Microsoft Clipart, and others with permission. Cover Artwork. NASA ... activities
that support science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) education.
AEX
Aerospace Education Excellence for Middle School Earth & Space Science Curriculum Development Angie St. John
National Science Standards Alignment Angie St. John
Layout and Design Angie St. John
Illustrations
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), United States Geological Survey (USGS), National Park Service (NPS), Microsoft Clipart, and others with permission
Cover Artwork NASA
Graphic Assistance Barb Pribulick
Editing
Lydia Drennan Published by Civil Air Patrol (CAP), September 2013
AEX Introduction Do you desire to take learning to new heights? Do you want to bring excitement, interest, and meaningful educational experiences into your classroom, squadron, or other educational setting? If so, you’re viewing just one of several CAP aerospace education resources to fulfill your needs. CAP’s Aerospace Education Excellence (AEX) books are filled with hands-on, minds-on aerospace education activities that are correlated to national academic standards. The AEX program is designed to provide instructors with meaningful cross-curricular, interactive aerospace activities that support science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) education. Educators are welcome to present the lessons step-by-step according to the thorough lesson presentation directions; however, instructors are encouraged to modify lessons as needed according to available resources, time, and/or student abilities. For additional information about CAP’s AEX program, including how to sign up for the free awards program, visit www.capmembers.com/ae. Did you know… •
As a member of CAP, you can receive complimentary AEX certificates for your students or cadets if they have the opportunity to participate in at least six aerospace lessons and a two-hour aerospace related activity (or additional lessons that total two hours). You also receive an AEX plaque as the instructor. Go to eServices at https://www.capnhq.gov to sign up to participate in this free program!
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There is no penalty if you sign up to participate in the AEX awards program but fail to complete it.
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You are not restricted to AEX lessons in order to achieve the AEX program requirements to receive certificates and a plaque. You can use aerospacerelated lessons from other sources, including non-CAP sources.
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You need to submit your AEX awards report in eServices at least three weeks prior to needing certificates.
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Adams State University in Colorado offers graduate credit to instructors who complete the AEX Program. For more information, contact their extended studies department at
[email protected].
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You can sign up each year to participate in the AEX award program, provided your membership to CAP is current. 2
Table of Contents Lesson 1: Atmosphere Layers and Players ................. 5 Lesson 2: What’s Hidden Below? .......................... 21 Lesson 3: A Taste of Tectonics ........................... 29 Lesson 4: Eruption Productions ............................ 39 Lesson 5: Earthquake Shake .............................. 61 Lesson 6: Rock It Out with Areology ..................... 71 Lesson 7: Crater Coordinates ............................. 79 Lesson 8: Air-Mazing Experiment ......................... 89 Lesson 9: Weather – Up Front with Fronts .............. 95 Lesson 10: The Cycle of Seasons ......................... 113 Lesson 11: Lunar Learning – It Occurs in Phases ........ 125 Lesson 12: Search for a Habitable Planet ............... 137 Lesson 13: Payload Packaging ............................. 149 Lesson 14: Moon and Mars Relay ......................... 159 Lesson 15: Strange New Planet ........................... 171 Lesson 16: Super Stars .................................... 179
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Source: http://www.nasa.gov/images/content/461189main_SpWeather.jpg
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Atmosphere Layers and Players
Lesson 1
Objectives: • Students will name the five layers of the atmosphere. • Students will describe the properties of temperature and pressure within each layer. • Students will identify objects located within the layers. • Students will understand the role of gravity in Earth’s atmosphere and its affect on objects at high altitudes. • Students will describe the world record jump performed by Felix Baumgartner in 2012. National Science Standards: • Physical Science - Properties and changes of properties in matter - Motions and forces - Transfer of energy • Life Science - Structure and function in living systems - Regulation and behavior • Earth and Space Science - Structure of the Earth system - Earth in the solar system • Science and Technology - Abilities of technological design - Understandings about technology • Science in Personal and Social Perspectives - Natural hazards - Risks and benefits • History and Nature of Science - Science as a human endeavor Each of the layers is bounded by "pauses" where the greatest changes in thermal characteristics, chemical composition, movement, and density occur. Source: http://www.srh.noaa.gov/jetstream/atmos/layers.htm
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Background Information: (from http://asd-www.larc.nasa.gov/SOLAR/learningindex.html and http://er.jsc.nasa.gov/seh/How.High.Is.It.Educator.Guide.pdf) The Earth's atmosphere is a thin layer of gases that surrounds the planet. It is primarily made up of nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%). The rest is composed of very small amounts (traces) of many other gases including argon, carbon dioxide, and ozone. The atmosphere also contains water in all three natural states: as a solid (snow), liquid (rain), and water vapor (humidity). Water vapor is the most changeable gas in the atmosphere, varying by location and altitude. The atmosphere is held around the Earth by the force of gravity. Some planets and moons do not have enough gravity to keep an atmosphere. Fortunately for us, Earth does have enough gravitational pull to keep the atmosphere from drifting into space. Since, due to gravity, air molecules must support the weight of the molecules that lie above it, pressure increases as altitude decreases. Most of the mass in the atmosphere is in the lowest 12 km (7.5 mi) above Earth’s surface. Scientists defined five atmospheric regions or layers based on whether the temperature is increasing or decreasing within the layer. The transition between one region and another (a "pause") is determined by the way temperature varies with altitude. When temperature increases with altitude, the atmosphere is stable (resistant to vertical movements by air) and when temperature decreases with altitude the atmosphere is less stable (more prone to vertical movement by air).
Source: http://www.srh.noaa.gov/jetstream/atmos/atmprofile.htm
Temperatures and conditions in the atmosphere vary over the course of years, months, and even days. So, the extent of the layers varies with time. The regions or layers of the atmosphere include, from lowest to highest, the troposphere, the stratosphere, the mesosphere, the thermosphere, and the exosphere. The height of the layers varies from the equator to the poles and from day to day.
Advance Lesson Preparation: Part One: Make copies of the two-page student handout, Layers of the Atmosphere.
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Part Two: Identify the number of teams that will play the game, with each team having about five members. Assign a different color to each team. Copy the game questions onto colored paper that corresponds with each team’s designated color. Cut out each question on the page. Place the individual questions for each team in a color-coded container (such as a lunch-sized paper bag). On the outside of each container, glue a piece of the colored paper used inside the bag. Also, label the outside of the container with the team’s color. Copy the answer cards on colored paper that corresponds with the colors used for the questions. Cut out the answers and place each team’s answer cards in a self-sealing plastic bag. (If different colors of paper are not available, simply label each team’s question and answer bag for easy identification.) Materials: Part One • Layers of the Atmosphere worksheet (one copy per student) • Chalkboard or dry erase board with marker • Computer with Internet and projection device Part Two • Colored pieces of paper or construction paper (a different color per team) • Small containers, such as lunch-sized paper bags (one per team) • Self-sealing plastic bags (one per team) • Game questions (one set per team) • Game answer cards (one set per team) • Game answer key (for the teacher)
This photograph of the colorful layers of Earth's upper atmosphere was taken from the space shuttle, looking sideways across Earth's atmosphere. Source: http://www.nasa.gov/images/content/201 886main_SMD_Atmosphere_xltn.jpg
Lesson Presentation:
Part One: Learning the Layers
1. Ask the students if they have ever been skydiving or if they know anyone who has been skydiving. Ask students to describe the experience or to discuss what they think it would be like to skydive. Ask the students if they know the highest altitude from which any human has jumped. Tell the students that Felix Baumgartner, an Australian skydiver, broke the world record in 2012 for the highest human free fall. He jumped from an altitude of about 24 miles above Earth. He set three records: highest free fall jump, highest manned balloon flight, and he became the first human to break the sound barrier without the use of a jet or capsule. Show the students a video about Felix Baumgartner’s record-breaking skydive. Consider the videos at: http://www.redbullstratos.com/gallery/videos/alltags/1#!lightbox[group]/media1902415096001/ and http://www.cbsnews.com/video /watch/?id=50133148n.
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Ask the students to vote on whether or not Felix Baumgartner was in space when he jumped. If the students believe he was in space (after all, the jump was called a ”space jump”), why was Felix not floating? How high does one have to ascend in order to be in space? Could astronauts on the International Space Station (ISS) jump with a special suit like Felix’s and land safely? (You may wish to ask these last questions for students to ponder rather than answer aloud.) 2. Explain to the students that Earth’s gravity allows us to have an atmosphere. An atmosphere is defined as “the envelope of gases that surrounds a planet and is held to it by the planet's gravitational attraction.” Review the background information with the students. Draw a horizontal line near the bottom of the chalkboard or dry erase board in the classroom. Tell students that the line represents the surface of Earth at sea level. Toward one end of the horizontal line, draw a line pointing upward toward the top of the chalkboard or dry erase board. Tell the students that above the surface of the Earth, the atmosphere is divided into five layers. Draw divisions on the board to represent the five different layers of Earth’s atmosphere. 5
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3 2 1
sea level
Tell the students that scientists determined the general area for these layers by whether or not the temperature was increasing or decreasing in each of these layers. Also, tell the students that as one ascends from Earth’s surface through the layers of Earth’s atmosphere going toward outer space, the pressure decreases. As you move closer to Earth’s surface, pressure increases. Consider swimming in a pool. The closer you are to the surface of the water, the less pressure. As you swim down below the surface, the pressure on your body increases. On Earth, we live in the lowest layer of the atmosphere where pressure is the highest because molecules are closer together. On average, there is about 14.7 pounds per square inch pressing on our bodies at sea level. We do not notice this because it feels normal to us. More scientifically, we experience a balanced force. We have an equal amount of pressure pushing out from our bodies as the amount of air pressure pressing on our bodies. If we go too high into the atmosphere, though, we need a special suit to protect us from lowering air pressure, as well as the extreme temperatures of the other atmospheric layers. Felix Baumgartner wore such a special suit. So, in which layer 8
of the atmosphere was Felix Baumgartner when he jumped? Tell the students that they will learn the answer to this question as they learn about the five layers of Earth’s atmosphere. 3. Distribute the Layers of the Atmosphere handout. Tell the students to follow the directions to learn more about the five layers of Earth’s atmosphere. 4. Once students have had an opportunity to label the atmospheric layers and complete their drawings, call on various students to help display the answers on the board in the classroom. 5. Review with the students the information about the different layers according to the written information on the student handout. Include the additional points: NOTE: Different books and Internet sources may provide different ranges of altitudes for the different atmospheric layers, but the ranges are usually very similar in comparison. One reason for varying ranges of altitude for the troposphere and stratosphere is because the height of the troposphere varies above the equator and the poles. It also changes depending on the season. o
Troposphere: We live in the troposphere, the layer closest to the surface
of the Earth and the densest of all of the layers of Earth’s atmosphere. The troposphere contains the majority of the mass of Earth’s atmosphere with various sources indicating that it contains somewhere between 75% – 85% of the total mass of the atmosphere. Tropo means “change” or “turn.” Conditions within this layer constantly change as gas molecules rise, fall, and mix together.
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Stratosphere: Strato means “layer.” Layers within the stratosphere are
more stable as the gases do not mix much from one layer to another. A way to help remember that temperatures in this layer increase with altitude is to think of the ozone layer. Ozone molecules are made up of three oxygen atoms. As three molecules of oxygen come together, heat is produced. Also, the ozone molecules absorb harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun. o
Mesosphere:
As explained by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) at http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/:
The gases, including the oxygen molecules, continue to become thinner and thinner with height. As such, the effect of the warming by ultraviolet radiation also becomes less and less leading to a decrease in temperature with height. On average, temperature decreases from about -15°C (5°F) to as low as -120°C (-184°F) at the mesopause (the boundary area between the mesosphere and the thermosphere). The gases in the mesosphere, however, are still thick enough to slow down meteors hurtling into the atmosphere, where they burn up, leaving fiery trails in the night sky. Both the stratosphere and the mesosphere are considered the middle atmosphere. 9
o
Thermosphere: As explained by Windows to the Universe at
http://www.windows2universe.org/earth/Atmosphere/thermosphere.html:
Although the thermosphere is considered part of Earth's atmosphere, the air density is so low in this layer that most of the thermosphere is what we normally think of as outer space. In fact, the most common definition says that space begins at an altitude of 100 km (62 miles), slightly at the bottom of the thermosphere. NOAA also explains, “Located within the thermosphere, the ionosphere has the important quality of bouncing radio signals transmitted from the Earth. Its existence is why places all over the world can be reached via radio.”
As the radio signal is transmitted, some of the signal will escape the Earth through the ionosphere (green arrow). The ground wave (purple arrow) is the direct signal we hear on a normal basis. This wave weakens quickly and is what one hears as a fading signal. The remaining waves (red and blue arrows) are called "skywaves." These waves bounce off the ionosphere and can bounce for many thousands of miles depending upon the atmospheric conditions. Source: http://www.srh.noaa.gov/jetstream/atmos/ionosphere_max.htm
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Exosphere:
As explained by Windows to the Universe at www.windows2universe.org/earth/Atmosphere/exosphere_temperature.html:
Objects in the exosphere are hot if lots of sunlight shines on them. Sunlight is very, very bright up there, so objects in the sunshine heat up quickly. However, objects in the shade can get really, really cold. For example, one side (the sunny side) of a satellite might be very hot, while the other side (in the shade) might be freezing cold.
6. Based on the information provided by you, the teacher, and the written information on the Layers of the Atmosphere student handout, ask the students if Felix Baumgartner actually jumped from space. (Space is part of the universe beyond the immediate influence of Earth and its atmosphere where molecules and atoms become so widely spaced that there is no interaction. The Earth’s atmosphere gradually thins with an increase in altitude, so there is no tangible boundary or 10
exact point between Earth’s atmosphere and space.) Baumgartner did not jump from space. Remind students that Felix Baumgartner jumped from an altitude of about 24 miles, which means he was in the stratosphere. NASA and the Air Force award astronaut wings to those who achieve an altitude of 50 miles (80.5 km). The most widely accepted altitude where space begins is about 62 miles (100 km). Although there is no exact point where space begins, items in the thermosphere are considered to be in space. Ask the students why Felix Baumgartner was not floating. Confirm or explain that Mr. Baumgartner was not floating because he was still well within Earth’s gravitational field, and he was not orbiting the Earth. Explain that even the astronauts in the ISS in the thermosphere are not floating due to reduced or no gravity. They are floating because they are actually falling around the Earth. (Show students the cannonball demonstration online at http://spaceplace.nasa.gov/howorbits-work/redirected/.) The astronauts in the space station are moving forward at a speed of about 17,500 miles per hour in order to orbit Earth. They are moving forward at a fast speed to prevent falling back to Earth.
International Space Station Source: www.nasa.gov/images /content/704368main_spacestation-earth_xxltn.jpg
Although spaced far apart and fewer in number, there are still gas molecules found in the thermosphere due to Earth’s gravitational pull. As such, the movement of a space station or other orbiting objects in the thermosphere will experience atmospheric friction (or atmospheric drag). (Drag is a force that opposes forward motion. It causes an object moving through the air to slow down or stop.) This will cause a satellite in orbit, such as a space station, to slow down over time, which causes its orbit to decay (become lower in altitude). When this happens, an orbiting object may need a boost to return to its correct orbital altitude. If it is unable to return to its correct orbit and/or maintain a sufficient orbital speed, gravity will cause it to re-enter Earth’s atmosphere. The objects, like meteors, will burn up as they fall through the mesosphere toward the troposphere. In 2000, Bruce Thompson, a volunteer for NASA Quest who helps answer questions, explained:
For spaceflight purposes, the atmosphere is deemed to end at an altitude of 75 miles. Below that, atmospheric friction is too great and any orbiting spacecraft will slow down rapidly and fall back to Earth. The minimum orbital altitude is 75 miles, but orbiting spacecraft and satellites within about 600 miles are still subject to atmospheric drag and, left to themselves, will eventually fall back to Earth. The time that this takes depends on how high the original orbit was and varies between months for the lowest orbits and decades for the highest.
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Part Two: Atmosphere Game
7. Ask the students to take just a moment to review their handout, and then ask them to clear their desks. 8. Divide the students into teams of about five to six members per team. Have each team seated in a line (with one desk behind another). 9. Designate each team as a color (according to the color-coded questions you are using), and give the person seated at the end of each line a self-sealing plastic bag containing answers displayed on the color designated for their team. 10. Provide the instructions and rules for the game: o The first person in the line will come to the front of the room and draw a question from his/her team’s color-coded question bag. o The rest of the team will then each move forward one seat. o The person drawing a question will walk to and sit in the seat at the end of the team’s line where the answers are located. He/she will try to determine the answer to the question. o Once the person seated in the back believes he/she has the answer that correctly answers the question, he/she passes both the question and answer card to the person in front of him/her. The question and answer cards are continually password forward until they reach the person at the front of the team’s line. o When the question and answer card reach the person at the front of the line, this person takes them to the teacher to verify whether or not the team selected the correct answer to the question. o If the answer is correct, the teacher keeps the answer and question card, and the student draws another question from the team’s colorcoded question bag. The student will then walk to and sit in the last seat in the team’s line where the answer cards are located (while each of the other team members shift to the seat in front of them.) o If the answer is incorrect, the student walks back to his/her seat at the front of the line, and the question and answer card are passed back, team member by team member, to the team member at the end of the line. The person seated with the answer cards will then select a different answer and repeat the procedures to get the question and answer to the teacher to verify a correct or incorrect answer. o Regarding talking, team members are only able to speak to the person directly in front of them or behind them. o As the question and answer card are being passed forward, if a team member realizes the answer selected is incorrect, he/she can stop the forward motion of the cards and send them back along with a message. Remember, however, that a team member can only speak to the person directly in front of or behind him/her. o The first team to correctly answer all of its questions wins. 12
Summarization: Ask student volunteers to explain what new information they learned today. Confirm that students can define atmosphere and identify the different layers of Earth’s atmosphere and various characteristics associated with each layer. Ask students why it is important to understand the different layers of Earth’s atmosphere. Possible responses include: • Helps explain why Earth is protected from excessive amounts of radiation from the sun • Helps us keep our atmosphere safe by understanding what harms our atmosphere such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), chemically manufactured compounds that destroy ozone (CFCs have been banned in most countries. For more information, visit http://www.epa.gov/ozone/science/sc_fact.html.) • Helps explain our weather and assists meteorologists studying and predicting the weather • Explains why most meteors do not reach Earth’s surface • Aids in the development of satellites designed for specific tasks • Helps scientists develop protective coverings for satellites • Aids in the development of pressure suits for pilots and protective spacesuits for astronauts • Aids in the safety of manned and unmanned launches (to include hot air balloon flights, high altitude flights, airplane travel, rocket launches, and space travel) • For additional information regarding the importance of the atmosphere, visit http://www.scienceterrific.com/atmosphere_function.php. Career Connection: (from http://www.nasa.gov/centers/langley/news/factsheets/AtmSciCareer.html) Atmospheric scientist – Atmospheric science is the study of the physics and chemistry of clouds, gases, and aerosols (airborne particles) that surround the planetary bodies of the solar system. Most atmospheric scientists study the atmosphere of the Earth, while others study the atmospheres of the planets and moons in our solar system. Research in atmospheric science includes such varied areas of interest as: • • • • • • •
Climatology — the study of long-term weather and temperature trends Dynamic meteorology — the study of the motions of the atmosphere Cloud physics — the formation and evolution of clouds and precipitation Atmospheric chemistry — the chemical composition of the atmosphere Atmospheric physics — the study of processes such as heating and cooling of the atmosphere Aeronomy — the study of the upper atmosphere Oceanography — the study of the Earth’s oceans and how they affect the atmosphere
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In the atmospheric sciences research group at NASA’s Langley Research Center, researchers focus their work in three main areas: 1) Instrumentation and data acquisition — the design and operation of instrument systems that measure the Earth’s atmosphere from space, from within the atmosphere, and from the ground. This area requires a background in electronics, optics, computer science, or radiative transfer. 2) Data analysis and modeling — the examination of the data produced by the experiments and the development of theoretical models to interpret the data. The result is an improvement of our understanding of atmospheric motions and chemistry, climate change, and weather forecasting. This area requires experience in computer science, mathematics, chemistry, physics, meteorology, radiative transfer, or fluid dynamics. 3) Laboratory studies — the examination of the chemical and physical processes that occur in the atmosphere, including cloud microphysics, photochemical reactions, and absorption and emission of radiation by atmospheric gases and particles. This area requires experience in quantitative laboratory techniques, chemistry, or spectroscopy. One way to begin a career in atmospheric science is to earn a bachelor’s degree in meteorology, physics, chemistry, geography, mathematics, or computer science. Visit http://www.windows2universe.org/earth/cmmap/people.html to read about some atmospheric scientists. Another helpful site regarding this topic is http://www.physicstoday.org/jobs/career_resources/profiles/atmospheric_science_jobs. Evaluation: • Teacher observation • Layers of the Atmosphere worksheet Lesson Enrichment/Extension: • Have students make a chart that displays information about each of the five layers of the atmosphere. Each layer should include a place on the chart for the following information (adjust as desired): altitude range, temperature, gas molecules, pressure, items found, and other information. • Play the atmosphere game again, but instead of having answer cards from which the teams select the answer, make the teams responsible for writing the answer. In other words, the game is played without providing multiple choice answer cards. • Play an atmosphere-related jeopardy game at https://jeopardylabs.com/play /atmosphere4 and/or http://www.superteachertools.com/jeopardyx/jeopardyreview-game.php?gamefile=1305479735. • Have students make a graph to discover how the atmosphere can be divided into layers based on temperature changes at different altitudes. http://www.geosociety.org/educate/LessonPlans/Layers_of_Atmosphere.pdf http://mynasadata.larc.nasa.gov/docs/2_Vertical_Profiles_of_our_Atmosphere.pdf 14
Associated Websites: • Layers of Earth’s atmosphere http://www.windows2universe.org/earth/Atmosphere/layers.html http://airs.jpl.nasa.gov/maps/satellite_feed/atmosphere_layers/ http://www.kids-fun-science.com/earths-atmosphere.html http://www.vtaide.com/png/atmosphere.htm http://www.srh.noaa.gov/jetstream/atmos/layers.htm http://www.kowoma.de/en/gps/additional/atmosphere.htm http://education.nationalgeographic.com/education/encyclopedia/atmosphere/?ar_a=1 http://www.srh.noaa.gov/jetstream/atmos/ionosphere_max.htm (ionosphere) • Atmosphere songs http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OyQlYY-5fG8 (tune: “Drops of Jupiter” by Train) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AkaY1dvZer4&feature=related (rap) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dQPyNY2WIdw (tune: “Rhythm of Love” by Plain White T’s) • Ozone http://www.epa.gov/oaqps001/gooduphigh/good.html http://www.epa.gov/sunwise/kids/kids_ozone.html http://dnr.wi.gov/org/caer/ce/eek/earth/air/ozonlayr.htm Credit: http://dnr.wi.gov/ (student friendly) • Felix Baumgartner (world record holder for highest jump) o http://www.redbullstratos.com/ (includes science related to the mission) o http://news.cnet.com/8301-11386_3-57567699-76/baumgartnerssupersonic-freefall-faster-than-you-thought/ o http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/10/14/felix-baumgartner-jumpredbull-skydive_n_1965299.html o http://abcnews.go.com/US/felix-baumgartner-supersonic-skydive-swimmingtouching-water/story?id=17479415 (includes video) o http://todaynews.today.com/_news/2012/10/22/14614075-felixbaumgartner-i-didnt-enjoy-space-jump?lite (includes video) o http://www.depauliaonline.com/sports/baumgartner-jumps-into-recordbooks-1.2933262 o http://www.wral.com/jump-from-space-not-quite/11666095/ • Largest manned balloon (comparison to hot air balloon) http://shinesquad.me/2012/10/14/red-bull-stratos-the-largest-manned-balloon-ever/ • Weather balloons http://www.noaa.gov/features/02_monitoring/balloon.html http://www.helium.com/items/1501181-what-are-weather-balloons-and-how-dothey-work • Satellites http://transition.fcc.gov/cgb/kidszone/satellite/kidz/in_space.html# http://space.au.af.mil/au-18-2009/au-18_chap06.pdf http://www.ehow.com/info_8610889_motion-satellites.html 15
5.
4.
Above 310 mi to interplanetary space 310 mi (500 km)
3.
50 mi (80 km)
2.
