chapter 16

CHAPTER

PHYSICOCHEMICAL PERTURBATION OF PLANTS ON EXPOSURE TO METAL OXIDE NANOPARTICLE

16

Indrani Manna, Maumita Bandyopadhyay Plant Molecular Cytogenetics Laboratory, Centre of Advanced Study, Department of Botany, Ballygunge Science College, University of Calcutta, Kolkata, India

16.1 INTRODUCTION The last decade has seen a stunning rise in the application of nanoparticles (NPs), nanomaterials, and nanocomposites, where the fundamental purpose has been to use the extremely small dimension of these particles to attain favorable endpoints (Burklew et al., 2012; Maurer-Jones et al., 2013). The ever-expanding scope of application of these nanomaterials in various fields of trade and commerce has galvanized the scientific and research community to produce or “engineer” novel nanoscale products at a burgeoning rate. These nanoscale products find application in a bevy of flourishing industries, including consumer products, agriculture, electronics and electrical goods, textiles, building, transport, energy, and oil (Colman et al., 2014), as well as in many other fields like drug delivery, pharmaceutical aids, surgical aids, and imaging techniques, to name a few (Sanchez and Sobolev, 2010; Peng et al., 2014; Wesley et al., 2014; Chowdhury, 2015; Qu et al., 2013). The hype regarding the positives of these engineered nanomaterials is so high that many scientists have heralded them as the nostrum for all the ills of industrial pollution and degradation, as well as for remediation of the pollutants (Barrena et al., 2009). As the use of NPs escalated, many of them found their way into our environment, and a body of work began to emerge highlighting the intricate relationship of these engineered metal/metallic NPs with living organisms (Bondarenko et al., 2013; Tripathi et al., 2017a,b). Though initially researchers focused only on human interactions, soon organisms spanning different trophic levels were considered for such studies as well, when it was realized that these stable NPs could be carried unaltered through the food web, and a thorough knowledge of the model organisms made these studies more feasible. Plants belong to the primary trophic level of the ecosystem and are the only organisms that can photosynthesize and harness solar energy to produce glucose, which is the starting point of every complex food chain prevalent in nature. They are not only the chief producers of the ecosystem, but also the most sensitive to the presence of xenobiotics in their immediate surroundings (Dietz and Herth, 2011). Thus the effects of the newly introduced engineered nanomaterials on plants evolved as Nanomaterials in Plants, Algae, and Microorganisms. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-811488-9.00016-0 Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

323

324

CHAPTER 16 PHYSICOCHEMICAL PERTURBATION OF PLANTS

an interesting aspect of study with very important implications (Dimkpa et al., 2012). Characterization of different types of NPs, depending on their dimensions, is shown in Fig. 16.1. Metallic NPs are not alien to plants; throughout the course of evolution plants have encountered natural metallic NPs produced through volcanic eruption, sedimentation, denudation of rocks, photochemical processes such as electrolysis, and so on (Bystrzejewska-Piotrowska et al., 2009). Plants have taken NPs up easily as macronutrients and micronutrients, using them in their metabolic activities, for example to run many enzymatic reactions and maintain the course of life (Rico et al., 2011; Tripathi et al., 2015). However, in the last few decades the rate of dumping of engineered NPs (ENPs) has been very high on account of their extensive anthropological uses (Labille et al., 2010). Since the industrial revolution humans have become more focused toward financial success, and considerations regarding natural wellbeing and environmental balance that had sustained humankind’s existence for centuries were relegated, hence many xenobiotic components kept accumulating in the ecosystem and have reached alarming thresholds all across the world (Islam and Tanaka, 2004). Chemical residues of various industrial reactions and metallic tar are some of the major pollutants, both loaded with metal/metallic products such as transition and heavy-metal NPs and their oxides. Recent decades have seen phenomenal advancement in industrialization globally, and many manmade materials including nanometal oxides found their way into the ecosystem through indiscriminate discharge and discard (Ju-Nam and Lead, 2008). Plants were unwittingly exposed to them in their native state. Small quantities of various metals, including copper, magnesium, sodium, potassium, calcium, iron, boron, manganese, etc., are essential for proper functioning of biological systems. However, at

Nano Origin Greek vάvő or Latin nannus; meaning dwarf, made into SI unit officially in1960. Study of particles having structured parameters; with at least one dimension in 1–100 nm range

Zerodimensional Nanoparticles

Nanoparticles

Onedimensional

Twodimensional Thin films

Nanowires & Nanorods

Nickel, Iron, Titanium, Aluminium, Zinc, Chromium, Magnesium, Cerium

Titanium dioxide, Silicon nitride, MWCTs, Nanocomposites, Nanopolymers Nickel, Platinum, Gold-Nanowires ZnO, CuO, Fe2O3,V2O5-Nanorods

FIGURE 16.1 Different nanomaterials categorized according to their dimensions. Modified from Mirella, D., 2009. Metallic Nanoparticles. University of Nova Gorica.

16.2 SOURCES OF METAL NANOPARTICLES

325

FIGURE 16.2 Comparison between nanoparticles and their bulk counterparts.

higher concentration these metals have toxic effects, and exposure to high levels of environmental metals can causes diseases in all forms of life. The physicochemical nature these dumped NPs has played havoc inside plant cells, making cellular machinery malfunction and inhibiting vital mechanisms (Monica and Cremonini, 2009; Shweta et al., 2016; Singh et al., 2016, 2017; Tripathi et al., 2017a,b). These interactions are, however, very specific to the particular plant and nanomaterial: in many cases augmented functioning was noted in plants upon nanomaterial exposure, while there are many interactions reported without any traceable effects (Navarro et al., 2008). However, bulk metals and their nanoparticle counterparts behave very differently in living systems; a brief overview is given in Fig. 16.2. The specter of nanomaterial pollution and its detrimental effects on plants has finally caught the attention of global experts, and major regulatory bodies like the European Commission of/ Nanotechnology and the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) routinely bring out factsheets about different ENPs and their effects on plants (Fig. 16.3). This chapter deals exclusively with the sources, formation, and effects of metallic ENPs on plants.

16.2 SOURCES OF METAL NANOPARTICLES 16.2.1 NATURAL SOURCES NPs abound in nature, formed by natural processes like volcanic eruptions, erosion, photochemical reactions, large-scale forest fires, etc. (Buzea et al., 2007). Human activities and interactions like fossil fuel burning, charcoal burning, and industrialization also significantly scale up the prevalence of

326


FIGURE 16.3 Some vital metal oxide nanoparticles and their effect on living systems based on reports by the EU SCIENCE HUB, The European Commission’s science and knowledge service.

nanomaterials in the environment. Formation of aerosol and its subsequent spreading in the lower atmosphere are currently a major cause of discomfort and irritation for humans in many parts of the world (Taylor et al., 2002; Houghton, 2005) because the metallic NPs formed through combustion of fossil fuels get trapped in this aerosol to form a so-called “smog” which can make breathing difficult (Buzea et al., 2007); this smog also deposits NPs on exposed plant surfaces (Rico et al., 2011). Various mechanisms of natural formation of NPs are summarized in Fig. 16.4.

16.2.2 DUST STORMS Dust storms are the largest natural contributors to production and transport of NPs. High-speed winds carry mineral dust and environmental pollutants over the continents. Research indicates that about 50% of aerosol in the troposphere consists of mineral dusts originating in the major deserts of the world (Che et al., 2005; Husar et al., 2001). Satellite images show that dust storms originating in the Gobi Desert significantly affect air quality in Asia and North America every year (Holben et al., 2001). NPs transported by dust storms can reach immense concentrations in particular locations (Mahowald et al., 2011).

16.2.3 EXTRATERRESTRIAL DUST NPs originating in outer space account for a large proportion of the terrestrial metallic NPs. Lunar dust is much finer than terrestrial dust (Taylor et al., 2005) and mostly consists of magnetic NPs. These fine dusts along with terrestrial dust contribute to many health-related issues (Kim et al., 2015).

16.3 ANTHROPOLOGICAL INTERVENTIONS

327

Nanoparticle

Natural

Volcanic dust, Metal composites

Incidental

Combustion waste, Welding fumes

Engineered

Carbon based, Metal based, Dendrimers, Composites

Modified after Monica & Cremonini, 2009

FIGURE 16.4 Various sources of nanoparticles in the natural environment.

16.2.4 FOREST FIRES Forest fires and grass fires are caused by natural phenomena, like lightning, or have anthropogenic causes. They are often long lived, widely spread, and disastrous in nature. The resultant ash is carried away by winds and has devastating effects on air quality by considerably increasing particulate matter of air (Sapkota et al., 2005). Such fires are a constant occurrence in the savannahs of Africa, Australia, and the steppes and grasslands of North America, Europe, and Asia, and in recent times the specter of global warming and changing weather patterns has intensified this problem (Slezakova et al., 2013).

16.2.5 VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS Volcanic eruptions add a significant amount of ash and gases to the atmosphere, augmented by large amounts of particulate matter mostly in the nanoscale dimension. A major eruption affects the Earth’s atmosphere for a long time (Taylor et al., 2002), and heavy-metal NPs from the Earth’s surface are the major constituents of volcanic ashes (Yano et al., 1990).

16.2.6 OCEAN AND WATER EVAPORATION Sea-salt aerosols are emitted in huge amounts by the open seas and oceans. These aerosols, formed by water evaporation, are in the nanometre range (Buseck and Po´sfai, 1999). NPs are also produced by precipitation, owing to temperature changes and evaporation; one example of such an occurrence takes place in Lake Michigan, giving out calcium salt NPs (Buzea et al., 2007).

16.3 ANTHROPOLOGICAL INTERVENTIONS For millennia, human beings have explored and exploited nature enough to create a number of NPs through combustion and fuel burning; augmenting this in the post-industrial revolution scenario by

328


welding, smelting, various chemical procedures used in heavy industries, and most poignantly by indiscriminate fossil fuel usage and combustion (Linak et al., 2000; Seames et al., 2002; Rodgers et al., 2005).

16.3.1 FOSSIL FUEL COMBUSTION Combustion of fossil fuels, mainly diesel and coal, causes an inordinate amount of atmospheric NP accumulation. Automobile exhausts are in the range of 20e100 nm and generally spherical in shape (Westerdahl et al., 2005). NPs constitute more than 90% of the particulate matter in diesel combustion exhausts. Areas around highways are especially susceptible to such pollution (Singh et al., 2006). Carbon nanotubes and fibers are found in diesel exhausts (Evelyn et al., 2003; Murr and Soto, 2005). Such exhausts increase the risk of causing major damage to the surrounding plants and animals (Ghosh et al., 2011).

16.3.2 INDOOR POLLUTION According to the EPA (2012), indoor air can be at least 10 times more polluted than outdoor air. Anthropogenic activities release large amounts of particulate matter indoors: cooking, burning candles, fireplaces, smoking, and dusting all add to the NP count inside homes. Cigarette smoke, biomass burning, textile fibers, and skin particles all add metallic NPs. Outdoor air entering the building might also be a significant contributor of NPs (Zhu et al., 2005).

16.3.3 CIGARETTE SMOKE Tobacco smoke is one of the chief sources of NPs, both metallic and organic, ranging around 10 nm in size. It is one of the complex sources of NPs, with amalgamations of hundreds of compounds (Ning et al., 2006).

