... the inhabitants, livestock, fishes and sediments from the Apopra stream and .... shares the profit with them or purchases the gold from them at an agreed price.
Proceedings SWEMP 2002, R. Ciccu (Ed.), Cagliari, Italy, October 7-10, 2002
SMALL-SCALE MINING IN THE TARKWA DISTRICT: A REVIEW OF ITS IMPACTS
P.A. Eshun, D. Mireku-Gyimah Western University College (FormerKNUST School of Mines), Tarkwa, Ghana
SUMMARY: Small-scale gold mining, like all mining activities, has positive and negative environmental impacts. In this paper, small-scale gold mining in the Tarkwa District of Ghana has been studied. Some entrepreneurial and managerial problems of small-scale gold miners have also been analysed. Subsequently, some suggestions have been made to make small-scale gold mining in the district more successful, ie more profitable and less damaging to the environment. 1. RELEVANT INFORMATION ABOUT SMALL SCALE GOLD MINING IN GHANA 1.1. Definition of Small Scale Mining There are various opinions about what should be called a small-scale mine. Consequently, different authorities, countries and organisations have given different definitions of small-scale mining. Carman and Berger (1990) enumerate the following criteria by which small scale mining can be defined: number of people employed; size of concession; size of reserves; production capacity; productivity of labour; gross annual income; degree of mechanisation; degree of capitalisation; continuity of operations; requirement of mine safety and legislation. In Ghana, there is no clear-cut definition for small-scale mining. The definition for small-scale gold mining is given in the Small Scale Gold Mining Law (SSGML), 1989, PNDCL 218, Part III, Section 21, as: "The mining of gold by any method not involving substantial expenditure by an individual or group of persons not exceeding nine in number or by a cooperative society made up of ten or more persons". The following provisions in the law need to be mentioned to amplify the definition of small-scale gold mining in Ghana: (1) The size of the area in respect of which a licence may be granted under this law shall not exceed 10 hectares (25 acres) even in the case of a grant to a cooperative society of ten or more persons. (2) No small-scale miner shall use any explosives in his operation. It can therefore be concluded that, in Ghana, small-scale gold mining refers to the mining of gold in a concession not exceeding 10 hectares (25 acres) in an area in which no explosives are used. 1.2. Gold Deposits Exploited by Small Scale Miners in the Tarkwa District Small-scale gold miners in the Tarkwa District restrict their activities to incompetent alluvial deposits, or to old tailings dumps from historical mining operations, where no blasting is required. In few cases, they mine hard rock deposits using chisel and hammers. 1.3. Mining Methods Four main methods are employed. These are: Dig and wash ‘Anomabu’ Chisel and hammer ‘Ghettos’ Dig and wash is employed in the mining of alluvial gold deposits that occur on the banks of rivers, in old valleys, on terraces, or in the tailing dumps of old mine workings. Essentially the overburden is dug out and the gold bearing gravel is removed for washing. 877
The ‘anomabu’ is essentially a manual dredging method used in the mining of gold bearing gravel from riverbeds. Operating from a raft, a typical miner dives and scoops the gold bearing gravel from the riverbed, breathing through a bamboo tube that projects well above the surface of the water. This method becomes necessary in the rainy season when most of the rivers flow at full volume. The chisel and hammer method is employed for the mining of hard rock occurring as outcrops. Here, chisels and hammers are used in excavating the gold bearing rocks. The ‘ghetto’ method refers to cases where hard rock is mined from underground workings. The workings are most often in the old and abandoned mines. Access to the mines is through adits and inclines. 1.4. Processing Method The mineral processing method is essentially gravity concentration. The ore is crushed where necessary by means of metallic mortars, corn mills or hammer mills. The ore is fed into a sluice box and mixed with water to form slurry, which is sluiced. In the process, the gold particles are trapped in blankets laid in the sluice box. The concentrate thus obtained is panned and then amalgamated. The excess mercury is squeezed out from the amalgam in a cloth. The amalgam is then heated until it becomes yellowish. The gold obtained is cleaned by washing with nitric acid heated to boil off any trapped mercury. It is then cooled to give a final product of about 22 carats fineness (Dzakpazu, 1992). This processing method has been successful for one reason: the gold obtained from the alluvial deposits in the Tarkwa District occur in the free state. However, it must be noted that, as the free gold becomes depleted and as pressure mounts from environmentalists for miners to abandon the use of mercury, alternative processing methods such as leaching will become necessary (Mireku-Gyimah et al., 1996). 