regional and national ) and stakeholders collectively decide how to plan, finance ..... corporation was formed called as Hubli-Dharwad Municipal corporation, it is one of the second biggest and ..... They have received 13th and 14th. Finance ...
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Urban Governance Policy and Planning in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh Dr. Anil Kumar Vaddiraju Associate Professor Centre for Political Institutions, Governance and Development Institute for Social and Economic Change
Centre for Political Institutions, Governance and Development Institute for Social and Economic Change Bengaluru
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Table of Contents Preface and Acknowledgements 1. Introduction i)
Theoretical Framework
ii)
Methodology
iii)
Research Questions
iv)
‘Urban Primacy’ in Karnataka
v)
The Constitutional Policy of District level Urban Governance
vi)
Urban Governance Policy in Karnataka
vii)
Urban Governance Policy in Telangana
viii)
‘Urban Primacy’ in Telangana
2. Dharwad i)
Governance of the City
3. Udupi i)
Governance of the City
4. Mahabubnagar i)
Governance of the City
5. Summary and Discussion Notes References
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Preface and Acknowledgements I thank Professor R.S.Deshpande, the then Director, to have kindly granted me this research study, CPIGD‐48. The study began when the AP state was united. In 2014 the state got bifurcated. Added to this our resources too were limited. Hence the AP part deals with only current Telangana state. The study altogether covers three district cities: Udupi, Dharwad in Karnataka and Mahabubnagar in Telangana. A note on method adopted for the study is needed at the outset. We conducted this study based on the interviews with key informants in each district city. They included officials of the municipalities, Zilla Panchayat CEOs, local planning officials and where available other prominent citizens of the city. Particular thanks are to different academics interviewed at Karnatak University, and Centre for Multi‐Disciplinary Development Research, (CMDR) Dharwad, Mangalore University, Mangalore, Osmania University and University of Hyderabad at Hyderabad, and Palamoor University at Mahabubnagar. We also thank the officials of SIUD— State Institute for Urban Development, Mysore. We are thankful to all of them for kindly sparing their time to provide information, discussions and extremely valuable views. Thanks are due to Professor Kala Seetharam Sridhar, Professor N. Sivanna, Dr. C.M.Lakshmana and other colleagues who have read and commented on parts of the Report. I am immensely thankful to them for their comments, collegiality and fellowship. To make it very clear in the beginning itself this study is not about a) market and governance. This is study is regarding contemporary urban politics, governance and the problems therein. And b) this study is not about history of cities discussed in the report. Political Science though has intricate relationship with history, this study is not about history, therefore we do not probe into the history of the cities mentioned. Therefore the remarks made by the referee in this regards are not relevant for us. We have taken care of the other remarks made by the referees and thank them for their labors to have studied the report and bothered to give comments. Ms. Aruna B worked in the project as Research Assistant and I thank her for her assistance.
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1. Introduction For the first time in human history 50 percent of the world population is living in urban areas and therefore the 21 Century is called the ‘first urban century’( Avis. W.R:2016). However, the study of urban governance is at incipient stage. This lacuna is more pronounced with the Indian case. Therefore this study aims at studying urban governance and politics. Among all the urban studies sub‐disciplines, urban governance and politics are the most neglected. For example John(Davies and Imbroscio,2009:17‐24) asks precisely the same question as to ‘Why study Urban Politics?’ and provides a persuasive answer. Further, Stern(Davies and Imbroscio,2009:153‐168) provides an overview and raison d’ etre for studying third world cities under the conditions of globalization in his article titled, ‘Globalisation and Urban Issues in the Non‐Western World’. In India there is a tradition of urban sociology and urban economics but there is no tradition of studying urban politics. This absence of studies and the intellectual vacuum itself is the major justification of this study. Since this is a beginning it is only a modest beginning at that. This is even more so with the study of small district level cities. Often in the research the big cities hog the limelight with smaller cities being left in academic oblivion. This study follows the definition of the urban governance provided by W.R.Avis for Governance and Social Development Research Centre( GSDRC,UK) as below: ‘Urban governance is the process by which governments, (local ,regional and national ) and stakeholders collectively decide how to plan, finance and manage urban areas. It influences whether the poor benefit from economic growth, and determines how they bring their influence to bear and whether political and
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institutional systems processes and mechanisms facilitate inclusive and pro‐poor decisions and outcomes. It involves a continuous process of negotiation and contestation over the allocation of social and material resources and political power. It is not just about the formal structures of city government but encompasses a host of economic and social forces, institutions and relationships, formal and informal’ (Avis,W.R,2016:1‐2). Governance as such is a broad thematic area within Political Science and the broadest definition provided by Bevir(2011) for governance is that of a ‘ pattern of rule’. There are many other definitions of governance (Bevir:2011) and the one that has most currency at present is that of neo‐liberal governance which attempts to subordinate politics and ‘pattern of rule’ to markets. This definition of governance excludes and attempts to suppress questions such as social cohesion, communal harmony and social capital. Neo‐liberal governance also envisages governance reforms in the ‘pattern of rule’ to make the same effective, economic and efficient for markets. Relationship between governance and markets is important only for neo‐liberals. For Political Science in India there are questions of good governance, affordable and effective delivery of services, social capital and social cohesion. Social capital and social cohesion are not just means to economic ends. They are ends in themselves as they determine social and individual well being. It is well known that neo‐liberals are more concerned with the well being of private markets than of society. Therefore for them governance is only a tool to facilitate markets. The problem with this view of the relationship between governance and markets is, governance itself is seen as operating with profit motive. Therefore privatization of public sector undertakings, urban services restructuring are part of the agenda of neo‐liberalism. Neo‐
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liberalism puts profits over people. Instead governance in its true sense should place people and society over markets and profits. In this study we do not adopt a neo‐liberal definition of governance. Instead, we ask the questions pertaining to constitutional governance at district level. And we also ask questions pertaining to what makes constitutionally guaranteed institutions work better. In this context of constitutional governance we adopt social capital theory as a framework for study of district level cities. Below we dwell at some length on the theoretical framework adopted for the study. i) Theoretical Framework The research reported here follows social capital theory. Social capital theory has come to prominence in the 90s made popular in Political Science and governance studies by Robert Putnam. Putnam’s major study, published in 1993, Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy, has set the tone for an entire range of studies on social capital and its relationship to governance; specifically local governance. Putnam’s major contribution was to bring social capital theory to the study of politics. Putnam basically argued that for good governance to be secured there should be trust, reciprocity and norms between institutions of governance and civic associations. Instead of trust, reciprocity and norms, if the relationships between institutions and civic associations are characterized by mutual suspicion and antipathy, it is difficult to obtain good governance. In Putnam’s words: ‘First, networks of civic engagement foster sturdy norms of generalized reciprocity… Networks of civic engagement also facilitate coordination and communication and amplify information about the trustworthiness of individuals ….Finally, networks of
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civic engagement embody past success at collaboration, which can serve as a cultural template for future collaboration’( Putnam,1993:35‐42 ). Putnam argues that when such networks are dense and the relationship between them and institutions of governance is that of mutual reciprocity then good and effective governance is possible. However the theory of social capital is further developed, and Michael Woolcock delineates social capital into three types: ‘bonding capital’ i,e., between family members , kin networks, and of similar type that form close human bond; ‘bridging capital’ i.e., ‘distant ties of like persons’ ties in professional associations for example. And ‘linking capital’ that is ties between ‘unlike people in dissimilar situations’ that is, across ethnic groups, religious groups etc.. Besides Putnam and Woolcock there are also others who have provided definitions of social capital in different terms. While there are many definitions of social capital, a broad overall definition is provided by Sullivan(2009) as below: ‘Social capital can be defined as a resource that is generated via regularized interactions between actors who have developed relationships with each other based upon shared values, and who can use this resource for attainment of individual or collective benefits that would not otherwise have been ( easily) obtainable. Social capital draws attention to the role of networks, shared values and norms of reciprocity lubricated through trust, in generating and maintaining social order. It valorizes the contribution of relationships in analyses of governance, staking a claim alongside structural and behavioural approaches.’ (Sullivan,2009:220‐221).