16.3.4 CONSTRUCTION AND DEMOLITION Construction and demolition of roads and buildings cause substantial rises in particulate matter, mostly consisting of metallic NPs. Particles as small as 10 nm of asbestos, asphalt, lead, silica, and carbon are found in very high densities. Clouds of dust and soot from concrete demolition sites and sawmills can be carried by the wind to affect surrounding areas (Kumar et al., 2013).

16.3.5 COSMETICS AND OTHER CONSUMER PRODUCTS The use of nanomaterials has been prevalent in cosmetics and beauty products since ancient times. Different mineral powders used as cosmetics in ancient Indian and Egyptian civilizations contained high amounts of natural nanomaterials. The same trend continues today with high-end consumer products boldly advertising their nanomaterial content. Currently, manmade ENPs are used indiscriminately in consumer products. Many everyday products like shampoo, toothpaste, sunscreen, lipsticks, skin creams, antiaging formulations, soaps, and antipimple creams are loaded with different types of metallic NPs (Nazarenko et al., 2011, 2012).

16.4 GLOBAL FINANCIAL STATUS OF ENGINEERED METAL NANOPARTICLES

329

Exploding wire technique Vapour deposition

Ph

ys ic al

Microwave irradiation Pulsed laser ablation Supercritical fluids Gamma radiation

Synthesis of EMNPs

Biological

Ch

em

Microbial synthesis Plant assisted

Reduction of salts

ica

l

Microemulsion Thermal decomposition of salts

Electrochemical synthesis

FIGURE 16.5 Various mechanisms of synthesis of manmade nanoparticles. Modified from Iravani, S., Korbekandi, H., Mirmohammadi, S.V., Zolfaghari, B., 2014. Synthesis of silver nanoparticles: chemical, physical and biological methods. Res. Pharm. Sci. 9 (6), 385.

By virtue of their small surface area, NPs have the ability to penetrate deep into the skin surface, hence synthetic peptide NPs are used in antiaging products to rejuvenate cells (Agera medical formulation), and fullerenes are used in creams and lotions to scavenge free radicals under the skin surface (Xiao et al., 2005). Alumina nanopowder has widespread use in products to control skin wrinkles and creases because of its optical properties. Zinc oxide (ZnO) and silver oxide NPs are used widely in antipimple products and antibacterial soaps because of their antibacterial properties. Titanium dioxide NPs have been widely used in many products, such as white pigment, food colorants, sunscreens, and cosmetic creams, because of their inert nature (Weir et al., 2012).

16.3.6 ENGINEERED NANOMATERIALS The production and fabrication of nanomaterials are a multifaceted industry (Epa et al., 2012). Nanomaterials can be synthesized by methods like gas-phase processes, flame pyrolysis, hightemperature evaporation, plasma synthesis, vapor deposition synthesis, electron, thermal, and laserbeam evaporation, colloidal or liquid-phase methods, and chemical reactions in solvents leading to the formation of colloids; mechanical processes include grinding, milling, and alloying. An interesting facet of engineered nanomaterials is that they can be synthesized in almost any shape and size (Nikoobakht and El Sayed, 2003). Fig. 16.5 sums up the various means of synthesizing ENPs.

16.4 GLOBAL FINANCIAL STATUS OF ENGINEERED METAL NANOPARTICLES Use and production of metal ENPs have seen exponential growth in recent years. The market share of the nanomaterial industry has gone up, and the trend for future years shows a positive correlation with the incremental application of NPs in industry.

330


The most extensive use of metal and metal oxide NPs is in the burgeoning global electronics and hardware industry. Production of flash drives, micro SDs, Digital Living Network Alliance (DLNA) devices, and other storage devices employs many metallic NPs, including nickel oxide (NiO), silica, and iron oxide. Touch screens, Organic Light-Emitting Diode (OLEDs), and liquid crystal displays also use metal NPs. The market share of metal and metal oxide NPs was reportedly around 4000 tonnes in 2016 by volume, and is projected to be 10,000 tonnes by the year 2026 (https://www. businesswire.com/news/home/20161028005584/en/Global-Market-Metal-Metal-OxideNanoparticles-Report). Major uses of NPs are summarized in Fig. 16.6. From a financial point of view, the metal NP market was estimated to be worth US$14 billion at the end of 2016, and this expected to increase to nearly US$51 billion by the end of 2026. Among the metal oxide NPs, the market shares of ZnO, titanium oxide, cerium oxide, and tungsten oxide are expected to grow exponentially till 2026, while metals like platinum, palladium, and copper are projected to increase their market share significantly in the coming years (http://www.platinum. matthey.com/documents/newitem/pgm%20market%20reports/pgm_market_report_may_2017.pdf). As of 2014 the share of North America in the NP market stood at around 33%, but Asia Pacific is projected to overcome North America and Europe in both production and use of metallic NPs (https:// www.imf.org/en/Publications/REO/APAC/Issues/2017/10/09/areo1013). Novel developments in biomedical industries have given an impetus to increased production of specific NPs, like fluorescent-tagged copper NPs, silver (Ag) and gold (Au) NPs, etc. Au NPs have widespread applications in diagnostics, imaging, and drug-delivery fields. To date, Ag NPs have been

FIGURE 16.6 Schematic showing the diversity of applications of engineered nanoparticles.

16.5 FATE OF ENGINEERED NANOPARTICLES

331

the most commercially successful, accounting for over 50% of the total market in 2015 (https://www. technavio.com/report/global-metals-and-minerals-metal-oxide-nanoparticles-market), driven by their tremendous usage in healthcare, food processing and packaging, and consumer products. EPA and EU guidelines for safe packaging and fortification of food have come as a boon for this industry (Yaktine and Pray, 2009; Cheftel, 2011). The Brazilian company Nanox claims that the shelf life of milk could be doubled using silver oxide NPs. Other industries, including textiles, accounted for over 20% of global market share in the Ag NP industry in 2015. Ag NPs are prized in the cosmetics industry due to their qualities of water repellence, ultraviolet protection, stain resistance, and protection against microbes. Recently the global giant Dior launched “Diorskin Forever,” which is strengthened with Ag NPs for better skin protection. By 2020 the manufacturing segment is forecast to account for 39% of total Ag NP market share (Vance et al., 2015). But with more use in more applications, the danger of release of ENPs into the environment is at an all-time high.

16.5 FATE OF ENGINEERED NANOPARTICLES The use of certain NPs like Ag, zinc, cerium, nickel, Au, titanium, etc. is increasing at an astounding rate thanks to their growing applications in various spheres of life, including consumer goods, medicines, electronics, biomedical inventories, and so on. These NPs easily find their way into the food chain and water bodies by entering groundwater or land sources, where they undergo biomagnification (Rico et al., 2015; Unrine et al., 2012; Judy et al., 2010). Many studies show that NPs undergo major transformations while in water bodies, and their concentrations vary from mg/L to mg/L (Boxall et al., 2007; Mueller and Nowack, 2008; Neal, 2008; Oukourrum, 2017). Further aggregation and sedimentation take place in freshwater bodies owing to changes in charge status and further complicated mechanisms of electrical compression, neutralization, and bridge formation (Weinberg et al., 2011; Zhang et al., 2012; Dobias and Bernier-Latmani, 2013). It is also established that many NPs, for example Ag, form active cations, especially in aquatic environments, and persist there in that form (Dobias and Bernier-Latmani, 2013; Oukarroum et al., 2017). NPs behave very differently in sea or estuarine waters than in fresh water, with ramifications for the marine life (Dunphy Guzmań et al., 2006; Hyung et al., 2007; Ju-Nam and Lead, 2008; Xia et al., 2008; Matranga and Corsi, 2012; Thwala et al., 2013). Further bioavailability and transformation of these metal ENPs depend primarily on their local interactions and chemistry with the immediate surroundings, but in most cases they are known to be quite stable. Most plant roots can readily take up ENPs, which are then transported to shoots via vascular systems, although the efficiency of vascular transport varies depending upon the composition, shape, and size of ENPs and the plant anatomy (Lin et al., 2009; Wild and Jones, 2009; Lin and Xing, 2007; Tripathi et al., 2017aef). ENPs are able to enter plant cells by either endocytosis or nonendocytic penetration and travel through the nuclear envelop; the ease of the process strongly hints at their possible genotoxic effects (Lin and Xing, 2007; Karlsson, 2010). Once inside the plant cells, NPs may undergo a plethora of interactions with the biomolecules. These interactions of ENPs with the plant system may be categorized as being one or more of the following: chemical effects, when the metal ions in solution perturb the intracellular ionic balance in exposed target organisms; mechanical effects, when the physical dimensions of the ENPs, like shape, size, charge, valency, and defined interfaces, interfere with normal biochemical interactions of the exposed organism; catalytic effects, when the ENPs affect redox reactions or mimic chelators; binding

332


FIGURE 16.7 Effect of nanoparticles on a healthy plant: uptake, effect, and toxicity at organic level.

with macromolecules, when ionic interactions promote binding to biomolecules like DNA or proteins by either noncovalent or covalent mechanisms; and when ENPs affect cells by generating intracellular oxidative stress (Dietz and Herth, 2011). Fig. 16.7 gives a detailed view of what goes on inside a cell on ENP exposure.

16.6 PHYSICOCHEMICAL STRESS IN PLANTS: THE WHYS AND THE WHEREFORES Physicochemical processes are the normal intracellular and extracellular physical and chemical processes that are crucial for maintenance of normal homeostasis of a cell. These reactions are vital for the wellbeing of the cell and provide essential energy for its survival. Any deviation from this normalcy can be termed as a physicochemical stress. Such perturbations can be precipitated by various intrinsic or extrinsic factors. Extrinsic factors may be biotic or abiotic conditions which can hamper normal functioning of the cell, usher in cascades of many intrinsic factors, and ultimately hasten the process of cell death. The spectrum of physicochemical contributors and their interactions encompasses the realms of biochemistry, biophysics, molecular biology, genetics, and organic chemistry. These fields are interdisciplinary, in the sense that they all deal with the molecular background of biomolecules and their underlying chemical interactions and properties. Thus it can be said that physicochemical biology

16.6 PHYSICOCHEMICAL STRESS IN PLANTS

333

denotes the study of “biological phenomena on the basis of the physicochemical properties of separate atoms and chemical bonds” (Knorre et al., 2013). The advent of a foreign or xenobiotic agent in the proximity of a plant can disturb the internal functioning of its tissues. The agent might alter the status of the plant’s normal homeostatic behavior; such a drastic change can be a physicochemical stress (Shepherd and Griffiths, 2006). There are many well-known phenotypic and orgasmic markers of such stresses (Table 16.1). Both phenotypic and biochemical markers are competent stress signals. The most vital phenotypic markers are decreases in the rate of germination and growth of root meristem; almost all the metal ENPs considered here

Table 16.1 Various Symptoms of Physicochemical Stress After Nanoparticle Exposure Indication of Physicochemical Stress

Type of Nanoparticles

Study Organisms

Change in germination rate

Nickel oxide, silver oxide (naked), gold oxide, iron oxides, cerium oxide, zinc oxide, titanium dioxide, cadmium oxide, magnesium oxide