31 mi (50 km)
4 - 12 mi (6 – 20 km)
1. Sea level
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Name ____________________________ Part A: Labeling the Layers (and interesting details about each layer) 1. Label box #1 as Troposphere. • Temperature decreases with height in the troposphere. • The troposphere is denser than the layers of the atmosphere above it (because of the weight compressing it), and it contains the majority of the mass of the atmosphere. • The troposphere contains about 99% of the water vapor in Earth’s atmosphere. 2. Label box #2 as Stratosphere. • Temperatures increase with altitude in this layer, as the ozone molecules in the upper area of the stratosphere absorb sunlight. Ozone is an important trace gas that acts as a shield for Earth’s surface by absorbing harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun. • The stratosphere contains about 90% of the ozone in Earth’s atmosphere. 3. Labe box #3 as Mesosphere. • The temperature decreases with altitude in the mesosphere, with the upper part of the mesosphere being the coldest region in the atmosphere. • Most meteors burn up in the mesosphere due to atmospheric friction. 4. Label box #4 as Thermosphere. • Thermo means heat. Temperatures increase and soar over 3,600°F (2,000°C) in this layer. The few molecules that are present in the thermosphere receive extraordinary amounts of energy from the sun, causing the layer to warm to such high temperatures. Although the measured temperature is very hot, the thermosphere would actually feel very cold to us because the total energy of only a few air molecules residing there would not be enough to transfer any appreciable heat to our skin. • Most of the ionosphere is found in the lower part of the thermosphere. The ionosphere contains electrically charged particles – positively charged ions and negatively charged electrons – which are important for radio communication. 5. Label box #5 as Exosphere. • The exosphere is the transitional region between Earth’s atmosphere and the virtual vacuum of space. • Hydrogen (H) and helium (He) molecules are in this layer, but they are very far apart. Part B: Drawing in the Layers 1. Draw the following in the troposphere: a) A stickman and an animal b) A mountain c) Clouds and weather (rain, lightening, etc.) d) Hot air balloon 2. Draw the following in the stratosphere: a) Commercial airliner (in lower stratosphere) b) High-altitude balloon c) A small suit to represent Felix Baumgartner’s record 24 mi (39 km) skydive (He wore a special suit.) d) 9 small circles toward the top of the stratosphere to represent ozone Write the word “ozone” in this area. 3. Draw the following in the mesosphere: a) Two meteors (Meteors are often called falling or shooting stars. A meteor is a meteoroid that comes into contact with a planet’s atmosphere. A meteoroid is a sandInformation obtained from NASA and NOAA online sources.
to boulder-sized particle of debris in orbit in the solar system.) b) Write “coldest” toward the top of the mesosphere.
4. Draw the following in the thermosphere: a) Some low earth orbit (LEO) satellites like the International Space Station (orbits about 200 – 240 mi, or 320 – 380 km, high) b) Aurora Borealis (northern lights) – greenish-white lights produced by electrical activity in the ionosphere c) Write “hottest layer.” 5. Draw the following in the exosphere: a) Satellites b) Draw a circle with an H in it on the far left and a circle with He written in it on the far right. This represents hydrogen and helium in the exosphere and that the molecules are very far apart. 17
1. Which layer is the coldest?
Atmosphere Game Questions
2. What is the most abundant gas in Earth’s atmosphere? 3. Which layer is the hottest? 4. In the troposphere, as altitude increases, the temperature ___________ . 5. In the mesosphere, as altitude increases, the temperature ____________ . 6. In the thermosphere, as altitude decreases, the temperature ___________ . 7. In the stratosphere, as altitude increases, the temperature ___________ . 8. Select an item that can be found in the thermosphere. 9. Select an item that can be found in the troposphere. 10. Select an item that can be found in the stratosphere. 11. As altitude increases, gas molecules __________________ . 12. As altitude decreases, pressure _________________ . 13. Most of the mass of the atmosphere is located in which layer? 14. What acts as a shield for Earth’s surface by absorbing harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun? 15. In the thermosphere, the _______ contains electrically charged particles that are important for radio communication. 16. In 2012, Felix Baumgartner jumped from approximately 24 miles above Earth’s surface. In which layer of Earth’s atmosphere was he when he jumped? 17. What is the outer most layer of Earth’s atmosphere that is the transitional area between Earth’s atmosphere and the virtual vacuum of space? 18. Distance above sea level is the definition for ________ . 19. Do all planets and moons have an atmosphere? 20. What is responsible for keeping Earth’s atmosphere in place? 21. How many oxygen atoms are required to form one molecule of ozone? 18
Atmosphere Game Answers (not all answers will be used)
gravity
mesosphere
thermosphere
nitrogen
increases
ozone
thermosphere
ionosphere
altitude
ozone
clouds with rain
high altitude balloon
exosphere
spread out
3
mountain
stays the same
2
International Space Station
no
oxygen
decreases
yes
troposphere
increases
increases
pressure
decreases
stratosphere
temperature 19
Atmosphere Game – ANSWER KEY 1. mesosphere 2. nitrogen 3. thermosphere 4. decreases 5. decreases 6. increases 7. increases 8. International Space Station 9. mountain OR clouds with rain 10. ozone OR high altitude balloon 11. spread out 12. increases 13. troposphere 14. ozone
Source: http://eoimages.gsfc.nasa.gov/images/imagerecords/44000/44267 /ISS023-E-57948.jpg
15. ionosphere 16. stratosphere 17. exosphere 18. altitude 19. no 20. gravity 21. 3 20
Lesson 2
What’s Hidden Below? Lesson Reference: The idea for this activity is from a NASA activity at http://spaceplace.nasa.gov/topo-bear/.
Objectives: • Students will define and simulate remote sensing. • Students will gather information using measurement and observation. • Students will make predictions, collect data, analyze, and make a conclusion. National Science Standards: • Science as Inquiry • Physical Science - Properties of objects and materials • Science and Technology - Abilities of technological design - Understandings about science and technology Source: http://spaceplace.nasa.gov/topo-bear/
Background Information: (from http://www.nasa.gov/centers/langley/news/factsheets/RemoteSensing.html, http://spaceplace.nasa.gov/topo-bear, and http://spaceplace.nasa.gov/topomap-clay)
Remote sensing is any technique for measuring, observing, or monitoring a process or object without physically touching the object under observation. Optical and radio telescopes, cameras, and even eyesight, are types of remote sensing with which people are probably familiar. There are two classes of remote sensors: passive remote sensors and active remote sensors. Passive remote sensors do not include the energy source on which the measurement is based. The eye and optical telescopes are passive remote sensors; they rely on an external light source. A person cannot see at night if the room lights are not turned on. Active remote sensing instrumentation includes the energy source on which the measurement is based. RADAR (Radio Detection and Ranging) is a widely known form of active remote sensing. In radar, the instrument emits a radio wave and senses the returned energy that is reflected from the target. Since the speed of radio waves and the time delay between emission and return are known, the distance to the target can be determined. Clouds often hide large areas of the Earth's surface, but scientists can use radar to make detailed maps of Earth right through clouds or darkness. Radar is a kind of light energy, but humans cannot see it. It also acts like sound because it bounces off surfaces making "echoes," which are "heard" by the radar antenna. 21
Imaging radar helps create a picture of the terrain on Earth – or any other planet (such as Mars). Imaging radar instruments are either flown over the surface of the planet in an airplane or launched into orbit around the planet. Imaging radar works by bouncing a radar signal off the ground, then measuring the strength of the signal that comes back and how long it takes. The Space Shuttle Radar Topography Mission flew in February 2000. As the A picture of remote-sensing space shuttle orbited Earth, radar Source: http://www.nasa.gov/centers/langley/news/factsheets instruments inside and outside the /RemoteSensing.html shuttle made a 3-D map of almost the whole world. In just eleven days, this mission produced enough information to fill 20,000 CDs. Materials: (per group) • Box (such as a Styrofoam carryout box) that includes a top • An object, such as a small teddy bear or other simple-shaped object (or incorporate geometry by securing a distinct 3-D geometric figure inside the box) • Sharp, straight stick, such as a wooden skewer or knitting needles (Safety: Be sure to instruct the students on how to safely use the skewer. If you have a device that will not penetrate the top of the box, you may have to pre-cut holes in the box for use in surveying the object.) • Markers, crayons, or colored pencils • Ruler • Grid paper (one copy per group) • Grid Data Sheet (one copy per group) Advance Lesson Preparation: Secure an easily identifiable object inside a box. If using a light-colored Styrofoam carryout box, line the bottom of the inside of the box with black paper (or use black spray paint to make the inside surface dark). Consider using a dark-colored object to make it harder for “peepers” to see it. Place a lid on the box. Tape the grid paper on top of the lid. If using a box that makes it difficult to insert the skewer, poke holes through the dots on the grid paper covering the object prior to conducting this lesson. To correctly place measurements on the skewer, place the skewer vertically into the empty box. Make a mark on the skewer indicating the top of the box. Make a ring around this mark in a color of your choice. The measurement of the top colored ring will be “0” to indicate surface level. Move down the skewer stick about one cm and draw another colored ring. This ring represents one cm. Move down one more cm and draw another colored ring. This 22
ring represents two cm above surface level. Continue this method. It is now wise to put your object into the box, insert the skewer vertically at the highest point of your object in order to determine the lowest colored ring needed on your skewer. This lowest colored ring indicates the highest point of the object in the box. (You may wish to omit the measurements and simply allow students to make different bands of colors on the skewer.) You can either conduct a whole class activity using the one hidden object in the box, or you can prepare enough hidden object boxes for students to work in small groups. Lesson Presentation: 1. Show students a box that you have prepared that has a hidden object inside it. Ask students how they might be able to determine what is in the box without pressing or shaking the box and without looking inside. Listen to student ideas. 2. Tell students that they will conduct a remote sensing activity to simulate a process called radar imaging in order to help determine what is in the box. Explain remote sensing and radar imaging. Think about the words “remote sensing.” Remote refers to something located at a distance, far away or hidden away. “Sensing” may cause us to think of our five senses. When we use any of our five senses, it provides us with information. So, remote sensing actually means gathering information about something from a distance without having any physical contact with the object. Airplanes and satellites can conduct remote sensing. One way to obtain information about something without actually coming in contact with it is by using radar. Imaging radar instruments are either flown over the surface of the planet in an airplane or launched into orbit around the planet. Imaging radar works by bouncing a radar signal off the ground and then measuring the strength of the signal that returns and how long it takes to return. 3. Tell the students that their hand will be the aircraft or satellite. The skewer with bands of color will be the radar signal sent to the ground. Explain that students will do the following to obtain information about the hidden object: 1) Push the skewer through the single A-1 point on the grid paper covering the box. 2) See what color on the stick is closest to the opening of the hole. 3) Use that color to color the A-1 coordinate on the Grid Data Sheet. Explain that the colors represent the height above sea level, or in this case, height above the surface of the box. (With real radar imaging, the time it takes for the signal to return and the strength with which it returns determines the elevation of the point the signal hit.) Tell students that they will continue this process until each square on the Grid Data Sheet is colored. Ask students how this process will help reveal the object below the cover. (It will reveal the outline as well as any varying heights of the object in the box.) 23
If conducting this as a whole class activity, distribute a Grid Data Sheet to each student. Continue to call volunteers to the front of the room one at a time to “send a signal down to the object below.” Have the volunteers call out the coordinate (e.g., A-2, D-5) and the first visible color on the bottom of the skewer. Have the class color the corresponding coordinate (e.g., A-2, D-5) on their grid sheet. If conducting this activity in small groups, distribute a box with a hidden object and a skewer to each group. If skewers are not prepared ahead of time with measurement colors, show students how to make them. Distribute a Grid Data Sheet to each student and allow them to work together in their group to reveal their hidden object. 4. Once the class or small groups have completed the radar imaging simulation, ask them to analyze the data sheet(s). Does the image give them a better idea of what the hidden object is? Even if the students cannot tell exactly what the object is, how does a colored picture such as the one they have created help them? (If they know the heights that each color represents, they can imagine how the object might look in three dimensions.) 5. Ask students if they know what they have created on their Grid Data Sheet. Tell them they have created a topographical map, usually called a topo map. Ask students if they know what a topo map is? Confirm that a topo map shows the elevations in an area. Remote sensing is a method used to map the surface of an area, or even an entire planet. Share some of the background information with the students. Summarization: Ask students to share something they learned today. Confirm that students can define remote sensing and radar imaging. Ask the students what might make their map even more accurate; what would make their picture even more defined. Confirm that if the boxes on the grid were even smaller, it would make their map more accurate, and the picture would be clearer. The more pixels there are per inch (ppi), the better the image quality. As explained on page 74 of NASA’s Lunar Nautics: Designing a Mission to Live and Work on the Moon (available online at http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/200173main_Lunar_Nautics_Guide.pdf):
Digital images are often used by astronauts or satellites to send information back to scientists and the public back on Earth. Digital images are made up of hundreds of small dots called pixels. The more pixels there are per inch (ppi), the higher the resolution and the better the image quality. The Web requires a resolution of at least 72 dots per inch (dpi), but printed materials require more; for example, magazine images require at least 300 dpi. The dimensions of the picture may also affect the quality of the image. 24
Ask students to identify benefits of remote sensing. Confirm the following information as explained by NASA at www.nasa.gov/centers/langley/news/factsheets/RemoteSensing.html:
Because the remote sensing instrumentation is not in contact with the object being observed, remote sensing allows the monitor to: • Avoid hazardous or difficult to reach regions, such as inside nuclear or chemical reactors, in biological hot spots, behind obstacles, inside smoke stacks, on the freeway, in the ocean depths, on mountain tops, in polar regions, on other planets, or on the Sun. • Measure a process without disturbance, such as monitoring flow around an aircraft model in a wind tunnel or measuring temperature during an experiment. • Probe large volumes economically and quickly, such as providing global measurements of aerosols, air pollution, agriculture, human impact on the environment, ocean surface roughness, and large scale geographic features.
Career Connection: (from http://www.bls.gov/opub/ooq/2005/spring/art01.pdf) Remote Sensing Specialist and Photogrammetrist - Many maps rely on photographs or other data taken from airplanes, jets, and satellites. Remote sensing specialists oversee the collection of this information and interpret satellite images. Photogrammetrists interpret the more detailed data from jets and planes. When a government, business, or other client needs a map, remote sensing specialists analyze the type of information that the map should include and then decide what type of sensors to use to get that information. The amount of detail required determines what equipment is needed, such as the size of the camera and the type of plane that will carry it. When data come from satellites, remote sensing specialists run the information through a series of computer programs to create images and maps. Remote sensing specialists and photogrammetrists often have a bachelor’s or higher degree in geography or a related subject, such as surveying or civil engineering. Classes in statistics, geometry, and matrix algebra also are useful. “This occupation takes a lot of math,” says Clifford Mugnier, a photogrammetrist and professor at Louisiana State University. “If you don’t understand the calculations, you’ll never be able to understand the results the computer gives you. And you’ll never know if the numbers are wrong.” Not everyone working in this field has a bachelor’s degree, however. People who have an associate degree or a certificate in remote sensing or photogrammetry usually begin as assistants and gain additional skills on the job. Taking high school or college-level classes in mapping, drafting, and science can also lead to assistant jobs. Some employers hire entry-level workers who do not have college training but do have an aptitude for math and visualizing in three dimensions. Evaluation: • Teacher observation • Grid Data Sheet 25
Lesson Enrichment/Extension: • Help students better understand contour lines and topo maps by letting them make a topographical map of a self-made, four-inch mountain made of Play-Doh®. The detailed procedures are available at http://spaceplace.nasa.gov/topomap-clay/. • Engage the students in an activity wherein students determine the shape of an unseen object by bouncing a ball off the object. This lesson (What Shape Is It?) is available at http://www.quarked.org/parents/lesson7.html. • Landsat satellites have captured images of Earth from space since 1972. Have students use Landsat images to track changes on Earth over time. The detailed information and lesson plan is available at http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/133/. • Provide students with remote sensing math problems. NASA’s Remote Sensing Math Educator guide is available at http://www.nasa.gov/audience/foreducators /topnav/materials/listbytype/Remote_Sensing_Math.html. • Explore global imagery of the planets and satellites from a variety of missions in an easy to use web interface at http://www.mapaplanet.gov/. Associated Websites: • Remote sensing http://www.eoearth.org/article/Remote_sensing http://www.earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/RemoteSensing/ http://www.nasa.gov/centers/langley/news/factsheets/RemoteSensing.html http://www.nasa.gov/centers/langley/news/factsheets/RemoteSensing.html • LandSat Program (Landsat satellite information an imagery) http://landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov/
Source: http://searchandrescue.gsfc.nasa.gov/techdevelopment/sar2.html
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Tape this grid sheet on top of the lid that is covering the hidden object. (Cut off the excess paper not covering the lid.) The dots on each grid square are provided as an indicator of where to insert the skewer.
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Grid Data Sheet The colors on the skewer indicate height above “surface” level. When the skewer is held vertically (up and down) the top colored ring will have a measurement of “0” indicating no height above the surface. Rings closer to the bottom will have the highest measurements, indicating greater distances from the surface of the box to the top of the object. Holding the skewer vertically, record measurements for the colors listed below. Remember, the color at the top of the skewer will be “0.” Measure from this color down to obtain correct measurements for the colors below the top colored ring. Color each grid coordinate below according to the first visible color shown on the skewer after inserting it into the box at a particular coordinate. Blue= ____ cm
Red= _____ cm
Green=_____ cm Black=_____ cm Yellow=_____cm Brown=_____cm Orange= _____ cm Purple= ____ cm
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A Taste of Tectonics
Lesson 3
Lesson Reference: The activity in this lesson wherein students simulate convergent, divergent, and transform boundaries using edible items is from the Snack Tectonics lesson provided by Windows to the Universe at www.windows2universe.org/teacher_resources/ teach_snacktectonics.html. Objectives: • Students will define plate tectonics. • Students will distinguish between lithosphere and asthenosphere. • Students will compare oceanic and continental crust in terms of density. • Students will simulate and describe divergent, convergent, and transform boundaries. • Students will identify effects of plate movements (i.e., earthquakes and volcanoes). National Science Standards: • Physical Science - Properties and changes of properties in matter - Motions and forces - Transfer of energy • Earth and Space Science - Structure of the Earth system • Science in Personal and Social Perspectives - Natural hazards Source:
www.csc.noaa.gov/psc/sea/content/plate-tectonics
Background Information: (from http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/historical.html and http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/okeanos/explorations/10index/background/edu/media/tect onics.pdf) In geologic terms, a plate is a large, rigid slab of solid rock. The word tectonics comes from the Greek root "to build." Putting these two words together, we get the term plate tectonics, which refers to how the Earth's surface is built of plates. The theory of plate tectonics states that the Earth's outermost layer is fragmented into a dozen or more large and small plates that are moving relative to one another as they ride atop hotter, more mobile material. Before the advent of plate tectonics, however, some people already believed that the present-day continents were the fragmented pieces of preexisting larger landmasses ("supercontinents"). The breakup of the supercontinent Pangaea (meaning "all lands" in Greek) figured prominently in the theory of continental drift - the forerunner to the theory of plate tectonics. Source: http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/historical.html
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Tectonic plates are portions of the Earth’s outer crust (the lithosphere) about 5 km (3 mi) thick, as well as the upper 60 - 75 km (37 – 47 mi) of the underlying mantle. These plates move on a hot flowing mantle layer called the asthenosphere, which is several hundred kilometers thick. Heat within the asthenosphere creates convection currents that cause tectonic plates to move several centimeters per year Source: http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/graphics/FigS1-1.gif relative to each other. Collisions between these plates cause volcanoes and earthquakes, and may also cause tsunamis.
Source: http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic /understanding.html
A convergent plate boundary is formed when tectonic plates collide more or less head-on. When two continental plates collide, they may cause rock to be thrust upward at the point of collision, resulting in mountain-building (the Himalayas were formed by the collision of the Indo-Australian Plate with the Eurasian Plate). When an oceanic plate and a continental plate collide, the oceanic plate moves beneath the continental plate in a process known as subduction. Deep trenches are often formed where tectonic plates are being subducted, and earthquakes are common. As the sinking plate moves deeper into the mantle, fluids are released from the rock causing the overlying mantle to partially melt. The new magma (molten rock) rises and may erupt violently to form volcanoes, often forming arcs of islands along the convergent boundary. These island arcs are always landward of the neighboring trenches. Visit http://oceanexplorer.noaa .gov/explorations/03fire/logs/subduction.html to view the three-dimensional structure of a subduction zone.
Where tectonic plates are moving apart, they form a divergent plate boundary. At divergent plate boundaries, magma rises from deep within the Earth and erupts to form new crust on the lithosphere. Most divergent plate boundaries are underwater (Iceland is Source: http://www.nature.nps.gov an exception), and form submarine mountain ranges /geology/usgsnps/pltec/diverge229x88.gif called oceanic spreading ridges. While the process is volcanic, volcanoes and earthquakes along oceanic spreading ridges are not as violent as they are at convergent plate 30
boundaries. Visit http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/03fire/logs/ridge.html to view a three-dimensional structure of a mid-ocean ridge.
Source: http://www.nasa.gov/ images/content/65873main_Tra nsform_Boundary.gif
Where tectonic plates slide horizontally past each other, the boundary between the plates is known as a transform plate boundary. As the plates rub against each other, huge stresses are set up that can cause portions of the rock to break, resulting in earthquakes. Places where these breaks occur are called faults. A well-known example of a transform plate boundary is the San Andreas Fault in California. View animations of different types of plate boundaries at http://www.planetseed.com /flash/science/features/earth/livingplanet/plate_boundaries/en/in dex.html.
On a global scale, Earth’s crust seems to be divided into 14 large plates. In many places, there are also many smaller plates that make the geology much more complex. Motion between these plates is not constant because friction between the plates tends to keep them from moving. But while they are not moving, tectonic forces cause stresses to accumulate in the upper plate, which gradually becomes deformed. Stresses may accumulate over centuries until the deformation suddenly releases causing the plate to rebound. This plate motion produces an earthquake, as well as a giant underwater “kick” that generates a tsunami. Deep ocean explorations in other areas have mapped deformation patterns in tectonic plates, and used these patterns to predict earthquake and tsunami hazards.
Source: http://www.maps.com/ref_map.aspx?cid=679,1037&pid=12871
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As noted by Snider-Pellegrini and Wegener, the locations of certain fossil plants and animals on present-day, widely separated continents would form definite patterns (shown by the bands of colors), if the continents are rejoined. Source: http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/continents.html
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Materials: • Globe (or large world map) • Dry erase board and markers • Computer with Internet and projection system • Snack Tectonics hands-on activity materials per pair of students: o 1 large graham cracker broken in half o (2) 3” squares of fruit roll up o Cup or tray of water (per pair or group of four students) o Large dollop of frosting o Sheet of wax paper o Plastic spoon (for spreading frosting) o Snack Tectonics data sheet • Hand wipes (optional if sink, soap, and towels are available) Advance Lesson Preparation: Make copies of the Snack Tectonics data sheet. Have a pitcher of water in the room if you do not have a sink. You may wish to place a container of frosting at each table where 4 - 6 students are seated (each with his/her partner), or you may wish to personally place a large scoop of icing on the wax paper for each pair of students. Depending on the amount of time you have available, you may wish to cover the lesson over two consecutive days, with the hands-on activity being conducted on the second day. Lesson Presentation: 1. Direct the students’ attention to a globe (or large map of the world). Ask the students if the “picture” of the globe (location of continents and oceans) has always looked like what they see. Confirm that the answer is no. Explain that scientist have evidence to believe that the continents were all together at one time forming a supercontinent named Pangea. Show the images at http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip /dynamic/historical.html. Explain that Earth’s surface does move. Ask them to imagine an egg whose shell has been cracked. Imagine that each piece of the now jigsaw puzzle egg shell was able to move due to forces acting below the surface. This is a simplified idea of what is happening with Earth’s surface. Project the image of the tectonic plate map at http://johomaps.com/world/worldtecton.jpg. 2. Draw a picture(s) on the board to identify and explain the following: crust, mantle, core, lithosphere, asthenosphere, ocean crust, and continental crust. (Use the Background Information for assistance.) 3. Ask the students what effects the movements of plates have. Confirm that the movement not only alters the location of a plate, but the movement of plates can also cause earthquakes and volcanoes. Tell the students that they will focus today on how these plates move to form convergent, divergent, and transform boundaries. 33
4. If you have a subscription to BrainPOP, play the two-minute plate tectonics video at http://www.brainpop.com/science/earthsystem/platetectonics/. If you do not have a subscription, play the following two videos: o
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GYVS_Yh6dTk (discusses Pangea and plates; 1.5 min.)
o
http://www.montereyinstitute.org/noaa/lesson01. html (also located at http://oceanexplorer.noaa. gov/edu/learning/player/lesson01.html) (7 min.)
