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LASERS AND ELECTRO-OPTICS RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY

OPTICAL SPECTROSCOPY TECHNOLOGY, PROPERTIES AND PERFORMANCE

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LASERS AND ELECTRO-OPTICS RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY

OPTICAL SPECTROSCOPY TECHNOLOGY, PROPERTIES AND PERFORMANCE

NICOLAE TOMOZEIU, PH.D. EDITOR

New York


Copyright © 2014 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic, electrostatic, magnetic, tape, mechanical photocopying, recording or otherwise without the written permission of the Publisher. For permission to use material from this book please contact us: Telephone 631-231-7269; Fax 631-231-8175 Web Site: http://www.novapublishers.com

NOTICE TO THE READER The Publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this book, but makes no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions. No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of information contained in this book. The Publisher shall not be liable for any special, consequential, or exemplary damages resulting, in whole or in part, from the readers‟ use of, or reliance upon, this material. Any parts of this book based on government reports are so indicated and copyright is claimed for those parts to the extent applicable to compilations of such works. Independent verification should be sought for any data, advice or recommendations contained in this book. In addition, no responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property arising from any methods, products, instructions, ideas or otherwise contained in this publication. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information with regard to the subject matter covered herein. It is sold with the clear understanding that the Publisher is not engaged in rendering legal or any other professional services. If legal or any other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent person should be sought. FROM A DECLARATION OF PARTICIPANTS JOINTLY ADOPTED BY A COMMITTEE OF THE AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION AND A COMMITTEE OF PUBLISHERS. Additional color graphics may be available in the e-book version of this book.

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Library of Congress Control Number: 2014942199

Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. † New York


As editor I dedicate this work to my parents.



CONTENTS Preface Chapter 1

ix Optical Emission Spectroscopy Used to Investigate Plasma Deposition of Thin Solid Films Nicolae Tomozeiu

Chapter 2

Reflectance Spectroscopy María Gabriela Lagorio

Chapter 3

Photoreflectance Spectroscopy of Franz-Keldysh Oscillations from Semiconductor Heterostructures for Electronic and Optoelectronic Devices and Components Hideo Takeuchi

Chapter 4

Chapter 5

Chapter 6

IR Attenuated Total Reflection: A Tool to Investigate Liquid Penetration in Paper: Theoretical Considerations Nicolae Tomozeiu IR Attenuated Total Reflection: A Tool to Investigate Liquid Penetration in Paper: Experimental Nicolae Tomozeiu and Hennie Boonen Electronic Spectroscopy of Diffuse Reflection A Promising Method for Quantifying the Coordination States of the Atoms in the Superficial Layer of Dispersed Materials Eugene A. Sosnov and Anatoly A. Malkov


1 35

63

97

125

149

viii Chapter 7

Contents Polariscopy: Its High Sensitivity to Internal/Residual Strains of Semiconductor Single Crystal Wafers Hideo Takeuchi

Index

173 199


PREFACE A book of Optical Spectroscopy: Technology, Properties and Performance would take various forms of presentation and would address different topics, according to the aims of the authors and the audience to which is prepared. The science of Optical Spectroscopy has multiple and deep roots in physics, chemistry and materials‟ science, but also in electronics and computing science. Therefore Optical spectroscopy can be seen as an interdisciplinary area dedicated in the one hand to generate and built-up knowledge in the field of spectroscopy and in the other hand to be used as a tool for practical investigations. This book has been conceived for the use of specialists and persons who have a strong interest in material characterization and direct investigation of various processes. The topics have been selected to supply the physical background needed to understand the main spectroscopic principles and, on the same time to reveal new potentiality for applications. Subjects like Reflectance Spectroscopy, Infrared Attenuated Total Reflection or Photoreflectance Spectroscopy overview the background of classical methods in spectroscopy in contexts of new applications or reveal possibilities in new domains as medicine, environmental investigations, etc. When we discussed about technology in optical spectroscopy, in this book we presented know-how of various spectroscopic measurements‟ methods embedded in characterization of materials, devices or processes: 

Polariscopy is used to determine with high sensitivity the internal strains in mono-crystalline silicon;


x

Nicolae Tomozeiu 



Electronic Spectroscopy of Diffuse Reflection is dedicated to reveal special properties of the atoms in the superficial layer of dispersed materials; Optical Emission Spectroscopy is committed to successfully characterize plasma deposition processes with direct and in real time monitoring the properties of the deposited thin solid films.