Decrease in root length in the seedling

Silver oxide (coated and naked), gold oxide, cerium oxide, iron oxide, zinc oxide, cadmium oxide Silver oxide, iron oxide, manganese oxide, cerium oxide Iron oxide, zinc oxide, cadmium oxide

Allium cepa, Oryza sativa, Nicotiana tabacum, Arabidopsis thaliana, Lycopersicon esculentum, Coriandrum sativum, radish, rape, ryegrass, lettuce, corn, cucumber Allium cepa, Nicotiana tabacum, Cucurbita pepo, Lycopersicon esculentum, Oryza sativa Oryza sativa, Cucurbita pepo, Cucumis sativus Cucurbita pepo, Oryza sativa

Reduced development of leaves Damage to internal root morphology, damage to xylem Damage to cell membranes and inequality of charge Intracellular generation of reactive oxygen species Increase in SOD, CAT, POD, APX, GSH, etc. Damage to mitochondria and chloroplast

Damage to photosystems and electron transport chain Genotoxicity and DNA damage Cell death

Nickel oxide, zinc oxide, titanium dioxide

Lycopersicon esculentum, Allium cepa

Most metal nanoparticles

All plant model

Most metal nanoparticles

All plant models

Titanium dioxide, nickel oxide, aluminum oxide

Titanium dioxide, silver oxide, manganese oxide

Allium cepa, Lycopersicon esculentum, radish, rape, ryegrass, lettuce, corn, cucumber, Nicotiana tabacum Allium cepa, Oryza sativa, Nicotiana tabacum

Titanium dioxide, nickel oxide, silver oxide, zinc oxide Nickel oxide

Allium cepa, Oryza sativa, Nicotiana tabacum Lycopersicon esculentum

APX- Ascorbate Peroxidase, CAT-Catalase, GSH- reduced Glutathione, POD- Peroxidase, SOD- Superoxide Dismutase

334


FIGURE 16.8 Schematic diagram depicting nanoparticle toxicity at cellular level.

provoke these markers (Table 16.1). Further damage to the first line of defense (Superoxide Dismutase, (SOD), CAT-Catalase (CAT), and guaiacol peroxidase (gPOD)) are marked changes that occur in any biotic/abiotic stress constitute robust biochemical markers. Table 16.1 summarizes different manifestations of physicochemical stresses in exposed plants. The quantum of damage to the exposed plant is determined by the concentration and nature of the ENP in question and the physiological condition of the exposed plant. The extent of damage to a plant cell on ENP exposure is shown in Fig. 16.8.

16.7 MAJOR METAL NANOPARTICLES AFFECTING PLANTS 16.7.1 SILVER NANOPARTICLES Ag NPs are one of the premier metal NPs and enjoy widescale commercial importance. Their small and symmetric sizes (10e20 nm) facilitate easy uptake into plants (Pe´rez-de-Luque, 2017). It is known that Ag NPs can change their surface charge while in the soil, contributing to their phytotoxicity (WooMi-Lee et al., 2011). They severely affect internal homeostasis in target plants by generation of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) (Kumari et al., 2009). Oukarroum et al. (2013, 2014) confirmed their phytotoxicity in aquatic plants. Ag NPs are known to disrupt the electron transport chain by halting electron transport in affected tissues (Zuverza-Mena et al., 2016). In the long run, nutritional deficiencies occur in the affected plant as a consequence of Ag NP exposure. Woo-Mi-Lee (2012) showed how Ag NPs acted differently in plant systems when applied through agar plate and

16.7 MAJOR METAL NANOPARTICLES AFFECTING PLANTS

335

through soil; root growth was stunted more in the agar plate than in soil. Though bioavailibility was reduced in soil, normal physicochemical homeostasis was affected in both Phaseolus radiatus and Sorghum bicolor, two agriculturally important crops, upon Ag NP exposure. It is interesting to note that when the Ag NP was coated with Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) it had no effect on germination frequency, although 40 mg/L of bulk AgNO3 is known to enhance the rate of germination in five common species of wetland herbs. Root growth was affected adversely by exposure to both NPs and bulk metal alike (Yin et al., 2012). Ag NPs also affected the plant genome, as indicated by numerous reports of indicators like reduced mitotic indices, increased frequency of chromosomal aberrations and micronuclei, cell wall disintegration, and chromosome breaks, all of which prove Ag NPs to be genotoxic (Kumari et al., 2009). In Oryza sativa a dose as low as 30 mg/L was enough to destroy the structural and biochemical integrity of the cell; shoot growth was more affected than root growth (Thuesombat et al., 2014). Photosynthetic pigments were not produced efficiently; and while starch content was maintained, the total carbohydrate pool declined to cope up Ag NP stress (Mirzajani et al., 2013). In another model plant, Arabidopsis thaliana, neither Ag NPs nor bulk silver affected seed germination (Geisler-Lee et al., 2012; Qian et al., 2013). However, root growth was inhibited by Ag NPs. These NPs accumulated in the leaves, affecting the thylakoid membrane, the chloroplasts, and production of chlorophyll. Water uptake was hampered and the antioxidant enzyme profile was altered (Ma et al., 2013; Navarro et al., 2008). If the entry point of NPs was hampered, Ag NPs still accumulated in leaves. On foliar exposure in Lactuca sativa, NPs entered the leaves through the stomata and once inside their chemical state was altered, after being complexed by thiol ions (Ma et al., 2013). If seeds were treated with Ag NPs, less toxicity was observed in plants, but most seeds failed to grow because of poor root development (Yin et al., 2011). If the NPs were encased with external coating or biosynthesized, their toxicity reduced noticeably (Pokhrel and Dubey, 2013). In general it is believed that free Agþ is responsible for the toxicity as well as size, surface charge, and area. Chemical interaction comprises of the reactions made between nanoparticles and plants of both land and aquatic origin (Levard et al., 2012; Jiang et al., 2014; Krishnaraj et al., 2012). Table 16.2 summrises the effects of different metallic nanoparticles on plants.

16.7.2 GOLD NANOPARTICLES Au NPs are important in commercial markets, being widely used in catalysis, drug delivery, sensors, etc. Preliminary studies in animal cell systems have shown that Au NPs cause overproduction of nitric oxide in the serum (Khlebtsov and Dykman, 2011), but in plant systems a completely different mechanism is responsible for their toxicity: Au NPs increase light absorption, which causes an increase in the plasmon effect and decreases chlorophyll production by lowering electron transport (Falco et al., 2011). Sabo-Attwood et al. (2012) chose the model plant Nicotiana tabacum L. cv. Xanthi to study physicochemical effects of Au NPs on the plant system. Inductively coupled plasma - mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) data showed dose-dependent uptake of Au NPs in the plants and their translocation to shoot regions, culminating in necrosis of leaves after 14 days. Hence NPs activate a cell-death cascade, though the mechanism involved is yet to be elucidated (Koelmel et al., 2013). The smaller the NP the greater the uptake, and uptake is highly correlated to the surface charge on the NP (Harris and Bali, 2008). Biomagnification took place and there was strong evidence of trophic transfer, which has implications for further additions in the higher food cycle.

336


16.7.3 TITANIUM NANOPARTICLES One of the most widely used NPs, titanium NPs find application in the hospitality, biomedical, medicines, consumer goods, and cosmetics industries (Ma et al., 2010a), and there are many works reporting on their physiochemical nature. In animal models mice gavaged on different doses of titanium NPs showed signs of lethargy, diarrhea, and vomiting (Wang et al., 2008). Larue et al. (2012) hypothesized that the possible phytotoxicity of titanium dioxide NPs in plants may be dependent on their size; the NPs were attached to the roots, and root length decreased in a dose-dependent manner on exposure. The size of the NPs remained constant inside the plant. Ghosh et al. (2010) showed how titanium dioxide NPs adversely affected the genome of a plant: against bulk titanium controls, the NPs showed increased rate of uptake, dissolution, and genotoxicity in the plant model. The general mode of stress induction was through generation of intracellular ROS, resulting in upheavals of the cellular oxidanteantioxidant balance (Lei et al., 2007; Fenoglio et al., 2009). Further, in Spinacea oleracea it was reported that photosystem II was disrupted by increased light absorption and quantum yield (Mingyu et al., 2007), thus jeopardizing photosynthesis and compromising survival of the exposed plants.

16.7.4 COPPER NANOPARTICLES Copper NPs are widely prevalent, mostly in the form of copper oxide (CuO) NPs. Soft and ductile, they are popular in high-end mechanical and electrical works, including conductivity, printing techniques, and lubricants. CuO NPs have antimicrobial properties, for which they are utilized in biomedical fields. They are important micronutrients for plants, hence assays depicting their toxicity are difficult to execute in plants. Yet many reports suggest the phytotoxic potential of CuO NPs, which enter the roots and translocate to shoots (Shi et al., 2013). When Phaseolus radiatus and Triticum aestivum plantlets were grown in different concentrations of CuO NPs dispersed in agar media, they showed stunted growth rates and NP agglomeration inside cell membranes (Lee et al., 2008). Comparison of effects of CuO NPs versus bulk copper on various parameters like seed germination, root elongation, and biomass in Cucurbita pepo grown hydroponically showed that NPs were more dangerous for the plants in excess than their bulk counterpart (Musante and White, 2012). All the vital parameters of growth were severely compromised (Stampoulis et al., 2009). Atha et al. (2012) found that the toxicity of CuO NPs may be ascribed to lesions and damage to DNA caused upon exposure. Hong et al. (2015) also showed that this NP disturbed the antioxidant profile of plants. Increase in catalase and peroxidase levels concomitant with CuO NP exposure proved their hypothesis.

16.7.5 ZINC NANOPARTICLE ZnO NPs enjoy a cult status for their essential role in the toiletry, cosmetics, tobacco, and consumer industries. They have widespread antimicrobial effects, hence their topical application is in vogue. However, ZnO NPs are being dumped into the environment and amplified enough to enter the food cycle (Nel et al., 2006). Lin and Xing (2007) showed in ryegrass and related herbs how ZnO NPs have selective permeability to seed coats of certain plants. Root elongation was affected adversely (Sresty and Rao, 1999), and seed germination rate was also affected significantly, even at exposure to concentrations as low as 20 mg/L in rape and ryegrass. In Allium cytological aberrations crept in on


337

exposure to ZnO NPs (Raskar and Laware, 2014), but in hydroponically grown C. pepo ZnO NPs did not affect growth even at high concentrations (1000 mg/L) (Stampoulis et al., 2009). In cultures of the algae Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata grown in the presence of ZnO NPs, cell membranes became destabilized and growth was compromised as a result (Aruoja et al., 2009). Free zinc ions formed on dissolution were mainly responsible for this toxicity (Ghodake et al., 2011). In a long-term study on Glycine max., a high concentration of ZnO NPs (500 mg/L) was found to affect the normal functioning of cells. The developmental mechanism was compromised by excess ROS production, which impaired cellular mechanisms (Pokhrel and Dubey, 2013). Lei et al. (2007) and Mclaren et al. (2009) explained the possible mechanism of toxicity as resulting from hydroxide radicals formed by ZnO NPs inside the cell (Levard et al., 2013). In Arabidopsis thaliana the developmental gene regulation was disrupted by ZnO NP exposure (Lee et al., 2010).