5. Write the following on the board: divergent←→, convergent→←, and transform↑↓. Use the Background Information to review what is happening at each of these boundaries and/or provide the visual images at http://www.planetseed.com/flash /science/features/earth/livingplanet/plate_boundaries/en/index.html and the interactive feature at http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/tryit/tectonics/shockwave.html. 6. Tell the students that they will now engage in an activity to help them better understand what happens at the boundaries of moving plates. 7. Arrange students in pairs and distribute the Snack Tectonic activity materials to each group. (See Materials.) 8. Instruct the pairs to follow the directions listed on their data sheet. Emphasize that there are questions to be answered within each tectonic picture simulation for pictures 2 - 5. Additionally, there are questions at the bottom of the data sheet that the students need to answer. 9. After sufficient time, direct students to clean up their area, dispose of trash, and clean their hands. 10. Either collect the data sheets to grade or allow the partners to keep their data sheet as you discuss the results in class. Summarization: Review the information covered in this lesson by asking questions. Ensure students correctly answered the questions on their Snack Tectonic data sheet. • Snack Tectonic 2 represents a divergent boundary. Students should have noticed frosting (magma) appearing to move up to fill the gap between the fruit roll ups (oceanic crust) moving apart. This represents new crust being formed on the ocean floor between the two oceanic plates that are moving apart. •
Snack Tectonic 3 represents a convergent boundary. It simulates the edge of the more dense oceanic crust (fruit roll up) moving below the less dense continental crust (graham cracker). This creates a subduction zone.
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•
Snack Tectonic 4 also represents a convergent boundary. It simulates two continental crusts moving together to form mountains (simulated by the wet edges of the graham cracker crumbling upward as the two graham crackers are moved toward each other).
•
Snack Tectonic 5 represents a transform boundary as the two continental crusts (graham crackers) slide past one another.
•
The frosting represents the asthenosphere (or magma). The fruit roll ups represent oceanic crust, and the graham crackers represent the continental crust. Snack Tectonic 3 represents an oceanic to continental crust collision. (Snack Tectonic 4 represents a continental to continental crust collision.) Snack Tectonic 5 would most likely contribute to an earthquake. Snack Tectonic 3 would most likely contribute to a volcanic eruption on the continental crust.
Source: http://www.nature.nps.gov/geology/usg snps/pltec/cascadepl366x246.gif
Remind students that plate tectonics and understanding the types of boundaries formed by the plates helps us better understand our world. For example, the Himalayas were formed by the collision of the Indo-Australian Plate with the Eurasian Plate. A transform plate boundary such as the San Andreas Fault in California explains the recurrence of earthquakes in that area. The formation and eruption of volcanoes is also connected to plate tectonics.
Source: http://nationsreportcard.gov/subject/science_2011/images/tyscience8_q1_img1.gif
Career Connection: (from http://www.bls.gov/ooh/life-physical-and-social-science/geoscientists.htm#tab-2, http://www.bls.gov/ooh/architecture-and-engineering/civil-engineers.htm, and http://www.bls.gov/ooh/sales/real-estate-brokers-and-sales-agents.htm) Geoscientist – In short, geoscientists study the physical aspects of the Earth, such as its composition, structure, and processes, to learn about its past, present, and future. Their 35
duties include planning and conducting field studies, analyzing photographs, conducting laboratory tests on samples collected in the field, producing geological maps and charts, preparing scientific reports, presenting research findings, and reviewing work done by other scientists. Most geoscientists split their time between working in offices and laboratories, and working outdoors (known as fieldwork). Fieldwork can require extensive travel to remote locations and irregular working hours. Geoscientists often supervise the work of technicians, both in the field and in the lab. They also usually work as part of a team with other scientists and engineers. Geoscientists need at least a bachelor’s degree for entry-level positions. A Ph.D. is necessary for most high-level research and college teaching positions. A degree in geosciences is preferred, although degrees in physics, chemistry, biology, mathematics, engineering, or computer science are usually accepted if they include coursework in geology. Types of geoscientists include (but are not limited to): geologist, geochemist, geophysicist, oceanographer, and paleontologist. Civil Engineer - Civil engineers design and supervise large construction projects, including roads, buildings, airports, tunnels, dams, bridges, and systems for water supply and sewage treatment. Civil engineers generally work indoors in offices; however, they sometimes spend time outdoors at construction sites so they can monitor operations or solve problems at the site. Civil engineers work on complex projects, so they usually specialize in one of several areas. • Geotechnical engineers work to make sure that foundations are solid. They focus on how structures built by civil engineers, such as buildings and tunnels, interact with the earth (including soil and rock). Additionally, they design and plan for slopes, retaining walls, and tunnels. • Structural engineers design and assess major projects, such as bridges or dams, to ensure their strength and durability. • Transportation engineers plan and design everyday systems, such as streets and highways, but they also plan larger projects, such as airports, ports, and harbors. Civil engineers must first complete a bachelor’s degree in civil engineering or one of its specialties. The degree should be from a program approved by ABET (formerly the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology). A program accredited by ABET is needed in order to gain licensure, which is required to work as a professional engineer (PE). Programs in civil engineering typically take four years to complete and include coursework in mathematics, statistics, engineering mechanics and systems, and fluid dynamics, among other courses, depending on the specialty. Courses include a mix of traditional classroom learning and laboratory and field work. Civil engineers typically need a graduate degree for promotion to managerial positions. Real estate agent – Real estate brokers and sales agents help clients buy, sell, and rent properties. Brokers and agents do the same type of work, but brokers are licensed to manage their own real estate businesses. Sales agents must work with a broker. A majority, about 57%, of real estate brokers and sales agents were self-employed in 2010. 36
Although they often work long and irregular hours, many are able to set their own schedules. Real estate brokers and sales agents need at least a high school diploma. Both brokers and sales agents must be licensed. To become licensed, candidates complete a particular number of hours of real estate courses. Evaluation: • •
Teacher observation Snack Tectonic worksheet
Lesson Enrichment/Extension: • Provide students with the landmass pieces and see if they can reconstruct Pangea using evidence (e.g., fossil information, rock information, etc.) displayed on the pieces. The lesson plan that includes the puzzle pieces is located at http://csta.networkats.com/staff_online/staff/uploads/uploads/speakers/824_am nhdinos_plate_tectonics.pdf. • Copy a world map that displays the major tectonic plates (such as the one at www.teachervision.fen.com/tv/printables/concepts/es_transparencies_9.pdf) onto cardstock. Have students cut out the pieces to create their own plate tectonic jigsaw puzzle. • Have students independently (or with a partner) explore the website http://www.learner.org/interactives/dynamicearth/index.html. Then, have them click the Test Skills link to answer 30 questions. (The site grades the test, and students can print their results.) • Allow students to engage in the online game to see how many of the 15 plates they can identify and types of boundaries for specific plates. http://www.learner.org/interactives/dynamicearth/plate2.html Associated Websites: • Presentations ftp://ftpdata.dnr.sc.gov/geology/Education/PDF/Plate%20Tectonics.pdf www.bookunitsteacher.com/science/earthsciencepowerpoints/EarthMovement.ppt • Plate tectonics videos http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0mWQs1_L3fA (5.5 min.) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OinfMLdornU (simple, 2.5 min.) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R2UDEDvejm4 (includes information about Wegener, evidence for Pangea, and convection; 7.75 min.) • Plate tectonics unit of study http://www.biol.wwu.edu/donovan/SciEd491/Platetectonics.pdf • Plate tectonic graphic and detailed explanation http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/about/edu/dynamicplanet/nutshell.php • Interactive map (shows plate boundaries and types of boundaries) http://www.learner.org/interactives/dynamicearth/plate.html 37
NAME(S): ______________________________________________________________________ Snack Tectonics 1: Spread frosting (about the area of your hand) in the center of your wax paper.
This simulates what kind of boundary?
This simulates what kind of boundary?
___________________________
____________________________
What did you observe as you moved them apart? What does this represent?
What zone is being simulated?
This simulates what kind of boundary?
______________________
This simulates what kind of boundary? _________________________________________________
This simulates what being formed?
Identify what is represented by each of the following: frosting ___________________________ fruit roll ups ______________________________ graham crackers __________________________ Which simulation number (Sack Tectonics 2, 3, 4, or 5) represents an oceanic to continental crust collision? ____ What is likely to happen as a result of the Snack Tectonic 5 simulation? ____________________________ Which simulation number would most likely contribute to a volcanic eruption on continental crust? _______ Original Source: http://www.windows2universe.org/teacher_resources/snack_tect_overheads.html These images and text are from Windows to the Universe® (http://windows2universe.org)© 2010, National Earth Science Teachers Association. Modifications were conducted according to their copyright policy.
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Lesson 4
Eruption Productions
Lesson Reference: Various ideas/demonstrations were used or modified from a variety of U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and National Park Service (NPS) educational resources. Objectives: • Students will identify characteristics that are typical of shield, cinder cone, and composite (stratovolcano) volcanoes. • Students will define viscosity. • Students will discover how viscosity and gas can affect volcanic formation and volcanic eruptions. • Students will conduct experiments and record and analyze results. National Science Standards: • Physical Science - Properties and changes of properties in matter - Motions and forces - Transfer of energy • Earth and Space Science - Structure of the Earth system • Science in Personal and Social Perspectives - Natural hazards - Risks and benefits
Source: http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/gallery/kilauea/erupt /24ds064_M.jpg
Background Information: (from http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/Outreach/AboutVolcanoes /what_is_a_volcano.html, http://egsc.usgs.gov/isb/pubs/teachers-packets/volcanoes /poster/poster.html#posterfig2, www2.nature.nps.gov /views/KCs/Volcanism/HTML/ET_01_Intro.htm, and http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/volc/tectonics.html) Volcanoes are mountains, but they are very different from other mountains; they are not formed by folding and crumpling or by uplift and erosion. Instead, volcanoes are built by the accumulation of their own eruptive products -- lava, bombs (crusted over lava blobs), ashflows, and tephra (pieces that range in size from dust and ash to house-sized boulders). A volcano is most commonly a conical hill or mountain built around a vent that connects with reservoirs of molten rock below the surface of the Earth. The term volcano also refers to the opening or vent through which the molten rock and associated gases are expelled. Source: http://egsc.usgs.gov/isb/pubs/teachers-packets/volcanoes/poster/poster.html
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Deep within the Earth it is so hot that some rocks slowly melt and become a thick flowing substance called magma. Because it is lighter than the solid rock around it, magma rises and collects in magma chambers. Eventually, some of the magma pushes through vents and fissures in the Earth's surface. A volcanic eruption occurs. Magma that has erupted is called lava. Volcanoes occur because the Earth's crust is broken into plates that resemble a jigsaw puzzle. These rigid plates float on a softer layer of rock in the Earth's mantle. As the plates move about they push together or pull apart. Spreading centers are places where tectonic plates are diverging (moving away from one another). As the plates separate, a pathway is created for magma to move toward the surface. Subduction occurs when two tectonic plates converge, and the denser of the two plates is pushed beneath the other plate. Volcanism will be present at the leading edge of the top plate. When a continental plate and oceanic plate converge, the denser oceanic plate is subducted. The descending plate is heated by pressure and Earth's geothermal gradient. This leads to the formation of magma. The magma rises to the surface, and a belt of composite volcanoes (also known as stratovolcanoes) forms. There is not much volcanic activity at the convergence of two continental plates because continental crust is typically not dense enough to be subducted. The volcanic activity on the Aleutian Islands and the Alaska Peninsula is caused by subduction. The denser Pacific Plate is being subducted below the North American Plate. Volcanic activity can occur in areas that are in the interior of a plate, far away from spreading centers or subduction zones. Rising magma somewhere inside the borders of a plate can create a local "hot spot." There are between 50 and 100 hot spots identified around the world, and they occur in both continental and oceanic plates. Shield volcanoes are commonly formed by hot spots. Hot spots originate deep inside Earth, so they remain stationary while the plates above them move. That is how island chains like the Hawaiian Islands are formed. The Hawaiian Islands were formed when the Pacific Plate passed over a hot spot.
A color sketch showing a side-cut view of volcano plane. Starting from the bottom, the lower level is a convergent plate boundary covered by a layer of magma. Over the layer of magma is the lithosphere. There are vertical vents running through the three lower layers; these vents are called hot spots. Each hot spot creates a volcano. The sketch shows several types of volcanoes, stratovolcano, shield volcano and cinder cone volcano. The sketch also shows the oceanic spreading ridge and continental rift zone, both of these structures move, contributing to the formation of volcanoes. Source: http://egsc.usgs.gov/isb/pubs/teachers-packets/volcanoes/poster/poster.html#posterfig2
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Most of the world's active volcanoes are located along or near the boundaries between shifting plates and are called "plate-boundary" volcanoes. The peripheral areas of the Pacific Ocean basin, containing the boundaries of several plates, are dotted by many active volcanoes that form the so-called "Ring of Fire." The "Ring" provides excellent examples of "plate-boundary" volcanoes, including Mount St. Helens. Some volcanic eruptions are explosive and others are not. How explosive an eruption is depends on how runny or sticky the magma is. If magma is thin and runny, gases can escape easily from it. When this type of magma erupts, it flows out of the volcano. Lava flows rarely kill people because they move slowly enough for people to get out of their way. Lava flows, however, can cause considerable destruction to buildings in their path. If magma is thick and sticky, gases cannot escape easily. Pressure builds up until the gases escape violently and explode. In this type of eruption, the magma blasts into the air and breaks apart into pieces called tephra. Tephra can range in size from tiny particles of ash to house-size boulders. Volcanoes grow because of repeated eruptions. There are three main kinds, or shapes, of volcanoes based on the type of materials they erupt. •
Stratovolcanoes build from eruptions of lava and tephra that pile up in layers, or strata, much like layers of cake and frosting. These volcanoes form symmetrical cones with steep sides.
•
Cinder cones build from erupting lava that breaks into small pieces as it blasts into the air. As the lava pieces fall back to the ground, they cool and harden into fragments called cinders that pile up around the volcano's vent. Cinder cones are very small cone-shaped volcanoes.
•
Shield volcanoes form from eruptions of flowing lava. The lava spreads out and builds up volcanoes with broad, gently sloping sides. The shape resembles a warrior's shield.
Cerro Negro, a cinder cone volcano in Nicaragua Credit: NOAA/NGDC, R.E. Wilcox, U.S. Geological Survey Source: http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov /hazardimages/picture/show/1507
Mount Mayon, a stratovolcano in the Phillippines
Mauna Loa, a shield volcano in Hawaii Earth’s largest volcano
Credit: Dr. Dwayne Meadows, NOAA/NMFS/OPR Source: http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/bigs/mvey1187.jpg
Credit: J.D. Griggs, USGS Source: http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/maunaloa/
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Lava Fountain (pictured to the left) A jet of lava sprayed into the air by the rapid formation and expansion of gas bubbles in the molten rock is called a lava fountain. Lava fountains typically range from about 10 - 100 m (10 – 109 yards) in height, but occasionally reach more than 500 m (546 yards). Picture Credit: J.D. Griggs, USGS Source: http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/images/pglossary/LavaFountain.php
Tephra (from http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/Glossary/Tephra/description_tephra.html) Tephra is the general term now used by volcanologists for airborne volcanic ejecta of any size. Historically, however, various terms have been used to describe ejecta of different sizes. Fragmental volcanic products between 0.1 to about 2.5 inches in diameter are called lapilli; material finer than 0.1 inch is called ash (which is abrasive). In a major explosive eruption, most of the Volcanic ash pyroclastic debris would consist of lapilli and ash. Fragments Credit: D.E. Wieprecht, USGS larger than about 2.5 inches are called blocks if they were ejected Source: http://volcanoes.usgs in a solid state and volcanic bombs .gov/images/pglossary/ash.php if ejected in semi-solid, or plastic, condition. Volcanic bombs undergo widely varying degrees of aerodynamic shaping, depending on their fluidity, during the flight through the atmosphere. Volcanic bombs Credit: John P. Lockwood, USGS Source: http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/images
/pglossary/bomb.php
Another category of ejecta far more common than volcanic bombs is scoria or cinder, which refers to lapilli- or bombsize irregular fragments of frothy lava. If the cinder contains abundant gas-bubble cavities, it is called pumice.
Drops of lava ejected in very fluid condition and solidified in flight can form airstreamlined spherical, dumbbell, and irregular shapes. Drop-shaped lapilli are called Pele's tears, after the Hawaiian Goddess of Volcanoes. In streaming through the air, Pele's tears usually have trailing behind them a thin thread of liquid lava, which is quickly chilled to form a filament of golden brown glass, called Pele's hair.
Lapilli may consist of many different types of tephra, including scoria, pumice, and reticulite.
Source: http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/images /pglossary/lapilli.php
Pele’s tears Credit: J.D. Griggs, USGS Source: http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip /hawaii/page41.html
Tephra, including cinders and Pele's hair (lower left) Credit: J.D. Griggs, USGS Source: http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip /hazards/hazards.html
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Materials: Part One: • 2 bottles of carbonated soda • Board with marker • (optional) chart paper • Paper and pencils for each student (or student science journals/notebooks) • Eruption experiment materials (per group) o Clear plastic cup filled about 1/3 full of water o Clear plastic cup filled about 1/3 full of honey o Individual straws for group members • Flow experiment materials (per group) o Protractor o Cup of water and cup of honey o Piece of poster board (may from the eruption activity substitute with wax paper or o Paper towel other similar item) o 2 straws Part Two: • Clear cup (or jar) of honey • Clear cup of kitty litter • 2 spoons • Paper plate
• •
Computers with Internet (one per student or per pair of students) Copies of Eruption Production: Virtual Volcano data sheets (one per student)
Advanced Lesson Preparation: Although the lesson presentation calls for students to complete the eruption and flow activities in small groups in Part One, you may wish to conduct one or both activities as a class-wide demonstration. Determine which you prefer and plan accordingly. If using chart paper, have it prepared with the following bullet-pointed items: magma, lava, shield volcano, composite volcano, pyroclasitc flow, and volcano benefits. Lesson Presentation:
Part One: Volcano Basics
1. Engage the students by directing their attention to a bottle of soda (that has not been shaken). Ask two volunteers to provide a detailed description of what he/she sees when looking at the bottle closely, and have one of the volunteers record the information on the board, to include a drawing. Ask the volunteers to lightly press on the bottle to describe how it feels. Ask the volunteers to predict what will happen when you carefully open the bottle. Allow the class to offer any additional predictions that may be different from the volunteer’s prediction. Twist the cap to open the bottle while the volunteers carefully describe what they see happening. Remove the cap in such a way that the soda either stays in the bottle of just gently overflows a bit. Ask one of the volunteers to record their observations on the board along with an illustration of the bottle during and after opening. Confirm whether or not the students observed changes as predicted. Ask the volunteers to be seated. 43
2. Take another unopened soda bottle, and invite two new volunteers to the front of the room and repeat this process with two major exceptions. First, rather than asking the volunteers to describe the bottle “at rest,” ask them to describe the bottle after vigorously shaking it for about 30 seconds. (Make sure they include details such as the size and location of bubbles in their detailed description and drawing on the board.) Second, you may not wish to open the bottle in the room. (All of the students should know the results.) You may, however, wish to open the bottle over a sink, or take the students outside to open the bottle. Compare the observations and results of the two soda bottle demonstrations. Ask the students if they can compare the soda bottle demonstrations to a geological event. Confirm that the soda bottle can be compared to a volcano. Review basic information of how a volcano erupts and how it compares to the soda bottle (as explained below from an educator’s guide by the USGS at http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/Outreach/Publications/GIP19/chapter_one_soda_bottle_ volcano.pdf):
The wide body and narrow neck of a soda bottle roughly resemble the shape of a magma chamber and the conduit or throat within a volcano. The pressurized soda water represents gas-rich magma that is under pressure from overlying rocks.
Carbonated beverages get their fizz from the gas carbon dioxide. When the bottle is capped, carbon dioxide dissolves within the soda from the pressure exerted on it. It also occupies the void between the surface of the liquid and the cap. Shaking the bottle adds energy and causes gas in the soda water to separate, forming tiny bubbles throughout the liquid. Formation of the bubbles increases pressure inside the bottle. Quickly removing the cap releases this pressure, and the bubbles immediately expand. Forced up the narrow neck, the fluid and bubbles burst from the high-pressure environment of the bottle to the lower pressure of the atmosphere. Bubbles of water vapor and other gases within Source: USGS http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/Outreach/ magma undergo a similar progression. They are Publications/GIP19/chapter _one initially dissolved in magma; then depressurization _soda_bottle_volcano.pdf of the magma chamber frees the bubbles from the magma in a process called exsolution. The bubbles rise to the top of the magma chamber. Pressure from the gas bubbles propels both the magma and gas up the conduit. The gas bubbles now rapidly expand to thousands of times their original volume when escaping up the conduit to the top of the erupting volcano. 44
3. Ask the students, “Do volcanoes erupt non-explosively, like the first opened soda bottle, or explosively, like the second bottle of soda?” (There was an “eruption” in the first bottle of soda, even if no soda spilled over the sides, as gases did escape out of the bottle.) Allow the class to vote on the answer. Explain that in this lesson, they will learn more about volcanoes with an emphasis on lava, three types of volcanoes, and volcanic eruptions. 4. Erase the information on the board and write the following (or display chart paper with this information): magma, lava, shield volcano, composite volcano, pyroclastic flow, and volcano benefits. Ask students to listen for understanding of these terms/information while watching a three-minute introductory video: http://www.neok12.com/php/watch.php?v=zX47624604537c4154525151&t=Volcanoes. After showing the video, review the following points: 1.) Magma is molten rock beneath Earth’s crust. It is rocks beneath the crust that are liquefied. (You may wish to review where volcanoes form: hot spots and divergent and convergent plate boundaries.) 2.) Lava is magma that has reached Earth’s surface, and not all lava is the same. 3.) Runny lava flows easily and forms gentle slopes of shield volcanoes. They typically have gentle, non-explosive eruptions. 4.) Thick lava can cause explosive eruptions and is one characteristic of composite volcanoes that have steep sides. 5.) A pyroclastic flow consists of superheated ash, gases, and rocks that spews from a volcano and travels quickly down the volcano. It is more deadly than lava flows. 6.) Although volcanoes can be destructive, they can be constructive. They create new crust (divergent boundaries), enrich soil, and some countries have learned to harness their subsurface heat to create geothermal energy (heat energy used to provide heat or can be converted to another form of energy, such as electrical).
