3 20.2
1.6 11.3 16.0 12.0 0.7
Andean Peruvian Quechua (present study) Rural Ecuadoreans Mestizo Urban Bolivians Bolivian Aymara Quechua (small size) Quechua (large size) Nun˜oan Rural Bolivian Aymara Peruvian Quechua Rural Bolivians Chilean Aymara Peruvian Quechua Bolivian
Age range 20–69
2.4 1.6 23+ 20–65 22–36
34.7 44.0
1.3 22–35 20–45
Height, cm
Weight, kg
N
Mean
SD
Mean
SD
28 77 16 526 32 95 22 18 101 6 22 39 70 22
157.6 158.1 159.0 162.0 168.5 160.9 156.7 166.8 159.1 161.9 158.8 160.6 162.9 159.0 160.1
1.0 5.4 6.3 6.0 0.8 5.4 2.9 2.3 5.7 5.7 5.9 0.6 4.5 4.5 5.8
54.3 60.3 61.3 64.0 60.0 57.1 59.5 66.2 60.0 54.8 53.7 58.7 61.1 57.5 57.3
1.1 6.3 9.2 8.0 1.0 6.4 3.8 4.3 7.0 2.8 3.6 1.1 7.2 5.3 5.4
1. Picon-Reategui et al. (1961a); 2. present study; 3. Leonard et al. (1995); 4. Tufts (1985); 5. Frisancho et al. (1995); 6. Mueller et al. (1980); 7. Frisancho et al. (1975); 8. Frisancho et al. (1975); 9. Leatherman et al. (1995); 10. Kashiwazaki et al. (1996); 11. Frisancho and Baker (1970); 12. Frisancho et al. (1995); 13. Mueller et al. (1980); 14. Frisancho and Baker (1970); 15. Leatherman et al. (1984).
TABLE 4. The BMI in Andean populations Population 1. Rural ecuadoreans 2. Peruvian Quechua (present study) 3. Urban Bolivians 4. Rural Bolivian Aymara 5. Rural Bolivians
Altitude, m 3,000–3,400 3,700 3,712 4,000–4,100 4,100
Mean
Age, years SD Age range
32.0 38.3 21.1
16.0 11.3 0.7
34.7
1.3
20–69 20–65
N 16 77 32 6 39
BMI (kg/m2) Mean SD 24.1 24.2 21.1 25.4 22.7
2.5 2.1 0.3 1.6 0.4
1. Leonard et al. (1995); 2. Present study; 3. Frisancho et al. (1995); 4. Kashiwazaki et al. (1996); 5. Frisancho et al. (1995).
comparable to that reported for native Andean populations by Frisancho and Baker (1970) and Leatherman et al. (1995). Chest circumferences in the Huancavelica sample are similar to those reported in other studies of high-altitude Andean populations (Frisancho et al., 1973; Beall, 1982; Leatherman et al., 1984, 1995; Greksa et al., 1984).
(Leatherman et al., 1995) are slightly lower in the few investigated samples, with the only exception being six investigated rural Bolivian Aymaras (Kashiwazaki et al. 1996). Higher values are also reported for the rural Ecuadorean highlanders (Leonard et al., 1995), but the sum of the triceps and subscapular skinfolds is only reported.