1.5. Government's Role in Small Scale Gold Mining As part of its economic recovery programme (ERP) and to promote local and foreign investment in the mineral industry, the government of Ghana established the Minerals Commission in 1984 to assume the overall responsibility for the promotion of all the important exploitable minerals in the country. Subsequently, the Minerals and Mining Law and the Small Scale Gold Mining Law were promulgated in 1986 and 1989 respectively. Under the Minerals Commission, the Small Scale Mining Project (SSMP) was set up to administer small scale mining activities in the country. The SSMP established District Small Scale Mining Centres throughout the country. The responsibilities of these centres are to provide technical advice and assistance to small-scale gold miners. The government has instituted the Precious Minerals Marketing Corporation (PMMC) to oversee the marketing of the gold produced by small scale miners. 2. IMPACTS OF SMALL SCALE GOLD MINING 2.1. Positive Impacts 2.1.1. Employment Small-scale gold mining has provided employment for significant number of people in the district and others from other parts of the country. There are about 80 registered small-scale gold mining entities in the district. Out of these about 50 are operating actively. Each concessionaire employs an average of about 50 workers. This means that about 2500 people are employed directly in small-scale gold mining in the district. Furthermore, the sector also provides indirect employment to food sellers, drink sellers, clothing sellers, boutiques, hardware stores and many more (Fig. 1). Most of these businesses can be found at mining sites as well as in the towns and villages where mining is active.
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Fig. 1 Food Sellers at a Small Scale Goldmine 2.1.2. Foreign Exchange Earnings Before the promulgation of the Small Scale Gold Mining Law and the establishment of the Minerals Commission and the Precious Minerals Marketing Corporation (PMMC), gold mined by small-scale miners was smuggled out of the country. The capturing of the potential of small scale gold mining into the mainstream of the economy among others has led to an increase in gold output and raised the foreign exchange earnings of the country. It is therefore not surprising that from 1992 on, gold replaced cocoa as the nations leading foreign exchange earner. 2.1.3. Social Benefits The vibrancy of small-scale gold mining in the district has tremendously affected the society. It has helped to retain people in the district. In this way, it has succeeded in minimising the ruralurban drift. The provision of jobs for people in the district has raised the standard of living as a result of increased income. It has also helped in minimising burglaries and thefts by otherwise unemployed youth bringing peace to the society 2.2. Negative Impacts 2.2.1. Land Degradation and Land Use Conflicts Much of the concern here has been focused on the concurrent and subsequent physical and aesthetic effect that small-scale gold mining has on the land as a basic resource. Small-scale gold mining operations are widespread and not quite localised; hence, their effects on the land are very varied. The operations have resulted in the unnecessary destruction of forests, food and cash crops. The mode of operation destroys the integrity of the natural soil without any deliberate attempt to recondition it for productive food production. Stirring and naked exposure of the soil to the mercy of the weather renders the soil very susceptible to various forms of erosion and leaching of plant nutrients, to the extent that it might not sustain crop production for long (Fig. 2). It is common to see the extent of soil erosion in the workings. The haphazard placement of overburden material and tailings in mount and ridges between the pits makes the land even more difficult to till for food cropping. The present state of the mined lands as can be seen in Fig. 3 is also hazardous to the health and safety of nearby inhabitants. People especially farmers and hunters can easily fall into these pits and get injured or even drowned as such pits are often filled with water. Small-scale gold miners have in some extreme cases destroyed social grounds. There are also reported cases of forest destruction. Such destroyed forests are very difficult to reclaim.