Pyroclastic Flow Credit: M.E. Yount, USGS Source: http://pubs.usgs.gov /dds/dds-39/album.html
5. Emphasize that not all lava is the same, which means that not all magma is the same. The kind of magma that reaches Earth’s surface helps determine the type of volcano that will be formed. The lava might range anywhere from runny, like water or warm syrup over a pancake, to thick, like honey or even peanut butter. The lava is a factor that affects the formation of volcanoes and how they erupt: either violently or non-violently. 6. Divide students into groups of about five students per group, each with his/her own science journal or paper and pencil. Distribute the eruption and flow experiment materials to each group. (See Materials for details.) 45
7. Eruption Experiment: Ask each person to write on his/her paper, “I hypothesize that magma that is like (water or honey) will be more explosive.” Then, direct each person within the group to take turns using their personal straw to blow responsibly into the cup of water and cup of honey. Next, ask each individual to write, “I have evidence to support (or reject) my hypothesis. I used a straw to blow into a cup of water and honey. The water represents runny magma, and the honey represents thick magma.” Then, have each student record his/her observations/results of blowing into each substance to explain why he/she believes his/her hypothesis was correct or incorrect. 8. Flow Experiment: Tell the groups that they are going to tilt a piece of poster board and drop some water and honey onto it to observe how the liquids flow. Ask each student to write what they predict will happen in terms of the time it will take each liquid to travel down the incline and how the liquids may change as they travel. Instruct each group to mark two starting points (each being the same distance from the bottom of the board, or top of the board if it is cut straight across) on the poster board. Have the groups use the protractor to incline the piece of poster board so that it forms a 20º angle with the top of a table/desk. Ask a member of each group to measure a ½ inch from one end of each of two unused straws. Ask a group member to insert the straw (with the ½-inch mark facing down) into the cup of water until the water reaches the ½-inch mark on the straw. Then, the student should press his/her finger over the top of the straw and move the straw to the starting point on the poster board. Inform the groups that after you give the signal for the student member to release the liquid (by lifting his/her finger from the top of the straw), you will count to five, and they should mark the location of the water on the board after five seconds. If there are no questions, give the signal and count to five. After counting, ask the students to measure the distance that the water traveled and record it along with any other observations. Repeat this process with the honey. After the groups have finished, ask them to clean up their area and return to their regular seats. 9. Discuss the results of the eruption and flow experiments. Students should have found that it took more force to blow into the honey. Blowing a bubble(s) into the water took less force, and the carbon-dioxide bubbles rose easily to the surface of the water. Blowing bubbles into the honey, if enough force was used, would have caused the honey to spatter more violently than the bubbles reaching the surface in the water. The bubbles were also larger than the water bubbles. Depending on the amount of force used to blow the bubbles in the honey, students may have noticed that it took longer for a bubble made in the honey to reach the surface. This simulates how more force is needed for thick magma to escape from the volcano, which can, therefore, cause more violent eruptions. 46
Regarding the flow experiment, students probably easily predicted that the water would travel faster than the honey. The overall amount of the liquids decreased as they traveled down the poster board; however, students should have noted that the honey left a thicker trail. 10. Explain to the students that the eruption and flow experiments relate to a term called viscosity. Add the term viscosity to the board (or chart paper). Ask each student to write the following on his/her paper: “Viscosity is a fluid’s resistance to flow (or how thick/sticky it is).” Ask the students to identify which is more viscous: water or honey. Confirm and have them record on their paper that honey is more viscous than water. The more viscous magma/lava, the more likely it is to erupt violently instead of effusively (passively, non-violently). 11. Ask students how the flow experiment relates to volcanoes. Confirm that the flow of lava helps shape volcanoes, and viscosity affects flow. Remind the students that some lava is hot and runny, forming volcanoes like shield volcanoes with gentle slopes. Some volcanoes can eject lava that cools while it is still in the air. The solidified lava can fall to the ground in pieces that range in size from ash to small pebbles to boulder-sized rocks, which may be referred to as tephra (or pyroclasitc material). Tall, composite volcanoes erupt both violently and effusively, resulting in alternating layers of lava and tephra/pyroclastic material. Remember that a pyroclastic flow can be more dangerous than a lava flow. A third kind of volcano, the cinder cone, is formed by tephra. Cinder cones have gas-charged lava that is ejected violently in the air where it cools and then falls forming the steep sides of the volcano. If a lava flow occurs, it will usually flow from the base of the volcano or the side since the material that makes up this volcano is loose and fragmented. Cinder cones usually have a short life-span, which influences its short but steep stature. Tell students that they will now learn more about these three kinds of volcanoes: shield, cinder, and composite volcanoes. Show the three-minute video at http://video.pbs.org/video/2322314833.
Part Two: Computer Simulations (to be done in a computer lab)
12. Briefly review information about the three types of volcanoes and the role that magma/lava plays in their formation and eruption. Review the definition for viscosity. Remind students that the type of magma helps determine how a volcano erupts and what type of volcano is formed. 13. Volcano type and viscosity comparison: o Ask the students which you would likely use to simulate the lava flow of a shield volcano: warm corn syrup or chilled honey. Confirm that warm corn syrup has a low viscosity and would flow easily like the lava of shield volcanoes. Use this example to help students realize how the temperature of a fluid can make a difference in its viscosity. o
Show students a jar or clear cup of honey and a clear cup of kitty litter. Using a separate spoon for each, scoop some of each item out of the cup and 47
let students observe it falling back into the cup. Ask students how they would use these items to make a model of a cinder cone volcano and a composite volcano. Confirm that the kitty litter only would be necessary to make a model of the cinder cone volcano, since it is formed by falling tephra/pyroclastic material. (Pour some kitty litter onto a paper plate to show how the material piles fairly easily into a small cone shape.) Confirm that both kitty litter and honey would be used in alternation to model a composite volcano, as it is made of alternating layers of lava and tephra. 14. Ask the students if they know what helps to determine the type/kind of magma formed below Earth’s crust. Confirm that factors such as temperature, the amount of dissolved gas (refer to the soda bottle experiment), and an ingredient called silica affects the composition of magma. Typically, the more dissolved gas in magma, the more explosively it erupts, unless the magma is thin and runny. Remember that gases can escape more easily if the magma/lava is hot and runny. Silica is a naturally-forming mineral (a naturally-formed, inorganic solid that has a specific chemical structure; inorganic refers to not being made/derived from living matter) that is commonly found on Earth as sand (or quartz – another mineral). It is an ingredient in Earth’s crust, and this mineral is even located in our human bodies. The amount of silica in magma helps determine its viscosity. 15. Tell the students that they will now experiment with volcanic formation and eruptions by manipulating the viscosity and gas levels in magma. Distribute the Virtual Volcano worksheet and direct students to the website at http://kids.discovery.com/games/build-play /volcano-explorer. (This is also located at www.cosmeo.com/braingames/virutal_volcano/i ndex.cfm?title=Virtual%20Volcano.) After entering the site, have them click “Build your own volcano and watch it erupt.” Then, click Source: Discovery KidsTM the scroll down arrow on the Volcano Explorer http://kids.discovery.com/games/build-play screen so that they see “set conditions,” /volcano-explorer “viscosity info,” and “gas info.” Tell the students that during the activity, they will see some words they can click for more information and to find answers to questions on their worksheet. For example, have the students click “viscosity info” bottom, center of the virtual volcano page. Read the information aloud. Do the same for “gas info.” Next, review the directions on the worksheet. If there are no questions, allow the students to work independently or with a partner to complete the activity.
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16. After sufficient time, either collect the worksheets to grade or review the worksheet results together as a class. Summarization: Ask three student volunteers to come to the front of the room to each draw and explain one of the following: shield volcano, cinder cone volcano, and composite volcano (also known as stratovolcano). Refer to the other terms/information on the board/chart paper. Review the meanings of the terms and/or information. Discuss the answers to the Eruption Production: Virtual Volcano data sheet. (See Key.) Career Connection: (from http://quest.arc.nasa.gov/people/cfs/generic/volcanologist_152.pdf and http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/volcus/ustext.html) •
Volcanologist - Volcanologists are geologists who study volcanoes and volcanic eruptions. They examine the lava, ash, and rock that are the products of volcanic eruptions to learn about the physical processes that happen within and at the surface of planets. They may study the ancient rocks and ash that formed from volcanoes that are thousands or even many millions of years old, examining their composition and making maps of ancient lava flows. Or, they may investigate active volcanoes, such as those that make up the Hawaiian Islands, taking samples of molten lava and measuring the temperature and speed of the lava as it flows. Volcanologists also study volcanic hazards (like earthquakes and giant explosions of ash and rock) to help warn people and protect them from these dangers. Volcanologists begin their careers with a bachelor’s degree in geology, geochemistry, geophysics, or a related science. A strong background in math, science, and geography is necessary. You will most likely need at least a master’s degree to become a Volcanologist, and a Ph.D. will greatly improve your chances of achieving your dream career. Part-time fieldwork and laboratory work during college is highly recommended to gain hands-on experience. Field experience is invaluable to your studies and to your later career. Volcanologists may consider applying for employment at the United States Geological Survey (USGS). Here, scientists engage in a variety of research activities in order to reduce the loss of life and property that can result from volcanic eruptions and to minimize the social and economic turmoil that can result when volcanoes threaten to erupt. These activities include studies of the physical processes before, during, and after a volcanic eruption, assessments of volcano hazards, and public outreach to translate scientific information about volcanoes into terms that are meaningful to the public and public officials. Monitoring volcanoes for signs of activity, another vital component, is carried out by USGS earth scientists at three volcano observatories, which were established to study active volcanoes in Hawaii (1912), the Cascades (1980), and Alaska (1988). 49
These researchers record earthquakes, survey the surfaces of volcanoes, map volcanic rock deposits, and analyze the chemistry of volcanic gas and fresh lava to detect warning signs of impending activity and determine the most likely type of activity that will affect areas around a volcano. During the past 10 years, several warnings of eruptions were issued by the USGS and monitoring of recently active volcanoes in the United States was expanded. Predicting the time and size of volcanic eruptions, however, remains a difficult challenge for scientists. Evaluation: • Teacher observation • Student documentation/journaling • Eruption Product: Virtual Volcano worksheet Lesson Enrichment/Extension: • Have students complete the Volcanoes! Activity Sheet 1.2a The “Ring of Fire.” The worksheet and map are provided at the end of this lesson plan. Answers: 1) 17 2) 17/24 6) Erebus 7) 6 •
• • • •
•
•
•
3) 71% (70.83%) 8) Krakatau
4) 29% (29.166%) 9) 75%
5) stratovolcano 10) 33% (33.33%)
Allow partners to sculpt a volcano using clay or dough. Then, have the use their model to create a topo map. Detailed lesson instructions are available at http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/Outreach/Publications/GIP19/chapter_three_playdough_topo.pdf. Take students on a virtual volcano field trip at http://www.fieldtrips.org/sci /volcano/index.htm. A similar interactive site that allows students to build virtual volcanoes is available at http://urbanext.illinois.edu/earth/volcanologist.cfm. Select from numerous volcano activities using the thematic unit at http://egsc.usgs.gov/isb/pubs/teachers-packets/volcanoes/index.html. Engage students in NASA’s Lava Layering lesson at http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/180574main_ETM.Lava.Layering.pdf (or http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/docs/Map_Volcano.pdf). Students can learn about the silica and water content regarding three specific volcanoes in the U.S. using this interactive site: http://www.glencoe.com/sites/common_assets/science/virtual_labs/ES10/ES10.html Allow students to experiment with the viscosity of different liquids (and liquids at different temperatures) at http://www.planetseed.com/laboratory/viscosityexplorer. (additional viscosity experiment information available by scrolling down on the opening page) Try the hands-on viscosity experiment using water, oil, and corn syrup at www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/education/activities/3215_volcanoc.html.
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Mt. St. Helens (prior to the explosive 1980 eruption)
Mt. St. Helens, 1982
Credit: Jim Nieland, U.S. Forest Service Source: http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/LivingWith/PlusSide /mineral_resources.html
Credit: Lyn Topinka Source: http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/Imgs/Jpg/MSH/Images/MSH 82_st_helens_plume_from_harrys_ridge_05-19-82_med.jpg
Associated Websites: • Videos o http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/kids/forces-of-naturekids/volcanoes-101-kids/ (volcano overview, but does not include cinder cones; 3 min.) o http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DnBggrCdkN0 (3 volcano types; 3.5 min.) o http://video.pbs.org/video/2322314833 (3 types; 3 min.) o http://www.learner.org/vod/vod_window.html?pid=324 (Depending on the page that opens, you may need to scroll down and click the VoD icon for “13. Volcanism.” The first 17 minutes of the 28 minute video cover magma, lava, 3 typical conditions/areas where volcanoes form, 3 types of volcanoes, and eruption prediction.) o http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2M5JQDdardM (Bill Nye video; 23 min.) o http://www.redorbit.com/news/video/education_1/1112750681/what-is-avolcano/ (shows mafic and felsic lava flows; does not include cinder cone info; 2 min.) o http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/video/kilauea/20030529-0368-clipped.avi or http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/video/kilauea/20030529-0368-clipped.mov (shield lava flow; short clip) o http://www.learner.org/interactives/volcanoes/movies/movies2.html (composite volcano; 34 sec.) o http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rhkAWr66nmk (one-minute footage of the volcanic activity of a hornito – “a small, rootless spatter cone that is fed by lava from the underlying flow instead of from a deeper magma conduit”) o http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prOIyw0VJtk (quick eruption with sound) • Volcanic terms and definitions o http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/Glossary/volcano_terminology.html o http://www.nps.gov/lavo/forkids/upload/Basic-Volcanic-Terms-andExplanations.pdf 51
•
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•
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• • •
Types of volcanoes o http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/volc/types.html o http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/Outreach/AboutVolcanoes/volcano_types_quick_ reference.html o http://www.enotes.com/volcano-64179-reference/volcano-177618 o http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/Outreach/AboutVolcanoes/volcano_types_quick_ reference.html (thorough list) o http://www.volcano.si.edu/education/tpgallery.cfm?category=ShieldVolcanoes (pictures of shield volcanoes) o http://www.volcano.si.edu/education/tpgallery.cfm?category=Stratovolcanoes (pictures of stratovolcanoes) o http://www.dnr.sc.gov/geology/images/Volcanoes-pg.pdf (pdf with pictures) o http://www.bioygeo.info/Animaciones/VolcanoTypes.swf (animation of formation of different volcanoes) Types of volcanic eruptions http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/volc/eruptions.html List of volcanoes o http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/volcanoes_by_country (lists volcanoes by country; provides latitude, longitude, elevation, and type of volcano) o http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/oldroot/volcanoes/alpha.html (alphabetical list of volcanoes; provides latitude, longitude, elevation, and type of volcano) General volcano information http://www.learner.org/interactives/volcanoes/entry.html (student friendly) http://www.weatherwizkids.com/weather-volcano.htm (student friendly) http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/volc/cover2.html http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/geol204/volclandforms.htm Lava flows and their effects http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/hazards/lava/ Presentation o http://teacherweb.com/CA/SummitIntermediate/MrsBeitler/8--2.ppt (covers how a volcano works, parts of volcano, where volcanoes form, 3 volcano types, types of eruptions, and types of lava) o http://www.msnucleus.org/membership/slideshows/volcano.html o http://www.curriculumbits.com/prodimages/details/geography/volcanoes.swf (interactive) FAQ – frequently asked volcano questions http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/Outreach/AboutVolcanoes/framework.html Find a volcano by name and obtain information http://www.volcanodiscovery.com/adventure-travel.html U.S. Volcanoes and Current Activity Alerts (shows map with color-coded volcanoes indicating alert levels) http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/ 52
Source: http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/graphics/Fig22.gif
Source: http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/volcus/fig07.gif
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Name __________________________________ Directions: Complete Section 1 first. Then, compete Section 2 using the Virtual Volcano interactive located on the Discovery KidsTM site at http://kids.discovery.com/games/build-play/volcano-explorer. Regarding viscosity levels: Level 2 = the point just above low; Level 3 = the point just below high
Section 1: Hypothesize 1. What combination of viscosity and gas levels do you think will result in the formation of a shield volcano? Viscosity – low, level 2, level 3, or high: __________ Gas – low or high: ________ Explain your reasoning for the viscosity and gas levels you chose. _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ 2. Predict the combination of viscosity and gas levels that will result in a cinder cone volcano. Viscosity – low, level 2, level 3, or level 4 high: __________ Gas – low or high: ________ Explain your reasoning for the viscosity and gas levels you chose. ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ 3. Predict the combination of viscosity and gas levels that will result in a composite volcano (stratovolcano). Viscosity – low, level 2, level 3, or high: __________ Gas – low or high: ________ Explain your reasoning for the viscosity and gas levels you chose. ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ Section 2: Discover For numbers 4-9 in the chart below: Identify the two different combination settings of viscosity and gas that resulted in each of the following generally being formed. Shield Volcano Cinder Cone Volcano Stratovolcano (Composite) 4.
6.
8.
Gas Level: ________
Gas Level: ________
Gas Level: ________
5.
7.
9.
Gas Level: ________
Gas Level: ________
Gas Level: ________
Viscosity Level: _______
Viscosity Level: _______
Viscosity Level: _______
Viscosity Level: _______
Viscosity Level: _______
Viscosity Level: _______
10. What is a fire fountain? ____________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ 11. Why did one of the shield volcanoes have a fire fountain and the other did not? ___________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ 12. As lava pushes up like an inflating balloon, a small ____________ is created. These often form on the sides or top of a ________________________ or in the crater of a collapsed volcano. 13. Which type of volcano has effusive eruptions and why? 54
14. What is the name given to the most explosive type of eruption? _____________________ 15. What combination of viscosity and gas levels resulted in the most explosive type of eruption? Viscosity – low, level 2, level 3, or high: ______________
Gas – low or high: ________
16. Which type of volcano was represented during the most explosive type of eruption? __________________________________
#17 Sketch:
17. Briefly describe what happened during the most explosive type of eruption, and draw and label a sketch of it. _________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ __________________________________________________ 18. What is lahar? ____________________________________________________________ 19. What is a pyroclastic flow? ___________________________________________________ 20. True or false: Even small pyroclastic flows can be very destructive. _______________ 21. What type of volcano has steep sides and can grow to great heights? ___________________ 22. What type of volcanoes are the largest volcanoes on Earth? __________________________ 23. What type of volcano is relatively small, usually less than 1,000 feet? ___________________ 24. What type of volcano can typically have an eruption where gas violently escapes, spraying out lava from the volcano’s vent in a series of booming eruptions? It generates marble to bouldersize fragments that fly out from the vent giving the volcano its shape. __________________ 25. If a cinder cone volcano erupts lava, it usually does not flow from the summit. From where, then, does the lava typically flow?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
26. Rank these types of volcanic eruptions from least explosive to most explosive: strombolian, effusive, vulcanian, and plinian. 1 (least) _____________________
2 ___________________________
3 __________________________
4 (most) ________________________
For 27-31: What type of volcano (shield, cinder cone, or stratovolcano) is each of the following: 27. Mt. St. Helens in WA: _______________________________ 28. Mauna Loa in HI: _______________________________ 29. Stromboli in Italy: ________________________ 30. Mt. Vesuvius in Italy: _________________________ 31. Paricutin in Mexico: _____________________________ 32. Where are the most famous shield volcanoes? ______________________________ 33. Explain how viscosity and gas levels in magma affect volcanoes.
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Directions: Complete Section 1 first. Then, compete Section 2 using the Virtual Volcano interactive located on the Discovery KidsTM site at http://kids.discovery.com/games/build-play/volcano-explorer. Regarding viscosity levels: Level 2 = the point just above low; Level 3 = the point just below high
Section 1: Hypothesize 1.
- ANSWERS MAY VARY.
What combination of viscosity and gas levels do you think will result in the formation of a shield volcano? Viscosity – low, level 2, level 3, or high: __________ Gas – low or high: ________ Explain your reasoning for the viscosity and gas levels you chose. _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________
2. Predict the combination of viscosity and gas levels that will result in a cinder cone volcano. Viscosity – low, level 2, level 3, or level 4 high: __________ Gas – low or high: ________ Explain your reasoning for the viscosity and gas levels you chose. _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ 3. Predict the combination of viscosity and gas levels that will result in a composite volcano (stratovolcano). Viscosity – low, level 2, level 3, or high: __________ Gas – low or high: ________ Explain your reasoning for the viscosity and gas levels you chose. _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ Section 2: Discover For numbers 4-9 in the chart below: Identify the two different combination settings of viscosity and gas that resulted in each of the following generally being formed. Shield Volcano Cinder Cone Volcano Stratovolcano (Composite) 4.
6.
8.
Gas Level: __Low___
Gas Level: __Low___
Gas Level: __High__
5.
7.
9.
Gas Level: __High__
Gas Level: __High__
Gas Level: __High__
Viscosity Level: __Low__
Viscosity Level: __Low__
Viscosity Level: _Level 2__
Viscosity Level: _Level 2__
Viscosity Level: __Level 3__
Viscosity Level: _High_
10. What is a fire fountain? sprays of lava that can rise hundreds of feet and last for hours (It looks like a lava fountain.) 11. Why did one of the shield volcanoes have a fire fountain and the other did not? The gas level made the difference. Although both shield volcanoes that were formed had a low viscosity level, the one with the high gas level caused the fire fountain to form. 12. As lava pushes up like an inflating balloon, a small _dome_ is created. These often form on the sides or top of a _stratovolcano (composite volcano) or in the crater of a collapsed volcano. 13. Which type of volcano has effusive eruptions and why? Shield volcanoes – The lava is thin and runny as it exits the volcano. This means that gas bubbles can rise and escape easily, causing non-violent (effusive) eruptions. 56
14. What is the name given to the most explosive type of eruption? __Plinian__ 15. What combination of viscosity and gas levels resulted in the most explosive type of eruption? Viscosity – low, level 2, level 3, or high: _High_
Gas – low or high: _High_
16. Which type of volcano was represented during the most explosive type of eruption? __stratovolcano (composite volcano)__
#17 Sketch:
17. Describe what happened during the most explosive type of eruption, and draw and label a sketch of it. See notes in sketch box. Also, the plume of ash reaches high above sea level and will spread around Earth for the next few days. 18. What is lahar? dangerous slides of mud and ash (mudslides)
The following may be represented: • stratovolcano shape with part of volcano’s top off • tephra • long plume of ash • lava flows • landslide • pyroclastic flow • lahar • lightening & thunder
19. What is a pyroclastic flow? _mass of very hot gases and rock fragments that rush down the sides of the volcano at more than 60 mph_ 20. True or false: Even small pyroclastic flows can be very destructive. _True_ 21. What type of volcano has steep sides and can grow to great heights? _stratovolcanos_ 22. What type of volcanoes are the largest volcanoes on Earth? _shield volcanoes_ 23. What type of volcano has steep sides and is relatively small, usually less than 1,000 ft? _cinder cones_ 24. What type of volcano can typically have an eruption where gas violently escapes, spraying out lava from the volcano’s vent in a series of booming eruptions? It generates marble to bouldersize fragments that fly out from the vent giving the volcano its shape. _cinder cones_ 25. If a cinder cone volcano erupts lava, it usually does not flow from the summit. From where, then, does the lava typically flow? __a breach in the side or base of the volcano__ 26. Rank these types of volcanic eruptions from least explosive to most explosive: Strombolian, Effusive, Vulcanian, and Plinian. 1 (least) _Effusive__
2 __Strombolian___
3 __Vulcanian__
4 (most) _Plinian__
For 27-31: What type of volcano (shield, cinder cone, or stratovolcano) is each of the following: 27. Mt. St. Helens in WA: __Stratovolcano (composite)__ 28. Mauna Loa in HI: __Shield__ 29. Stromboli in Italy: __Cinder___ 30. Mt. Vesuvius in Italy: ___Stratovolcano (composite)___ 31. Paricutin in Mexico: __Cinder__ 32. Where are the most famous shield volcanoes? _Hawaii (Hawaiian Islands)__ 33. Explain how viscosity and gas levels in magma affect volcanoes. They help determine the type of volcano formed and the type of eruption. (Higher gas levels usually mean more explosive eruptions unless the lava is thin. Lava that is ejected helps shape the volcano.) 57
Teacher Resource: The chart correlates to the results and information provided on the Discovery KidsTM build a volcano interactive page at http://kids.discovery.com/games/build-play/volcano-explorer. Keep in mind that this is a simplified, virtual eruption activity. Realworld volcanic formations and eruptions vary and do not always follow general, simplified guidelines. Scientists continually study volcanoes to gain a better understanding of these landforms. Viscosity Level
Gas Level
Volcano Formed
Interesting Formation Notes Massive, broad w/ gently sloping sides; usu. build from sea floor; largest volcanoes on Earth; Mauna Loa (HI) – 60 mi long and 30 mi wide
Low (thin lava)
Low
Shield
Low
High
Shield
Low
Cinder Cone
High
Cinder Cone
Low
Dome (volcanic feature called lava dome)
Level 2
(just above low)
Level 2
(just above low)
Level 3
(just below high)
Level 3
(just below high)
High (very thick lava) High
High
Low
High
Stratovolcano (also known as composite volcano) Dome (volcanic feature called lava dome) Stratovolcano (composite volcano)
Volcanoes making up Hawaiian Islands are most famous shield volcanoes Relatively small, usu. less than 1,000 ft high; very steep sides; cylindrical shape; built of piles of rock fragments Italy’s Stromboli & Mexico’s Paricutin: 2 of most famous cinder cones. If lava – usually flows from breach in side or base Lava pushes up from Earth like inflating balloon to create sm dome; often form on sides or top of stratovolcanoes Steep sides; can grow to great heights; built layer upon layer; viscous magma; ex-Mt. St. Helens (WA)
Eruption Type Effusive Effusive (with fire fountain) Minor eruption (explosive, but no immediate danger) Strombolian (explosive, but relatively harmless) Minor (uncommon eruption of lava)
Interesting Eruption Notes Calmest of all eruptions; steady, runny lava; some flows slower walking speed Sprays of lava can rise 100s of ft and last for hrs not enough gas to form cinder; blobs of “cow pie” magma ejected
Gas violently escapes, lava sprays from vent; sends out tephra; series booming eruptions; marble size to boulder frags called cinders Lava doesn’t move easily; flows into pancake-like shapes; may pile up to form dome
Vulcanian (explosive with cannon-like bursts of explosions)
Some lava may flow; tephra; plume of ash – spreads; ash may dust towns
(See previous dome info.) often form on sides or top of stratovolcanoes or in crater of collapsed volcano
Slow eruption of thick lava (explosive)
Small blasts – requires great force; pyroclastic flow possible if dome collapses
(See previous stratovolcano info.) Italy’s Mt. Vesuvius destroyed the city of Pompeii in 79 A.D.