Body composition Skinfolds Comparisons of limited skinfold data reported in literature were also undertaken, although the type of caliper used in the studies is often different. Triceps and subscapular skinfolds in the present sample (Table 5) are slightly higher than those of other native Andean samples (Leatherman et al., 1984, 1995; Frisancho and Baker, 1970; Kashiwazaki et al., 1996). Mestizos (Tuffs et al., 1985) only show remarkably higher values. Incomplete comparisons are possible for the other skinfolds. The biceps (Leatherman et al., 1995), suprailiac (Leatherman et al., 1995), abdominal (Frisancho and Baker, 1970), and calf skinfolds
Comparison of the estimated body composition of the Huancavelica sample with that of other high-altitude samples reveals higher values of percentage fat (Table 6) than in other native rural Andeans (Frisancho, 1975, 1995; Kashiwazaki et al., 1996), but lower estimated values than in native urban Bolivians (Frisancho et al., 1995). Note that the comparative data were obtained with different methodologies, which could affect the comparisons. Unfortunately, because of the complete lack of data in the literature, it is not possible to compare somatotypes. These data, associated with information on body composition, may provide information about pos-
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TABLE 5. Skinfold thicknesses in Andean populations Age, years Population 1. Peruvian Quechua (present study) 2. Peruvian rural Quechua
3. Bolivian 4. Semiurban and rural Aymara (Nun˜oan) 5. Rural Bolivian Aymara 6. Mestizo
Triceps, mm
Subscapular, mm
Altitude, m
Mean
SD
Age range
N
Mean
SD
Mean
SD
3,700 4,000
38.3 18.2 19.4 20.2 21.3 22.4 35.0
11.3
20–69
77 29 21 17 20 20 52
6.4 5.7 5.8 5.9 6.0 6.3 4.0 6.2
2.2
9.9 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.9 8.3 8.5
2.1
3,700
20–45
3,850–5,000 4,000–4,100 3,700
23+ 20–60 35.0
11.0
99 6 600
5.5 4.9 12.0
1.9 8.3 7.7
1.1 9.0
2.5
1. Present study; 2. Frisancho and Baker (1970); 3. Leatherman et al. (1984); 4. Leatherman et al. (1995); 5. Kashiwazaki et al. (1996); 6. Tufts et al. (1985).
TABLE 6. Estimated percentage fat in Andean populations Population 1. Andean 2. Present study: Peruvian Quechua 3. Urban Bolivians 4. Quechua (small size) 5. Quechua (large size) 6. Rural Bolivian Aymara 7. Rural Bolivians
Altitude, m 2,743–4,541 3,700 3,712 3,840 3,840 4,000–4,100 4,100
Mean 27.6 38.3 21.1 21.3 20.2 34.7
Age, years SD Age range 1.6 11.3 20–69 0.7 2.4 1.6 20–65 1.3
N 28 77 32 22 18 6 39
%Fat Mean 17.3 16.4 17.9 13.8 14.2 15.4 14.2
SD 1.2 4.3 0.8 2.1 2.5 2.3 1.1
1. Picon-Reategui et al. (1961a); 2. Present study; 3. Frisancho et al. (1995); 4. Frisancho et al. (1975); 5. Frisancho et al. (1975); 6. Kashiwazaki et al. (1996); 7. Frisancho et al. (1995).
sible trends in the development of the different somatotype components in highaltitude populations.
Comparison with the high-altitude Kirghiz of Central Asia Data from other studies of high-altitude Andean populations are not fully comparable with the present results because of the lack of detailed analysis of adiposity, differences in methods used, and different sample sizes and mean ages. However, in this regard, it is interesting to compare the Andean sample with a high-altitude sample from Central Asia (Kirghiz of Sary Tash village in Kirghizstan at 3,200 m), which was studied with the same methodology used in the present research (Facchini et al., 1998, in preparation; Fiori et al., 2000a,b). The Peruvians and Kirghiz have similar values for weight; calf, upper arm, and hip circumferences; the calf skinfold; and the cormic and acromial-iliac indices (Kruskal-Wallis test, P < 0.05). The indices indicate a similar structure of the trunk and a similar ratio between the trunk and legs in the two groups.
It is interesting that the Kirghiz have significantly higher values than the Peruvians for height (10 cm), sitting height (4.7 cm), and biacromial (1.7 cm) and biiliac diameters (7 mm). The samples differ especially in parameters related to adiposity: BMI (2.9 kg/m2), skinfold thicknesses, waist (7.2 cm), thigh circumferences (3.2 cm), FM (3 kg), and %F (5.2 kg). The Peruvians show greater adiposity. The chest circumference/ height index shows a more developed chest in relation to height in the Peruvians than in the Kirghiz. The distribution of body fat is also different. The Peruvian sample has proportionally higher adiposity on the trunk relative to the limbs and on the arms relative to the legs than the Kirghiz sample. The waist is also more developed than the hip in the Peruvians.