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In the following study we use the concept of social capital and try to operationalise the same in order to study governance and politics of small district cities in Karnataka and Telangana. The basic argument we make is similar to that of Putnam. That better the social capital the better the urban governance at local level. In the following we discuss the methodology followed. ii) Methodology The study follows the approach developed by Rob Jenkins (2004) of comparing multiple states. Jenkins developed his approach of comparing two states to study the politics of economic reforms. This study too began with the approach of comparing two states, namely Karnataka and ( United) Andhra Pradesh. Within Karnataka we have taken two cities namely Dharwad from North Karnataka and Udupi from South Karnataka. And from (United ) Andhra Pradesh we have taken Mahabubnagar city. Given the common thread of constitutional governance we have ensured that there is sufficient diversity in our sample of the cities. This study follows qualitative methodology. Within qualitative methodology we have relied on interview method. Following this method, empirical data is collected from both elites and citizens of the cities. The study does not rely on secondary data interpretation. The study is based on first hand field visits to the cities and conducting interviews in the select cities and participant observation. There are distinct problems with quantitative data pertaining to these cities. For example among the three cities we have chosen, Udupi and Dharwad in Karnataka have district level human development reports, whereas Mahabubnagar in Telangana does not have the same. On the other hand within Karnataka, the Udupi and Dharwad district human development
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reports differ. While the Dharwad human development report has an excellent chapter devoted to the urban scenario of the district, the Udupi report does not have a specific section or chapter devoted to the city of Udupi. There are problems of data and processed quantitative information is hard to get at the level of district cities. In this regard we are particularly impressed with the Dharwad report which has an urban component. Therefore our data is not similar for all the three cities. We attempt to use quantitative figures where available, and rely on our qualitative field work for rest of the part of the study. Overall the balance is toward qualitative research. We do not for example attempt to quantitatively measure social capital in these cities. Our research therefore is more unique, exploratory and first of its kind. This study deals with urban governance policy and planning in two states at district level.The study examines whether the constitutional provisions envisaged for the above said purposes have been practiced or not. If so how they take place within the larger state level policy context. The study focuses on three district level towns namely Udupi, Dharwad in Karnataka and Mahabubnagar in Telangana. When the study was taken up the state of AP was united. However, mid‐way the study, the state of Telangana was formed. This presented particular difficulty empirically. The macro‐policy of urban governance is to be guided by the 74th Constitutional Amendment. But in implementation the policy is highly neglected. This is particularly so at the level of district level cities. Here bureaucracy determines all the decisions. In Karnataka it is the DC( District Collector)’s office that determines all the governance. In Telangana it is the Municipal
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administration that determines the decisions. In addition to the above the laws prior to the 74th Amendment Act prevail in urban governance, though in principle, these prior laws are to be overruled once the Constitutional Amendment comes into force. The governance of district level cities, the attention paid to them therefore is minimal, because the responsibilities on these officials are far too many to pay attention towards city governance. Local government bodies are often weak and powers devolved to them and the resources they have are also limited. This is at a time when the economic growth is rapid and private sector too is expanding into these cities at a rapid pace. There is hardly sufficient local governance at the level of district level cities to be commensurate with the economic growth. As a result the cities are becoming chaotic. With basic civic services such as sanitation, drinking water and solid waste management being neglected or overlooked often. Therefore in the following study we will be primarily asking four questions: iii) Research Questions: 1. How is the district city planning taking place 2. How is the delivery of basic services such as drinking water and sanitation 3. To what extent the governance of the city is effective 4. Finally, are there any other prominent issues? District level towns are often neglected in terms of governance and this is reflected throughout the country. The main reason for this is the policy bias of the successive governments towards mega urban centres and agglomerations. The entire attention in urban governance so far has largely been towards the mega‐cities. Both in policy and policy practice and academic research
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sufficient attention has not been paid towards the district level towns( Gill:2013).( We use the distrct‐town/ city interchangeably throughout this report). Central and state‐level governments have changed but the policy towards these towns has not undergone major transformation. Table 1: Population and Percentage Ratio in Administrative Regions of States and Centre Sl. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
States and Union Regions
Uttar Pradesh Maharashtra Bihar West Bengal Andhra Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Tamil Nadu Rajasthan Karnataka Gujarat Orissa Kerala Jharkhand Assam Punjab Haryana Chhattisgarh Jammu and Kashmir Uttarakhand Himachal Pradesh Tripura Meghalaya Manipur Nagaland Goa Arunachal Pradesh Mizoram Sikkim Delhi Pondicherry
Population
44,470,455 50,827,531 11,729,609 29,134,060 28,353,745 20,059,666 34,949,729 17,080,776 23,578,175 25,712,811 6,996,124 15,932,171 7,929,292 4,388,756 10,387,436 8,821,588 5,936,538 3,414,106 3,091,169 688,704 960,981 595,036 822,132 573,741 906,309 313,446 561,997 151,726 16,333,916 850,123
Percentage of Total Urban Population (%) 22.28 45.23 11.3 31.89 33.49 27.63 48.45 24.89 38.57 42.58 16.68 47.72 24.05 14.08 37.49 24.25 23.24 27.21 30.55 10.04 26.18 20.08 20.21 28.97 62.17 22.67 51.51 24.97 97.5 68.31
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Sl. No.
States and Union Regions
Population
Percentage of Total Urban Population (%) 31 Chandigarh 1,025,682 97.25 32 Andaman and Nicobar 135,533 35.67 33 Dadra and Nagar Haveli 159,829 46.62 34 Daman and Diu 182,580 75.16 35 Lakshadweep 50,308 78.08 India 377,105,780 36.80% In the overall urbanization scenario in the country, the south Indian states are ahead in urbanization along with Maharashtra, Gujarat and Punjab and Goa. Regarding urbanization in the state of Karnataka, what concerns us is the nature and pattern of the urbanization. In the context of what we discuss, we suggest that a policy of spatially distributed and decentralized urbanization in that sense would be better option than the present pattern. This is because a spatially concentrated urbanization raises many pertinent questions of governance and development. In Kerala urbanization is 47.72 percent, in Tamil Nadu it is 48.45 percent and urbanization in Karnataka is 38.57 in ( united) AP it is 33.49 percent. Including united A.P urbanization in all the above states is above the national average of 32.1 percent as per 2011 Census. However, taking Karnataka alone we find that the urbanization process is spatially concentrated in one metropolitan city, that is Bangalore, causing serious problems of urban governance and management. It is quite significant to note that urbanization of this nature is not spatially justified; and as such causes problems of migration, difficulty in housing, civic amenities, law and order and myriad other. This particularly the case when urban population is growing at a faster pace than rural population as is the case with Karnataka.
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iv) ‘Urban Primacy’ in Karnataka We say the above because as much as 67 percent of the urban population in the state Karnataka is concentrated in 24 class‐ I cities. Whereas rest of the 33.6 percent is spread across the cities and towns, whose total number is 237. The largest number of these i.e., 101 of these are in Class‐ III category consisting only 17 percent of the urban population. And what is a striking feature of this pattern of urbanization is that Bangalore alone accounts for 30 percent of the total urban population of the state. Bangalore is that what in urbanization studies called ‘primate city’, that is the biggest city in the state being as much as eight times bigger than even the next major urban conglomeration, that is Mysore. Bangalore’s population alone is near 8 million or 80 lakhs. This substantiates the point made by Kundu(2014) that urbanisation in India in general is ‘top heavy’. That is, bigger urban agglomerations are growing at greater rate than the smaller cities with corresponding attention paid to the former. The general argument provided for economies of scale and agglomeration benefits of such cities are not true. Instead such a spatially skewed urbanization benefits elites with housing and real estate prices sky rocketing and while the city governance itself becomes a major problem. As a consequence of such growth many extra‐legal groups seek to benefit from the city development. Rent‐seeking too becomes prominent in the city governance. One more consequence of such development is that all the attention of the state government shifts to the larger cities at the expense of the governance of the rest of the cities. This is quite clear in Karnataka and Telangana, which are the states studied here.
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In this pattern of urbanization, governance of cities that are at the district and lower levels becomes hugely problematic. Often the metropolitan and district planning committees are not constituted, and if constituted their functioning is minimal vis‐à‐vis urban governance. In such circumstances the governance of urban local institutions shifts from constitutionally elected functionaries to state government; as many of the functions and responsibilities are controlled by the state government and its line departments. v) The Constitutional Policy of District Level Urban Governance The macro‐policy for urban governance at the district level is provided by the 74th Constitutional Amendment. Regarding planning the constitution, as per article, 243ZD( Jha and Mathur,1996) says as follows: 1. There shall be constituted in every state at the district level a district planning committee to consolidate the plans provided by the panchayats and the municipalities in the district and to prepare a draft development plan for the district as a whole. 2. The legislature of a state may, by law, may make provisions with respect to
a) The composition of the district planning committees
b)The manner in which the seats in such committees shall be filled.