16.7.6 IRON NANOPARTICLES Iron NPs have varied sizes, ranging between 1 and 100 nm. They are superparamagnetic in nature, along with CuO and NiO NPs. Two mainly forms are available: magnetite, and the oxidized form maghemite. Owing to their superparamagnetic nature, they have widespread applications in biomedical imaging, heavy electricals, catalysis, and vital chemical reactions. Studies on the zebrafish animal model have shown that iron oxide NPs are cytotoxic and their stable nature facilitates their reaching higher strata of the ecosystem (Zhu et al., 2012). In plants they affect normal functioning of cells mainly by breaking and blocking aquaporins present on the cell membranes (Wang et al., 2012b). Zhu et al. (2008) used pumpkin as their toxicity model to show how the NPs were translocated inside the plant tissue; their Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) images were one of the first documented depictions of NP entry inside the root cells, through the root hair to the epidermis. Development of Arabidopsis thaliana was found to be negatively affected by these NPs, with root length and number of leaves being reduced in exposed plants (Lee et al., 2009).

16.7.7 MAGNESIUM NANOPARTICLE Magnesium oxide NPs possess many unique properties and are used in varied fields. They act as dehydrating agents, insulating agents, fire retractors, fuel additives, and cleaning and antistatic agents in high-class applications (Welch and Compton, 2006; Hornberger et al., 2012). Reports linking physicochemical stress with magnesium oxide NPs are not well elucidated because it is hard to assess the toxicity of magnesium, which is an essential element for plants. Mangalampalli et al. (2017) reported that these NPs exerted cytotoxicity in a dose-dependent manner in an Allium model; induction of excess ROS and DNA damage pointed at a possible genotoxic mode of action in such cases.

16.7.8 CERIUM NANOPARTICLES Cerium oxide (CeO) NPs enjoy huge commercial usage, mainly in petroleum and heavy electrical industries. Though cerium is a rare earth metal, CeO NPs have a propensity to enter and move up the food chain. It was reported that exposure to CeO NPs had no adverse effect on growth of sweet potato, but augmented tuber development (Bradfield et al., 2017). CeO NPs affected root length growth positively when compared to titanium dioxide NPs (Sosan et al., 2016). CeO NPs were less harmful

338


than ionic cerium, and rooteshoot ratio was enhanced in carrot by exposure of CeO NPs (Ebbs et al., 2016). In fact, CeO NPs have superoxide scavenging activity, contributing to their growth-enhancing effects (Xia et al., 2008). It was reported that CeO NPs increase the efficiency of the electron transport chain, in contrast to the toxicity of other metallic NPs (Gomez-Garay et al., 2014). CeO NPs also affect epigenetic memory of a plant (Wang et al., 2012a). However, there are reports indicating the toxicity of this NP in plant systems (Morales et al., 2013).

16.7.9 NICKEL NANOPARTICLES Nickel oxide (NiO) NPs are mainly used in heavy industries, including semiconductors, electricals and electronics, steel, iron smelting, coin making, etc. NiO NPs have a paramagnetic activity at very high temperatures in a few synthesized forms, making them useful in drug delivery. As use increased, more and more NiO NPs accumulated in the environment. This NP is quite stable; nickel changes its oxidation state inside a cell, thus modulating its toxicity and uptake. NiO NPs are categorized as Group 2 carcinogens by the World Health Organization, and there is no minimum safe dosage for animals: they cause acute toxicity, induce various pulmonary infections, and promote cancers. In plant systems, the reports to date point to a murky tale. Faisal et al. (2013) in a detailed study on tomatoes found that NiO NPs induced disruption of the antioxidant mechanism, and production of every antioxidant enzyme increased rapidly on exposure. Their study indicated that a caspase-like protein initiated a celldeath cascade in the affected plants. Oukarroum et al. (2013, 2017) showed increased antioxidant activity and toxicity in the aquatic herb Lemna. In separate studies on an Allium model, it was reported that NiO NP exposure causes shutting down of major cellular mechanisms; the IC50 value was deduced to be 50 mg/L in this case (Manna and Bandyopadhyay, 2017a). Widespread damage to the Allium genome was confirmed through confocal microscopy and Random Amplification of Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) techniques, and was correlated to increased intracellular ROS generation (Manna and Bandyopadhyay, 2017b).

16.7.10 ALUMINIUM NANOPARTICLES Aluminum is the third most common element on the Earth’s surface. Aluminum oxide NPs are widespread in nature and also engineered to meet a huge commercial demand. This NP has a special use in rocket propellants and also in catalysis, conductivity, drug delivery, and waterproofing, making it widely found in the ecosystem. In the animal rat liver cell model, exposure to aluminum NPs caused mitochondrial dysfunction (Hussain et al., 2005). Similar results were portrayed in plants, where major mitochondrial proteins were damaged by exposure this NP (Mustafa and Komatsu, 2016). Phenotypic manifestations, like decreased germination rate and retarded root length growth, reportedly occurred upon aluminum NP exposure in various plant models (Lin and Xing, 2007; Burklew et al., 2012; Amist et al., 2017). Alterations in expression of microRNA (Burklew et al., 2012) and transcription of genes were also reported (Jin et al., 2017). A few studies have reported positive effects of aluminum NP exposure for the growth of certain plants, but NPs with external coating were found to be more toxic than naked NPs (Doshi et al., 2008).

16.7.11 CADMIUM NANOPARTICLES Cadmium oxide NPs are extremely poisonous for any living cell: as cadmium is a heavy metal, the NPs inherently disturb cellular mechanisms (Lόpez-Luna et al., 2016). In Pisum sativum cadmium oxide


339

NPs negatively affected xylem structures, increased intracellular ROS, and damaged internal cellular structures (Rodrı´guez-Serrano et al., 2006). In sunflower, cadmium in ionic forms deteriorated antioxidant mechanisms to the point of no return (Gallego et al., 1996).

16.7.12 YTTERBIUM, LANTHANUM, AND GADOLINIUM These rare metal oxide NPs have applications in heavy industries, but work relating to their toxicity to plants is limited. In a pioneering study, Ma et al. (2010b) showed their effect on seven economically important plants, and found that all these NPs in various concentrations are toxic to plants. Root elongation was affected negatively, and further growth was highly challenged in the exposed plants. Table 16.2 summarizes the effects of various metal oxide NPs on plants. Table 16.2 Metal Oxide Nanoparticles and Their Effects on Plant With Underlying Mechanisms Type of Metallic Oxide Nanoparticle

Effects on Plants and Underlying Mechanisms

1. Silver

· Exerts intracellular ROS · Induces oxidative stress electron relay centre · Affects secondary quinone · Induces production photosynthetic pigments · Destroys biochemical imbalance by · Causes depleting carbohydrate pool · Inhibits electron transfer genotoxicity and · Causes chromosome damage · Proteome affected · Decreases chlorophyll production · Causes necrotic cell death · Causes pulmonary problems in higher animal models work on plant models · Substantial needed · Genotoxic mode of action antioxidant system in · Disrupts cells by generation of intracellular

2. Gold 3. Platinum

4. Titanium

ROS 5. Zinc

6. Iron 7. Copper

· Disrupts photosystem II gene expression · Developmental affected · Cellular toxicity through intracellular ROS generation · Cell membrane destabilization aquaporins · Damages · Cytotoxicity in Cucurbita pepo DNA damage and lesion · Causes · Intracellular ROS generation

References Kumari et al. (2009) Oukarroum et al. (2013) Mallick et al. (2006) Zuverza-Mena et al. (2016) Ma et al. (2013) Mirzajani et al. (2013) Kumari et al. (2009) Vannini et al. (2013)

Falco et al. (2011) Sabo-Attwood et al. (2012) Dietz and Herth (2011)

Ghosh et al. (2010) Lei et al. (2007) and Fenoglio et al. (2009) Lei et al. (2007) Lee et al. (2010) Pokhrel and Dubey (2013) Aruoja et al. (2009) Wang et al. (2008) Corredor et al. (2009) Atha et al. (2012) Hong et al. (2015) Continued

340


Table 16.2 Metal Oxide Nanoparticles and Their Effects on Plant With Underlying Mechanismsdcont’d Type of Metallic Oxide Nanoparticle

Effects on Plants and Underlying Mechanisms

8. Aluminium

· Damages mitochondrial protein · Expression of microRNA and transcription of gene affected

9. Beryllium

10. Magnesium 11. Calcium 12. Cadmium

13. Yttrium 14. Vanadium

15. Manganese 16. Cobalt

17. Nickel

18. Cerium

pulmonary diseases in · Causes humans · Works on plants missing · Cytotoxic and genotoxic · Enhances nutrition and affirms biotic stress response in plants xylem structure · Destroys internal cellular · Affects frameworks exorbitant intracellular · Generates ROS neuroprotectivity in animal · Gives model and reduces ROS · Toxic to humans

· Enhances photosynthetic pathway · No effect on plant growth, · · · · · · · · ·

catalase activity lowered in tomato Root elongation inhibited in Allium cepa Phytotoxicity because of increase in intracellular ROS level Antioxidant profile hampered Genotoxic and DNA breakage P-53 cascade of cell death Intracellular ROS generation Affects epigenetic inheritance Scavenges superoxides Electron transport chain efficiency increased

References Mustafa and Komatsu (2016) Burklew et al. (2012) Jin et al. (2017) Dreher (2004)

Mangalampalli et al. (2017) Hua et al. (2015) Lόpez-Luna et al. (2016) Rodrı´guez-Serrano et al. (2006)

Schubert et al. (2006) Nel et al. (2006), Wӧrle-Knirsch et al. (2007) and Manke et al. (2013) Pradhan et al. (2013) Lo´pez-Moreno et al. (2016) Ghodake et al. (2011)

Manna and Bandyopadhyay (2017a,b) Faisal et al. (2013)

Morales et al. (2013) Wang et al. (2012a) Xia et al. (2008) Gomez-Garay et al. (2014)

16.8 AMELIORATION OF NANOPARTICLE-INDUCED DAMAGE TO PLANTS Amelioration and recovery studies have gained momentum in recent years in documenting how affected plants cope with the extreme toxicity of a foreign NP. Many intricate biochemical switches need to be reset if plants are to survive such a stress. The recent trend of amelioration by using specific beneficiary doped particles or NPs has met with some success. Silicon in both bulk and HP forms is

16.9 CONCLUSION

341

highly effective for this purpose (Tripathi et al., 2012). Nanoceria has also been used, and there are recent reports of using citrate-coated magnetite NPs to mitigate cadmium and chromium toxicity (Lo´pez-Luna et al., 2016). Giving metallic NPs an exterior coating often changes their physicochemical nature from being toxic to being beneficiary (Medina-Velo et al., 2017). Nitric oxide has also been successfully applied for recovery: since it functions in signal transduction and stress response in all forms of life, nitric oxide has the inherent ability to rescue a stressed system when given in measured doses. NPs with an external coating are firmly attached to a substrate and do not pose a health risk as long as they do not detach from the substrate (Yamaura et al., 2004). Manmade NPs engineered by employing bacteria and viruses are also common these days (Hulkoti and Taranath, 2014).