Plinian eruption (most explosive type)
Blows away large part of volcano’s top; plume; land-slide; pyroclastic flow
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Lesson Enrichment/Extension
NAME ______________________________
Directions: Use the chart on this page and the accompanying map to help you answer the questions below. 1. How many volcanoes in the chart are located within the Ring of Fire? _______________________ 2. Write a fraction to represent the number of volcanoes in the chart that are located in the Ring of Fire. ________________________ 3. What percentage of the volcanoes in the chart are located in the Ring of Fire? ________________________ 4. What percentage of the volcanoes on the chart are located outside of the Ring of Fire? _________________________ 5. What type of volcano is most commonly found in the Ring of Fire? __________________________
Name 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24.
Azul Bezymianny Cerro Negro Cotopaxi Erebus Katmai Kilauea Krakatau Ksudach La Palma Lassen Peak Mt. Etna Mt. Fuji Mt. Pelee Mt. Rainier Mount St. Helens Nevada del Ruiz Ol Doinyo Lengai Paricutin Pinatubo Sunset Crater Surtsey Tambora Vesuvius
Type Stratovolcano Stratovolcano Cinder cone Stratovolcano Stratovolcano Stratovolcano Shield Stratovolcano Shield Stratovolcano Stratovolcano Shield Stratovolcano Stratovolcano Stratovolcano Stratovolcano Stratovolcano Stratovolcano Cinder cone Stratovolcano Cinder cone Shield Stratovolcano Stratovolcano
Last Erupted (as of July 2013) 1967 2013 1999 1940 or 1942 2013 1912 2013 2013 1907 1971 1917 2013 1708 1932 1894 2008 2013 2012 1952 1993 appr. 1065 1967 1967 1944
6. What is the name of the volcano located in Antarctica? _____________________________ 7. Including Alaska and Hawaii, how many volcanoes on the chart are located in the United States? _________________________
8. Which volcano is located at approximately 6ºS and 105ºE? _________________________ 9. What percentage of the volcanoes on the chart are in the Northern Hemisphere? ________ 10. Using the years provided in the chart, what percentage of the volcanoes have erupted after the year 2000? _______________ Source: Modified from Lesson One, Activity 2 (Ring of Fire) worksheet in the USGS Volcano! Teacher’s Guide http://egsc.usgs.gov/isb/pubs/teachers-packets/volcanoes/lesson1/lesson1.html
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Source: USGS Volcano! Teacher’s Guide (Lesson One, Activity Two – Ring of Fire) http://egsc.usgs.gov/isb/pubs/teachers-packets/volcanoes/lesson1/lesson1.html
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Earthquake Shake
Lesson 5
Lesson Reference: The building challenge for this activity is from the Earthquakes and Buildings Don’t Mix lesson from the supplemental classroom activities for Putting Down Roots in Earthquake Country: Your Handbook for Earthquakes in Idaho provided by the Idaho Bureau of Homeland Security (with assistance from the Idaho Geological Survey and the Idaho State Department of Education). http://www.bhs.idaho.gov/Pages/Preparedness/PDF/Schools/1%20Why%20Should%20I% 20Prepare%20-%20Earthquakes%20and%20Buildings%20Don't%20Mix.pdf Objectives: • Students will review seismic waves: P waves, S waves, Rayleigh waves, and Love waves. • Students will review three faults: normal, reverse, and strike-slip. • Students will explore earthquake hazards and damage to buildings. • Students will experiment by constructing a model building capable of withstanding ground vibration on a small shake table (or tray). • Students will identify building considerations (design, location) to help mitigate the damage to structures. National Science Standards: • Science as Inquiry • Physical Science - Motions and forces - Transfer of energy • Science and Technology - Abilities of technological design - Understandings about science and technology • Science in Personal and Social Perspectives - Natural hazards - Risks and benefits - Science and technology in society Background Information: (from http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/earthq1/how.html, FEMA’s Seismic Sleuths at http://www.fema.gov/library/viewRecord.do?id=3558, http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/kids/eqscience.php, and http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/earthq4/severitygip.html) An earthquake is the vibration, sometimes violent, of the Earth's surface that follows a release of energy in the Earth's crust. This energy can be generated by a sudden dislocation of segments of the crust, by a volcanic eruption, or event by manmade explosions. Most destructive quakes, however, are caused by dislocations of the crust. The crust may first bend and then, when the stress exceeds the strength of the rocks, break 61
and "snap" to a new position. In the process of breaking, vibrations called seismic waves are generated. These waves travel outward from the source of the earthquake along the surface and through the Earth at varying speeds depending on the material through which they move. Body waves, so called because they travel through the body of the Earth, consist of two types: primary (P) and secondary (S). P waves consist of alternating compressions and expansions (dilations), so they are also referred to as compressional waves. P waves are longitudinal; they cause particle motion that is back and forth, in the same linear direction as energy transfer. These waves carry energy through the Earth, usually at the rate of 3.5–7.2 km/sec (2.2–4.5 mi/sec) in the crust and 7.8–8.5 km/sec (4.8-5.3 mi/sec) in the mantle. Secondary (S) waves are transverse; the particle motion they cause is perpendicular to the direction of energy transfer. Their usual speed is 2.0–4.2 km/sec (1.2-2.6 mi/sec) in the crust and 4.5–4.9 km/sec (2.8-3.0 mi/sec) in the mantle.
Body Waves
Surface Waves
Source: USGS http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn /glossary/ and http://escweb.wr.usgs.gov/share
P waves can be transmitted through solids, liquids, and gases, while S waves (with the exception of electromagnetic waves) can only be transmitted by solids. Waves can be reflected and refracted (bent) when they move from material of one density to that of another density. Wave energy can also be changed to other forms. As they move through the Earth, the waves decrease in strength, or attenuate. Waves attenuate more slowly in solid rocks than in the basins full of sediment so common in the West. Because of this, an earthquake in the crust of the eastern U.S. is felt over a wider area than a quake the same size in the rocks of the western states. Unlike body waves, which travel through the Earth, surface waves travel around it. The two main types of surface waves are Rayleigh waves and Love waves. These surface waves travel more slowly than S and P waves, and attenuate more quickly. Within Rayleigh waves, Earth particles move in elliptical paths whose plane is vertical and set in the direction of energy transfer. When an Earth particle is at the top of the ellipse, it moves toward the energy source (seemingly backwards), then around, downward, and forward, away from the 62
source. It then moves around and upwards back to its original position. This produces a ripple effect at the Earth’s surface that is similar to ripples on a pond. Love waves move particles in a back and forth horizontal motion as the energy moves forward. If you could see a Love wave inside the Earth, you would notice a zigzag horizontal motion. Geologists have found that earthquakes tend to reoccur along faults, which reflect zones of weakness in the Earth's crust. A fault is a fracture in the Earth's crust along which two blocks of the crust have slipped with respect to each other. Faults are divided into three main groups, depending on how they move. (See picture.)
Source: http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/kids/RockShakey Ground.pdf
Most faulting along spreading zones is normal, along subduction zones is thrust, and along transform faults is strike-slip. (For information regarding spreading zones [divergent boundaries], subduction zones [located at some convergent boundaries], and transform boundaries, view the background information provided in the previous two lessons regarding plate tectonics and volcanoes.) Even if a fault zone has recently experienced an earthquake, there is no guarantee that all the stress has been relieved. Another earthquake could still occur.
The focal depth of an earthquake is the depth from the Earth's surface to the region where an earthquake's energy originates (the focus). Earthquakes with focal depths from the surface to about 70 kilometers (43.5 miles) are classified as shallow. Earthquakes with focal depths from 70 to 300 kilometers (43.5 to 186 miles) are classified as intermediate. The focus of deep earthquakes may reach depths of more Source: http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/graphics/FigS1-1.gif than 700 kilometers (435 miles). The focuses of most earthquakes are concentrated in the crust and upper mantle. The depth to the center of the Earth's core is about 6,370 kilometers (3,960 miles), so even the deepest earthquakes originate in relatively shallow parts of the Earth's interior. 63
The epicenter of an earthquake is the point on the Earth's surface directly above the focus. The location of an earthquake is commonly described by the geographic position of its epicenter and by its focal depth. The size of an earthquake depends on the size of the fault and the amount of slip on the fault. Scientists use seismogram recordings made on seismographs at the surface of the earth to determine how large the earthquake was. The size of the earthquake is called its magnitude. Magnitude is a measurement of the amplitude of the earthquake waves, which is related to the amount of energy the earthquake releases. The Example of seismogram most commonly used scale for magnitude is the Source: http://www.geology.ar.gov/pdf/Locating_an_epicenter Richter scale. Each whole number increase in _activity.pdf Richter magnitude indicates an increase in the severity of the ground shaking by a factor of 10. Thus a magnitude 6 earthquake will produce shaking 10 times more severe than that produced by a magnitude 5 earthquake. Magnitude can also be related to the amount of energy an earthquake releases. Each whole number increase in Richter magnitude indicates an increase in the amount of energy released by a factor of roughly 30. Thus a magnitude 6 earthquake releases about 30 times more energy than a magnitude 5 earthquake, and roughly 900 times as much as a magnitude 4 earthquake. Each earthquake has a single magnitude that is independent of the location of the observer. The effect of an earthquake on the Earth's surface is called the intensity. The intensity scale consists of a series of certain key responses such as people awakening, movement of furniture, damage to chimneys, and finally--total destruction. The scale currently used in the United States is the Modified Mercalli (MM) Intensity Scale. This scale, composed of 12 increasing levels of intensity that range from imperceptible shaking to catastrophic destruction, is designated by Roman numerals. It does not have a mathematical basis; instead it is an arbitrary ranking based on observed effects. Materials: • Computer with Internet and projection system • Playing cards or colored 3 x 5 index cards (for demonstration) • Building materials per group: o Graph paper (at least o Poster board, cut into the following dimensions 2 sheets) (per group) o Clear tape (3/4” wide) (4) 8 x 8 cm squares (floors) o Scissors (12) 2 x 10 cm strips (uprights) o Ruler (12) 1.5 x 15 cm strips (reinforcing) (1) 30 x 8 cm (to cut and use as desired) 64
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Note: There is a difference in quality and strength of lightweight poster board; the best poster board has one smooth, almost glossy side and one dull side Extra poster board Washers of different weight (g): At least 10 each of 3/4”, 5/8”, 1/2” Shake table (for teacher) and/or shake trays (for each student group) - See additional information in Advance Lesson Preparation.
Advance Lesson Preparation: Weigh (using grams) and record the weight of each washer on the washer using a permanent marker. Determine whether or not you will pre-cut the poster board for student groups or provide the poster board to the students to cut according to the specifications in the list of materials. Consider making the 30 x 8 cm poster board pieces using a different colored poster board (so it is easy to see how the students modified it to use in the building). Shake tables/trays: Decide if the class will use a teacher-provided/teacher-built shake table, or make appropriate plans for each student group to construct a shake tray. Teacher shake table possibilities (build prior to presenting the lesson): A simple, horizontal motion shake table is shown to the left. Wheels are nylon cabinet or drawer wheels and are attached to the board with “L” brackets, machine screws, and nuts. (For simplicity, a skateboard or utility cart may also suffice.) Source: http://www.bhs.idaho.gov/Pages/Preparedness/PDF/Schools/1%20Why%20Should%20I%20Prepare%20%20Earthquakes%20and%20Buildings%20Don't%20Mix.pdf
Directions for constructing a more complex shaker table are available at: • http://www.discoveryeducation.com/teachers/free-lesson-plans/constructingearthquake-proof-buildings.cfm • http://mceer.buffalo.edu/infoservice/Education/shaketableLessonPlan.asp • http://jclahr.com/science/earth_science/shake/index.html. Student shake tray options: • The instructions at http://www.newtonsapple.tv/TeacherGuide.php?id=1288 provide detailed directions on how students can construct a shake try using simple materials such as two cardboard boxes, marbles, rubber bands, etc. • The instructions at http://www.teachengineering.org/view_activity.php?url= collection/cub_/activities/cub_seismicw/cub_seismicw_lesson01_activity1.xml provide students with a list of materials, but the directions call for students to design their own shake trays with just a few guidelines/requirements (allowing for more creativity and use of critical thinking skills). 65
Lesson Presentation:
Part One: Plan
1. Inform the students that they will be trying their hand at architecture and construction as they will be designing and building a structure using poster board. (Show the poster board pieces.) Tell them that the building must: a) be at least 30 cm high and b) have at least 3 stories, each with its own floor. Tell them that the 30 x 8 cm piece of poster board will be theirs to cut and use as they like. Tell them that they have creative control over what type of building they want to build and the purpose for it. (Do not tell the students that their structure will be tested for strength and endurance by being shaken.) 2. Divide students into small groups of two to three members per group and distribute just the graph paper, ruler, and poster board (cut according to specifications in the list of materials) to each group. 3. Tell the groups that prior to actually building the structure, they must design it. They should use the graph paper to create a detailed drawing of what they plan to build. Tell them they have about 10 – 15 minutes to design their three-story structure. (If desired, each student in the group may have a sheet of paper to draw his/her own design, and the group can select the design they like best.) 4. After students finish their drawings, obtain their attention by attempting to build a “house” using the playing (or index) cards. Ask students if they have tried such an activity at home. Inquire as to why the activity is difficult. Lead to a discussion about vibrations and waves. State that architects and those who build houses must build sturdy structures that can withstand forces such as wind and rain, but also movement of the ground, especially in places that are prone to earthquakes. 5. Ask students what they recall about earthquakes. Use the background information to review seismic waves and faults. Play the seven-minute video at http://www.newtonsapple.tv/video.php?id=1288 to provide a good overview of earthquakes. 6. Go to http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/glossary/?alpha=E and discuss the definitions of earthquake hazard and risk. Tell students that hazard maps are used by structural engineers and government agencies to revise building codes. 7. Show the short (1.75 min.) videos at http://science.discovery.com/videotopics/engineering-construction/engineering-the-impossible-arches-vs-beams.htm and http://science.discovery.com/video-topics/engineering-construction/engineeringthe-impossible-earthquake-proof.htm to give students an idea of how engineers learn about and test structures. After showing the video, explain that the students will get to build and test their structure on a shake device to see how well it holds up. 66
Part Two: Build and Test
8. Tell the students that they will now build and test their three-story structure using a shaker table (or tray). Tell the students that you will be placing some weight (the washers) on their structure. Tell the students that they may modify their design, and if they do, they should not change their original design on their graph paper, but they should use their second sheet of graph paper to document a new or modified design. 9. Ensure students have all building materials (including scissors and tape), and allow the groups approximately 15 – 25 minutes to construct their building. 10. After the groups have constructed their buildings, Source: either provide materials to allow the groups to http://www.bhs.idaho.gov/Pages/Pr construct a shake tray to use (see Advance Lesson eparedness/PDF/Schools/1%20Why %20Should%20I%20Prepare%20Preparation) to shake their structures, or allow the %20Earthquakes%20and%20Buildin gs%20Don't%20Mix.pdf groups to test their structure on your shake table. • Tape the base of the structure to the base plate of the shake tray or table. (If using a shake table and if it is large enough, attach and test two or three buildings at the same time.) • Place washers on the top and/or various floors of the building. You will need to use tape to keep the washers on the building. • Have students record the amount of weight and placement of the weight on a piece of paper. • If using a simple teacher-provided shake table, manually move the shake table back and forth at a constant rate. Try to use the same amount of force and number of pushes/pulls when testing the structures on the shake tray or table. Masking tape applied to the surface on which the shake table sits will allow you to mark distances, and that will allow you to push and pull the shake table at a more consistent rate and distance. Develop a low, medium, and high intensity shake. • Have each group document and draw a picture of the results after their structure is shaken. 11. After students have had an opportunity to test their structure once (or multiple times), have them discuss or write about any changes they would make to their structure. If time allows, allow them to make modifications and test again.
Summarization: Review key information related to earthquakes, such as the types of seismic waves and faults. Remind students that earthquake ground shaking and damage are related to the size (magnitude) of the earthquake, the distance from the epicenter, the local geological conditions, and the characteristics of buildings. 67
Allow groups to share their structural failures, modifications, and successes. Students probably found that most buildings were able to survive the shaking using small masses (30-50 grams). They also likely found that most of the buildings constructed withstood vertical or static loads; however, with horizontal motion, most buildings probably did not survive shaking without the installation of diagonal bracing. Some design problems may be poor quality construction, weak joints or uprights, too much rigidity or flexibility, lack of reinforcement, or lack of diagonal bracing, etc. Career Connection: (from https://secure.ihaveaplaniowa.gov/, http://www.bls.gov/ooh /architecture-and-engineering/architects.htm, and http://www.bls.gov/ooh/architectureand-engineering/civil-engineers.htm) Seismologist - A seismologist studies earthquakes and vibrations in the Earth. Seismologists use sophisticated tools such as seismographs, which measure the intensity of an earthquake. They also use computers to help generate graphical models of the vibrations of the Earth. Seismologists work in a variety of environments. Some choose to work as professors in universities or colleges. Others work in research, either in an office or in the field. Additionally, some seismologists choose to work in the petroleum industry, predicting the impact of oil drilling. Perusing a career in this profession requires one to at least have an undergraduate degree from an accredited university. Architect - Architects plan and design buildings and other structures. Architects spend most of their time in offices, where they consult with clients, develop reports and drawings, and work with other architects and engineers. However, architects often visit construction sites to review the progress of projects. Many work more than 50 hours per week. There are three main steps in becoming a licensed architect: earning a professional degree in architecture, gaining work experience through an internship, and passing the Architect Registration Exam. Civil engineer - Civil engineers design and supervise large construction projects, including roads, buildings, airports, tunnels, dams, bridges, and systems for water supply and sewage treatment. Civil engineers work on complex projects, so they usually Source: http://www.bls.gov/ooh/architecture-andspecialize in one of several areas. • Geotechnical engineers work to make sure that engineering/civil-engineers.htm foundations are solid. They focus on how structures built by civil engineers, such as buildings and tunnels, interact with the earth (including soil and rock). Additionally, they design and plan for slopes, retaining walls, and tunnels. • Structural engineers design and assess major projects, such as bridges or dams, to ensure their strength and durability. • Transportation engineers plan and design everyday systems, such as streets and highways, but they also plan larger projects, such as airports, ports, and harbors. Civil engineers need a bachelor’s degree. They typically need a graduate degree for promotion to managerial positions. 68
Evaluation: • Teacher observation • Group structures • Designs on graph paper and recorded experiment data • Have students write a paragraph or essay explaining their design and why it did or did not work. Lesson Enrichment/Extension: • Have students construct water towers instead of buildings. Use paper cups held up with poster board strips as the water container. While testing, weigh the paper cup down with washers. You decide on height, materials, quantity, etc. • Allow students to experiment with an earthquake simulator at http://www.tlc.com/tv-shows/other-shows/earthquake-simulator.htm. Students select the type of ground on which to build their structure and which quakeproofing technological prevention to use. Then, they can select from three different earthquake magnitudes and observe the results. • Engage the students in a kinesthetic lesson designed to teach about waves at http://sciencespot.net/Media/waveexercise.pdf. • Teach students to identify P, S, and surface waves on a simple seismogram, and then have them locate the epicenter of an earthquake. The detailed lesson plan is at http://www.geology.ar.gov/pdf/Locating_an_epicenter_ac Source: tivity.pdf. http://earthquake.usgs • Use the lesson plan at .gov/learn/kids/images/sei http://www.teachingboxes.org/earthquakes/lessons/lesson smic_waves.gif 1.jsp to show students pictures of earthquake damage. Students will document their observations on a worksheet to identify and analyze the type of damage caused by earthquakes. • Direct students to http://eduweb.com/portfolio/bridgetoclassroom /engineeringfor.html to use an online application to design and test a bridge to see if it can withstand earthquakes of various magnitudes. • Engage the students in a magnitude versus intensity lesson. Students use a handout of a zip code map, a Modified Mercalli Scale, and different earthquake experience accounts to determine the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale for various zip codes within the proximity of the earthquake. The detailed lesson that includes handouts is available at http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/teachers/Mag_vs_Int_Pkg.pdf. Associated Websites: • Science of earthquakes http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/kids/eqscience.php http://www.weatherwizkids.com/weather-earthquake.htm 69
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Earthquake videos http://www.newtonsapple.tv/video.php?id=1288 (7 min.) http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/environment/environment-naturaldisasters/earthquakes/inside-earthquake/ (2.5 min.) Earthquake PowerPoint presentation ftp://ftpdata.dnr.sc.gov/geology/Education/PDF/Earthquakes.pdf Earthquake animation http://www.pbs.org/wnet/savageearth/animations/earthquakes/index.html Information regarding faults, waves, and magnitude (includes animations) http://www-rohan.sdsu.edu/~rmellors/lab8/l8maineq.htm Animations for earthquake terms and concepts http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/animations/ Earthquake facts http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/facts.php http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/topics/megaqk_facts_fantasy.php Select from several actual locations to see pictures and learn about the earthquake that hit the location http://urbanext.illinois.edu/earth/shakeup.cfm Earthquake topics for education (links to various topical information) http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/topics/ Various earthquake-related lessons (including a skit that should result in P-wave students reaching a finish line, followed by S-wave students) http://mjksciteachingideas.com/quakes.html Earthquake teacher guide packed with information and lesson plans http://www.bhs.idaho.gov/Pages/Preparedness/PDF/Schools/Supplement%20%20Classroom%20Activities,%20Putting%20Down%20Roots%20in%20Earthquake% 20Country.pdf (select individual lessons from www.bhs.idaho.gov/Pages/Preparedness/School.aspx)
Source: http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eqarchives/epic/images/eqsrch_3.gif
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Rock It Out with Areology
Lesson 6
Lesson Reference: The activity is from NASA’s Mars Areology lesson located in the educator guide: Mars Activities: Teacher Resources and Classroom Activities. The Mars Areology lesson is adapted from Mission to Mars materials from the Pacific Science Center in Seattle, WA, and Adler Planetarium. It was submitted to Live from Mars by April Whitt and Amy Singel, Adler Planetarium. The Teacher's Edition was created by ASU Mars K-12 Education Outreach Program. The Mars Areology lesson is available at http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/docs/Areology_Mars.pdf (and http://solarsystem.jpl.nasa.gov /docs/Areology_Mars.pdf), and the complete curriculum guide is available at http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/classroom/pdfs/MSIP-MarsActivities.pdf. Objectives: • Students will discover how surface core samples can tell us about the history and make-up of a planet. • Students will examine a simulated Martian surface core sample. • Students will learn how an unknown core sample can be identified by matching it with a known sample. • Students will record observations, compare and contrast, develop hypotheses, and draw conclusions. National Science Standards: • Science as Inquiry • Physical Science - Properties and changes of properties in matter - Motions and forces - Transfer of energy • Science and Technology - Abilities of technological design - Understandings about science and technology • History and Nature of Science - Science as a human endeavor
Source: http://www.nasa.gov/audience /forstudents/9-12/features/F_Practice_ Makes_Perfect_prt.htm
Background Information: (from http://www.nps.gov/shen/forteachers/upload/edu_steward_geology_rocks.pdf) The Earth is undergoing continuous change through the formation, weathering, erosion, and reformation of rock. This process is called the rock cycle. There are three main types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Rock deep within Earth encounters temperatures high enough to make it melt. This liquid stage is called magma. Igneous rock is formed when the magma cools and solidifies. Magma that is forced to the surface cools to form volcanic rock, while magma that cools beneath the Earth’s surface forms granitic rock. 71
As rocks are weathered (broken down into smaller pieces) and eroded (moved to new locations), the rock fragments (sediments) build up in layers. The combined weight of the layers along with other pressures within the Earth causes the layers to compact. The tiny spaces between rock fragments fill with natural cementing agents and mineral grains in the rock may grow and interlock. Thus sedimentary rock has been formed. Sedimentary rock is also formed under water when shells and skeletons of sea creatures accumulate on the ocean floor. Over a long period of time, these sediments compact and harden to form rock. Fossils are most often found in sedimentary rock. Sedimentary rocks and igneous rocks can be altered by the tremendous pressures and high temperatures associated with the movement and collision of tectonic plates. Metamorphic rock is formed under these extreme conditions. Ultimately, any of the rock types may again return to a hot, molten state deep in the Earth, thus completing the rock cycle.