Provided that not less than four‐fifths of the total number of members of such committee shall be elected by, and form amongst, the elected members of panchayat at the district level and of the municipalities in the district in proportion to the ratio between population of the rural areas and of the urban areas in the district; c) The functions relating to district planning which may be assigned to such committees;
d) The manner in which the chairperson of such committees shall be chosen’
According to the Twelfth Schedule of the Constitution,i.e., article 243W, the following items are to be devolved to urban local bodies: 1.Urban planning including town planning.
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2. Regulation of land use and construction of buildings. 3.Planning for economic and social development 4. Roads and bridges 5. Water supply for domestic , industrial and commercial purposes. 6. Public health, sanitation,conservancy and solid waste management. 7. Fire services. 8. Urban forestry, protection of the environment and promotion of ecological aspects. 9. Safeguarding the weaker sections of the society, including the handicapped and mentally retarded. 10. Slum improvement and upgradation. 11. Urban poverty alleviation. 12. Provision of urban amenities and facilities such as parks, gardens playgrounds. 13. Promotion of cultural, educational and aesthetic aspects. 14. Burials and burial grounds, cremations, cremation grounds and electric crematoriums. 15. Cattle pounds, prevention of cruelty to animals 16. Vital statistics including registration of births and deaths. 17. Public amenities including street lighting, parking lots, bus stops and public conveniences. 18. Regulation of slaughter houses and tanneries As presented above the macro‐policy towards district planning is clear. The constitution is also clear on the devolution of powers and functions on which powers are to be devolved to local bodies.
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Table‐2: Basic Profile of the Three District Towns/ Cities
Total
Male
Female
Total
Male
Female
Literates
Literates Literates Average
Population
Literacy (%)
Udupi
1,44,960
71,614
73,346
1,07,302
54,175
53,127
93.55
Hubbali‐
Dharwad
9,43,788
4,74,518 4,69,270 7,27,103
3,82,913 3,44,190 86.7
82,790
68,687
81.88
Mahabubnagar 2,10,258
1,06,086 1,04,172 1,52,477
Source: 2011 Census. vi) Urban Governance Policy in Karnataka The major policy document existing on Karnataka’s urbanization and urban development has, inter alia, the following to say:
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‘ The farsighted and enabling provisions of the 74th Constitutional Amendment have not been fully embraced in Karnataka. As a result , Urban Local Bodies suffer from two kinds of shortfalls—one, they do not have the necessary financial strength or autonomy that is necessary to develop their capacity for municipal administration, and must therefore rely on State‐level funding for their various programmes. Secondly only a subset of the various responsibilities given to them under Constitution has been transferred by the State, and citizen’s participation in governance of urban areas remains an unfulfilled promise( unlike rural areas, where Panchayati Raj institutions have greatly devolved power to local communities).’ ‐‐Urban Development Policy for Karnataka( draft,2009) ‘ Under the constitution, urban planning and town planning as also social and economic development and protection of the environment are functions to be performed by urban local bodies. However, in Karnataka, these responsibilities have not yet been assigned to the municipalities.’ (pp36) ‐‐‐
Urban
Development
Policy
for
Karnataka( draft,2009) The above two quotations are taken from the document of the Urban Development Department, Bangalore, placed online in November, 2009. The document is titled ‘Urban Development Policy for Karnataka’; which is a draft document and deals with all the aspects of the urban development in the state. Taking only two aspects from its recommendations, we observe that the policy document makes a strong case for ‘democratic local governance’ and about the planning the report suggests ‘integrating spatial planning with economic development planning’. The document also suggests repealing certain Acts and giving more powers to legislators etc.. It is also clear from the above quotations from the report that the state of ‘democratic urban local governance’ has not yet been fully implemented. However the document was prepared in 2009 during the BJP government and soon after the change of the government the document has been put in abeyance.
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However it needs to be emphasized it is to the credit of the state of Karnataka that at least a draft policy is there. Whichever government is in power they can modify the document, rework the document, make changes and implement it after the changes. There is a possibility. Interestingly, one wonders how many states in India have even such draft urban policy documents. Since the draft policy document has not been implemented we cannot make any comments on the same. Developing district cities is particularly important for Karnataka as many district centers in Karnataka are already Information Technology(IT) and Information Technology Enabled Services( ITES) hubs. For example IT sector has spread to Mysore and Hubli‐ Dharwad too. And Karnataka has vast growth in private education sector, and many district cities are private educational hubs. Not many states India have the same amount of the growth of IT sector and education sector at district level, as is the case with Karnataka. Therefore the development and governance of these cities is of great significance. It is a sad fact that the existing urban planning and governance is not up to meet these challenges. The state of urban governance in two cases of Hubli‐Dharwad and Udupi reflect partially the quotations provided above. But governance is not just about policy documents, it is about people, citizens and the dwellers of these cities too. That is why in this report we also focus to some extent the other aspects of governance. vii) Urban Policy in Telangana: Continued Neglect Besides the twin cities of Hyderabad and Secunderabad there are a total of 9 district cities in Telangana. A clear for policy for the cities of Telangana does not as yet exist. Although there is
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great amount of enthusiasm to develop these cities, this has not yet translated into a coherent policy. Therefore the question of implementation of policy does not yet arise. What we have instead are the steps to revitalize the municipal administration out of individual bureaucrats in their concern in some districts. Where it does not exist not many steps to promote city level governance have been implemented. The same can be said about the district planning and District Planning Committees (DPCs). District planning and DPCs have long been neglected under the long rule of Telugu Desham Party(TDP) and later under the Indian National Congress( INC). These DPCs have now to be reinvented by the current Telangana Rashtra Samiti (TRS) government. Although the elections to the local bodies have been held, and all cities, municipal councils and corporations, there is no single explicit document developed covering a policy for all. The same is the situation reflected in our study city of Telangana namely, Mahabubnagar. In this city and in other district cities, the private sector is making major inroads linking the markets to metropolises and even global markets, at the same time any attempt to regulate this growth and plan for it at local level has not yet been done. Telangana is a fast growing state and the sooner the newly formed government develops a policy towards the cities the better it would be for the burgeoning population of its cities. In addition to the natural growth, the cities of Telangana also have migrant population from villages in search of work and education and livelihoods. These cities have to accommodate the in –migrating population at the same time coping with its original population. Although there is no IT sector in districts as yet in future, going by the announcements of IT policies by the Telangana government, one assumes that in future IT sector will reach district cities too; at least some district cities. And that will create even bigger demand for infrastructure and urban
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civic amenities and basic services. Policy enunciating future perspective for Telangana district cities is yet to be developed. Therefore at present they suffer from the same neglect as they have suffered under previous political dispensations. viii)
‘Urban Primacy’ in Telangana
Hyderabad clearly forms the same ‘primate city’ in Telangana as Bangalore does in Karnataka. Hyderabad is many times bigger than the nearest district town Warangal. And being a city with distinct historical past, Hyderabad overshadows all other districts in terms of size, economic and political influence. In the developing world all the decision‐making powers are in the cities. State offices, treasuries, corporations, industry, service sector and educational and health institutions are all situated in the cities—both public and private‐‐ more so in the ‘primate cities’. This ‘urban primacy’ and urban phenomenon is much more pronounced in Telangana than even in Karnataka. In this context, it is a sad fact that there is not much work done on the urban governance in Telangana. We can term the situation of Telangana cities as continued neglect. Not only among the government but even among the academia, media, civil society and intellectuals, there is no clear consciousness about the future scenarios of the cities. This is even more problematic than earlier. Given the current context the new TRS government should, with all its power and imagination refashion the Telangana’s cities; which are now only growing along private sector lines and that too all too haphazardly. Increasing resort to ad hoc measures to solve the problems of cities may not be of much avail. Karnataka stands much better in this regards as
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there are urban policy institutes, urban research activities and active discourse on urban governance issues in the media, academia and intelligentsia. The above situation is reflected quite clearly in our study district of Mahabubnagar. Which is about 100 kilometers or two hour drive from Hyderabad and shares many aspects of Telangana cities that we have described above. The questions posed in this research are particularly relevant for Mahabubnagar. The theoretical framework we have chosen that of social capital too is of particular significance. Thiis is because of the religious diversity of the population in this city. Nearly 40percent of the population belong to Muslim community and 60 percent to the Hindu majority community. This ethnic divide in the population poses specific questions for social capital theory in this city. In the following first we examine the research questions in the two cities of Karnataka namely Dharwad and Udupi, then we turn to Mahabubnagar in Telangana, before concluding with summary and discussion.