16.9 CONCLUSION The start of this century saw enormously increased activity in the field of nanotechnology, NPs, and nanocomposite formation. A mammoth rise in application and research led us to an epoch of indiscriminate use and disposal. There is an ever-increasing population to consider, especially in newly developed countries like India, China, Brazil, etc., and their socioeconomic upliftment and progress need a thoughtful and well-directed perspective. Increased income levels, work pressure, and lifestyle changes impact on many environmental factors. Nanotechnology has many applications in the field of medicines, energy, electronics, and life sciences. Human demands are increasing daily, and meeting these demands relies on the use of new technologies. In this connection, use of nanoscale products has greatly increased and their negative impacts are still unknown. Fig. 16.9 sums up the effect of ENPs on plant life. Despite achievements in the field of nanotechnology, studies show that NPs adversely affect cellular, physiological, and molecular processes in microorganisms, plants, and humans, which is not a good prospect for coming generations. Furthermore, recent findings open new avenues of morphological, physiological, biochemical, and molecular investigations, which should appreciably advance our understanding of nanotoxicology. In line with the current scenario, strict policies must be enacted to put a leash on the haphazard and desultory use of NPs. • • • •

Screening and proper disposal should be ensured to safeguard environmental causes. Tests confirming the safety of a particular NP or composite must be undertaken before recommendation for commercial usage. Utmost care should be practiced to prevent engineered NPs from entering the food chain. Excessive use of diesel combustion must be reduced.

This will help to curtail the amount of NPs in the environment, and improve the environment for the safe survival of microorganisms, plants, and animals alike (Tripathi et al., 2017aef).

physicochemical perturbation in plants. Front. Chem. 5, 92.

206e215. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plaphy.2017.11.003 and Manna, I., Bandyopadhyay, M., 2017b. Engineered nickel oxide nanoparticle causes substantial

Taken from Manna, I., Bandyopadhyay, M., 2017a. Engineered nickel oxide nanoparticles affect genome stability in Allium cepa (L.). Plant Physiol. Biochem. 121,

Schematic showing the overall changes caused by engineered NPs: from synthesis to toxicological impacts.

FIGURE 16.9

342 CHAPTER 16 PHYSICOCHEMICAL PERTURBATION OF PLANTS

REFERENCES

343

REFERENCES Amist, N., Singh, N.B., Yadav, K., Singh, S.C., Pandey, J.K., 2017. Comparative studies of Al3þ ions and Al2O3 nanoparticles on growth and metabolism of cabbage seedlings. J. Biotechnol. 254, 1e8. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2017.06.002. Aruoja, V., Dubourguier, H.C., Kasemets, K., Kahru, A., 2009. Toxicity of nanoparticles of CuO, ZnO and TiO2 to microalgae Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata. Sci. Total Environ. 407 (4), 1461e1468. Atha, D.H., Wang, H., Petersen, E.J., Cleveland, D., Holbrook, R.D., Jaruga, P., Nelson, B.C., 2012. Copper oxide nanoparticle mediated DNA damage in terrestrial plant models. Environ. Sci. Technol. 46 (3), 1819e1827. https://doi.org/10.1021/es202660k. Barrena, R., Casals, E., Coloń, J., Font, X., Sańchez, A., Puntes, V., 2009. Evaluation of the ecotoxicity of model nanoparticles. Chemosphere 75 (7), 850e857. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2009.01.078. Bondarenko, O., Juganson, K., Ivask, A., Kasemets, K., Mortimer, M., Kahru, A., 2013. Toxicity of Ag, CuO and ZnO nanoparticles to selected environmentally relevant test organisms and mammalian cells in vitro: a critical review. Arch. Toxicol. 87 (7), 1181e1200. Boxall, A.B., Tiede, K., Chaudhry, Q., 2007. Engineered nanomaterials in soils and water: how do they behave and could they pose a risk to human health? Future Med. 919e927. Bradfield, S.J., Kumar, P., White, J.C., Ebbs, S.D., 2017. Zinc, copper, or cerium accumulation from metal oxide nanoparticles or ions in sweet potato: yield effects and projected dietary intake from consumption. Plant Physiol. Biochem. 110, 128e137. Burklew, C.E., Ashlock, J., Winfrey, W.B., Zhang, B., 2012. Effects of aluminum oxide nanoparticles on the growth, development, and microRNA expression of tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum). PLoS One 7 (5), e34783. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0034783. Buseck, P.R., Po´sfai, M., 1999. Airborne minerals and related aerosol particles: effects on climate and the environment. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 96 (7), 3372e3379. Buzea, C., Pacheco, I.I., Robbie, K., 2007. Nanomaterials and nanoparticles: sources and toxicity. Biointerphases 2 (4), MR17eMR71. https://doi.org/10.1116/1.2815690. Bystrzejewska-Piotrowska, G., Golimowski, J., Urban, P.L., 2009. Nanoparticles: their potential toxicity, waste and environmental management. Waste Manag. 29 (9), 2587e2595. Che, H.Z., Shi, G.Y., Zhang, X.Y., Arimoto, R., Zhao, J.Q., Xu, L., Chen, Z.H., 2005. Analysis of 40 years of solar radiation data from China, 1961e2000. Geophys. Res. Lett. 32 (6). Cheftel, J.C., 2011. Emerging risks related to food technology. In: Advances in Food Protection. Springer, Dordrecht, pp. 223e254. Chowdhury, R., 2015. A Review on the Application of Nanotechnology in Pharmaceutical Science (Doctoral dissertation, East West University). Colman, B.P., Espinasse, B., Richardson, C.J., Matson, C.W., Lowry, G.V., Hunt, D.E., Bernhardt, E.S., 2014. Emerging contaminant or an old toxin in disguise? Silver nanoparticle impacts on ecosystems. Environ. Sci. Technol. 48 (9), 5229e5236. https://doi.org/10.1021/es405454v. Corredor, E., Testillano, P.S., Coronado, M.J., Gonza´lez-Melendi, P., Fernańdez-Pacheco, R., Marquina, C., Risuenõ, M.C., 2009. Nanoparticle penetration and transport in living pumpkin plants: in situ subcellular identification. BMC Plant Biol. 9 (1), 45. Dietz, K.J., Herth, S., 2011. Plant nanotoxicology. Trends Plant Sci. 16 (11), 582e589. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. tplants.2011.08.003. Dimkpa, C.O., McLean, J.E., Latta, D.E., Manangoń, E., Britt, D.W., Johnson, W.P., Anderson, A.J., 2012. CuO and ZnO nanoparticles: phytotoxicity, metal speciation, and induction of oxidative stress in sand-grown wheat. J. Nanopart. Res. 14 (9), 1125. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11051-012-1125-9.

344


Dobias, J., Bernier-Latmani, R., 2013. Silver release from silver nanoparticles in natural waters. Environ. Sci. Technol. 47 (9), 4140e4146. Doshi, R., Braida, W., Christodoulatos, C., Wazne, M., O’Connor, G., 2008. Nano-aluminum: transport through sand columns and environmental effects on plants and soil communities. Environ. Res. 106 (3), 296e303. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2007.04.006. Dreher, K.L., 2004. Health and environmental impact of nanotechnology: toxicological assessment of manufactured nanoparticles. Toxicol. Sci. 77 (1), 3e5. Dunphy Guzman, K.A., Taylor, M.R., Banfield, J.F., 2006. Environmental risks of nanotechnology: National nanotechnology initiative funding, 2000 2004. Environ. Sci. Technol. 40 (5), 1401e1407. https://doi.org/ 10.1021/es0515708. Ebbs, S.D., Bradfield, S.J., Kumar, P., White, J.C., Musante, C., Ma, X., 2016. Accumulation of zinc, copper, or cerium in carrot (Daucus carota) exposed to metal oxide nanoparticles and metal ions. Environ. Sci. Nano 3 (1), 114e126. Environmental Protection Agency, 2012. An Introduction to Indoor Air Quality (IAQ). Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs). Epa, V.C., Burden, F.R., Tassa, C., Weissleder, R., Shaw, S., Winkler, D.A., 2012. Modeling biological activities of nanoparticles. Nano letters 12 (11), 5808e5812. https://doi.org/10.1021/nl303144k. Evelyn, A., Mannick, S., Sermon, P.A., 2003. Unusual carbon-based nanofibers and chains among diesel-emitted particles. Nano Lett. 3 (1), 63e64. Faisal, M., Saquib, Q., Alatar, A.A., Al-Khedhairy, A.A., Hegazy, A.K., Musarrat, J., 2013. Phytotoxic hazards of NiO-nanoparticles in tomato: a study on mechanism of cell death. J. Hazard. Mater. 250, 318e332. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2013.01.063. Falco, W.F., Botero, E.R., Falcaõ, E.A., Santiago, E.F., Bagnato, V.S., Caires, A.R.L., 2011. In vivo observation of chlorophyll fluorescence quenching induced by gold nanoparticles. J. Photochem. Photobiol. Chem. 225 (1), 65e71. Fenoglio, I., Greco, G., Livraghi, S., Fubini, B., 2009. Non-UV-induced radical reactions at the surface of TiO2 nanoparticles that may trigger toxic responses. Chem. A Eur. J. 15 (18), 4614e4621. Gallego, S.M., Benavides, M.P., Tomaro, M.L., 1996. Effect of heavy metal ion excess on sunflower leaves: evidence for involvement of oxidative stress. Plant Sci. 121 (2), 151e159. https://doi.org/10.1016/S01689452(96)04528-1. Geisler-Lee, J., Wang, Q., Yao, Y., Zhang, W., Geisler, M., Li, K., Ma, X., 2012. Phytotoxicity, accumulation and transport of silver nanoparticles by Arabidopsis thaliana. Nanotoxicology 7 (3), 323e337. https://doi.org/10. 3109/17435390.2012.658094. Ghodake, G., Seo, Y.D., Lee, D.S., 2011. Hazardous phytotoxic nature of cobalt and zinc oxide nanoparticles assessed using Allium cepa. J. Hazard. Mater. 186 (1), 952e955. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2010.11. 018. Ghosh, M., Bandyopadhyay, M., Mukherjee, A., 2010. Genotoxicity of titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles at two trophic levels: plant and human lymphocytes. Chemosphere 81 (10), 1253e1262. Ghosh, M., Chakraborty, A., Bandyopadhyay, M., Mukherjee, A., 2011. Multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT): induction of DNA damage in plant and mammalian cells. J. Hazard. Mater. 197, 327e336. Gomez-Garay, A., Pintos, B., Manzanera, J.A., Lobo, C., Villalobos, N., Martıń, L., 2014. Uptake of CeO2 nanoparticles and its effect on growth of Medicago arborea in vitro plantlets. Biol. Trace Elem. Res. 161 (1), 143e150. Harris, A.T., Bali, R., 2008. On the formation and extent of uptake of silver nanoparticles by live plants. J. Nanopart. Res. 10 (4), 691e695. Holben, B.N., Tanre, D., Smirnov, A., Eck, T.F., Slutsker, I., Abuhassan, N., Kaufman, Y.J., 2001. An emerging ground-based aerosol climatology: aerosol optical depth from AERONET. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 106 (D11), 12067e12097. https://doi.org/10.1029/2001JD900014.