Source: U.S. National Park Service http://www.nps.gov/shen/forteachers/upload/edu_steward_geology _rocks.pdf
Studying geology helps people to understand how today's geological formations were created and to predict future changes. The consequences of natural events and human activity can be better analyzed with knowledge of the underlying rock formations. Geologists often take a "core sample" by drilling into a rock formation and pulling out a layered specimen of the rocks to determine a timeline of geologic events for that area. Materials: • An assortment of "fun” or “bite/snack size" candy bars • Copies of Areology: The Study of Mars (one per student) • Activity materials (per pair of students): o 1 small candy bar o 2 pieces of a clear plastic soda straw (about 3” long each) o Paper plate (or napkin) o Plastic knife o Graph paper or small ruler • Wet wipes (optional for hand clean-up prior to activity, since edible material is involved) 72
Advance Lesson Preparation: Pre-cut the straw pieces. Ensure that the candy bars are at room temperature. You may even wish to briefly place the candy bars near a sunny window to help warm them a little bit. This will make them a bit softer, which will make it easier to insert straws. Additionally, you may wish to unwrap the candy bars immediately before beginning the lesson. If you do this, be sure to use gloves when handling the candy bars. If appropriate for your students and your grade level, consider acquiring and showing the 50-minute video “Episode 10: Galileo was Right” from the HBO mini-series From the Earth to the Moon. It shows the importance of science, with emphasis on geology and technology. Additionally, it reveals how both a teacher (professor) and students (astronauts) grow from their experiences working together to make scientific achievements on the Moon. Viewers will see the process of obtaining core samples from the Moon. The video does contain a few instances of mild adult language, along with adults smoking. The video is an account of part of the Apollo program in the early 1970s. It is a nice introduction to geology and the understanding that rocks will “speak” to you if you understand the language. Lesson Presentation: 1. Provide the students with the following scenario: You are going to receive a Martian surface sample. (Hold up an unwrapped snack-sized candy bar.) It is your job to observe and determine all the scientific information you can from this sample. You will be taking a core sample from this Martian surface sample and answering questions. (Demonstrate how to use the straw to take a core sample. Inform students that twisting the straw back and forth as they carefully apply pressure downward onto the Martian sample may help the straw to more easily penetrate any difficult layers within the sample.) 2. Tell the students that this type of activity (obtaining and analyzing core samples) is actually performed by geologists. Geologists are scientists who study the structure and substructure of a planet, typically Earth, as the term “geo” means Earth. Briefly review the background information with the students. 3. Tell the students that, in addition to studying the Earth, there are some geologists who have actually studied core samples retrieved from the Moon. Additionally, some geologists have and are currently studying the structure of Mars, to include its rocks and landforms such as canyons, mountains, and volcanoes. (The volcanoes on Mars are not active; they are extinct.) Thanks to technology such as satellites and rovers, geologists are able to study Mars even though it is, on average, about 140 million miles from Earth.
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4. Assign or allow students to select a partner. Distribute the Mars worksheet to each student and distribute the activity materials to each pair. If you are providing students with candy bars that are still inside their wrappers, emphasize that the partners should try to keep the realistic candy bar name of their Martian surface sample a secret due to the nature of this project. As soon as students unwrap their surface sample, walk by with a trash bag or container so that students may quickly and discreetly dispose of their wrappers. 5. Inform the students that at the top of their paper, they see the word “areology.” Tell the students that the meaning of the term is written to the right of it; areology means “the study of Mars.” Tell the students that they will follow the directions on the paper, and remind the students that each student is to complete his/her own paper (even though they are working with a partner). Tell the partners to raise their hands when they are ready to compare their core sample with another pair’s core sample. Inform the students as to where they are supposed to meet to compare and contrast their core samples. If there are no questions, allow the students to begin. 6. Once students have finished, either collect the worksheets to grade or review the questions and answers as a class.
2 different core samples cross section
Summarization: Review and discuss the activity with the class. Student answers will vary for most of questions on the worksheet. Select questions and potential answers have been included below as a helpful resource. Select questions from the student worksheet and potential answers: 4. What is your hypothesis about the cause of any texture and/or surface features that you see?
Although answers will vary, look for ideas such as water erosion (fluvial), wind erosion (aeolian), volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, meteor or asteroid impacts, etc. 9 – 10. On the picture you drew of your core sample in #5, label the layers in the order in which you think they formed from youngest to oldest, with 1 representing the layer that you believe is the youngest, 2 representing the layer that you believe is the next oldest, and so on. Explain how you decided which layers were older or younger than others.
The layer at the top of the straw (the outside chocolate covering of the candy bar) would be the youngest area of deposit, and, therefore, should be labeled with the number one. The stratigraphy (the order of the layers) would grow older as they go down the straw, towards the bottom. This would generally be true, barring any unusual events, like earthquake faulting or magma (liquid rock) intrusion. 74
17. What would account for the samples being different, if both come from Mars?
The core samples may have been taken from different sites or different places on the planet. Remember that one sample does not necessarily translate to the whole planet being like the sample. (A good childhood story of which to remind the students is the "The Blind Men and the Elephant" where the blind men all feel a different part of the elephant and think they know what the whole elephant is like). 18. Why would a core sample from Mars be important to the study of Mars?
Most of our science observations have been of surface features. To have a better understanding of the processes that formed the Martian features, probing the subsurface would be very important. There are also many unanswered questions the scientists are trying to find answers for: Is there water in the subsurface (perhaps that a human mission to Mars could access)? How many layers are there and how thick are the layers in the subsurface? Are there different rocks underground than there are on the surface of Mars? 19. Is it better to study a Martian core sample in a lab on Earth or in a lab on Mars? Why?
Actually, a case could be made for both sites. Earth would probably have better, more sensitive science equipment available since spacecraft equipment is somewhat limited due to space/cost/sensitivity factors. Studying the sample on Mars would allow the scientist to observe the actual site and surroundings of the core sample. Was this sample typical of the rest of the terrain, or an unusual occurrence? A field study could be better conducted on Mars. Finally, in wrapping up this lesson, ask the class how this activity relates to the Earth. (Refer to the background information.) Career Connection: (from http://climate2.jpl.nasa.gov/eswSite/eswCareers/#geologists, http://quest.arc.nasa.gov/people/cfs/generic/geomorphologist_150.pdf) Geologist - Geologists study Earth materials, processes and history. They make groundbased observations of the changes Earth undergoes. Geologists study the dynamic forces that shape our Earth and use this knowledge to predict how those forces will affect mankind. Geologists might study earthquakes, volcanoes, soil erosion, or water. Geologists, begin their careers with a bachelor’s degree in geology, geochemistry, geophysics or a related science. A strong background in math, science and geography is necessary. You may need a master’s or Ph.D. for advanced geology. Project managers and consultants may also be expected to have further education, and possibly, business administration courses. Part-time field work may be available after the first year of college.
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Geomorphologist - Geomorphologists study the surface features of a planet and the processes that created them. The landforms and landscapes they study may be as small as a landslide or as large as an entire planet! They work to figure the ways that landforms, regions, and planets are changed by climate, and by geologic processes such as the wearing away of rock by wind, water and ice, or chemicals. They study these changes over periods of time that range from days to millions, even billions, of years. Related job titles include: geologist, geological scientist, geoscientist, and Earth scientist. Geomorphologists begin their careers with a bachelor’s degree in geology, geochemistry, geophysics or a related science. A strong background in math, science, and geography is necessary. One may need a master’s or Ph.D. for advanced geology research. Project managers and consultants may also be expected to have further education, and possibly, business administration courses. Part-time fieldwork and laboratory work during college is highly recommended to gain hands-on experience. Evaluation: • Teacher observation • Areology: The Study of Mars worksheet Lesson Enrichment/Extension: • Engage students in a similar core-drilling activity to determine the ages of sedimentary rock layers. A fully detailed lesson plan that includes a worksheet is available at http://www.windows2universe.org/teacher_resources/teach_strata.html. • Select from a number of rock-related activities at http://www.nps.gov/shen /forteachers/upload/edu_steward_geology_rocks.pdf. • Have students learn rocks using the interactive rock cycle pages at http://www.learner.org/interactives/rockcycle/. • Obtain lyrics to the rock cycle song at http://cmase.uark.edu /teacher/workshops/GEMS-lessons/Rock_Cycle_Song.pdf and teach it to your students. It is sung to the tune of Row, Row, Row Your Boat. Have them sing it karaoke-style by playing the music and video at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F5YSedeq6i0. Associated Websites: • What is Geology? What Does a Geologist Do? (article) http://geology.com/articles/what-is-geology.shtml • Geology information http://kids.earth.nasa.gov/archive/career/geologist.html • Rock cycle http://www.mineralogy4kids.org/rockcycle/rockcycle.html (student friendly) • Rock classification http://scienceviews.com/geology/rockclassificationchart.html http://www.rockhounds.com/rockshop/rockkey/ 76
Areology: The Study of Mars Name______________________________
Partner _______________________________
Directions: You have just received a Martian surface sample. It is your job to observe and determine all the scientific information you can from this sample. Follow the directions below. 1.
Describe the color of your Mars sample. _____________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________
2. Draw a picture of your Mars sample. Be sure to include any surface features (smooth, wavy, lined, bumpy, cracked, etc.) you see.
3. Describe the surface features of your Mars sample. ________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________
4. What is your hypothesis about the cause of any texture and/or surface features that you see? ________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________
5. Use the drill (straw) to take a core sample from your Martian surface sample. Draw a picture showing the layers of your core sample. Show the thickness of each layer in your drawing.
6. How many layers does your Martian core sample contain? 7. Describe the characteristics of each layer.
____________
__________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________
8. Are any layers repeated? ______
If so, which layers are repeated? _____________________
________________________________________________________________________________
9. On the picture you drew of your core sample in #5, label the layers in the order in which you think they formed from youngest to oldest, with 1 representing the layer that you believe is the youngest, 2 representing the layer that you believe is the next oldest, and so on. Adapted from Areology: The Study of Mars data sheet located at http://solarsystem.jpl.nasa.gov/docs/Areology_Mars.pdf
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10. Explain how you decided which layers were older or younger than others. _________________ ________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________
11. Use the saw (plastic knife) to cut your Martian surface sample in half to view the layers easily in a cross section. Draw a picture of the inside of your Martian surface sample.
12. Do you notice any difference between the layers revealed in your core sample and the layers you see while viewing the cross section of your surface sample? If so, describe the differences. ________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________
13. Obtain a different core sample from another group of scientists (pair of students). Draw a picture of the second core sample showing any layers and surface features.
14. List any similarities or differences between your first core sample and the second sample. ________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________
15. What would account for the samples being different, if both come from Mars? ________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________
16. Why would a core sample from Mars be important to the study of Mars? ___________________ ________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________
17. Is it better to study a Martian core sample in a lab on Earth or in a lab on Mars? Why? ________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________ Adapted from Areology: The Study of Mars data sheet located at http://solarsystem.jpl.nasa.gov/docs/Areology_Mars.pdf
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Crater Coordinates
Lesson 7
Lesson Reference: The idea for this lesson, as well as some information, is derived from NASA’s Crater Hunters lesson at http://ares.jsc.nasa.gov/ares/education/program /ExpMetMys/LESSON7.PDF. Objectives: • Students will use latitude and longitude to identify locations of impact craters. Students will use map skills to identify states and countries that have impact • craters. Students will learn about the effects of a space object that impacts Earth. • • Students will identify factors that make finding/identifying impact craters on Earth difficult. National Science Standards: • Physical Science - Properties and changes of properties in matter - Motions and forces - Transfer of energy • Life Science - Populations and ecosystems • Earth and space science - Structure of the Earth - Earth’s history - Earth in the solar system • Science in Personal and Social Perspectives - Natural hazards Background Information: (from http://craters.gsfc.nasa.gov/worksheets.html and http://ares.jsc.nasa.gov/ares/education/program/ExpMetMys/LESSON7.PDF) Impact craters are geologic structures formed when a large meteoroid, asteroid or comet smashes into a planet or a satellite (moon). A very large number of meteoroids enter the Earth's atmosphere each day, amounting to more than a hundred tons of material. They are almost all very small, just a few milligrams each. Only the largest ones ever reach the surface. The average meteoroid enters the atmosphere at between 10 and 70 km/sec (6 and 43.5 mi/sec). All but the very largest are quickly decelerated to a few hundred km/hour by atmospheric friction, and they hit the Earth's surface with very little fanfare. Meteoroids larger than a few hundred tons, however, are slowed very little; only these large (and, fortunately, rare) ones make craters. Energies of impact are almost incomprehensibly large. They come chiefly from the kinetic energy of the impacting object. An object only a few meters across carries the kinetic energy of an atomic bomb as it strikes another object at high velocity. The impact of an 79
object only a few kilometers across (smaller than many known asteroids and comets) can release more energy in seconds than the whole Earth releases (through volcanism, earthquakes, tectonic processes, and heat flow) in hundreds or thousands of years. Nearly all impact events result in circular craters. In rare cases where the angle of impact was very low (0-10 degrees from the plane of the horizon), craters can be ovoid in shape. On the ground, look for changes in the physical properties of the rocks in and around impact structures. Fractured rock is less dense than unaltered target rock around the structure. Also look for ejecta and shocked rock fragments on the original ground surface outside the crater, and for fragments of the meteorite. When looking for impact craters in satellite images, first pay attention to circular features in topography or bedrock geology. Look for lakes, rings of hills, or isolated circular areas. All the inner bodies in our solar system have been heavily bombarded by meteoroids throughout their history. The surfaces of the Moon, Mars and Mercury, where other geologic processes stopped millions of years ago, record this bombardment clearly. On the Earth, dynamic geologic forces have erased most of the evidence of its impact history. Weathering, erosion, deposition, volcanism, and tectonic activity have left only a small number of impacts identifiable. Approximately 184 terrestrial impact craters have been identified (as of 2013). These impact craters range from about 1 to over 200 kilometers (0.6 to over 124 miles) in diameter. Materials: • Copies of each Crater Hunt worksheet (one per student of each) • Computer with Internet and projection system Advance Lesson Preparation: Students should already be familiar using latitude and longitude. Websites for a list of helpful latitude and longitude websites.
See Associated
Lesson Presentation: 1. Ask students if they have ever seen a shooting star. If so, ask them to describe what they saw. Ask the students whether or not shooting stars can occur during the daytime. Ask the students if they know what a shooting star actually is. Confirm that a shooting star is not really a falling star at all. It is actually a rock from outer space that falls through the Earth’s atmosphere, and most (if not all) of it burns up due to friction as it falls through the atmosphere, specifically the mesosphere layer of Earth’s atmosphere. (See Lesson 1: Atmosphere Layers and Players for more information regarding the mesosphere.) 80
While in outer space, this rock is called an asteroid or meteoroid. If the meteoroid enters Earth’s atmosphere, it becomes a meteor and potentially a meteorite. As explained by NASA at http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/faq/:
In space, a large rocky body in orbit about the Sun is referred to as an asteroid or minor planet whereas much smaller particles in orbit about the Sun are referred to as meteoroids. Once a meteoroid enters the Earth's atmosphere and vaporizes, it becomes a meteor (i.e., shooting star). If a small asteroid or large meteoroid survives its fiery passage through the Earth's atmosphere and lands upon the Earth's surface, it is then called a meteorite. Debris from comets is the source of most small meteoroid particles. Collisions between asteroids in space create smaller asteroidal fragments and these fragments are the sources of most meteorites that have struck the Earth's surface.
2. Tell the students that on a February morning in 2013, a very large meteor streaked across the sky in Russia and impacted the Earth. It was estimated to be a ten-ton meteor that was about the size of a large bus and was possibly traveling about 43,000 miles per hour (12 miles per second). Show and discuss the six-minute video at http://abc.go.com/watch/world-news-with-diane-sawyer/SH5585921 /VD55275371/world-news-215-meteor-strikes-russia-over-1000-believed-injured. Share the following interesting information from NASA’s StarChild site (http://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/StarChild/solar_system_level2/meteoroids.html):
Over 100 meteorites hit the Earth each year. Fortunately, most of them are very small. There has only been one report of a "HBM" (hit by meteorite), and that occurred in 1954. Ann Hodges of Sylacauga, Alabama was slightly injured when a 19.84 kilogram (almost 44 pounds) meteorite crashed through the roof of her home.
3. Ask the class what evidence occurs on the surface of Earth (or any rocky planet or moon) if a very large meteoroid or asteroid impacts its surface. Confirm that one piece of evidence is an impact crater. As a NASA site states, “Objects of less than half a kilometer (0.6 miles) in diameter can make craters ten km (six miles) in diameter.” Obviously, the crater is many times larger than the object striking the surface. Share additional information from the Background Information. (Additional information regarding effects of impact events is located at http://craters.gsfc.nasa.gov/assests/pdf/worksheetB.pdf.) 4. Tell the students that there are some large meteorites that have been discovered on Earth with no impact site. The Hoba meteorite, the world’s largest known meteorite, was discovered in 1920 in Hoba Meteorite Namibia (in Africa). The meteorite was never Source: http://dawn.jpl.nasa.gov moved, but it was excavated and became a Namibia /meteorite/explore_meteorites_ach national monument. This meteorite weighs about 60 – ondrites.asp 66 tons, but there is no evidence or sign of an impact crater. This is an unsolved 81
mystery for scientists.
Willamette Meteorite Source: http://starchild.gsfc.nasa.go v/docs/StarChild/solar_syst em_level2/meteoroids.html
The largest known meteorite in North America is the Willamette Meteorite discovered in Oregon in 1902. Weighing about 32,000 pounds (about 16 tons), this meteorite was not discovered in or near an impact crater. Researchers believe that its impact likely occurred in Canada, and it reached its discovery location in Oregon by means of glacial movement toward the end of the Ice Age. Today, it is located at the American Museum of Natural History in New York City.
5. Ask students to guess how many impact craters have been located on Earth. Confirm that the latest data from the impact crater database (available at http://www.passc.net/EarthImpactDatabase/index.html) reveals that there are 184 confirmed impact craters on Earth. If meteoroids and asteroids have passed through Earth’s atmosphere since its formation, ask the students why scientists have not located more impact craters on Earth. After all, if one looks at the Moon, it is decorated with many impact craters. Confirm that the main two reasons include Earth’s atmosphere (which causes most objects to burn up as they fall through the atmosphere) and Earth’s active geological processes. Weathering, erosion, deposition, volcanism, and plate tectonic activity have left only a small number of impacts identifiable. 6. Ask the students if they have any idea where some of the 184 crater impacts are located. Tell the students that they will locate at least seven U.S. states that have impact craters, as well as five countries other than the U.S. that have impact craters. In order to identify these states and countries, however, they will have to use latitude and longitude skills. 7. (optional) Review latitude and longitude skills if needed using the Background Information and/or a PowerPoint presentation. (See Associated Websites for possible presentations.)
Source: http://ti.arc.nasa.gov/m/project/worldwind/images/screenshots/21.jpg
8. Distribute the Crater Hunt worksheets (showing the U.S. map and the world map). Review the directions with students. If there are no questions, allow them to work independently. 9. (optional) After sufficient time, allow students to form pairs or small groups in order to compare answers and collaborate regarding any location discrepancies. 10. Either collect the worksheets to grade or review the answers as a class.
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Summarization: Confirm the correct impact crater location answers on the worksheets. (See Answer Key.) Review the cause and effects of impact craters, and review why the number of impact craters identified on Earth seems to be relatively low. Explain that some impact craters on Earth are exposed and some are unexposed. For example, Cloud Creek Crater in Wyoming is not exposed. It was discovered through oil and gas exploration. If time allows, use the Internet to read about some of these and other impact craters. Career Connection: (from http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/kids/become.php) Geophysicist - A geophysicist is someone who studies the Earth using gravity, magnetic, electrical, and seismic methods. Some geophysicists spend most of their time outdoors studying various features of the Earth, and others spend most of their time indoors using computers for modeling and calculations. Some geophysicists use these methods to find oil, iron, copper, and many other minerals. Some evaluate Earth properties for environmental hazards and evaluate areas for dams or construction sites. Research geophysicists study the internal structure and evolution of the earth, earthquakes, the ocean and other physical features using these methods. Meteoriticist – Meteoriticists study meteors and meteorites. In order to have a career as a meteoriticst, one must obtain at least a bachelor’s degree in a field of science such as geology, astronomy, geophysics, etc. Duties of a meteoriticist include using optical and electron microscopes to study meteorites and applying a variety of scientific techniques to study each of the different types of meteorites. Job titles of meteoriticists may also include geologist and research scientist. The Institute of Meteoritics, located at the University of New Mexico, is a A scientist is examining a sample under research facility dedicated to studying meteorites. the microscope in the meteorite lab. Research scientists at this facility are engaged, as indicated Source: at http://meteorite.unm.edu/, in several areas of research http://curator.jsc.nasa.gov/antmet/metsf romant/research.cfm including the following: • Simulation of Martian surface processes using low-temperature geochemical experimentation and theoretical modeling • Impact and cratering studies, both on Earth and other terrestrial bodies • Participation in current and upcoming robotic exploration missions, especially to Mars and the Moon Evaluation: • •
Teacher observation Crater Hunt worksheets
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Lesson Enrichment/Extension: • Have students use their knowledge, observation, and analytical skills to identify specific satellite images as crater impacts or something other. The details (including links for the satellite images) for this lesson are available at http://craters.gsfc.nasa.gov/lesson.html. • Allow students to use the Internet to research crater locations and information about specific craters. Two good search sites are http://impactcraters.us/ and http://www.passc.net/EarthImpactDatabase/NorthAmerica.html. • Conduct a crater impact experiment. Detailed lessons are available at http://nightsky.jpl.nasa.gov/docs/CratersMoonEarth.pdf, http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/180572main_ETM.Impact.Craters.pdf, and http://www.carolinacurriculum.com/premium_content/eBooks/Earth+Space/pdfs/ Lesson_12.pdf. Associated Websites: • Meteor Videos o http://www.cbsnews.com/video/watch/?id=50141106n (3 min.) o http://www.cbsnews.com/video/watch/?id=50141168n (includes why scientists did not see the 2013 meteorite that hit a Russian town; almost 3 min.) o http://abcnews.go.com/GMA/video/russian-city-hit-meteor-1200-peoplehurt-18518828 (damage of 2013 meteorite; 2 min.) • Impact crater information http://www.lpi.usra.edu/education/explore/shaping_the_planets/impact_cratering. shtml • U.S. crater information: http://impactcraters.us/ • List of impact craters in the U.S., Canada, and Mexico http://www.passc.net/EarthImpactDatabase/NorthAmerica.html • Hoba Meteorite http://www.namibia-1on1.com/hoba-meteorite.html http://geology.com/records/largest-meteorite/ • Willamette Meteorite http://www2.ville.montreal.qc.ca/planetarium/Information/Expo_Meteorites/Vedet tes/willamette_a.html • Earth Impact Database (officially contains information on all known impact craters) http://www.passc.net/EarthImpactDatabase/index.html • Latitude and longitude information o http://www.fedstats.gov/kids/mapstats/concepts_latlg.html o http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0001796.html (list of coordinates for major cities in U.S.; has link to coordinates for world cities) 84
http://mynasadata.larc.nasa.gov/latitudelongitude-finder/ (scroll over map to identify latitude and longitude) Latitude and longitude videos o http://www.schooltube.com/video/b562006484324b52a061/ (or http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=swKBi6hHHMA; 3 min.) o http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dVF0Ogmrvlc (humorous introduction to latitude and longitude lines, no minute or second information provided; 5 min.) Latitude and longitude PowerPoint presentations o www.owenshistory.info/powerpoints/maps/latitude_and_longitude.ppt o www.ocss-va.info/.../Unit%205%20-%20Latitude%20Longitude.ppt o http://ck122.k12.sd.us/Geography/Chris%20Geo/Geography%20Skills/Day% 206/Latitude%20%20Longitude.ppt (Click cancel if given a login prompt, and the PowerPoint presentation will appear. You can, otherwise, go to http://ck122.k12.sd.us/WorldGeo.htm and click latitude-longitude.) o http://flashmedia.glynn.k12.ga.us/webpages/asheddy/files/how_to_use_lati tude_longitude.ppt Longitude and latitude practice o http://www.challengerindy.org/Lessons/states/Longitude%20and%20Latitud e%20practice.pdf (printable worksheet; answers available at http://www.challengerindy.org/Lessons/states/Key%20Longitude%20and%20Latitude%20practice.pdf) o http://www.beaconlearningcenter.com/documents/2362_01.pdf (use of minutes and seconds; provides answer key; must provide own U.S. map) o http://www.whitebirch.ca/sites/default/files/21st%20Lesson%20912%20Latitude%20and%20Longitude%20Dec%2009-web_0.pdf (contains information, worksheet, and world map) o http://www.allaboutspace.com/usa/activity/latlong2/ o http://marinersmuseum.org/education/activity-ten-teachers-latitude-andlongitude o
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Crater HUNT
Name ______________________
Source: http://www.tutapoint.com/knowledge-center/view/48/
Directions: Use the maps and the latitude and longitude coordinates below to discover states that have impact craters. Example: 41ºN 87ºW Indiana
1.