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2.2.2. Air Pollution A major source of air pollution in the case of small-scale gold mining commonly takes the form of solid suspension coming from ore crushing and sieving (Fig. 4). Gold ore from hard rocks are pounded and sieved in enclosed areas and sometimes in congested habitats. In addition, grain mills are sometimes used in milling the ore. This causes very serious air pollution and contaminates the food milled and poses potential health hazards to the communities. During heating of the gold amalgam in the open, mercury fumes are released into the air and this when inhaled also poses a potential health hazard. 2.2.3. Water Pollution Small scale miners introduce solid suspensions and mercury into the watercourses in which they operate. Recently tests carried out by the Small Scale Mining Centre in Tarkwa and the Nigouchi Memorial Centre in Accra at Dumasi, a town near Bogosu, to determine the levels of mercury in the blood stream of the inhabitants, livestock, fishes and sediments from the Apopra stream and settling ponds established that out of 187 people tested, 31 (16%) had levels of mercury in their system well above the recommended threshold value. The livestock, fishes and stream sediments were also found to have some levels of mercury. There are instances where small-scale gold miners have effectively diverted rivers and streams to make alluvial gravel accessible. The diversion is normally done during the dry season and this may cause some rivers to dry up, denying populations living down stream of traditional sources of drinking water. Also, slopes become unstable and collapse during the subsequent rainy period leading to rapid silting of many streams. 2.2.4. Social Problems The rapid growth of small-scale gold mining has encouraged migration of people seeking jobs to the district resulting in an increase in population. The vibrant economic activity as a result of this population increase and the competition for food and other basic commodities has drastically increased the cost of living in the district. In some cases, it has affected education, as some parents do not have enough money to pay for school fees. There is an increase in truancy of both teachers and school children as well as juvenile delinquency. The quest for money forces children to play truant. At Akuntasi, a village near Tarkwa, the case was so serious that the primary school had to be closed down. With the migration of people to the district in search of employment, the local population has grown, bringing along with it different, and in some cases, conflicting customs and traditions. This has increased active social life resulting in prostitution and sexual promiscuity with their attendant spreading of communicable diseases such as syphilis, gonorrhoea and AIDS. There are also cases of drug abuse among small-scale gold miners. This is especially serious among illegal operators (‘galamsey’). There have been cases of violent incidents leading to injuries and in some case death. A typical example is a clash early last year between small-scale gold miners and some workers of Abosso Goldfields Limited (AGL) which led to the vandalism of equipment and molestation of AGL workers. 2.3. Remedial Measures To minimise the negative environmental impacts of small-scale gold mining, it is imperative to mount educational campaigns to make both mines and the people in the district aware of the damage that is being caused. It is important to educate them on the advantages of more technically efficient mining and extractive practices, which can optimise mineral recovery and concurrently minimise environmental degradation. Such educational campaigns should be collectively and severally done by all relevant ministries, Minerals Commission, Mines Department, Non-
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Governmental Organisations (NGO’s), the District Assembly, chiefs and prominent locals at festivals and durbars, as well as educational institutions like the Western University College. The requisite technical assistance has to be improved through more vigorous commitment of the Small Scale Mining Centre through their wardens. Delineation of ore zones through exploration may be undertaken by institutions such as the Universities and the Geological Survey Department through sponsorship by government, NGO’s and other organisations such as GTZ and UNDP. This will minimise the haphazard and indiscriminate mining, which characterises small-scale mining operations.