REFERENCES

345

Hong, J., Rico, C.M., Zhao, L., Adeleye, A.S., Keller, A.A., Peralta-Videa, J.R., Gardea-Torresdey, J.L., 2015. Toxic effects of copper-based nanoparticles or compounds to lettuce (Lactuca sativa) and alfalfa (Medicago sativa). Environ. Sci. Process. Impacts 17 (1), 177e185. Hornberger, H., Virtanen, S., Boccaccini, A.R., 2012. Biomedical coatings on magnesium alloysea review. Acta Biomater. 8 (7), 2442e2455. Houghton, R.A., 2005. Tropical deforestation as a source of greenhouse gas emissions. Trop. Defor. Clim. Change 13. Hua, K.H., Wang, H.C., Chung, R.S., Hsu, J.C., 2015. Calcium carbonate nanoparticles can enhance plant nutrition and insect pest tolerance. J. Pestic. Sci. 40 (4), 208e213. https://doi.org/10.1584/jpestics.D15-025. Hulkoti, N.I., Taranath, T.C., 2014. Biosynthesis of nanoparticles using microbesda review. Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces 121, 474e483. Husar, R.B., Tratt, D.M., Schichtel, B.A., Falke, S.R., Li, F., Jaffe, D., Reheis, M.C., 2001. Asian dust events of April 1998. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 106 (D16), 18317e18330. Hussain, S.M., Hess, K.L., Gearhart, J.M., Geiss, K.T., Schlager, J.J., 2005. In vitro toxicity of nanoparticles in BRL 3A rat liver cells. Toxicol. Vitro 19 (7), 975e983. Hyung, H., Fortner, J.D., Hughes, J.B., Kim, J.H., 2007. Natural organic matter stabilizes carbon nanotubes in the aqueous phase. Environ. Sci. Technol. 41 (1), 179e184. Iravani, S., Korbekandi, H., Mirmohammadi, S.V., Zolfaghari, B., 2014. Synthesis of silver nanoparticles: chemical, physical and biological methods. Res. Pharm. Sci. 9 (6), 385. Islam, M.S., Tanaka, M., 2004. Impacts of pollution on coastal and marine ecosystems including coastal and marine fisheries and approach for management: a review and synthesis. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 48 (7), 624e649. Jiang, H.S., Qiu, X.N., Li, G.B., Li, W., Yin, L.Y., 2014. Silver nanoparticles induced accumulation of reactive oxygen species and alteration of antioxidant systems in the aquatic plant Spirodela polyrhiza. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 33 (6), 1398e1405. https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.2577. Jin, Y., Fan, X., Li, X., Zhang, Z., Sun, L., Fu, Z., Qian, H., 2017. Distinct physiological and molecular responses in Arabidopsis thaliana exposed to aluminum oxide nanoparticles and ionic aluminum. Environ. Pollut. 228, 517e527. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.04.073. Judy, J.D., Unrine, J.M., Bertsch, P.M., 2010. Evidence for biomagnification of gold nanoparticles within a terrestrial food chain. Environ. Sci. Technol. 45 (2), 776e781. Ju-Nam, Y., Lead, J.R., 2008. Manufactured nanoparticles: an overview of their chemistry, interactions and potential environmental implications. Sci. Total Environ. 400 (1), 396e414. Karlsson, H.L., 2010. The comet assay in nanotoxicology research. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 398 (2), 651e666. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00216-010-3977-0. Khlebtsov, N., Dykman, L., 2011. Biodistribution and toxicity of engineered gold nanoparticles: a review of in vitro and in vivo studies. Chem. Soc. Rev. 40 (3), 1647e1671. https://doi.org/10.1039/C0CS00018C. Kim, K.H., Kabir, E., Kabir, S., 2015. A review on the human health impact of airborne particulate matter. Environ. Int. 74, 136e143. Knorre, D.A., Popadin, K.Y., Sokolov, S.S., Severin, F.F., 2013. Roles of mitochondrial dynamics under stressful and normal conditions in yeast cells. Oxid. Med. Cell. Longev. 2013, 139491 https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/ 139491. Published online 2013 July 14. Koelmel, J., Leland, T., Wang, H., Amarasiriwardena, D., Xing, B., 2013. Investigation of gold nanoparticles uptake and their tissue level distribution in rice plants by laser ablation-inductively coupled-mass spectrometry. Environ. Pollut. 174, 222e228. Krishnaraj, C., Jagan, E.G., Ramachandran, R., Abirami, S.M., Mohan, N., Kalaichelvan, P.T., 2012. Effect of biologically synthesized silver nanoparticles on Bacopa monnieri (Linn.) Wettst. Plant growth metabolism. Process Biochem. 47 (4), 651e658. In: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procbio.2012.01.006.

346


Kumar, P., Pirjola, L., Ketzel, M., Harrison, R.M., 2013. Nanoparticle emissions from 11 non-vehicle exhaust sourceseA review. Atmos. Environ. 67, 252e277. Kumari, M., Mukherjee, A., Chandrasekaran, N., 2009. Genotoxicity of silver nanoparticles in Allium cepa. Sci. Total Environ. 407 (19), 5243e5246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2009.06.024. Larue, C., Veronesi, G., Flank, A.M., Surble, S., Herlin-Boime, N., Carrie`re, M., 2012. Comparative uptake and impact of TiO2 nanoparticles in wheat and rapeseed. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health, Part A. 75, 13-15, 722e734. https://doi.org/10.1080/15287394.2012.689800. Labille, J., Feng, J., Botta, C., Borschneck, D., Sammut, M., Cabie, M., Bottero, J.Y., 2010. Aging of TiO2 nanocomposites used in sunscreen. Dispersion and fate of the degradation products in aqueous environment. Environ. Pollut. 158 (12), 3482e3489. Lee, C.W., Mahendra, S., Zodrow, K., Li, D., Tsai, Y.C., Braam, J., Alvarez, P.J., 2010. Developmental phytotoxicity of metal oxide nanoparticles to Arabidopsis thaliana. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 29 (3), 669e675. Lee, J.E., Lee, N., Kim, H., Kim, J., Choi, S.H., Kim, J.H., Hyeon, T., 2009. Uniform mesoporous dye-doped silica nanoparticles decorated with multiple magnetite nanocrystals for simultaneous enhanced magnetic resonance imaging, fluorescence imaging, and drug delivery. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 132 (2), 552e557. Lee, W.M., An, Y.J., Yoon, H., Kweon, H.S., 2008. Toxicity and bioavailability of copper nanoparticles to the terrestrial plants mung bean (Phaseolus radiatus) and wheat (Triticum aestivum): plant agar test for waterinsoluble nanoparticles. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 27 (9), 1915e1921. https://doi.org/10.1897/07-481.1. Lee, W.M., Ha, S.W., Yang, C.Y., Lee, J.K., An, Y.J., 2011. Effect of fluorescent silica nanoparticles in embryo and larva of Oryzias latipes: sonic effect in nanoparticle dispersion. Chemosphere 82 (3), 451e459. Lee, W.M., Kwak, J.I., An, Y.J., 2012. Effect of silver nanoparticles in crop plants Phaseolus radiatus and Sorghum bicolor: media effect on phytotoxicity. Chemosphere 86 (5), 491e499. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere. 2011.10.013. Lei, Z., Mingyu, S., Chao, L., Liang, C., Hao, H., Xiao, W., Fashui, H., 2007. Effects of nanoanatase TiO2 on photosynthesis of spinach chloroplasts under different light illumination. Biol. Trace Elem. Res. 119 (1), 68e76. Levard, C., Hotze, E.M., Lowry, G.V., Brown Jr., G.E., 2012. Environmental transformations of silver nanoparticles: impact on stability and toxicity. Environ. Sci. Technol. 46 (13), 6900e6914. Levard, C., Mitra, S., Yang, T., Jew, A.D., Badireddy, A.R., Lowry, G.V., Brown Jr., G.E., 2013. Effect of chloride on the dissolution rate of silver nanoparticles and toxicity to E. coli. Environ. Sci. Technol. 47 (11), 5738e5745. Lin, D., Xing, B., 2007. Phytotoxicity of nanoparticles: inhibition of seed germination and root growth. Environ. Pollut. 150 (2), 243e250. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2007.01.016. Lin, S., Reppert, J., Hu, Q., Hudson, J.S., Reid, M.L., Ratnikova, T.A., Rao, A.M., Luo, H., Ke, P.C., 2009. Uptake, translocation, and transmission of carbon nanomaterials in rice plants. Small 5, 1128e1132. https://doi.org/ 10.1002/smll.200801556. Linak, W.P., Miller, C.A., Wendt, J.O., 2000. Fine particle emissions from residual fuel oil combustion: characterization and mechanisms of formation. Proc. Combust. Inst. 28 (2), 2651e2658. Lo´pez-Luna, J., Silva-Silva, M.J., Martinez-Vargas, S., Mijangos-Ricardez, O.F., Gonza´lez-Cha´vez, M.C., Solı´sDomıńguez, F.A., Cuevas-Dıáz, M.C., 2016. Magnetite nanoparticle (NP) uptake by wheat plants and its effect on cadmium and chromium toxicological behavior. Sci. Total Environ. 565, 941e950. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.scitotenv.2016.01.029. ´ ., Perales, O., Cedeno-Mattei, Y., Romań, F., 2016. Lo´pez-Moreno, M.L., Avile´s, L.L., Pe´rez, N.G., Irizarry, B.A Effect of cobalt ferrite (CoFe2O4) nanoparticles on the growth and development of Lycopersicon lycopersicum (tomato plants). Sci. Total Environ. 550, 45e52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.01.063.