35ºN 111ºW _____________________
2. 43ºN 90ºE _____________________
Source: http://www.nass.usda.gov/Statistics_by_State /images/us_map_pr.gif
3. 32ºN 102ºW ____________________ 4. 36ºN 88ºW _____________________
EXTRA (if you have time):
5. 43ºN 107ºW _____________________
A. 43ºN 95ºW ___________________
6. 33ºN 86ºW _____________________
B. 48ºN 104ºW ___________________
7. 38ºN 110ºW _____________________
C. 41ºN 90ºW ____________________
Meteor Crater in Arizona Source: http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/multimedia/gallery/Meteor_Crater.jpg
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Crater HUNT
Name ______________________
Directions: Use the map and the latitude and longitude coordinates provided to find impact craters located in other parts of the world.
Credit: Mapsofword.com at http://www.mapsofworld.com/world-maps/world-map-with-latitude-and-longitude.html
1. 60ºN 111ºW __________________ 2. 27ºS 28ºE __________________ 3. 26ºN 135ºE ___________________ 4. 25ºN 77ºE ___________________ 5. 17ºS 125ºE __________________ 87
Crater HUNT: ANSWER KEY FROM U.S. MAP: Example: 41ºN 87ºW Indiana 1.
35ºN 111ºW Arizona (Meteor Crater, also known as Barringer Meteor Crater)
2. 43ºN 90ºE Wisconsin (Grover Bluff Crater) 3. 32ºN 102ºW Texas (Odessa Crater) 4. 36ºN 88ºW Tennessee (Wells Creek Crater) 5. 43ºN 107ºW Wyoming (Cloud Creek Crater) 6. 33ºN 86ºW Alabama (Wetumpka Crater) 7. 38ºN 110ºW Utah (Upheaval Dome Crater)
Aerial view of Upheaval Dome Crater Source: http://www.nps.gov/cany/naturescience /upheavaldome.htm
EXTRA (if you have time): A. 43ºN 95ºW Iowa (Manson Crater) B. 48ºN 104ºW North Dakota (Red Wing Creek Crater) C. 41ºN 90ºW
Illinois (Glasford Crater)
FROM WORLD MAP: 1.
60ºN 111ºW Canada (Pilot Lake Crater)
2. 27ºS 28ºE
South Africa (Vredefort Crater)
3. 26ºN 135ºE Russia (Sikhote Alin Crater) 4. 25ºN 77ºE India (Ramgarh Crater)
5. 17ºS 125ºE Australia (Spider Crater)
False-Color Image of Spider Crater The Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) on NASA's Terra satellite captured this image Source: http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/imagegallery/image_feature_1066.html
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Lesson 8
Air-mazing Experiment Lesson Reference: Steven Spangler http://www.stevespanglerscience.com/product/1479 Objectives: • Students will make predictions and use critical thinking skills. • Students will see Bernoulli’s principle in action. • Students will illustrate the movement of air molecules. • Students will explain Bernoulli’s principle. National Science Standards: • Content Standard A: Science as Inquiry • Content Standard B: Physical Science - Motions and forces - Transfer of energy
Source: http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/k-12/airplane/bernnew.html
Background Information: In the early 1700’s, Daniel Bernoulli (pronounced “burr-new-lee”) determined that faster moving air has a lower pressure than slower moving air. Slow moving air has a higher pressure. The lower pressure creates a suction effect while the higher pressure results in a push. This helps to explain in part why wings of an airplane lift into the air. Air moves faster over the top of the wing than air moving underneath the wing; therefore, there is a “push” occurring underneath the wing while there is a “pull” effect above the wing. (Angle of attack, or the orientation of the wings to the air, is also responsible for lift.)
Lower pressure creates a suction effect, which helps the wing move up.
Faster air; lower pressure Slower air; higher pressure
Higher pressure helps push the wing up.
Advance Lesson Preparation: Visit http://www.stevespanglerscience.com/content/experiment/00000062 to view a video of this demonstration. Scroll down and click the “video” tab located by the “experiment” tab. Tie a knot at one end of each windbag. Before conducting this experiment in front of the class, practice inflating the windbag using only one breath. 89
Materials: • 2 windbags To obtain windbags, consider the following: 1) Purchase windbags online from teacher/science supply sites, such as Steven Spangler Science at http://www.stevespanglerscience.com/product/1479. 2) Visit local teacher supply stores. 3) Create 8-foot windbags using material in a diaper disposal system, such as a Diaper Genie®. • Notebook paper and pencil • Dry-erase board/chalkboard and marker/chalk Lesson Presentation: 1. Ask students if anyone has ever referred to them as a windbag, one who talks and talks. Ask students if someone feels he/she has good lungs or lots of air power. Invite someone who fits these descriptions to come to the front of the room. 2. Have the volunteer hold the open end of the windbag while you hold the other end of the windbag, making sure the windbag is fully extended. 3. Ask the class how many breaths they think it will take the volunteer to fully inflate the windbag. Listen to predictions. 4. Tell the class that we sometimes make a hypothesis (an educated guess), and as we obtain data (information), we may change our hypothesis. Tell the class that they will begin to obtain some data. 5. Have the student blow five times directly into the bag. Remind the student to close the opening of the bag after blowing into it each time. He/she does not want the air to escape while taking the next breath! After five breaths, use your hand to push the air in the bag all the way to the end of the bag. Ask students if they want to change their hypothesis about the number of breaths it will take to inflate the bag now that they have some new information. Listen to new predictions. Then, push all of the air out of the bag by pushing it toward the open end of the bag. 6. Tell the volunteer that you want to have a race with him/her to see who can blow up the bag the fastest and with the least number of breaths. Take a second windbag (ensure a knot is tied in the end of it). Invite two other students to come to the front of the room to hold the end of the windbags for you and the other volunteer. Ask the students holding the “knot” end of each windbag to count the number of breaths of air that are blown into the windbag. Tell the volunteer that you are racing that you will give him/her a head start. Conduct a countdown and begin! 90
7. Once the volunteer has started blowing into the bag, stand about 10 inches away from the opening of your bag, take a deep breath (just one breath!), and blow into the bag. Students will be surprised to see your windbag “magically” fill up using only one breath of air! Quickly trap the air in the bag by grasping and closing the open end of the bag after you see it inflate. 8. Ask students if they can explain what happened. The student who held the windbag directly to his/her mouth cut off the supply of all air molecules outside the bag. Explain that you chose to utilize the air molecules outside the windbag by using your knowledge of Bernoulli’s principle, which you will explain shortly. Explain to them that you created a stream of fast moving air from your lips that was directed toward the center of the opening of the bag. The slower moving air molecules surrounding the faster moving air molecules had a higher pressure; thus, the higher pressure pushed air molecules outside the windbag toward the lower pressure center that the individual created by blowing into the bag from several inches away. Faster moving air has a lower pressure than air moving slowly. Low pressure creates a suction-like effect, which causes it to act as though it is pulling in surrounding air molecules. In fact, the lower pressure of moving air is creating a void that is quickly filled by high pressure moving air molecules in to take the place of the faster moving air molecules in the low pressure area. High pressure follows low pressure. Tell students that this information about air pressure was discovered by Swiss scientist Daniel Bernoulli in 1739, and this information became known as Bernoulli’s principle. Bernoulli’s principle states that “the pressure of a fluid (liquid or gas) decreases as the speed of the fluid increases.” In other words, faster moving air has a lower pressure than slow moving air. 9. Ask students if they can think of practical applications for this information. In other words, why would it be important to know Bernoulli’s principle? Explain that in weather, areas of high pressure follow low pressure. Also, with hurricanes, a pressure that is falling means the intensity of the hurricane is increasing. Another way to put this information to good use is using it to remove smoke from a room or building. If there was a major cooking accident in your kitchen that resulted in the kitchen being filled with smoke, you should leave space between the door leading outside and a fan to help remove the smoke. Firefighters refer to this technique as “Positive Air Flow.” Finally, Bernoulli’s principle helps explain how an airplane flies. Use the background information to explain how Bernoulli’s principle helps an airplane stay aloft. 10. Ask students to draw the windbag experiment to illustrate what is happening with the air and pressure. Underneath their picture, ask them to explain Bernoulli’s principle. 91
11. Invite a volunteer to share his/her drawing and explanation with the class. Ask the volunteer to draw his/her picture on the board. Confirm correct ideas and redirect incorrect drawings or explanations. Summarization: Ask students what they learned today. Review Bernoulli’s principle, which states that “the pressure of a fluid (liquid or gas) decreases as the speed of the fluid increases.” Faster moving air has a lower pressure than slow moving air. Career Connection: (from http://futureflight.arc.nasa.gov/pdf/computational_fluid_dynamicist_137.pdf, http://quest.arc.nasa.gov/people/cfs/generic/aerospace_engineer_107.pdf, and http://futureflight.arc.nasa.gov/pdf/commerical-airline_pilot_130.pdf) Computational Fluid Dynamicist – Computational fluid dynamicists mainly perform researchrelated tasks. They are given complex airflow problems and asked how the airflow around a particular object can be changed to increase the aircraft’s aerodynamic performance. The research is performed in an office building or aeronautical high-computing lab facility using sophisticated computer workstations and computer visualization tools. Dynamicists design test procedures and coordinate with computer software engineers to develop software programs that measure the fluid flow around an aircraft or a part of an aircraft. The dynamicist runs the test, examines the results and writes a report that identifies how the design is flawed and how it should be modified to maximize its flight potential. When models are tested they are “flown in a computer” using sophisticated computational fluid dynamics visualization software. These researchers spend a lot of time looking up and reading over documents with aeronautical information. They work with complex equations, use computers to run simulations and discuss their research with colleagues. Related job titles include: aerospace engineer, aeronautical engineer, and fluid mechanics engineer. The minimum education required for this position is a bachelor’s degree in aeronautics, aeronautical engineering, aerospace engineering, fluid dynamics, thermal dynamics, computer science, or another appropriate subject from an accredited college or university. To perform research, Master’s level to Ph.D. in aeronautics, aeronautical engineering, aerospace engineering, fluid mechanics is necessary. Aerospace Engineer – Aerospace engineers design, develop, test and oversee the building of aircraft, spacecraft, propulsion systems and space flight mission paths. When designing a new product, engineers first figure out what it needs to do. Then they design and test the parts, fit the parts together and test to see how successful it is. They also write reports on the product. Most engineers work in office buildings or laboratories. Some work outdoors at construction sites. Some must travel to different work sites. The minimum education required for this position is a bachelor’s degree in aerospace engineering or a related subject from an accredited college or university. To do research, a Ph.D. is highly desired for this position. 92
Commercial Airline Pilot - Commercial airline pilots fly while doing a wide variety of tasks such as crop dusting, law enforcement work, search and rescue missions, traffic monitoring and fire fighting, to name a few. A pilot’s duties include much more than climbing aboard and flying the airplane. Pilots must check weather conditions and plan a safe route. The pilot then files the flight plan with air traffic control. It is important to note that most commercial airline pilots are given a weather briefing and then handed a pre-prepared flight plan. They must thoroughly review the weather data and flight plan before pushback from the gate. During preflight the commercial airline pilot must completely check the aircraft to ensure that all systems are operating properly and that all control surfaces and electrical equipment are functioning correctly. During the flight, pilots must monitor their progress and maintain communications with air traffic control facilities on the ground. After the flight, the pilot completes the necessary paperwork for the flight and closes out the flight plan. Most airlines require a four-year college degree before consideration to their program and a private pilot’s license or a commercial pilot’s license. Additional pilot training in instrument flying (instrument rating) and many hours of flight time under various flight conditions and flying various types of aircraft (this includes passing written tests and hands-on examination with a flight instructor to receive the proper certification) are necessary. Evaluation: • Teacher observation • Student answers to class discussion questions • Student pictures and written explanations Lesson Enrichment/Extension: • Have students use the steps of the scientific process to write about the windbag experiment. • Bernoulli’s Principle and the Physics of Flight lesson plans: http://www.spice.centers.ufl.edu/Bernoulli's%20Principle/Morales_Module_04_28_ 11.pdf • Allow students to create an illustration to help explain why an airplane is able to fly through the air.
side view of airplane wing
Picture: http://www.allstar.fiu.edu/aero/Experiment1.htm
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Associated Websites: • Bernoulli’s principle http://www.scienceclarified.com/everyday/Real-Life-Chemistry-Vol-3/Bernoulli-sPrinciple.html http://quest.arc.nasa.gov/aero/virtual/demo/aeronautics/tutorial/wings.html • Lift http://www.teachengineering.org/view_lesson.php?url=collection/cub_/lessons/cub _airplanes/cub_airplanes_lesson02.xml • Lift: Bernoulli and Newton http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/bernnew.html
(A) As the ball rolls down the hill, the loss of potential energy is converted into kinetic energy, illustrating the law of conservation of energy. (B) Likewise in fluid flow, an increase of fluid velocity (kinetic energy) is balanced by a decrease in static pressure (potential energy). This is Bernoulli's principle. Source: http://www.hq.nasa.gov/pao/History/SP-440/ch3-5.htm
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Weather – Up Front with Fronts
Lesson 9
Lesson Reference: The cold front skit is from a NASA lesson at http://asdwww.larc.nasa.gov/SCOOL/lesson_plans/Fronts.html. The lesson was submitted by Karen Hooker from Williamsburg James City County Public Schools in Williamsburg, Virginia, for NASA's S'COOL Project. Objectives: • Students will simulate (act out) a cold, warm, occluded, and stationary front. • Students will identify characteristics of each front and identify weather associated with each front. • Students will use a graphic organizer to organize their information. National Science Standards: • Science as Inquiry • Physical Science - Properties and changes of properties in matter - Motions and forces - Transfer of energy • Earth and Space Science - Structure of the Earth system • Science in Personal and Social Perspectives - Natural hazards Background Information: (from CAP’s Aerospace Dimensions: Air Environment and http://www.srh.noaa.gov/jetstream/synoptic/airmass.htm) An air mass is a huge body of air, usually 1,000 miles or more across, that has the same temperature and moisture characteristics. When an air mass travels out of its area of origin, it carries those characteristics with it. The place of origin of an air mass is called its source region, and the nature of the source region largely determines the initial characteristics of an air mass. The ideal source region must be very large and the physical features must be consistent throughout. Tropical (frost free and high temperatures areas) and polar (colder areas far from the equator) locations are the best source regions. Land located next to water is not a good source region. The United States is not a favorable source region because of the relatively frequent passage of weather disturbances that disrupt any opportunity for an air mass to stagnate and take on the properties of the underlying region. Air mass source regions range from extensive snow covered polar areas to deserts to tropical oceans. The longer the air mass stays over its source region, the more likely it will acquire the properties of the surface below. 95
Air masses are classified by their source region and the nature of the surface in their source region. They are identified by a two-letter code consisting of a lowercase letter and a capital letter. The lowercase letter is either m (maritime) or c (continental). Maritime stands for water (high moisture and wet), and continental stands for land (low moisture and dry). The capital letter refers to temperature at latitude and is placed into four categories: polar (P), arctic (A), tropical (T), and equatorial (E). The differences between polar and arctic (colder), and between tropical and equatorial (warmer) are very small. As these air masses move around the earth they can begin to acquire additional attributes. For example, in winter, an arctic air mass (very cold and dry air) can move over the ocean, picking up some warmth and moisture from the warmer ocean and becoming a maritime polar air mass (mP) - one that is still fairly cold but contains moisture. If that same polar air mass moves south from Canada into the southern U.S., it will pick up some of the warmth of the ground. Due to lack of moisture, however, it remains very dry. This is called a continental polar air mass (cP).
Source: http://www.srh.noaa.gov /jetstream/synoptic/airmass.htm
The four principal air mass classifications that influence the continental United States according to their source region are: • Polar latitudes - located poleward of 60° north and south • Continental - located over large land masses between 25°N/S and 60°N/S • Maritime - located over the oceans between 25°N/S and 60°N/S • Tropical latitudes - located within about 25° of the equator The Gulf Coast states and the eastern third of the country commonly experience the tropical air mass in the summer. Continental tropical (cT) air is dry air pumped north, off of the Mexican Plateau. If it becomes stagnant over the Midwest, a drought may result. Maritime tropical (mT) air is air from the tropics that has moved north over cooler water. Air masses can control the weather for a relatively long time period: from a period of days to months. Most weather occurs along the periphery of these air masses at boundaries called fronts. Fronts are the boundaries between two air masses. Fronts are classified as to which type of air mass (cold or warm) is replacing the other. For example, a warm front is the leading edge of a warmer air mass replacing a colder air mass. (Information regarding the four specific kinds of fronts is included in teacher and student pages that are provided near the end of this lesson plan.) 96
Fronts don't just exist at the surface of the Earth; they have a vertical structure or slope as well. Warm fronts typically have a gentle slope so the air rising along the frontal surface is gradual. This usually favors the development of widespread layered or Source: http://www.srh.noaa.gov Source: http://www.srh.noaa.gov /jetstream/synoptic/airmass.htm stratiform cloudiness and precipita- /jetstream/synoptic/airmass.htm tion along and to the north of the front. The slopes of cold fronts are steeper and air is forced upward more abruptly. This usually leads to a narrow band of showers and thunderstorms along or just ahead of the front, especially if the rising air is unstable. Fronts are usually detectable at the surface in a number of ways. Winds usually "converge" or come together at the fronts. Also, temperature differences can be quite noticeable from one side of the front to another. Finally, the pressure on either side of a front can vary significantly. Materials: • Transparency of weather map showing fronts (map provided in this lesson plan) • Computer with Internet and projection system • Story of Cold Fronts (one copy for the teacher) • Cutouts (for Story of Cold Fronts): Cut out the following shapes from bulletin board paper: o Large red circular shape about 2 - 3 feet: write “Warm Air Mass” in center o Large blue circular shape about 2 - 3 feet: write “Cool Air Mass” in center o White triangular shape – add lines to depict tornado o Yellow lightning shape o Yellow sun o Two clouds: one white puffy cloud and one gray puffy cloud • Yardstick • Assorted colors of construction paper (for student groups to use as desired) • Scissors • Markers • Tape • Cloud Identification Chart (for projecting or to use as student handouts) • Copies of Three Additional Fronts (Descriptions) Advance Lesson Preparation: Make the cutouts as described in the list of materials. Make a transparency of the weather map showing fronts. Make copies of the Cloud Identification Chart if you wish for the students to have their own, individual copy.
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If information regarding warm, stationary, and occluded fronts is provided in student textbooks, you may have students use their books as opposed to using the descriptions provided in this lesson plan. If using the Three Additional Fronts (Descriptions) pages, make enough copies for each member of each designated frontal group to have a copy of the information for his/her assigned front (i.e., warm, stationary, or occluded front). If you want students to take notes during the lesson and presentations as opposed to afterwards, you may wish to distribute copies of a graphic organizer after engaging the students in the “Story of Cold Fronts” activity and have the students continue taking notes during the remainder of the lesson. A graphic organizer is provided in this lesson plan, and additional information regarding graphic organizers is provided in the Lesson Enrichment/Extension and Associated Websites sections. Plan accordingly. Lesson Presentation: 1. Project the image of the weather map (provided in this lesson plan). Engage the class by asking if there are any students who have thought about having or would like to have a career as a weatherman or weatherwoman on the evening news or with a large weather service such as The Weather Channel. Tell the students that you will provide an opportunity today for someone to demonstrate his/her weather communication skills by using the map and pretending to provide a weather report to their viewing audience. Allow a volunteer (or more than one) to take center stage and give it a try. Compliment the student(s) for effort and identify any accurate information provided in the presentation of the student(s). Then, direct student attention to the symbols on the map to either inquire or point out that the symbols provide information about what is actually happening with the weather. Tell the students that by the end of the lesson, they will be able to understand the symbols, and even if they are not interested in having a career as a weather reporter, they will be able to interpret the weather map. Additionally, inform the students that without a weather map or weather report, there are clues as to predicting the weather that you will share. 2. Explain or refresh student memory regarding characteristics or properties of cold and warm air. (Air has properties such as temperature, mass, volume, density, and pressure. Warm air has a higher temperature, can hold more moisture, and is less dense (molecules are spread farther apart). Warm air rises. Cold air has a lower temperature, holds less moisture, and air molecules are closer together, which results in cold air being denser than warm air. Cold air sinks. Cold air has a higher pressure than warm air.
Warm Air – Not as many molecules Cold Air – More molecules Source: http://virtualskies.arc. nasa.gov/weather/2.html
3. Use the background information to explain or refresh student memory regarding the definition of an air mass. Review some of the different kinds of air masses. 98
4. State that the boundary or transition area between two air masses is called a front. Basically, whichever air mass (warm or cold) is “intruding” into the area of a different air mass is the one we identify as the type of front being formed. For example, if a warm air mass is moving into the area of a cold air mass, we refer to the transition area between the two fronts as a warm front, since the warm air mass is replacing the cold air mass. As explained by Jack Williams with the Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association (AOPA) at http://www.aopa.org/asf/wx/articles/2457.html:
Meteorologists use the war-like term fronts for one of the atmosphere's key weather makers because Norwegian scientists developed the theory of fronts during World War I when headlines screamed about battles along the Western Front. The name seemed appropriate for the zone between contrasting air masses. As one air mass displaces another, the "battle" creates clouds, precipitation, changes in air pressure, and shifts in wind direction. This battle is sometimes mild and other times ferocious. 5. To explain the concept of warm and cold fronts, either play the video animation at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=huKYKykjcm0&list=PLF9AC393024338B0B, or verbally explain the animation as you play it using the site at http://www.suu.edu/faculty/colberg/hazards/weather/05_cnWfronts.html. 6. Tell the students that they will all be involved in simulating a cold front. Write “cold front” on the board. Distribute the cutouts to different volunteers. Position Source: the warm air mass and the Sun in front of www.crh.noaa.gov/lmk/soo/docu/wx_fntpcpn1.gif the room. Position the cold air mass in the back of the room. Use the Story of Cold Fronts (teacher page included in this lesson) to engage the students in the production/simulation as you read the story. 7. After the students have completed the cold front play/simulation, collect the cutouts and have all students return to their seats. Discuss the key characteristics of a cold front (provided on the story sheet). If students are not familiar with clouds, project or distribute the cloud identification pictures. 8. Tell the students that there are three additional fronts that they should know and understand. Write the following terms on the board: warm front, stationary front, and occluded front. Divide the class into three groups, and assign each group one of the three remaining fronts. Using the Three Additional Front (Descriptions), provide members of each group with only a copy of the front description assigned to them. Instruct each group to read the information regarding their assigned front and develop a way to act out/simulate the front using all of the members of their group. Tell them that they may use the available construction paper, markers, scissors, and tape if needed. 99
9. After sufficient time, call on each group to present their front presentation to the class. 10. After all groups have presented, review key characteristics of the warm, stationary, and occluded fronts. Emphasize to the students that the approaching and passing of fronts do not result in the same intensity of resulting weather conditions each time. The larger the difference between the characteristics of the fronts (e.g., temperature, pressure, humidity, etc.), the stronger and more impactful the front. Summarization: To summarize and reinforce the lesson, you may wish to show the short three-minute video at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vPC5i6w3yDI. Ask the students if they have any questions regarding the four weather fronts. Explain to the students that not only should they now understand how to better interpret the weather map that was displayed at the beginning of the class, they should now be aware of clues outside (such as clouds, pressure, and winds) that could help them predict approaching fronts and weather. Ask them why it might be beneficial to understand the clues that help identify approaching fronts. (As an example, a student might indicate being on the lake or ocean on a fishing trip. Maybe an individual did not look at the weather forecast and chose to go fishing to enjoy the lovely day outside. If he/she noticed changing wind and cloud conditions, it could be a clue that a cold front was fast approaching and he/she should get to shore as soon as possible. It is particularly beneficial for sailors to understand the sky.) Invite a student volunteer(s) to explain why understanding weather fronts is important. Confirm that the movement of weather fronts and what is happening along the fronts affects the weather we experience, which, in turn, affects daily attire, activities, and plans. Career Connection: (from http://quest.arc.nasa.gov/people/cfs/generic/meteorologist_ 118.pdf, http://quest.arc.nasa.gov/people/cfs/generic/climatologist_143.pdf, and http://futureflight.arc.nasa.gov/pdf/flght_service_station_brief_131.pdf): Meteorologist - A meteorologist collects weather data, surveys weather indicators and makes predictions regarding developing weather patterns. This individual advises air traffic control and other agencies about weather hazards such as thunderstorms, developing storm cells and fronts, turbulence, tornadoes, icing, flooding, flash flooding and other such weather-related phenomena. They issue to various governmental agencies and the public weather advisories for vehicles, aircraft, and watercraft. They use sophisticated computer software programs that assist them in modeling the potential flow and intensity of storm cells and fronts. They are also available to participate in weather related research projects that seek to provide more accurate forecasting methods over a longer time period.