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2. Dharwad Dharwad is a major educational and cultural centre of North Karnataka.i Dharwad is famous for its litterateurs, musicians and writers. In this section we discuss the basic four research questions we put forward in the beginning and examine as to how these different aspects operate in the cityii. 1. How is the district city planning taking place 2. How is the delivery of basic services such as drinking water and sanitation 3. To what extent the governance of the city is effective Finally, are there any other prominent issues? Dharwad is a major educational and cultural centre of North Karnataka, governed by a municipal corporation. Dharwad is rich in culture and maintaining cultural heritage. Gangubhai hangal, Malikarjuna Mansoor, Basavraj Raj guru and writers like D.R Bendre are from Dharwad. It is actually a twin city of Hubli (or Hubbali) and Dharwad. Hubli is a commercial centre while Dharwad is a cultural and educational centre. Hubli‐Dharwad total population is around 13 lakhs.Dharwad Population alone is around 7 lakhs. The city faces major problems which have been persisting for a long time. These are not having sufficient drinking water and there is only rationed supply of water. Though of late some wards receive 24/7 water on experimental basis as part of a World Bank provided drinking water project. City has severe shortage of drinking water in summer season. The city also has sanitation problems. The governance of solid waste management and drainage systems are major problems. There are 24 slums in Dharwad and providing civic services to them is a major problem. The city also has problems of inter‐ethnic
23
relations between Hindu and Muslim communitiesiii. It would be incorrect to isolate Dharwad from the rest of Northern Karnataka and examine it as the city’s problems such as shortage of water and overall backwardness is shared by the entire sub‐region. In comparison with its rural background and its governance problems, Dharwad is still a highly developed cultural and educational hub for the entire Northern Karnataka. However the fact remains that governance is seriously lacking in this city and much of this owes to civic apathy. The civil society by way of NGOs and voluntary agencies, and civic awareness are low when compared to Udupi. Although there are some civil society organizations working in rural areas, there are few working on urban areas and urban issues. The city of course is much larger than Udupi in terms of population and geographical spread, still the civic activity to make governance work towards solving city’s persisting problems has been relatively less. This is despite the fact that the stellar musical and intellectual geniuses it produced have been greatly appreciated not only in Karnataka, but throughout the country. Another problem that was emphasized during the field work was that the finances of city municipality are never adequate to meet the magnitude of the problems that the city has. While this is true of many district cities in Karnataka, and larger cities have more financial problems, given the educational, cultural and intellectual capital of the cityiv, Dharwad could still have done better in the day to day governance problems that it has come to grips with. The failure is not only of the functioning of the institutions, the failure also is that of civil society or the lack of itv.
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Our observation from the field and the problems of the city of Dharwad clearly point to a lack of social capital in addressing the issues concerning the day‐to‐day governance of the city. This is despite great and extra‐ordinary achievements in the sphere of high culture. Our case is that major impetus to urban governance comes from governance institutions and local‐civil society synergy through which the quality of urban governance can be significantly improved. While there are citizenship issues in urban governance and usually the effectiveness of citizenship is often in inverse proportion to the size of the city and consequently indifference and civic apathyvi sets in, there is no denying of the fact that the contrast we made between Udupi and Dharwad in terms of social capital and governance holds. The question as to why while Udupi does well in this regard and Dharwad does not appear to do so with all its cultural and intellectual capital is still a puzzling question. Table‐3: A Profile of Udupi and Dharwad District/indicator
Udupi
Hubli‐Dharwad
Total population
1,34,270
9,17,349
Population density
1,706
3,648
Literacy rate
83
71.3
Sex ratio
1,031 females/1000males
950
Growth rate of
62.8
21.27
SC Population(%)
5.2
7.8
STPopulation(%)
3.7
5.2
population1991‐2001)
25
Compiled from the source: Samuel Paul et al (2012)The State of Our Cities: Evidence from Karnataka, New Delhi: OUP. The Human Development Report of Dharwad puts the urban scenario in Dharwad in the following words: “ The urban population in Dharwad has increased from 8.8 lakhs in 2001 to 10.5 lakhs in 2011 at a rate of 19 percent during the ten year period . Rate of increase in urban population is slightly higher than the total population , which has increased by 15 percent . As a result, the percentage of population residing in urban areas has moved up slightly from 55 percent in 2001 to 57 percent in 2011’ . There are six ULB s in Dharwad district and the total urban population is 57 percent. Of which 90 percent live in Hubli‐Dharwad twin cities. Dharwad is a major educational and cultural centre of North Karnataka.Governed by a municipal corporation. It is actually a twin city of Hubli (or Hubbali) and Dharwad. Hubli is a commercial centre while Dharwad is a cultural and educational centre. Hubli‐Dharwad total population is around 13 lakhs.Dharwad Population alone is around 7 lakhs. The city faces major problems which have been persisting for a long time. These are: not having sufficient drinking water and there is only rationed supply of water. Though of late some wards receive 24/7 water on experimental basis as part of a World Bank provided drinking water project. City has severe shortage of drinking water in summer season. The city also has sanitation problems. The governance of solid waste management and drainage systems are major problems.vii There are 24 slums in Dharwad and providing civic services to them is a major problem. The city also has problems of inter‐ethnic relations between Hindu and Muslim communitiesviii. It would be incorrect to isolate Dharwad from the rest of Northern Karnataka and examine it as the city’s problems such as shortage of water and overall backwardness is shared by the entire sub‐region. In comparison with its rural background and
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its governance problems, Dharwad is still a highly developed cultural and educational hub for the entire Northern Karnataka. However the fact remains that governance is seriously lacking in this city and much of this owes to civic apathy. While this is true of many district cities in Karnataka, and larger cities have more financial problems, given the educational, cultural and intellectual capital of the cityix, Dharwad could still have done better in the day to day governance problems that it has come to grips with. The failure is not only of the functioning of the institutions, the failure also is that of civil society or the lack of itx. Dharwad has been headquarters of collectorate in the Bombay province and Hubli had been Municipal Borose of the greater Bombay and when Karnataka formed in 1956, then rulers thought that these should come together and in 1962, these two were merged and their corporation was formed called as Hubli‐Dharwad Municipal corporation, it is one of the second biggest and oldest corporation next to Bangalore Hubli is basically a commercial centre and Dharwad is a education centre. Dharwad is is one of the important cities in Karnataka, it is known for its educational institutions, there are many poets, musicians and singers and its place for retired persons. It is place for quite and calm living and ‘pensionopolis’ as Hannah Arendt mentions of such cities in a different context. Recently the population has increased due to rapid employment opportunities.Also recently high court branch was established in Dharwad; the rural people especially the people from nearby village have migrated to Dharwad for education and employment purposes. Educational institution like engineering, dental and medical colleges are there. An Indian Institute of Technology(IIT‐D) too was opened in Dharwad recently.
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Main problem of the city is water supply, solid waste management. There are about 24 slums in Dharwad. There are some conflicts between Hindus and Muslims. Households and shops do not segregate the biodegradable waste. There is no proper treatment of waste disposed. Municipals pourkarmikas are less in number and they are not efficient in solid waste management. They dump the waste in road side instead of using the garbage bin, which creates water pollution. Open drainage system is not maintained properly. NGOs are there regarding the health and education system. No effective NGOs are working on urban issues like cleanliness, waste management and open drainage system. With good cooperation and effective people’s participation the governance can be improved. While this is the situation of District headquarters, small cities below them suffer from worse conditions. There are some issues with agriculture marketing. Now ULB are taxing houses and able to get good funds in order to spend good amount on amenities. Recently they increased the taxes in Dharwad. Housing conditions are improving, many more new buildings are coming up, agricultural land has been converted to non‐ agriculture land for residential purpose. Many private companies are engaged in construction of new buildings and making plots and constructing new buildings. We have conducted interviews in Dharwad on different aspects of the city and from which it comes out that in terms of urban structure, one doesn’t see many changes in Dharwad city partly because of the fact that a city which does not have to grow unlike many other industrial urban cities and towns, it is essentially a cultural city and city known for higher education, accordingly the only observable urban structures are around these two institutional focus. And the basic problem with Dharwad, which is not seeing any change in terms of public and other deliverables. There has not been any major breakthrough in drinking water supply or in
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drainage management. In terms of the impact on the people the effect has been increasing health problems which are linked to water, open drainage system, and non‐disposal urban solid waste. Next there is a problem of widening of the roads in the city, apart from illegal constructions outside of the private properties the landscape of the city, being much undulated, is difficult to expand the public road system. With the increasing number of private vehicles in almost all localities has reduced the open space available for safe transport Thirdly, known as a city of seven lakes originally, Dharwad has lost several open tanks due to urbanization, for instance a popularly known tank called yamikeri tank has totally dried off, recent efforts to de silt and dewed several lakes have been set to be completed but lacks governance in terms of regulations, maintenance and creating awareness about the lakes. Considering the drinking water problem in Dharwad, the 24/7 water supply scheme is on an experimental basis in Hubli‐Dharwad twin cities, currently only two wards of the Dharwad are being covered. A recent study by CMDR, about the functioning of 24/7 water supply scheme make some references to increasing cost to water and the difficulties in delivering in slum areas, the burden of increasing water rates seem to be coming in the way of being effective implementation. There is a general problem of shortage of water in twin cities because of supply constraints from Malaprabha river. Additional water supply from the Mahadai river is under the supreme court appointed tribunal, therefore in the near future in the absence of additional water supply it may be difficult for the twin cities to implement 24/7 water supply in all the wards.