REFERENCES

347

Ma, R., Levard, C., Judy, J.D., Unrine, J.M., Durenkamp, M., Martin, B., Lowry, G.V., 2013. Fate of zinc oxide and silver nanoparticles in a pilot wastewater treatment plant and in processed biosolids. Environ. Sci. Technol. 48 (1), 104e112. https://doi.org/10.1021/es403646x. Ma, X., Geiser-Lee, J., Deng, Y., Kolmakov, A., 2010a. Interactions between engineered nanoparticles (ENPs) and plants: phytotoxicity, uptake and accumulation. Sci. Total Environ. 408 (16), 3053e3061. https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.scitotenv.2010.03.031. Ma, Y., Kuang, L., He, X., Bai, W., Ding, Y., Zhang, Z., Chai, Z., 2010b. Effects of rare earth oxide nanoparticles on root elongation of plants. Chemosphere 78 (3), 273e279. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2009.10. 050. Mangalampalli, B., Dumala, N., Grover, P., 2017. Acute oral toxicity study of magnesium oxide nanoparticles and microparticles in female albino Wistar rats. Regulatory Toxicol. and Pharmacol. 90, 170e184. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.yrtph.2017.09.005. Mahowald, N., Ward, D.S., Kloster, S., Flanner, M.G., Heald, C.L., Heavens, N.G., Chuang, P.Y., 2011. Aerosol impacts on climate and biogeochemistry. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 36. Mallick, K., Witcomb, M., Scurrell, M., 2006. Silver nanoparticle catalysed redox reaction: an electron relay effect. Mater. Chem. Phys. 97 (2), 283e287. Manke, A., Wang, L., Rojanasakul, Y., 2013. Mechanisms of nanoparticle-induced oxidative stress and toxicity. BioMed Res. Int. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/942916. Manna, I., Bandyopadhyay, M., 2017a. Engineered nickel oxide nanoparticles affect genome stability in Allium cepa (L.). Plant Physiol. Biochem. 121, 206e215. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plaphy.2017.11.003. Manna, I., Bandyopadhyay, M., 2017b. Engineered nickel oxide nanoparticle causes substantial physicochemical perturbation in plants. Front. Chem. 5, 92. Matranga, V., Corsi, I., 2012. Toxic effects of engineered nanoparticles in the marine environment: model organisms and molecular approaches. Mar. Environ. Res. 76, 32e40. Maurer-Jones, M.A., Gunsolus, I.L., Murphy, C.J., Haynes, C.L., 2013. Toxicity of engineered nanoparticles in the environment. Anal. Chem. 85 (6), 3036e3049. Mclaren, A., Valdes-Solis, T., Li, G., Tsang, S.C., 2009. Shape and size effects of ZnO nanocrystals on photocatalytic activity. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 131 (35), 12540e12541. Medina-Velo, I.A., Adisa, I., Tamez, C., Peralta-Videa, J.R., Gardea-Torresdey, J.L., 2017. Effects of surface coating on the bioactivity of metal-based engineered nanoparticles: lessons learned from higher plants. In: Bioactivity of Engineered Nanoparticles. Springer, Singapore, pp. 43e61. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-98110-5864-6_3. Mingyu, S., Fashui, H., Chao, L., Xiao, W., Xiaoqing, L., Liang, C., Zhongrui, L., 2007. Effects of nano-anatase TiO2 on absorption, distribution of light, and photoreduction activities of chloroplast membrane of spinach. Biol. Trace Elem. Res. 118 (2), 120e130. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-007-0006-z. Mirella, D., 2009. Metallic Nanoparticles. University Of Nova Gorica. Mirzajani, F., Askari, H., Hamzelou, S., Farzaneh, M., Ghassempour, A., 2013. Effect of silver nanoparticles on Oryza sativa L. and its rhizosphere bacteria. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 88, 48e54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. ecoenv.2012.10.018. Monica, R.C., Cremonini, R., 2009. Nanoparticles and higher plants. Caryologia 62 (2), 161e165. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/00087114.2004.10589681. Morales, M.I., Rico, C.M., Hernandez-Viezcas, J.A., Nunez, J.E., Barrios, A.C., Tafoya, A., GardeaTorresdey, J.L., 2013. Toxicity assessment of cerium oxide nanoparticles in cilantro (Coriandrum sativum L.) plants grown in organic soil. J. Agric. Food Chem. 61 (26), 6224e6230. Mueller, N.C., Nowack, B., 2008. Exposure modeling of engineered nanoparticles in the environment. Environ. Sci. Technol. 42 (12), 4447e4453.

348


Murr, L.E., Soto, K.F., 2005. A TEM study of soot, carbon nanotubes, and related fullerene nanopolyhedra in common fuel-gas combustion sources. Mater. Char. 55 (1), 50e65. Musante, C., White, J.C., 2012. Toxicity of silver and copper to Cucurbita pepo: differential effects of nano and bulk-size particles. Environ. Toxicol. 27 (9), 510e517. https://doi.org/10.1002/tox.20667. Mustafa, G., Komatsu, S., 2016. Insights into the response of soybean mitochondrial proteins to various sizes of aluminum oxide nanoparticles under flooding stress. J. Proteome Res. 15 (12), 4464e4475. https://doi.org/ 10.1021/acs.jproteome.6b00572. Navarro, E., Baun, A., Behra, R., Hartmann, N.B., Filser, J., Miao, A.J., Sigg, L., 2008. Environmental behavior and ecotoxicity of engineered nanoparticles to algae, plants, and fungi. Ecotoxicology 17 (5), 372e386. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10646-008-0214-0. Nazarenko, Y., Han, T.W., Lioy, P.J., Mainelis, G., 2011. Potential for exposure to engineered nanoparticles from nanotechnology-based consumer spray products. J. Expo. Sci. Environ. Epidemiol. 21 (5), 515e528, 22e830. Nazarenko, Y., Zhen, H., Han, T., Lioy, P.J., Mainelis, G., 2012. Potential for inhalation exposure to engineered nanoparticles from nanotechnology-based cosmetic powders. Environ. Health Perspect. 120 (6), 885. Neal, A.L., 2008. What can be inferred from bacteriumenanoparticle interactions about the potential consequences of environmental exposure to nanoparticles? Ecotoxicology 17 (5), 362. Nel, A., Xia, T., Ma¨dler, L., Li, N., 2006. Toxic potential of materials at the nanolevel. Science 311 (5761), 622e627. Nikoobakht, B., El-Sayed, M.A., 2003. Preparation and growth mechanism of gold nanorods (NRs) using seedmediated growth method. Chem. Mater. 15 (10), 1957e1962. Ning, Z., Cheung, C.S., Fu, J., Liu, M.A., Schnell, M.A., 2006. Experimental study of environmental tobacco smoke particles under actual indoor environment. Sci. Total Environ. 367 (2), 8. Oukarroum, A., Barhoumi, L., Pirastru, L., Dewez, D., 2013. Silver nanoparticle toxicity effect on growth and cellular viability of the aquatic plant Lemna gibba. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 32 (4), 902e907. Oukarroum, A., Samadani, M., Dewez, D., 2014. Influence of pH on the toxicity of silver nanoparticles in the green alga Chlamydomonas acidophila. Water Air Soil Pollut. 225 (8), 2038. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270014-2038-2. Oukarroum, A., Barhoumi, L., Samadani, M., Dewez, D., 2017. Toxicity of Nickel Oxide Nanoparticles on a Freshwater Green Algal Strain of Chlorella vulgaris. BioMed Res. Int. Article ID 9528180, 8. https://doi.org/ 10.1155/2017/9528180. Oukarroum, A., Zaidi, W., Samadani, M., Dewez, D., 2017. Toxicity of nickel oxide nanoparticles on a Freshwater green algal Strain of Chlorella vulgaris. BioMed Res. Int. 2017. Peng, Q., Dearden, A.K., Crean, J., Han, L., Liu, S., Wen, X., De, S., 2014. New materials graphyne, graphdiyne, graphone, and graphane: review of properties, synthesis, and application in nanotechnology. Nanotechnol. Sci. Appl. 7, 1. Pe´rez-de-Luque, A., 2017. Interaction of nanomaterials with plants: what do We need for real applications in agriculture? Front. Environ. Sci. 5, 12. Pokhrel, L.R., Dubey, B., 2013. Evaluation of developmental responses of two crop plants exposed to silver and zinc oxide nanoparticles. Sci. Total Environ. 452, 321e332. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.02.059. Pradhan, S., Patra, P., Das, S., Chandra, S., Mitra, S., Dey, K.K., Goswami, A., 2013. Photochemical modulation of biosafe manganese nanoparticles on Vigna radiata: a detailed molecular, biochemical, and biophysical study. Environ. Sci. Technol. 47 (22), 13122e13131. https://doi.org/10.1021/es402659. Qian, H., Peng, X., Han, X., Ren, J., Sun, L., Fu, Z., 2013. Comparison of the toxicity of silver nanoparticles and silver ions on the growth of terrestrial plant model Arabidopsis thaliana. J. Environ. Sci. 25 (9), 1947e1956. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1001-0742(12)60301-5. Qu, X., Alvarez, P.J., Li, Q., 2013. Applications of nanotechnology in water and wastewater treatment. Water Res. 47 (12), 3931e3946.

REFERENCES

349

Raskar, S.V., Laware, S.L., 2014. Effect of zinc oxide nanoparticles on cytology and seed germination in onion. Int. J. Curr. Microbiol. Appl. Sci. 3 (2), 467e473. Rico, C.M., Majumdar, S., Duarte-Gardea, M., Peralta-Videa, J.R., Gardea-Torresdey, J.L., 2011. Interaction of nanoparticles with edible plants and their possible implications in the food chain. J. Agric. Food Chem. 59 (8), 3485e3498. Rico, C.M., Peralta-Videa, J.R., Gardea-Torresdey, J.L., 2015. Chemistry, biochemistry of nanoparticles, and their role in antioxidant defense system in plants. In: Nanotechnology and Plant Sciences. Springer International Publishing, pp. 1e17. Rodgers, R.P., Schaub, T.M., Marshall, A.G., 2005. Petroleomics: MS returns to its roots. Anal. Chem. 77 (1), 20 Ae27 A. https://doi.org/10.1021/ac053302y. Rodrı´guez-Serrano, M., Romero-Puertas, M.C., Zabalza, A.N.A., Corpas, F.J., Gomez, M., Del Rio, L.A., Sandalio, L.M., 2006. Cadmium effect on oxidative metabolism of pea (Pisum sativum L.) roots. Imaging of reactive oxygen species and nitric oxide accumulation in vivo. Plant Cell Environ. 29 (8), 1532e1544. Sabo-Attwood, T., Unrine, J.M., Stone, J.W., Murphy, C.J., Ghoshroy, S., Blom, D., Newman, L.A., 2012. Uptake, distribution and toxicity of gold nanoparticles in tobacco (Nicotiana xanthii) seedlings. Nanotoxicology 6 (4), 353e360. Sanchez, F., Sobolev, K., 2010. Nanotechnology in concreteea review. Construct. Build. Mater. 24 (11), 2060e2071. Sapkota, A., Symons, J.M., Kleissl, J., Wang, L., Parlange, M.B., Ondov, J., Buckley, T.J., 2005. Impact of the 2002 Canadian forest fires on particulate matter air quality in Baltimore City. Environ. Sci. Technol. 39 (1), 24e32. Schubert, D., Dargusch, R., Raitano, J., Chan, S.W., 2006. Cerium and yttrium oxide nanoparticles are neuroprotective. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 342 (1), 86e91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbrc.2006.01. 129. Seames, W.S., Sooroshian, J., Wendt, J.O., 2002. Assessing the solubility of inorganic compounds from sizesegregated coal fly ash aerosol impactor samples. J. Aerosol Sci. 33 (1), 77e90. Shepherd, T., Wynne Griffiths, D., 2006. The effects of stress on plant cuticular waxes. New Phytol. 171 (3), 469e499. Shi, H., Magaye, R., Castranova, V., Zhao, J., 2013. Titanium dioxide nanoparticles: a review of current toxicological data. Part. Fibre Toxicol. 10 (1), 15. Singh, S., Reitz, R.D., Musculus, M.P., 2006. Comparison of the Characteristic Time (CTC), Representative Interactive Flamelet (RIF), and Direct Integration with Detailed Chemistry Combustion Models against Optical Diagnostic Data for Multi-mode Combustion in a Heavy-duty DI Diesel Engine (No. 2006-01-0055) (SAE Technical Paper). Singh, S., Tripathi, D.K., Dubey, N.K., Chauhan, D.K., 2016. Effects of nano-materials on seed germination and seedling growth: Striking the Slight balance between the Concepts and Controversies. Mater. Focus 5 (3), 195e201. Singh, S., Vishwakarma, K., Singh, S., Sharma, S., Dubey, N.K., Singh, V.K., Liu, S., Tripathi, D.K., Chauhan, D.K., 2017. Understanding the plant and nanoparticle interface at transcriptomic and proteomic level: a concentric overview. Plant Gene. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plgene.2017.03.006. Shweta, Tripathi, D.K., Singh, S., Singh, S., Dubey, N.K., Chauhan, D.K., 2016. Impact of nanoparticles on photosynthesis: Challenges and Opportunities. Mater. Focus 5 (5), 405e411. Slezakova, K., Morais, S., do Carmo Pereira, M., 2013. Atmospheric nanoparticles and their impacts on public health. In: Current Topics in Public Health. InTech. Sosan, A., Svistunenko, D., Straltsova, D., Tsiurkina, K., Smolich, I., Lawson, T., Colbeck, I., 2016. Engineered silver nanoparticles are sensed at the plasma membrane and dramatically modify the physiology of Arabidopsis thaliana plants. Plant J. 85 (2), 245e257. https://doi.org/10.1111/tpj.13105.