The chapters contained within this volume are contributed by recognized experts in the field who kindly collaborated with their know-how and expertise. Each chapter has a short introductory section that provides the reader with an overview of the subject. The sections that follow debate theoretical models and/or experimental spectroscopic analysis. Since the field of optical spectroscopy applications is truly large, direct connections between particular cases debated in chapter and new applications are made. One of our ambitions with this book has also been to contribute to better relating different techniques of optical spectroscopy (considering both the fundamental and the applied science) to high tech industrial applications and life conditions‟ improvements. I am truly grateful to all authors for their outstanding collaboration. It was a pleasure working with this international team. It is my hope that this volume will become the preferred reference book for a large scientific community working in optical spectroscopy development and applications in industrial fields; in this way I am sure that the effort of my collaborators will be rewarded. I would like to express my gratitude to all colleagues and Nova Publisher staff who contributed to the achievement of this book. I acknowledge the very efficient technical help received from them during the editing work of this book. Dr. Nicolae Tomozeiu, Ph.D. Senior Scientist R&D Oce Technologies The Netherlands [email protected]


In: Optical Spectroscopy Editor: Nicolae Tomozeiu

ISBN: 978-1-63321-197-1 © 2014 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 1

OPTICAL EMISSION SPECTROSCOPY USED TO INVESTIGATE PLASMA DEPOSITION OF THIN SOLID FILMS Nicolae Tomozeiu* A&PS, R&D Océ Technologies BV, Venlo, The Netherlands

ABSTRACT Depositions of thin solid films are essential for microelectronic and optoelectronic devices. Deposition systems based either on plasma decomposition of a carrier gas or ion sputtering of a target, are used daily to deposit thin films of semiconductors / dielectrics / insulators. The properties of the deposited layers are determined by the plasma conditions. Using various tools to diagnose the plasma in real time during the deposition is crucial in assuring the reliability of the deposition and in obtaining the material with desired physical properties. Optical emission spectroscopy (OES) method is such a tool. In this work we consider several plasma types used in sputtering or chemical vapor deposition and reveal the main mechanisms in plasma by studying the OES spectra. Correlations between intensity of different lines in OES spectra and process parameters of the deposition are presented. The method of OES is here-presented for the SiOx deposition by rf magnetron sputtering and for the a-C:H thin films grown by plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition. Moreover, physical properties of these materials (SiOx, a*

E-mail address: [email protected].


2

Nicolae Tomozeiu C:H) are correlated to the OES signals intensities. In this way, the OES method is described as a toll to investigate plasma during the deposition and to tune directly and in real time the process of deposition.

Keywords: Optical Emission Spectroscopy, CVD, sputtering deposition, thin dielectric films

1. INTRODUCTION Thin solid films of various materials (metal, semiconductor or dielectric) are used in industrial applications having a well defined technical role in the device design or functionalizing the surface properties. In many cases these layers are so thin that their presence is unnoticed unless we undertake an analysis of the device functionality. Today the technology of solar cells, flat panel screens, last generation of television apparatus, i-pads and all kinds of phones with performances unthinkable few years ago, all nano-technologies are pushing the limits of three dimensions to almost two dimensions like systems. And here the thin films and the technologies to produce them play an important role. For specialists the most used methods to obtain these thin films are the so-called plasma deposition techniques, where energetic particles from plasma are used to break the chemical bonds of atoms / molecules with their neighbors and making them free with a certain kinetic energy that allows them to reach the deposition substrate. There is a big variety of plasma sources that has been developed for depositions of such layers; as examples we mention the rf- [1], dc- sputtering [2], or chemical vapor deposition [3], [4], [5]. As a common characteristic, the plasma in almost all these deposition techniques is mainly based on inert gasses (He, N2, Ne, Ar, Kr). In this work we consider two classes of materials deposited as thin films using plasma techniques: silicon oxide deposited by rf sputtering and hydrogenated amorphous carbon obtained by plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD). Thin silicon oxide films are present in almost all microelectronic and optoelectronic integrated circuits. In specific applications that require thin films with particular electrical and optical properties silicon suboxide (SiOx with 0