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i) Governance of the city The respondents of the interviews think that because of the expansion of number of higher education and training institutions there is flow of young people into the city. The city having known for the habitation of senior, elderly and retired persons is now finding it difficult to communicate with younger too to take an active part in the matters of governance of the city. The governance in the respect of the public support has not received much attention by the public authorities for reasons such as non availability of funds or non response from public at large, as a result matters such as public parking places for vehicles or following rules of road traffics are difficult matters, increasing problems of the governance. For instance, people are not willing to pay property taxes or taxes for garbage collection. Regarding the aspect of how governance can be improved the residents feel that The implementation of the existing laws should be better. And in smaller mohallas or localities community based associations and organizations, if they are trained and empowered at least issues such as handling garbage and recycling, and street lights, enabling small library within the community, maintenance of public parks and lakes within their localities can be better. Secondly, there is need to improve the communication system between the public residents and with the concerned public authorities. It is possible to correct information regarding many such public problems by supplying prepaid reply, post paid cards and in which a majority of issues be listed. After analysing all such replies by the public residents the authorities can prioritize for better.
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It is also necessary that public authorities should convene and sub –ward level meetings with public on city governance and participation matters. Housing conditions are reasonably good but there are not many urban spaces available for the settlement of the poor. In terms of planning, the city doesn’t have a concept of planning. If the city planning is done it is regarding restructuring the centre part of the city, identifying exclusively centre part for education institutions, residential areas. Small town and cities have historical problem, they grow from small culture so they show reluctance towards adopting new trends. There is not much planning as such in Dharwad. The only urban planning that has taken in minimum form is in Hubli. Solid waste disposal and open drainage system happen to be the major governance problems of the Dharwad city. The respondents to the interviews when asked said that the problem of solid waste management has not received a full attention by public authorities, shortage of funds is one of the problems of open drainage maintenance. Also managing drainage is a major problem in Dharwad because of undulated landscape, there are increasing problems of downstream colonies receiving the drainage water and waste on cumulative basis, unless disposal and dispersal of drainage water at different heights of the landscape are undertaken, it will be a burden transferred to the downstream colonies while the upstream and richer colonies enjoy clean environment. There is also an urgent need to build underground drainage system in the market areas of the city.
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Dharwad is currently implementing a World Bank project on 24/7 water supply. Regarding the effectiveness of the programme CMDR in Dharwad has conducted a study.The broad findings of the study are as follow: •
It was found that water quality was better at consumer taps provided with 24*7 water supply than with intermittent water supply.
•
Bacteria were detected more frequently and at higher concentration in samples from taps supplied intermittently compared to those supplied continuously.
•
Most households with 24*7 supply continued to store water for drinking, resulting in re‐ contamination that may reduce the water quality benefits to continuous supply.
•
Household socioeconomic status affected the impact of 24*7 supply on child waterborne illness, with below median households experiencing more marked health benefits.
•
In 24*7 areas, there was reduction in the percentage of households that experienced at least one case of continuous supply had 11% reduction in the prevalence of diarrhoea (PR= 0.89, 0.76‐1.04) and 37% reduction in the prevalence of blood or mucus in stool(PR =0.63, 0.46‐0.87) compared to below median wealth households with IWS. Above median wealth households experienced no impact of continuous supply on either health outcome.
Althouth there is said to be improvement in the drinking water supply, the sanitation question is still unresolved in Dharwad. The civic bodies are struggling to provide drinking water and sanitation to all the wards. The slums and the poor are worst affected by the situation. Increased water supply but lack of sanitation further worsens the situation of the urban slums. The Human Development Report ( HDR) report says these problems quite clearly when it mentions the following: ‘ the worsening urban poverty and concomitant deprivations are the other issues that are becoming serious day by day. Provision of drinking water , sanitation, solid waste management and poverty are the major urban problems that have implications for HDI of urban residents’
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Also as the HDR of Dharwad itself says the percentage of slums has a positive co‐relation with the size of the Urban Local Body( ULB) and the population that resides in them is the most marginalized sections such as SCs and STs. The point however is drinking water and sanitation are the duties of the ULBs and the rights of all the citizens. They are not to be sold at a price. With increasing urbanisation in the country the need for urban governance only is likely to increase; because increasing urbanisation will bring in more and more poor into the urban areas. Therefore to recapitulate our basic four questions in the context of Dharwad: 1. How is the district city planning taking place 2. How is the delivery of basic services such as drinking water and sanitation 3. To what extent the governance of the city is effective 4. Finally, are there any other prominent issues? When we examine these questions the answers are in the following vein. Dharwad city planning and governance still are with the DCs office and the municipal commissioner’s office. The role of the legislators in the city governance is at best unclear and bureaucracy calls all the shots. Second, we have discussed at some length the drinking water situation in Dharwad. The World Bank implemented 24* 7 water project has not yet been fully extended to all the wards in the city. And it has the problems of increase in the water charges and collection of water charges. Sanitation in the Dharwad city has improved since two years and though Dharwad lags behind in this matter when compared to Udupi, there is hope that civic services or being improved. Our
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recent interviews with CMDR academics working on this issue show that the municipality is taking steps to improve sanitation. The more important problem however is the social capital. For one, Dharwad comes under the municipal corporation of the twin‐city Hubli‐ Dharwad and two, it is much bigger city than Udupi. Unlike the economies of scale argument would have it, the size of the city makes it difficult to manage. And also there are ethnic divisions in the city. The problem of communalism is serious in Dharwad. This is not there in Udupi. Dharwad is an educational city and cultural capital of Karnataka. The same city with the quality and amount of intellectual capital it has should not have had communal problem. In fact the high culture of the city in terms of academics, literature and music does not seem to solve the problem. There is also considerable civic apathy and citizen participation in governance does not seem to be as high as one observes in Udupi. In the following section we discuss the urban governance situation in Udupi.