350


Sresty, T.V.S., Rao, K.M., 1999. Ultrastructural alterations in response to zinc and nickel stress in the root cells of pigeon pea. Environ. Exp. Bot. 41 (1), 3e13. Stampoulis, D., Sinha, S.K., White, J.C., 2009. Assay-dependent phytotoxicity of nanoparticles to plants. Environ. Sci. Technol. 43 (24), 9473e9479. https://doi.org/10.1021/es901695c. Taylor, L.A., Schmitt, H.H., Carrier, W.D., Nakagawa, M., 2005. The lunar dust problem: from liability to asset. In: AIAA, 1st Space Exploration Mission. Taylor, P.E., Flagan, R.C., Valenta, R., Glovsky, M.M., 2002. Release of allergens as respirable aerosols: a link between grass pollen and asthma. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 109 (1), 51e56. Thuesombat, P., Hannongbua, S., Akasit, S., Chadchawan, S., 2014. Effect of silver nanoparticles on rice (Oryza sativa L. cv. KDML 105) seed germination and seedling growth. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 104, 302e309. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2014.03.022. Thwala, M., Musee, N., Sikhwivhilu, L., Wepener, V., 2013. The oxidative toxicity of Ag and ZnO nanoparticles towards the aquatic plant Spirodela punctuta and the role of testing media parameters. Environ. Sci. Process. Impacts 15 (10), 1830e1843. Tripathi, D.K., Tripathi, A., Guar, S., Singh, S., Singh, Y., Vishwakarma, K., et al., 2017a. Uptake, accumulation and toxicity of silver nanoparticle in autotrophic plants, and heterotrophic microbes: a concentric review. Front. Microbiol. 8, 7. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2017.00007. Tripathi, D.K., Singh, S., Singh, S., Pandey, R., Singh, V.P., Sharma, N.C., Chauhan, D.K., 2017b. An overview on manufactured nanoparticles in plants: uptake, translocation, accumulation and phytotoxicity. Plant Physiol. Biochem. 110, 2e12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plaphy.2016.07.030. Tripathi, D.K., Singh, S., Singh, S., Srivastava, P.K., Singh, V.P., Singh, S., et al., 2017c. Nitric oxide alleviates silver nanoparticles (AgNps)-induced phytotoxicity in Pisum sativum seedlings. Plant Physiol. Biochem. 110, 167e177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plaphy.2016.06.015. Tripathi, A., Liu, S., Singh, P.K., Kumar, N., Pandey, A.C., Tripathi, D.K., Chauhan, D.K., Sahi, S., 2017d. Differential phytotoxic responses of silver nitrate (AgNO3) and silver nanoparticle (AgNps) in Cucumis sativus L. Plant Gene 11, 255e264. Tripathi, D.K., Mishra, R.K., Singh, S., Singh, S., Vishwakarma, K., Sharma, S., Singh, V.P., Singh, P.K., Prasad, S.M., Dubey, N.K., Pandey, A.C., 2017e. Nitric oxide Ameliorates zinc oxide nanoparticles phytotoxicity in wheat seedlings: implication of the AscorbateeGlutathione cycle. Front. Plant Sci. 8. Tripathi, D.K., Singh, S., Singh, V.P., Prasad, S.M., Dubey, N.K., Chauhan, D.K., 2017f. Silicon nanoparticles more effectively alleviated UV-B stress than silicon in wheat (Triticum aestivum) seedlings. Plant Physiol. Biochem. 110, 70e81. Tripathi, D.K., Singh, S., Singh, S., Mishra, S., Chauhan, D.K., Dubey, N.K., 2015. Micronutrients and their diverse role in agricultural crops: advances and future prospective. Acta Physiol. Planta. 37 (7), 1e14. Tripathi, D.K., Singh, V.P., Kumar, D., Chauhan, D.K., 2012. Impact of exogenous silicon addition on chromium uptake, growth, mineral elements, oxidative stress, antioxidant capacity, and leaf and root structures in rice seedlings exposed to hexavalent chromium. Acta Physiol. Planta. 34 (1), 279e289. Unrine, J.M., Colman, B.P., Bone, A.J., Gondikas, A.P., Matson, C.W., 2012. Biotic and abiotic interactions in aquatic microcosms determine fate and toxicity of Ag nanoparticles. Part 1. Aggregation and dissolution. Environ. Sci. Technol. 46 (13), 6915e6924. Vance, M.E., Kuiken, T., Vejerano, E.P., McGinnis, S.P., Hochella Jr., M.F., Rejeski, D., Hull, M.S., 2015. Nanotechnology in the real world: Redeveloping the nanomaterial consumer products inventory. Beilstein J. Nanotechnol. 6, 1769. Vannini, C., Domingo, G., Onelli, E., Prinsi, B., Marsoni, M., Espen, L., Bracale, M., 2013. Morphological and proteomic responses of Eruca sativa exposed to silver nanoparticles or silver nitrate. PLoS One 8 (7), e68752. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0068752.

REFERENCES

351

Wang, B., Feng, W., Wang, M., Wang, T., Gu, Y., Zhu, M., Chai, Z., 2008. Acute toxicological impact of nano-and submicro-scaled zinc oxide powder on healthy adult mice. J. Nanoparticle Res. 10 (2), 263e276. Wang, Q., Ma, X., Zhang, W., Pei, H., Chen, Y., 2012a. The impact of cerium oxide nanoparticles on tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) and its implications for food safety. Metallomics 4 (10), 1105e1112. Wang, T., Bai, J., Jiang, X., Nienhaus, G.U., 2012b. Cellular uptake of nanoparticles by membrane penetration: a study combining confocal microscopy with FTIR spectroelectrochemistry. ACS Nano 6 (2), 1251e1259. Weinberg, H., Galyean, A., Leopold, M., 2011. Evaluating engineered nanoparticles in natural waters. Trac. Trends Anal. Chem. 30 (1), 72e83. Weir, A., Westerhoff, P., Fabricius, L., Hristovski, K., Von Goetz, N., 2012. Titanium dioxide nanoparticles in food and personal care products. Environ. Sci. Technol. 46 (4), 2242e2250. Welch, C.M., Compton, R.G., 2006. The use of nanoparticles in electroanalysis: a review. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 384 (3), 601e619. Wesley, S.J., Raja, P., Raj, A.A., Tiroutchelvamae, D., 2014. Review on-nanotechnology applications in food packaging and safety. Int. J. Eng. Res. 3 (11), 645e651. Westerdahl, D., Fruin, S., Sax, T., Fine, P.M., Sioutas, C., 2005. Mobile platform measurements of ultrafine particles and associated pollutant concentrations on freeways and residential streets in Los Angeles. Atmos. Environ. 39 (20), 3597e3610. Wild, E., Jones, K.C., 2009. Novel method for the direct visualization of in vivo nanomaterials and chemical interactions in plants. Environ. Sci. Technol. 43.14, 5290e5294. https://doi.org/10.1021/es900065h. Wo¨rle-Knirsch, J.M., Kern, K., Schleh, C., Adelhelm, C., Feldmann, C., Krug, H.F., 2007. Nanoparticulate vanadium oxide potentiated vanadium toxicity in human lung cells. Environ. Sci. Technol. 41 (1), 331e336. https://doi.org/10.1021/es061140x. Xia, T., Kovochich, M., Liong, M., Ma¨dler, L., Gilbert, B., Shi, H., Nel, A.E., 2008. Comparison of the mechanism of toxicity of zinc oxide and cerium oxide nanoparticles based on dissolution and oxidative stress properties. ACS Nano 2 (10), 2121e2134. Xiao, L., Takada, H., Maeda, K., Haramoto, M., Miwa, N., 2005. Antioxidant effects of water-soluble fullerene derivatives against ultraviolet ray or peroxylipid through their action of scavenging the reactive oxygen species in human skin keratinocytes. Biomed. Pharmacother. 59 (7), 351e358. Yaktine, A., Pray, L., 2009. Nanotechnology in Food Products: Workshop Summary. National Academies Press. Yamaura, M., Camilo, R.L., Sampaio, L.C., Macedo, M.A., Nakamura, M., Toma, H.E., 2004. Preparation and characterization of (3-aminopropyl) triethoxysilane-coated magnetite nanoparticles. J. Magn. Magn. Mater. 279 (2), 210e217. Yano, M., Okada, K., Kubota, K., Kobayashi, A., 1990. Studies on the precursors of monoterpene alcohols in tea leaves. Agric. Biol. Chem. 54 (4), 1023e1028. https://doi.org/10.1080/00021369.1990.10870073. Yin, L., Cheng, Y., Espinasse, B., Colman, B.P., Auffan, M., Wiesner, M., Bernhardt, E.S., 2011. More than the ions: the effects of silver nanoparticles on Lolium multiflorum. Environ. Sci. Technol. 45 (6), 2360e2367. https://doi.org/10.1021/es103995x. Yin, L., Colman, B.P., McGill, B.M., Wright, J.P., Bernhardt, E.S., 2012. Effects of silver nanoparticle exposure on germination and early growth of eleven wetland plants. PLoS One 7 (10), e47674. https://doi.org/10.1371/ journal.pone.0047674. Zhang, P., Ma, Y., Zhang, Z., He, X., Zhang, J., Guo, Z., Chai, Z., 2012. Biotransformation of ceria nanoparticles in cucumber plants. ACS Nano 6 (11), 9943e9950. Zhu, H., Han, J., Xiao, J.Q., Jin, Y., 2008. Uptake, translocation, and accumulation of manufactured iron oxide nanoparticles by pumpkin plants. J. Environ. Monit. 10 (6), 713e717. Zhu, Y., Hinds, W.C., Krudysz, M., Kuhn, T., Froines, J., Sioutas, C., 2005. Penetration of freeway ultrafine particles into indoor environments. J. Aerosol Sci. 36 (3), 303e322.

352


Zhu, Z.J., Wang, H., Yan, B., Zheng, H., Jiang, Y., Miranda, O.R., Vachet, R.W., 2012. Effect of surface charge on the uptake and distribution of gold nanoparticles in four plant species. Environ. Sci. Technol. 46 (22), 12391e12398. Zuverza-Mena, N., Armendariz, R., Peralta-Videa, J.R., Gardea-Torresdey, J.L., 2016. Effects of silver nanoparticles on radish sprouts: root growth reduction and modifications in the nutritional value. Front. Plant Sci. 7 https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2016.00090.