Fig. 2 Land Degradation and Crop Destruction
Fig. 3 An Unclaimed Mine-out Area
Fig. 4 Dust from Sieving The Ministry of Health, religious bodies, schools, identifiable organisations and respectable personalities in the district can help mitigate the negative social impacts through education. Such educational campaigns should address sanitation, safe sexual habits and good morals. Conflicts
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between land users can be minimised if issuing of open licences to miners that entitles them to operate any place would be stopped (Al-Hassan et al., 1997). 3. ENTREPRENEURIAL AND MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS AND THEIR SOLUTIONS Apparently, small-scale gold mining has been successful and has contributed significantly to the economy. However, there are some entrepreneurial and managerial problems associated with its current operations that need to be solved for improvement and sustainability of the operations. 3.1. Problem of Acquisition of Concession The acquisition of concessions for small-scale gold mining is now becoming a major problem. The concessions available for small-scale operations are not enough. The large-scale mining companies own almost all concessions in the district. Although some of these concessions are not being mined, these companies often refuse to release them to the small-scale gold miners. A lot of these concessions lie idle and in the long run it is the illegal operators (‘galamsey’) who benefit from them. The large-scale companies should be encouraged to release concessions that are lying idle to the small-scale gold miners. 3.2. Lack of Capital A major factor that has militated against the rapid development of the mineral industry in general and small-scale gold mining in particular has been lack of capital. Small-scale gold mining operations generally have high technical and financial risks. Funding operations is therefore very difficult. Capital accumulation among farmers, craftsmen and former mine employees, who might be interested to go into small-scale gold mining, is impossible in Ghana. Special mining banks do not exist and even if they were available, guarantees and feasibility reports would be demanded, which those interested in the venture can scarcely produce. Another problem is how to obtain foreign exchange to procure some vital equipment for the operations. To overcome this problem, the government will have to take the lead by establishing special credit facilities for the sector. This may be done by setting up special banks. Other arrangements in trying to make capital available to the small-scale gold miners may include provision of government guarantees on commercial loans and foreign financing. In addition, a venture capital fund could be instituted with the incentives of tax rebates to those who will contribute to the fund (Asabere and Peters, 1988). 3.3. Poor Decision Making Process Another problem facing the small-scale gold mining sector is the problem of decision-making. Decisions on the grade and quantity of gold in the concession acquired for small-scale mining are based on historical evidence. The estimation of mineral reserves, the investigation of recoverability of the gold, and economic analysis, which are fundamental prerequisites of any successful mineral project, have been neglected. As a result, capital invested in small-scale gold mining projects in the district often does not yield the expected returns, leading to premature closure of the project. Prospective small scale gold miners need to be educated about the risky nature of such ventures, and technical services must be put in place to assist them in evaluating concessions before funds are committed. 3.4. Lack of Equipment and Infrastructure Small-scale gold mining has always been associated with pick-axes and hand shovels, as though no form of mechanisation is possible. These days, there are several types of equipment that have been designed in size and capacity to suit small-scale gold mining. These range from power shovels, load-haul-dump trucks, and conveyer systems to crushers, screening plants, suction dredges and Knelson concentrators. One may wonder why there is limited use of such equipment in small-scale gold mining, but the answer is not difficult. The economics of small-scale gold
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mining cannot justify the purchase of such equipment. A solution lies in the purchase of such equipment at the district level for hiring to small-scale gold miners. Also, single small-scale operations are generally too small to justify the provision of adequate infrastructural facilities. Lack of infrastructure prevents skilled labour in the district from seeking employment with these small-scale gold mining ventures to bring about the needed improvements in their operations. 