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3. Udupixi The Udupi district Human Development Report, 2008 gives the introduction to the Udupi district in the following words, ‘Udupi is one of the twenty‐seven districts in Karnataka state. It was formed on 24th August,1997 carved out of the erstwhile Dakshina Kannada( South Canara) district with three blocks namely Udupi, Karkala and Kundapura. Udupi city is the district headquarters. Historically it was part of Vijaynagar kingdom and subsequently under Mysore rule. During the British rule, it came under Madras Presidency. With the formation of linguistic states in 1956, it got merged with Karnataka state. Along with Dakshina Kannada, it is commonly known as ‘Tulu Nadu’. Udupi is a coastal temple city in southern Karnataka with a total population of 1,35,000. It is a district city governed by the 74th Amendment to the constitution. The city is a remarkably well governed city. It is a well governed city with underground drainage and sanitation and surplus drinking water. The city municipality functions effectively with basic civic services such as drinking water and sanitation being taken care of effectively. The city council is elected periodically and follows the provisions of the constitution strictly. Any visit to the city leaves us with a striking impression of its cleanliness and well organised and well functioning urban governance. What makes governance work in Udupi? The city is well governed because of active and informed citizenry.Because of active and vocal civil societyxii that keeps the city municipality accountablexiii. Different civil society organisations such as Citizens Consumers’ Forum(CCF) conduct regular interaction meetings between citizens and municipality. The other
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specific features of Udupi are both the two main political parties in the city, Indian National Congress( INC) and the Bharatiya Janata Party(BJP) and their leaders not only win elections periodically but take active interest in the affairs of the municipality whether in opposition or rulingxiv.The city has resource persons on 74th Amendment and its implementation in Karnataka whose services are also utilized by the State Institute of Urban Development, Mysore. Municipal bureaucracy too is accountable to both political parties, and citizensxv. According to the 74th Amendment to the constitution the District Planning Committee of the district has to conduct urban and rural integrated planning. But in entire Karnataka, much like elsewhere in India, a small cell in the DC’s office conducts the urban planning. The same is the case with Udupixvi. The difference however is rural plans are prepared by DPC and elected Zilla Panchyat in all districts in Karnataka. The function of urban planning alone does not distinguish Udupi from other district level urban cities in the Statexvii. What distinguishes Udupi from many other cities is the social capital between political parties that manage the city municipality with remarkable cooperation and the active civil society and citizens’ forums that keep the municipality and political parties accountable for functioning again with remarkable social capitalxviii. The concept ‘governance’ by its simplest definition means a ‘pattern of rule’; and the current usage and definition of governance, means bringing non‐governmental agencies, either private market institutions or civil society agencies into the pattern of rule(Bevir:2011).This is meant to enhance the effectiveness of the rule. However the effectiveness of the latter requires, , trust, norms and reciprocity between different actors. That precisely is social capital and this is what we are claiming in this article appears to be relatively higher in Udupi, that is
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why the governance is more effective, than in the case of Dharwad where this appears to be less. Udupi has been developed fairly well, although the roads inside the city are narrow and need widening. Udupi’s administration also found innovative ways of dealing with specific problems like mobility. Udupi has not seen the kind of urbanization and industrialization that the nearby urban agglomeration, Mangalore, has seen over the years. When we compare Udupi and Mangalore we can see the huge difference in case of cultural and political differences. What is status of drinking water problem in the city? There is no such drinking water problem with Udupi, Udupi city is quite very well administered, some of the development aspects like roads, drinking water, drainage and sanitation have been dealt with systematically and stage by stage . Urban poverty is conspicuous in Mangalore, it may not be in Udupi that much, but there is also fragmentation in Udupi, there is also a new kind of Udupi developed in highways and traditional Udupi which still maintains its culture and tradition. There is one striking feature in the city, that is one traditional bania class is into the business of education, banking and hospitality, this is the most articulate class in udupi city and began to take positions,and ideologically make statements; and then we have Brahmins who are into different profession like teaching, schools, colleges and banking and there is also Konkani population which is into business and this section also to articulate its ideology. Of course there are bunts and billavas, but Muslims in Udupi are virtually marginal, in Mangalore they are
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very prominent, they are into real estate, that entrepreneur class among Muslims is marginal in Udupi. Mangalore City Corporation has no imagination, it is totally collapsed in its imagination in how Mangalore would be in next twenty years, it is becoming stagnant, and there is hardly anybody in established structures who would think of very creative kinds of alternative. Mangalore absolutely looks like haphazard chaotic non planned city and in comparison Udupi looks more imaginative in case of managing crowds or traffic. Roads, water supply and drainage system: The geographical location of the udupi is not flat in its terrain, so it’s difficult to plan any water supply scheme because of the terrain. The Swarna drinking water project in Udupi is best in the state and it is also working on 24/7; the citizens and municipal administration have also focused on connectivity like widening the roads oflate. The main problem in Udupi is solid waste management, there is a difficulty of segregation of waste; second is the habit of the people throwing the waste wherever they like and so on. Solid waste segregation is a scientific process and many people do not know how to segregate. The answer to the three questions we have asked in the beginning is to some extent provided above. 1. How is the district city planning taking place 2. How is the delivery of basic services such as drinking water and sanitation 3. To what extent the governance of the city is effective 4. Finally, are there any other prominent issues?
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There is well functioning Zilla Panhcayat Office in Udupi and which prepares the rural plans. But the urban/ city planning is done entirely by municipality. Remarkable aspect however is the municipal council makes the city municipality works very efficiently. The municipal office is accountable to the municipal council. As our interviews show the municipality keeps the streets exceptionally clean –for a district city in India—and there is no drinking water supply problem. The only civic service that is not in perfect condition is the drainage. The city as yet does not have a 100 percent underground drainage therefore it is some problem. Much like in other districts in Karnataka the integration of urban plans into the rural plans to be carried out by the ZP is a problem in Udupi too. The municipality and the urban cell in the District collector’s office call all the shots. How is the city governance? City governance is remarkably effective and efficient in Udupi. This is because there is a synergy between the citizens of Udupi and the city municipal council. There is also remarkable social capital among the citizens of Udupi irrespective of the political party, Congress or BJP to come together pressurize the municipal council to work for the effective delivery of services. Sanitation in the city is a prominent example. The city also has well functioning public libraries. The city’s remarkableness is that even the hotelier’s association takes keen interest in the upkeep and sanitation and civic services of the city. The city’s governance works effectively because of this. The city has slums of migrant workers in adjacent Manipal who have come from both parts of Hyderabad Karnataka and other parts of the country. Even they informed during the interviews that drinking water and sanitation, the basic civic services are not a problem for them.
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Municipal councilors do attend to their problems.Major advantage of the city is the civic culture of its citizens and the manageable size of the city. The same is not true with the other cities under consideration here. In the following section we examine the urban governance situation in one district city of Telangana namely Mahabubnagar.
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4. Mahabubnagar Regarding Mahabubnagar district the official website of the district has this to say in its profile of the district: ‘This place was formerly known as "Rukmammapeta" and "Palamooru". The name was changed to Mahabubnagar on 4th December 1890, in honour of Mir Mahbub Ali Khan Asaf Jah VI, the Nizam of Hyderabad (1869‐1911 AD). It has been the headquarters of the district since 1883 AD. The Mahabubnagar region was once known as Cholawadi or the land of the Cholas'. It is said that the famous Golconda diamonds including famous "KOHINOOR" diamond came from Mahabubnagar district. Geographically Mahaboobnagar district is located on the Southern end of Telangana area. Karnataka state is in the west, Kurnool district is in the south, Nalgonda District is in the east and Rangareddy district is in the North sides.’ The city of Mahabubnagar consists of 41 wards. 38.99 percent of the city of Mahabubnagar lives in slums‐‐‐‐total population living in them: 74,244. There are a total of 12 ULBs in Mahabubnagar district. There are 87 notified slums – remaining are not notified.Except for Achchampet elections for all the ULBs was conducted. Ward committee GO is not yet implemented in this city. But the city will form the ward committees soon. The ULBs are financially self‐sufficient. All municipalities are self sufficient. They have received 13th and 14th Finance Commission grants and other grants from the state government. Further taxes and resources are there to be mobilized. There is great potential to mobilize resources for municipality. When all these are mobilized this city municipality will be in surplus. Already the municipality has surplus budget. There is certainly no shortage of funds.
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i) Governance of the Cityxix Coming to drinking water supply by municipality earlier municipality used to supply once in every 4 to 5 days. Now they are supplying once in every 3 to 4 days. Salt water for bathing and washing etc. is provided every day.The municipality is providing Krishna water as drinking water. For this the charges collected are Rs. 100 per month. There is no metering of drinking water usage. It is a flat rate per house hold. Coming to the situation of sanitation the municipal commissioner says that it has definitely improved since last one year. Earlier the sanitation workers were working only in single shift during forenoon, now they are working in two shifts from 5.30 AM to 10.30 AM in the morning and again from 2 PM to 5PM. Now two shift system is being implemented. There are also no dumping problem for solid waste or garbage. The city has 25 acres of waste land where garbage is being dumped. Currently there are 425 sanitary workers in municipality. Of these 143 are permanent workers. The remaining are on contract or outsourced. Majority are outsourced. The total required number of sanitation workers is 522. The plans for the ULBs are prepared by municipalities and are submitted to Directorate of Town and Country Planning ( DTCP). The ULBs come under Municipal Administration and Urban Development Department of the State Government. It is not the collector’s office which prepares plans but it is the Municipal bodies themselves which prepare the urban plans. Then these are submitted to the DTCP directly. The current city growth is neither haphazard nor planned. It is happening in ad‐hoc manner. Private lay outs and buildings develop and later they are regularized. At the sub‐district level of urban bodies there is not much planning.