Blood pressures, adiposity, and age In the Quechua of Huancavelica, systolic and diastolic blood pressures are lower than those reported for other high-altitude Andean populations. In general, Andeans present typical low blood pressures, as shown, for example, by the Aymara from the North
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Fig. 1. Correlation between age and %F in the investigated Quechua sample.
of Chile who settled in the Sierra and Altiplano regions (Makela et al. 1978). This is consistent with the hypothesis that both nonmodernized and high-altitude populations have a lower risk of cardiovascular disease. On the other hand, it is interesting to compare the Huancavelica and Kirghiz populations. Despite higher adiposity, the Peruvian sample shows lower systolic and diastolic blood pressures (Kruskal-Wallis test, P < 0.01 in both cases). This may be due to two nonmutually exclusive reasons. The first is the different lifestyle, especially nutrition, which is more varied in the Peruvians (farmers and shepherds) than in the Kirghiz (see Fiori et al., 2000b). The second reason is related to the different genetic backgrounds of the two populations: the Quechua settled in the highlands at least 10,000 years ago (Winslow and Monge, 1987), whereas the Kirghiz peopled the Pamir mountains only 2–3 centuries ago (Ismagulov, 1970). Therefore, it is reasonable to hypothesize some level of genetic adaptation in the Andean sample modeled by natural selection. Several studies indicate a genetic component in variability associated with other adaptive characters (Chakraborty et al., 1983; Frisancho et al., 1995; Greksa, 1996; Beall et al., 1998). Exposure to high altitude provides some of the clearest evidence for the influence of environmental stress on human blood pressure. Because there is no adequate technological solution for reduced oxygen pressure, technical and behavioral adaptive strategies offer less protection than those adaptations seen for other climatic stressors. Many authors have reported that the Andean evidence strongly suggests that long-term resi-
dents and natives of high altitude experience reductions in blood pressures, lower rates of hypertension, and fewer cardiac abnormalities (Hurtado, 1964; Penaloza et al., 1961; Ruiz and Penaloza, 1977; Hanna, 1999). Pandey (1983) reported that the residents at high altitude in Nepal consumed large amounts of salt, but were also more fit and less obese than residents of lower altitude locations. The relationships of adiposity and blood pressure with age in both groups were also analyzed. Despite the higher adiposity of Andeans, the pattern of variation of adiposity with age is the same in the two samples (Fig. 1 for Peruvians). The evidence thus suggests no apparent genetic or environmental differences affecting relationships beween the aging process and adiposity. Regarding the correlation of blood pressure with age, the Peruvian sample shows very low values (i.e., no correlation), while the values for Kirghiz show a weak but significant correlation (Fiori et al., 2000b). The analysis of correlations between blood pressures and all indicators of the body composition has not yielded significant results; except for the significant correlations (P < 0.05) between blood pressures and weight, circumferences (arm, thigh, hip, chest), and biacromial diameter (Table 7). The Kendall rank partial correlation between adiposity and blood pressures, maintaining the age effect as constant (radiposity,blood pressure↓age ⳱ 0.12, P ⳱ 0.45), indicates no correlation between the two variables. These results, based on a limited sample size, suggest that in Peruvian highlanders adiposity increases with age, independently of variation in blood pressure.