3.5. Lack of Managerial, Technical and Supervisory Skills Many of the people who operate small-scale gold mines lack the proper training in the field of mining and management. There is always the tendency to operate with cheap, untrained labour in order to maximise profits. This approach is often suicidal as the companies end up losing in the long run. The organisation of labour for small-scale gold mines creates managerial problems, and induces thefts and dishonesty. The labour is hired or arranged on a wage-payment basis, or according to a tributary system in which the concessionaire finances interested workers to mine on their own, and shares the profit with them or purchases the gold from them at an agreed price. Small-scale gold miners should be educated to set up proper organisational structures so as to enhance the management and efficiency of their operations. 3.6. Labour, Health and Safety Problems Small-scale gold mining is labour intensive. Due to lack of capital and proper planning, labour management is difficult. Unskilled labour might not be aware of special working risks in mining. Working conditions and health standards are often appalling. The means to prevent accidents or to ensure occupational health are minimal. Often miners lack basic equipment such as protective helmets, boots or gloves. There is no artificial ventilation and the miners use battery-operated flash lights to illuminate their ghettos. It is difficult to check the compliance of these small-scale gold miners with the mining regulations because of their large numbers, widely dispersed nature and sometimes the inaccessibility of these mines. These problems can be resolved by the continuous education of the miners on the need to observe health and safety regulations. 4. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS It can be concluded that: (1) The Tarkwa district of Ghana has benefited significantly from small-scale gold mining. It is especially significant in that it: (a) Provides employment for the people in the district. (b) Generates foreign exchange earnings for the country. (c) Has helped in a way in countering such social problems like rural-urban drift, thefts and burglaries. (2) Small-scale gold mining has negative environmental impacts, the major ones being: (a) Land degradation and land use conflicts. (b) Water pollution (c) Air pollution (d) Small-scale gold mining creates social problems such as: (i) Sexual promiscuity (ii) Drug abuse (iii) High cost of living (iv) Truancy on the parts of both teachers and pupils. (3) The following entrepreneurial and managerial problems confront the small-scale gold miners in the district. (a) Lack of concessions 883
(b) Lack of capital (c) Poor decision-making process (d) Lack of equipment and infrastructure (e) Lack of managerial, technical and supervisory skills (f) Labour, health and safety problems. To ensure that small-scale gold mining in the district is environmentally friendly the following suggestions are made: (1) Requisite technical assistance has to be improved through more vigorous commitment of the Small Scale Mining Centre through their wardens. More wardens should be employed and logistics made available to enable them visit the small-scale gold mines more frequently. (2) Stringent regulations or laws should be passed and the Small Scale Mining Centres empowered to enforce them. For small-scale gold mining in the district to be more successful, the entrepreneurial and managerial problems confronting the sector needs to be countered. In that regard, the following measures are suggested: (1) Potential work areas for small-scale gold mining should be demarcated, and offered to interested individuals or groups when they apply for small-scale gold mining licences. Data on grade, tonnage and characteristics of the ore should be made available. Small-scale miners should be advised on the basic tools and equipment required as well as the capital and operating cost involved. (2) Credit facilities should be instituted for the small-scale gold miners to assist them in acquiring the necessary inputs for their operations. (3) Proper sampling must be carried out so that the mineral reserve can be estimated and the economics of the project analysed. (4) The Small Scale Mining Centre should acquire the requisite equipment for hiring to the small-scale gold miners, since most of them cannot get this equipment on their own. The Centre can also acquire a beneficiation plant to treat ores at a fee. REFERENCES Al-hassan, S., Mireku-Gyimah, D., and Suglo, R. S. (1997), “Mining and the Environment in Ghana – an Economic Controversy”, Proceedings of the National Symposium on Mining and Environment, IMME, KNUST, Kumasi, Ghana, pp. 95 – 102. Asabere, R. K. and Peters, J. W. (1998), “Small-Scale Mining in Ghana: Prospects for Expansion”, German Mining, International Journal for Mining and Mining Equipment, Erklenz, Federal Republic of Germany, Vol. 1, pp. 10 – 22. Carmen, J. S. and Berger, A. R., (1990), Small Scale Mining: A guide to Appropriate Equipment, International Technology Publications, 1990, pp. ix –xi. Dzakpazu, V. A. K., (1992), “A study of the Methods used in Mining and Processing in Sample Small Scale Mining Operations”, Small Scale Mining Project (GTZ), Report No. 2, Tarkwa, Ghana, 52 pp.
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