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ii) Problems of the cityxx: The city is changing slowly. The city has a problem of migration. The city has a problem of outmigration. Many youths migrate from Mahabubnagar to Hyderabad and other places for jobs and also education. This is in urban areas. In rural areas frequently there is migration to Mumbai. There is always a ‘Mumbai bus’. It is seasonal migration in rural areas. And permanent migration in urban areas. None who migrates from the town comes back to town. City infrastructure is very poor. Internal roads are very narrow. Once a strict commissioner wanted to remove all the commercial hoardings and widen the roads, but he did not succeed because immediately the political pressures prevailed on him. Business people put pressure on him through political leaders not to remove hoardings or change hoarding in the city. City is now dominated by TRS. Congress cadre is also there. And thirdly BJP is also there. Earlier congress ruled the city for a long time. The city population has 60 percent Hindus and 40 percent muslims. Communal tension is there every time. This is on occasions such as Ganesh Chaturthi and other such occasions when religious processions are being carried out. Being close to Hyderabad there is the Hyderabad‐effect. The effect of old city of Hyderabad is very much prominent. Whatever happens in old city of Hyderabad finds its echo in Mahabubnagar. Whenever the old city of Hyderabad gets affected by any communal tension it finds its echo in Mahabubnagar. Generally there is communal harmony. The Hindus also go to Abdul Khader Darga. Muslims also go together with Hindus in Ganesh Chathurthi procession. This is usually the case. In Urs which is a Muslim Jatara Hindus also participate. Communal tensions happen when outsiders or
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political parties play a communal card. In this there is no exception. All parties take a communal stand. Parties intendingly or unintendingly play religious card. City transport is entirely by autos. Thousands of autos ply in the city. Demand for road transport is very high. And vehicles including cars have increased many fold. In the city drinking water problem is there. Drinking water problem is severe. Drinking water supplied by municipality comes once in every six days. In summer season, Municipal office supplies water through tankers. But that is not sufficient for the season. At the same time there are many water purifying plants—Reverse Osmosis – Plants in the city making salt water into drinking water and these water plants are doing heavy business. The entire district is affected by drought and water scarcity and so is the city. So far as drainage is concerned new colonies have underground drainage but old colonies have only overground or open drainage system. In the city open drainage is used almost upto 80 percent. Only 20 percent people have underground drainage system. There are rampant private hospitals; growing day by day. The demand for them is high. At the same time the government hospitals are shrinking and stinking. One cannot even stand in a government hospital for two minutes. The public toilets or public conveniences are none. The previously existing public toilets are either uncared for or the existing one or two are also dismantled. The open drainage which covers 80 percent of the city is a major reason for health problems. Nobody is bothered about
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the city. Mostly youth out‐migrate from the city for employment. And in rural areas people migrate to Mumbai for livelihood. Finally to recapitulate our research questions: How is the district city planning taking place? How is the delivery of basic services? such as drinking water and sanitation; to what extent the governance of the city is effective? Finally, are there any other prominent issues? In Mahabubnagar, the city planning is not much present; and the growth of the city is taking place in ad hoc manner. Delivery of basic services is sought to be improved but both drinking water and sanitation are major problems. City governance is far from effective, particularly in terms of the functioning of municipality and its relationship to citizens. Finally there is the problem of inter‐ethnic relations. In normal times the city is a model for social harmony and social cohesion, but situation has the tendency to become brittle when the situation in the nearby ‘primate city’, Hyderabad shows signs of communal tensions.
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5. Summary and Discussion In the preceding we have attempted to compare three cities from two states. We have followed the approach of Jenkins (2004) of comparing two states. However since regional diversity in Karnataka is marked, we have taken one city Dharwad from North Karnataka and one city Udupi from South Karnataka. What is common to these cities and what is different? All three cities come under constitutionally provided structure of governance. Also all three cities are district level cities. These are common factors. The differences are in the history of these cities, demographic composition and size of these cities. Also the three cities are distinct and unique in their own ways. Dharwad is cultural capital of Karnataka and a major educational centre for North Karnataka as well. Udupi city is a temple city which is from Southern Karnataka; and smaller in population size and markedly demographically dominated by Hindu population. Whereas Mahabubnagar differs in demographic composition and historical provenance although the city still is comparable to Dharwad in size. However, unlike Dharwad it is not an educational capital or cultural capital. Its major higher education centre Palamoor University is just started and is a fledgling university. Also unlike Dharwad it is not a cultural centre. However, the cities are comparable in the sense that the two common threads running through them are the constitutionally provided governance structure and the district status within state and national governance. Also the problems of social capital are particularly acute for these cities. Dharwad and Mahabubnagar have problems of communalism and problems of Hindu‐Muslim relations. Whereas the Udupi city, as our recent field visits show began to have the problem of inter‐caste
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relations. In the recent period there was a challenge to the local Hindu upper caste dominated culture from Dalit movement. The ‘Udupi Chalo’ agitation of the Dalit movement is the example of emerging contradictions of Indian society as even a Hndu temple‐city is not exempt from the force of social contradictions. In this context, the theoretical framework of social capital is particularly significant because of these contradictions in the urban society of these districts. Communal divide and caste divide are important to address vis‐à‐vis governance. If the society is divided among multiple lines, will constitutional governance be possible? Or what makes constitutional governance possible in such diverse and hierarchical societies? However, given the diversity in our sample of cities and given that there is a need throughout the country for constitutional governance; we have asked the following questions in our research: 1. How is the district city planning taking place 2. How is the delivery of basic services such as drinking water and sanitation 3. To what extent the governance of the city is effective 4. Finally, are there any other prominent issues? Firstly, regarding district urban planning, as per the constitution, it should be conducted by the DPC. However, at present in Karnataka it is being done by the district collector’s office. In the present dispensation bureaucracy takes all the decisions and not the DPC. In Telangana the district governance is conducted by the municipal administration. Here the district collector’s office does not have much role. Both Karnataka and Telangana cases Indicate that district planning and governance are not being conducted by elected representatives and DPC as
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mandated by the constitution. Karnataka, however, stands much better in comparison because both in Dharwad and Udupi there are DPCs. In Telangana DPCs do not exist. Secondly, how is the delivery of services such as drinking water and sanitation taking place? In Karnataka, taking the cases of Dharwad and Udupi, we find that drinking water is a great problem in Dharwad; so is sanitation. Both these basic needs are problematic in Dharwad and are not being met satisfactorily. However, the condition of Udupi is much better. Both drinking water and sanitation are not problems for the citizens of Udupi. On the other hand in Telangana, again drinking water and sanitation are major problems and are not being met adequately. Thirdly, to what extent the governance of the cities under consideration is effective? In Karnataka we find that the governance of the city of Udupi is much more effective than the governance of the city of Dharwad. We attributed this to better social capital and citizen action, which we found is less in Dharwad. In Telangana the effectiveness of district level urban governance is far worse than in Karnataka. Mahabubnagar city, comparatively speaking, fares much poorer in effectiveness of governance terms than even Dharwad and of course, than Udupi. Fourthly, are there any other prominent issues? There are certainly issues of social capital and social cohesion in the district level cities. This is particularly the case with Dharwad and Mahabubnagar. Both Dharwad and Mahabubnagar suffer from communal problems. In both these cities communalism is sometimes more latent and becomes manifest whenever there are
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occasions of conflict in and around the city. In Dharwad communalism is more latent and in Mahabubnagar the same is quite manifest. The case with Udupi is different. In Udupi, we find the situation better; and also that given the situation of overall governance deficit at district level, is partly compensated when there is citizen action to make government work at the city level. It is also true that two factors are important while discussing the case of Udupi: firstly, It is a smaller city therefore is governed better; and this fact disproves the economies of scale argument so far as governance is concerned; as Kundu(2014) noted the Indian urbanisation is ‘top heavy’ and our experience with the ‘urban primacy’ in Karnataka and Telangana shows that. While urban economics may justify the ‘top heavy’ urbanisation in terms of ‘ economies of scale’, from Political Science point of view there is also the question of ‘governability of scale’ i.e., the bigger the urban agglomeration the less governable it may be. Mega urban agglomeration may provide anonymity and impersonality to liberate individuals from social controls and narrow loyalties, but they also create even bigger problems for policy in terms of governability and social cohesion and individual well being. They can be major sources as well of alienation and anomie as much as of impersonality and freedom. Indian mega urban agglomerations are classic examples of ‘governability of scale’ question as their frequent governance crises demonstrate. Thus ‘top heavy’ urbanisation appears to be usually accompanied by ‘governability of scale’ questions. Coming back to Uduipi secondly, though there is wide diversity in the population it is basically dominated by a Hindu population with less diversity of religious communities. One more reason
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for better civic action in this region is the high level of human development and also we cannot miss the fact that the region is very close to Kerala. The latter which state has very active traditions of civic action and civic engagement. We take Udupi city to be an example for better governance and highlight better social capital being the reason for it. In Dharwad and Mahabubnagar, social capital appears to be lacking a) in terms of making government work and b) in terms of inter‐ethnic relations. We define social capital basically in terms of cooperation between political parties, among citizens and the same reflecting on inter‐ethnic relations. Therefore, provided there is a constitutional structure and the division of responsibilities, the city‐level governance and as well the inter‐ethnic relations can considerably improve if there is better social capital in terms of more cooperation among citizens and then leveraging the same for better city governance. In turn, improved governance is likely to solve the problems of drinking water and sanitation, besides being a virtue and an end in itself.