BODY COMPOSITION IN QUECHUA
TABLE 7. Spearman correlation coefficients (rs) with systolic and diastolic blood pressures in the Quechua of Huancavelica for the considered measurements and indices Systolic pressure P
Diastolic pressure
Variables
rs
Age Height Weight Sitting height Biacromial diameter Bicristal diameter Circumferences Upper arm relaxed Upper arm flexed Chest normal Chest maximum Chest minimum Waist Hip Thigh Skinfolds Suprailiac Subscapular Abdominal Triceps Biceps Calf Thigh Mid-Axillary Pectoral BMI Cormic index Acromial-iliac index Chest circumference/ height index FFM FM %F %FFM Endomorphy Mesomorphy Ectomorphy Systolic blood pressure Diastolic blood pressure
0.09 0.04 0.28 0.16 0.33 0.20
0.46 0.74 0.02 0.18 0.00 0.09
0.11 0.06 0.23 0.07 0.31 0.22
rs
0.33 0.58 0.06 0.56 0.01 0.06
P
0.34 0.30 0.23 0.22 0.26 0.20 0.30 0.20
0.00 0.01 0.04 0.05 0.02 0.08 0.01 0.09
0.34 0.31 0.20 0.17 0.19 0.24 0.26 0.27
0.00 0.01 0.08 0.15 0.09 0.03 0.02 0.02
0.22 0.22 0.06 −0.03 0.13 −0.01 0.08 0.09 −0.10 0.26 0.15 −0.15
0.06 0.06 0.64 0.81 0.27 0.95 0.48 0.43 0.38 0.03 0.19 0.21
0.15 0.19 0.03 −0.01 0.10 0.06 0.13 0.10 0.00 0.20 0.01 −0.08
0.20 0.11 0.82 0.94 0.38 0.64 0.26 0.38 0.97 0.10 0.96 0.49
0.16 0.19 0.23 0.18 −0.17 0.14 0.09 −0.13 — 0.73
0.16 0.13 0.06 0.14 0.18 0.24 0.44 0.29 — 0.00
0.12 0.18 0.22 0.15 −0.16 0.15 0.08 −0.09 0.73 —
0.31 0.14 0.07 0.21 0.20 0.23 0.50 0.43 0.00 —
Despite the lower blood pressures in the Andean sample, both high-altitude groups show low blood pressures and absence of a strong correlation with age. This agrees with data from other mountain populations: highlanders usually have lower blood pressures than lowlanders, despite a generally higher cardiac volume, pulmonary pressure, and blood viscosity (Penaloza et al., 1963; Frisancho, 1993; Heath and Williams, 1995). Highlanders also do not generally show a significant increase in blood pressures with age (Ward et al., 1989; Beall et al., 1997). The incidence of cardiovascular disease is also characteristically lower in highlanders than in lowlanders (Baker, 1978a; Ward et al., 1989). Although data
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from a low-altitude Peruvian sample are lacking for comparison, this tendency is confirmed by the comparison between the highaltitude Kirghiz sample and two other Central Asian low-altitude groups (Fiori et al., 2000a). An age-related increase in blood pressures is so common in industrialized populations that it is considered a normal consequence of aging (Borkan and Norris, 1980). However, because blood pressures are also often weakly associated with age in nonindustrialized populations, a stressful environment could play a role in the pathogenesis of hypertension (James and Baker, 1995). This hypothesis is supported by the observation that the subjects at major risk of hypertension in developing countries are those who have more greatly assimilated the Western lifestyle (Reddy, 1998). Altitude per se may play a role in the lower blood pressures, although the rural and traditional lifestyle of most indigenous high-altitude populations cannot be ignored. High-altitude residents employ cultural practices that modify environmental stressors and thus condition biological responses. Indigenous cultural practices affecting source of food, energy expenditure, and population movement provide examples of the ways in which such conditioning may take place (Moore et al., 1998). High-altitude residents also engage in cultural practices that lessen the effects of hypoxia for limiting energy availability in the highaltitude environment. Andean residents rely on well-adapted indigenous plants and animals to produce calorically dense foods. Conservation of energy is accomplished by the use of housing and clothing with properties that minimize heat loss and maximize heat gain (Moore et al., 1998). In conclusion, this study provides detailed data about body size, estimated body composition, and blood pressures of a native Quechua population from the Peruvian Central Andes (Huancavelica, 3,680 m). The sample shows a short height in relation to weight, body proportions of macrocormy, and intermediate values of the acromialiliac index. The parameters connected with adiposity are low and somatotype is dominant in mesomorphy, with very low ectomorphy. Blood pressures are also very low. Unfortunately, there are no exhaustive studies of body composition in high-altitude populations that could be used for comparisons. This indicates the need for further
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