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Notes i
Regarding Dharwad the official webpage of the district(http://www.dharwad.nic.in/dwd_profile.htm accessed on 12th Feb, 2017) has this to say: ‘The district receives a special recognition on the cultural map of the state. It has enriched the cultural fields like music, literature and art by producing famous and memorable names. The prestigious Jnanapeetha awardee Dr. D. R. Bendre of Dharwad, has contributed to the field of literature, to the extent of infinity. Renowned classical Hindustani singers like Kumar Gandaharva, Smt Gangubai Hangal, Mallikarjun Mansur, Pt. Bhimasen Joshi, Basavaraj Rajguru and Sangeeta Katti, have not only contributed to the field of music but have also made the district proud. The well known artist Halbhavi also belongs to Dharwad.On the religious front, the district being secular, has no. of holy places, like Muraghamath of Dharwad, Siddaroodhamatha and Moorsaviramath of Hubli, Amminbhavi Hiremath and Holy the Christ Church of Dharwad, which has celebrated its 150th year’. Please note that the official webpage calls the Hindu holy place as ‘Math’ and not Mutt. The referee of this report is plainly wrong in insisting on calling these ‘Mutts’ instead of ‘Maths’. ii
Methodology of the research includes interviewing the officials and non‐officials of Dharwad city. Among non‐officials we have interviewed scholars from Centre for Multi‐Disciplinary Research Centre, in fact Professor from CMDR Dr Nayanatara S. Nayak had a talk on Evaluation of Intermittent versus 24*7 Water Supply in Hubli‐Dharwad. We also interviewed scholars from Karnataka University and retired journalist Madan Mohan from Hubli. From officials we got some statistics regarding urban waste disposal, we have also spoken to urban cell of Deputy commissioner’s office and got access to some materials, below are following interviews. iii
For instance K.Raghavendra Rao, a noted Political Scientist in Karnataka and resident of Dharwad has this to say about the situation of the society and community of Dharwad: ‘ What is use of giving power to people, when there is no exercise of power, until and unless government is ready ( and sets out to govern) one can not govern them. Caste is very vibrant and politically active in Dharwad; Lingayats are a commanding community in terms of education, literacy and economy and culture, and of course dalits are large in number but they lack resources.
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Communalism is present, is very strong and it stands to be important element in political system.’ iv
We have conducted interviews( from April 23rd 2014 to 26th 2014) with scholars in Karnatak University, Centre for Multi Disciplinary Research, municipal and planning officials and with local observers and with journalists who have been living in the city for a long time. The names are too numerous to mention here. They all agree on the basic problems of the city while mentioning its cultural and intellectual greatness. There is indeed a methodological problem here in as much as in the case of Udupi we interviewed leaders of political parties whereas in the case of Dharwad we interviewed academics and officials. Our only reason for this is that this is an ongoing research and we need some more time and work to arrive at similarity of comparisons. However the basic theme of the article holds. Also sources such as Human Development Report were not available for this district at the time of writing. v
Harish Ramaswamy who teaches in Karnataka University Dharwad makes the point in thus: ‘Now look at the infrastructure growth. It is terribly backward,why? People never demand anything…..social networking is terribly bad and we also see that social capital is very weak( and) even now they don’t come together, they don’t mix together, they don’t demand and ask for anything nor they state anything.’ This observation sums up the point we are trying to elaborate. vi
The question of civic apathy in urban areas regarding urban governance and governance in general is surprising. Urban areas always usually have higher literacy rates than rural areas, e.g., around 80 percent in India, still the voting percentages are lesser in urban areas, also civic participation is less, and civic apathy is more in contrast to rural areas. Why is this so? Is it to do with the type of education and literacy or the kind of society that exists in urban areas generally, with its impersonality and individualism? We can only wonder at this phenomenon. vii
When field work was conducted in 2014 Gopal Kadekodi, a famous economist and prominent resident of the city stated, ‘ The basic problem which I see is, not seeing any change in terms of public and other deliverables. There has not been any major breakthrough in drinking water supply or in drainage management. In terms of the impact on the people the effect has been increasing health problems which are linked to water, open drainage system and non‐disposal of solid waste’. viii
For instance K.Raghavendra Rao, a noted Political Scientist in Karnataka and resident of Dharwad has this to say about the situation of the society and community of Dharwad: ‘ What is use of giving power to people, when there is no exercise of power, until and unless government is ready ( and sets out to govern) one can not govern them. Caste is very vibrant and politically active in Dharwad; Lingayats are a commanding community in terms of education, literacy and economy and culture, and of course dalits are large in number but they lack resources. Communalism is present, is very strong and it stands to be important element in political system.’
52 ix
We have conducted interviews( from April 23rd 2014 to 26th 2014) with scholars in Karnatak University, Centre for Multi Disciplinary Research, municipal and planning officials and with local observers and with journalists who have been living in the city for a long time. The names are too numerous to mention here. They all agree on the basic problems of the city while mentioning its cultural and intellectual greatness. There is indeed a methodological problem here in as much as in the case of Udupi we interviewed leaders of political parties whereas in the case of Dharwad we interviewed academics and officials. Our only reason for this is that this is an ongoing research and we need some more time and work to arrive at similarity of comparisons. However the basic theme of the article holds. Also sources such as Human Development Report were not available for this district at the time of writing. x
Harish Ramaswamy who teaches in Karnataka University Dharwad makes the point in thus: ‘Now look at the infrastructure growth. It is terribly backward,why? People never demand anything…..social networking is terribly bad and we also see that social capital is very weak( and) even now they don’t come together, they don’t mix together, they don’t demand and ask for anything nor they state anything.’ This observation sums up the point we are trying to elaborate. xi
The Udupi district official website ( www. udupi.nic.in accessed on 12the Feb. 2017) has the following to say about Udupi: ‘The Udupi district was created in August 1997. The three northern taluks, Udupi, Kundapur and Karkala, were separated from Dakshina Kannada District to form Udupi district. Udupi is a famous pilgrimage, particularly for Asta Math, i.e. eight Matts and Sri Krishna Temple. Udupi is also one of oldest religious educational centers’.
xii
Human Development Report of Udupi, 2008, mentions about the civil society organizations in Udupi Distrct : ‘Udupi District is blessed with a large number of NGOs and voluntary agencies actively involved in human development initiatives’ in this article however we concentrate on urban governance. The fact however holds that civil society is active in this district. xiii
Interview with K. Damodar Aital Convenor of CCF( Citizens’ Consumers Forum) in Udupi, Interview with Gujjadi Prabhkar Naik, BJP leader in Udupi. xv Interview with municipal officials, Udupi. xvi Interview with Vijay Kumar Shetty, Chief Planning Officer, Zilla Panchayat Udupi. xvii Interview with Mr. Ramakrishna in Deputy Commissioner’s office, Udupi. xiv
xviii
Interview with Gujjadi Prabhakar Naik BJP leader in Udupi. The interviews with Indian National Congress political leaders and the current municipal commissioner too corroborate this. Both political parties acknowledge the role of civic groups in the governance of the city and
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current Congress Party leadership does acknowledge the role of the opposition party in city governance. For example, interviews with Manjunath Iyer, Municipal Commissioner, the current President, Udupi City Municipal Council from Congress Party Shri Yuvaraj P and other Congress party leaders Vijayjathan Manchi, Standing Committee President, Udupi Municipal Corporation, and PA to the local MLA Mr. Promod Madhuaraj the Chief Environmental Engineer of the municipal corporation, they all accept the role of civic groups on one hand and the combined role of different political parties in making the city governance effective. xix
This part of the research is based on the interview with the Municipal Commissioner, Mahabubnagar city Mr Bhukya Dev Singh on 16the February 2016 at Mahabubnagar. xx
This part of the research is based on the interview with Dr. Arjun Kumar, Assistant Professor, Department of Business Management, Palamoor University, Mahabubnagar, Telangana, on 17th February, 2016. He is also resident of the city of Mahabubnagar for past 35 years.
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