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Climatologist - A climatologist collects climate data, investigates climate indicators and makes predictions regarding climate patterns. This individual uses computer models to study how Earth's climate changes with time. They use glacial ice cores, lake sediments, tree rings, and other sources of information to determine the climate in Earth's past. They use sophisticated computer software programs that assist them in modeling the Earth's climate and check that data against known information. They conduct research to determine if humans are affecting Earth's present and future climate. Some climatologists study climates on other planets in our solar system. The minimum education required for a meteorologist or climatologist position is a bachelor’s degree in meteorology or atmospheric sciences from an accredited college or university. Experience in computer modeling techniques is extremely helpful for this job. To do research, at minimum a master's degree is required, and a Ph.D. is highly desired for this position. Flight Service Station Briefer - This position is usually found at each area’s Flight Service Station, which are maintained by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). A Flight Service Station provides private pilots with the current and forecasted weather data and information they need to plan and make a safe flight. Private pilots call or stop in at the Flight Service Station in their area to update their weather information, submit their flight plan, or gather pertinent flight information. Briefers must gather weather information and data for the area in which the Flight Service Station services and be able to communicate the weather data, suggested routes, and terrain details to pilots who call or come in. The work is quite varied and would also require radar scope monitoring, radio communications with private pilots, flight planning assistance, and the weather data gathering and dissemination. Related job titles include: weather station briefing associate, flight service station representative, and flight weather briefer. A two or four year college degree must be obtained before initiation of Air Traffic Control (ATC) training. One must then successfully pass the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) aptitude test before beginning Air Traffic Control Training through the FAA. Evaluation: • Teacher observation • Group presentations Source: • Graphic organizer (optional – see Lesson http://www.crh.noaa.gov/lmk/soo/docu/wx_cyclone1.gif Enrichment/Extension) • Weather Fronts worksheet (optional; provided at end of lesson plan) Lesson Enrichment/Extension: • Have students create their own graphic organizer to record information about the four weather fronts, or provide students with a graphic organizer to record their information. An example of a graphic organizer is provided in this lesson plan. 101
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Another graphic organizer, if providing one to students, is available at http://pinemountainms.blogs.com/haley_costlow/files/fronts_foldable.ppt, and you can guide the students through the process of making this foldable flip-flop graphic organizer. Consider having students form jigsaw groups (a cooperative learning strategy) to complete the information on their weather front graphic organizer. Jigsaw instructions are available at http://www.learner.org/jnorth/tm/InstrucStrat19.html and http://www.jigsaw.org/steps.htm. Instruct students to create a Venn diagram to compare warm and cold fronts. Have students assemble the cloud cycle wheel available at Source: http://freeology.com www.srh.noaa.gov/srh/jetstream/downloads/cloudcycle.pdf /graphicorgs/ that displays types of clouds and their relationships to fronts.
Associated Websites: • Weather front videos o http://www.weather.com/video/creating-a-weather-front-19179 (shows experiment with warm and cold water; 2 min.) o http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vPC5i6w3yDI (explains the type of clouds and precipitation that occur with the four different fronts; 3 min.) o http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tkK4_F0VKhM (air masses, cold and warm fronts; 3 min.) o http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0zJv8OPOVkY (stationary and occluded fronts only; 10 min.) o http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LTA2pNiKDXI (occluded front only; 3.5 min.) o http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=huKYKykjcm0&list=PLF9AC393024338B0B (cold fronts and warm fronts only; 2.5 min.) o http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DJCIzpjBxuI (using clouds to predict approaching warm and cold fronts; 5.25 min.) • Weather front transparency http://www.teachervision.fen.com/tv/printables/concepts/es_transparencies_18.pdf • Weather front information o http://science.howstuffworks.com/better-weather-prediction-aheadinfo1.htm (weather introduction basics) o http://okfirst.mesonet.org/train/meteorology/Fronts.html o http://cde.nwc.edu/SCI2108/course_documents/earth_moon/earth/weathe r/airmasses.htm (includes tables showing what happens before, during, and after fronts pass in terms of winds, temperature, pressure, clouds, and precipitation) 102
http://www.ehow.com/info_8235159_lines-separate-different-airmasses.html o http://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/handbooks_manuals/aviation/pilot_ handbook/media/PHAK%20-%20Chapter%2011.pdf (great detailed information regarding front on pages 18 – 23 of this pdf) o http://www.eduplace.com/science/hmxs/es/pdf/5rs_3_8-4.pdf (student resource page) Weather presentation (a teacher’s video) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Tr9vMb44TZc Weather front animations o http://www.phschool.com/atschool/phsciexp/active_art/weather_fronts/ o http://aircrafticing.grc.nasa.gov/courses/inflight_icing/1_5_4.swf (no stationary animation) o http://www.classzone.com/books/earth_science/terc/content/visualizations /es2002/es2002page01.cfm?chapter_no=visualization (warm and cold fronts only) o http://www.suu.edu/faculty/colberg/hazards/weather/05_cnWfronts.html (warm and cold fronts only) Weather fronts PowerPoint presentations o www.barrington220.org/cms/lib2/IL01001296/Centricity/Domain/742/Wea ther%20Fronts%20teacher%20page.ppt o http://beaverssciencespot.weebly.com/uploads/1/4/0/0/14001976/air_mass es__fronts.ppt Air, front, and winds song (with visuals) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LD4hSW2mys0 Weather (general information) http://www.weatherwizkids.com/weather-forecasting.htm (student friendly) Excellent pictures of clouds, warm front, cold front, and occluded front http://www.free-online-private-pilot-ground-school.com/Aviation-WeatherPrinciples.html Cloud classifications and characteristics (pictures and charts) http://www.crh.noaa.gov/lmk/?n=cloud_classification http://www.windows2universe.org/earth/Atmosphere/clouds/formation_fronts.html o
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Source: http://www.crh.noaa.gov/lmk/soo/docu/wx_cdfnt1.gif
Source: http://www.crh.noaa.gov/lmk/soo/docu/basicwx.php
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Weather Map
Source: Civil Air Patrol’s Aerospace Dimensions: Air Environment
Make a transparency of this map to project in the classroom during step #1 of the lesson presentation procedures. (engagement activity)
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Story of Cold Fronts Credit: This was submitted by Karen Hooker from Williamsburg James City County Public Schools in Williamsburg, Virginia, for NASA's S'COOL Project. http://asd-www.larc.nasa.gov/SCOOL/lesson_plans/Fronts.html
Oh, what a beautiful warm day we have here in (name of city). The Sun is shining and children are playing outside, unaware of what is about to happen. A slight breeze is blowing in from the west. (Have a couple students stand behind the cool air mass and make blowing breezy motions and sounds onto the cool air mass. The motion for the cool air mass is to slowly walk towards the front of the room.) The air mass moving into (name of city) has a cooler temperature. As the two air masses collide into each other, they form a front. (Hold the yardstick up at an angle between them.) When two air masses meet like this, this line is called a front. When a warm air mass and a cool air mass come together, there is going to be a lot of motion and swirling of air (Have them carefully bump together and rub elbows.) The Sun will disappear (sun disappears), dark clouds will move in (gray cloud comes up front and turns lights out), and the air will swirl around. One of these air masses is going to rise up and the other will be pushed down. Any guesses as to which one will rise? (Discuss.) The warm air mass is going to rise up and the cooler air mass is going to push down under the warm air mass. (Have students holding air masses demonstrate.) This motion can cause a big reaction. There may be a lot of wind (have students quietly make wind noises), a tornado could occur (have tornado twirl through), there may be heavy rains (have students tap fingers on desk for rain), thunder (have students pound on desk for thunder), and lightning (have lightning symbol stand at lights and flicker them on and off). This action will happen and then be over with quickly (use a "stop" signal). As this front ends, the area will have cooler temperatures (have cool air mass, white puffy cloud, and sun stay up at the front of the room and all others fade to the back of the room), and the children once again will go outside to play in the little town of (city). -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Key characteristics of a cold front: • Movement: cold air advances and replaces warmer air • Density: dense and stays close to ground – sliding under less dense warm air • Speed: moves rapidly (about 20 – 35 mph, sometimes faster) • Temperature: decreases quickly and remains cooler after front passes • Clouds: before passing – cumulus; while passing – cumulus or cumulonimbus • Weather/Precipitation: depending on intensity – anything from heavy rain with a thunderstorm to tornadoes (most severe cold fronts) Inclement weather usually occurs as the front is passing through, not in advance of the front. • Winds: gusty • Pressure: falls as front passes, then gradually increases
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Source: http://science-edu.larc.nasa.gov/SCOOL/pdf/Cloud_ID.pdf
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Three Additional Fronts (Descriptions) Warm Front A warm front occurs when a warm mass of air advances and replaces a body of colder air. Warm fronts move slowly, typically 10 to 25 miles per hour (mph). The slope of the advancing front (which is not Source: http://www.crh.noaa.gov/lmk/soo/docu/wx_fntpcpn2.gif as steep as a cold front) slides over the top of the cooler air and gradually pushes it out of the area. Warm fronts contain warm air that often have very high humidity (a lot of moisture). As the warm air is lifted, the temperature drops and condensation occurs. Generally, prior to the passage of a warm front, cirrus or stratus clouds, along with fog, can be expected to form along the frontal boundary. In the summer months, cumulonimbus clouds (thunderstorms) are likely to develop. Light to moderate precipitation is likely, usually in the form of rain, sleet, snow, or drizzle, accentuated by poor visibility. The wind blows from the south-southeast, and the outside temperature is cool or cold, with an increasing dew point. Finally, as the warm front approaches, the barometric pressure continues to fall until the front passes completely. During the passage of a warm front, stratus-type clouds are visible and drizzle may be falling. The temperature rises steadily from the inflow of relatively warmer air. For the most part, the pressure levels off.
Warm Front Symbol Source: http://www.hpc.ncep.noaa.go v/html/fntcodes2.shtml
After the passage of a warm front, stratocumulus clouds predominate and rain showers are possible. The visibility eventually improves, but hazy conditions may exist for a short period after passage. The wind blows from the south-southwest. With warming temperatures, the dew point rises and then levels off. There is generally a slight rise in barometric pressure, followed by a decrease of barometric pressure. (Remember that the air behind a warm front is warm and moist, while the air ahead of a warm front is cooler and less moist.)
Credit: Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) at http://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/handbooks_manuals/aviation/pilot_handbook/media/PHAK%20%20Chapter%2011.pdf
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Stationary Front A stationary front occurs when neither of the two opposing fronts (a warm front and a cold front) seems to have enough force/pressure to advance and push the other out of the way. They move so slightly that they seem to remain still (stationary). A stationary front may exist over an area for hours, even several days. Areas experiencing a stationary front may experience cloudy and rainy conditions for an extended period of time. Sometimes, stationary fronts can cause flooding situations. A stationary front usually weakens and the two different air masses melt into one (no significant temperature or pressure difference). Sometimes, however, stationary fronts begin to move as one front grows stronger and replaces the other. If the warm air mass replaces the cold air mass, then the stationary front becomes a warm front. If the cold front overtakes the warm front, then the stationary front becomes a cold front.
Stationary Front Symbol Source: http://www.hpc.ncep.noaa.gov/ht ml/fntcodes2.shtml
warm
cold
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Occluded Front Occluded fronts involve three differing air masses and are classified as either cold occluded or warm occluded.
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In the cold occluded front, cold air moves in and collides with warmer air pushing the warm air aloft. Then, the leading edge of this cold front comes in contact with the trailing edge of the cooler surface air that was below the warm air. Because the advancing air is the coldest, it sinks to the surface and causes the cooler air to rise. However, the cooler air is still cooler than the warm air, so it continues to push the warm air above it.
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In the warm occluded front, cool air is advancing to collide with the air in your area. Since the cooler air is warmer than the colder surface air, the cooler air rides up over the cold air. Once again, though, the cooler air is cooler than the warm air that was already aloft, so the cooler air continues to push the warmer air up.
Occluded Front Symbol Source: http://www.hpc.ncep.noaa.gov/ html/fntcodes2.shtml
Source: http://yosemite.epa.gov/oaqps/EOG train.nsf/b81bacb527b016d785256e4a004c03 93/59a3adbe2b6fb90885256b6d0064a13b/$F ILE/Lesson%203.pdf
Credit: Civil Air Patrol’s Aerospace Dimensions: Air Environment
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Source: http://freeology.com/graphicorgs/
Sketch:
Symbol:
Sketch:
Symbol:
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Symbol:
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Symbol:
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Weather Fronts
Name ___________________________
Directions: For Parts A and B, write the letters of information that correctly match the characteristics of the specific fronts. Use each letter ONLY once.
Part A: Warm Fronts and Cold Fronts Warm Fronts
Cold Fronts
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
______________________________________
Front Characteristics: A. Steep slope B. After this front passes, there is a steady increase in atmospheric pressure C. Have denser air D. Have less dense air E. Brings warmer air F. Brings cooler air G. Brings drier air H. Brings air containing more moisture I. Has a gradual slope J. Usually associated with rain in advance of the front, and rain may be steady for several days
K. Is usually associated with more severe weather L. warmer air replaces colder air M. Colder air replaces warmer air N. Moves quickly O. Moves more slowly P. Symbol has blue triangles Q. Symbol is a purple line with half circles R. Clouds typically include cumulus and cumulonimbus S. Typically has cirrus clouds in advance of the front that eventually turn into layered (stratus-type) clouds
Part B: Stationary and Occluded Fronts Stationary Fronts
Occluded Fronts
______________________________________
Front Characteristics:
A. Warm air is between 2 colder air masses B. Has little, if any, movement C. May last and bring gray skies with rain or snow for days D. Symbol:
Part C: Using a map
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E. Has greater potential for severe weather F. Involves three air masses G. Typically collapses or turns into either a warm or cold front H. Symbol:
1. What type of front is approaching Atlanta, GA? ___________________________________ 2. In the next few hours, would you describe the temperatures in Minnesota as warmer, cooler, or unchanging? ___________________________________ 3. What type of front is nearest Bismarck, North Dakota? ______________________________________
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Weather Fronts
ANSWER KEY
Directions: For Parts A and B, write the letters of information that correctly match the characteristics of the specific fronts. Use each letter ONLY once.
Part A: Warm Fronts and Cold Fronts Warm Fronts D.
E.
H. I.
Cold Fronts J.
L. O. Q.
S.
A. B. C. F. G. K. M. N. P. R.
Front Characteristics: A. Steep slope B. After this front passes, there is a steady increase in atmospheric pressure C. Have denser air D. Have less dense air E. Brings warmer air F. Brings cooler air G. Brings drier air H. Brings air containing more moisture I. Has a gradual slope J. Usually associated with rain in advance of the front, and rain may be steady for several days
K. Is usually associated with more severe weather L. warmer air replaces colder air M. Colder air replaces warmer air N. Moves quickly O. Moves more slowly P. Symbol has blue triangles Q. Symbol is a purple line with half circles R. Clouds typically include cumulus and cumulonimbus S. Typically has cirrus clouds in advance of the front that eventually turn into layered (stratus-type) clouds
Part B: Stationary and Occluded Fronts Stationary Fronts
Occluded Fronts
B. C. G. H.
A. D. E. F.
Front Characteristics:
A. Warm air is between 2 colder air masses B. Has little, if any, movement C. May last and bring gray skies with rain or snow for days D. Symbol:
Part C: Using a map
E. Has greater potential for severe weather F. Involves three air masses G. Typically collapses or turns into either a warm or cold front H. Symbol:
1. What type of front is approaching Atlanta, GA? warm 2. In the next few hours, would you describe the temperatures in Minnesota as warmer, cooler, or unchanging? cooler 3. What type of front is nearest Bismarck, North Dakota? stationary 111
Source: http://www.nasa.gov/images/content/229642main_seasons_226-170.jpg
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Lesson 10
The Cycle of Seasons
Objectives: • Students will explain why the Earth has seasons. • Students will identify the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn. • Students will define equinox and solstice. • Students will identify the orientation of Earth relative to the Sun during vernal and autumnal equinoxes and summer and winter solstices. • Students will identify times of the year when equinoxes and solstices occur. • Students will relate the angle of the Sun’s rays meeting the surface of the Earth to the amount of energy over an area. National Science Standards: • Science as Inquiry • Physical Science - Motions and forces - Transfer of energy • Earth and Space Science - Structure of the Earth system - Earth in the solar system
Source: http://spaceplace.nasa.gov /resources/whats-new-plugs/seasons.png.png
Background Information: (from http://www.crh.noaa.gov/fsd/?n=season) The Earth has an elliptical orbit around our Sun. This being said, the Earth is at its closest point distance wise to the Sun in January (called the perihelion) and the furthest in July (the aphelion). But this distance change is not great enough to cause any substantial difference in our climate. This is why the Earth's tilt of 23.5º is all important in changing our seasons. Near June 21 (the summer solstice) the Earth is tilted such that the Sun is positioned directly over the Tropic of Cancer at 23.5º north latitude. This situates the Northern Hemisphere in a more direct path of the Sun's energy. What this means is less sunlight gets scattered before reaching the ground because it has less distance to travel through the atmosphere. In addition, the high sun angle produces long days. The opposite is true in the Southern Hemisphere, where the low sun angle produces short days. Furthermore, a large amount of the Sun's energy is scattered before reaching the ground because the energy has to travel through more of the atmosphere. Therefore near June 21, the Southern Hemisphere is having its winter solstice because it "leans" away from the Sun. Advancing 90 days, the Earth is at the autumnal equinox on or about September 21. As the Earth revolves around the Sun, it gets positioned such that the Sun is directly over the equator. Basically, the Sun's energy is in balance between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. The same holds true on the spring equinox near March 21, as the Sun is once again directly over the equator. 113
Lastly, on the winter solstice near December 21, the Sun is positioned directly over the Tropic of Capricorn at 23.5º south latitude. The Southern Hemisphere is therefore receiving the direct sunlight, with little scattering of the Sun's rays and a high sun angle producing long days. The Northern Hemisphere is tipped away from the Sun, producing short days and a low sun angle. What kind of effect does Earth's tilt and subsequent seasons have on our length of daylight (defined as sunrise to sunset)? Source: http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/multimedia/gallery /Solstice_Equinox-732X520.jpg Over the equator, the answer is not much. On or very close to the equator, daylight is basically within a few minutes of 12 hours year-round. The daylight difference is subtle in the tropics but becomes extremely large in the northern latitudes. In the mid latitudes, daylight ranges from about 15 hours around the summer solstice to near nine hours close to the winter solstice. Moving to the Arctic Circle at 66.5º north latitude, the Sun never sets from early June to early July. Around the winter solstice, the daylight only lasts slightly more than two hours. There becomes a profound difference in the length of daylight heading north of the Arctic Circle. Barrow, Alaska, at slightly more than 71º north latitude, lies just less than 300 nautical miles north of the Arctic Circle. Barrow sees two months of total darkness, as the Sun never rises for about a month on each side of the winter solstice. On the other hand, Barrow also has total light from mid-May to early August. What about the North Pole, or 90º north latitude? The Sun rises in the early evening near the spring equinox and never sets again until just after the autumnal equinox, or six months of light. Conversely, after the Sun sets in the midmorning just after the autumnal equinox, it will not be seen again until the following spring equinox, equating to six months of darkness. Materials: • 2 slices of bread (one of which is • Flashlight cut in half) • Globe • 1 cracker • 1/4 cup of peanut butter • 4 signs, each labeled as either December, March, June, or September • Dry erase board and markers (at least two different colored markers) Lesson Presentation: 1. Ask students to illustrate (using their own paper) the answer to this question: Why does Earth have seasons? Tell students that their illustration should at least visually explain why winter and summer occurs. (While students are drawing, walk around the room to view student work in order to obtain insight into their ideas.) 114
2. Invite a volunteer to draw his/her illustration on the board and explain it. Then, ask if someone else in the class has a different picture and explanation. Select such a student to come to the board and share his/her picture and explanation. Finally, ask if anyone else has a significantly different picture of explanation. If so, invite a third and final student to share his/her picture and explanation. Provided that you have at least two different pictures and explanations, allow the class to vote on which picture and explanation is correct. 3. Explain to the students that while the original question may seem very simple, there are many people, including adults, who cannot answer the question correctly. Explain that in the making of a 1988 film called A Private Universe, there were Harvard graduates that did not correctly explain what causes seasons here on Earth. Additionally, at a school nearby the college, many ninth-graders provided the same incorrect answers as the Harvard graduates regarding why Earth has seasons. Tell the students that by the end of the lesson, you expect everyone to be able to provide the correct answer with confidence (if they were not already able to do so). 4. Tell the students that you first want them to think about what Earth’s orbit around the Sun looks like. On the board, draw an example of Earth’s orbit around the Sun (do not include Earth on the drawing – just the Sun and the shape of Earth’s orbit). Tell the students that the shape of Earth’s orbit around the Sun is an ellipse, but it is fairly close to being circular, with the Sun being directly in the center. The average distance from the Earth to the Sun is 93 million miles. In reality, the Earth is a bit closer (about three million miles) to the Sun at one point in its path around the Sun.
Source: http://spaceplace.nasa.gov/seasons/aphelion-perihelion-lrg.png
Tell the students that the perihelion is the point in Earth’s orbit where it is closest to the Sun. Draw the Earth on this point on your picture on the board. Ask the class, “During what month do you think the Earth reaches perihelion (the point closest to the Sun)?” Confirm that the answer is January. Ask the class, “What season is occurring in the Northern Hemisphere during the month of January?” Confirm that the answer is winter, which disproves the theory that the seasons are caused by Earth’s distance from the Sun (e.g., winter occurs when Earth is farthest from the Sun).
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On your drawing, also include the Earth at the point of aphelion (point farthest from the Sun). Explain this location to the students and inquire about the month in which Earth reaches this point. Confirm that it occurs in July when we are experiencing summer. Again, this proves that distance from the Sun is not the reason for seasons like summer and winter. 5. Ask the students to think about how sunlight travels. Ask a student to come to the board and illustrate how a ray (or beam) of sunlight travels from the Sun to the Earth. Confirm that it travels in a straight line. 6. Tell the students that you want to do a brief experiment with light. •
Provide a student with a flashlight and ask him/her to stand about 12 inches from the board (or a sheet of chart paper on the wall). Ask him/her to shine the flashlight on the board. Invite another student to the board to draw the outline formed by the light shining on the board. If there are students who cannot see the circle of light www.nasa.gov/centers /langley/pdf/245895 shining on the board, invite them to quickly orient main_Meteorology themselves so that they can see how the light appears on TeacherRes-Ch4.r3 the board. Now, ask all students to be seated. Explain .pdf that the circle drawn on the board (or chart paper) shows that the energy from the light was concentrated to a small circular area.
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Ask the students to predict what will happen if the light hits the surface at an angle other than one that is directly overhead. Invite a student to come to the board and stand about 12 inches from it. Have him/her orient the flashlight to an angle of about 45º. (Simply move the flashlight either left or right about 45º from the previous position when it was shone directly overhead onto the board.) You may need to ask the student to physically move himself/herself a little to his/her left or right in order to have the light shining on the board overlap with the first outline that was drawn. Ask a student volunteer to use a different colored marker to trace the new outline formed by the light shining onto the board. Allow any students who cannot see the light shining on the board to orient themselves so that they can see it. Now, ask all students to be seated.
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Ask volunteers to compare and contrast light that directly hits a surface to light that hits a surface at a smaller/lower (or more slanted) angle. Confirm that the source of the light provided the same amount of energy each time. Confirm that an area that receives more direct sunlight receives energy that is concentrated in a smaller area. An area that receives sunlight at a smaller angle has energy that is scattered over a larger area, meaning that any one point does not have as much energy as a point in an area where sunlight came from almost directly overhead (a steeper, less slanted angle). 116
Ask the students to think about this like making a peanut butter sandwich. Show them 1/4 of a cup of peanut butter. Show them one whole slice of bread, a half of a slice of bread, and a cracker. Ask them which will result in a much more peanut buttery taste – spreading all of the peanut butter on the whole slice of bread, the half of a slice piece of bread, or the cracker. Confirm that the cracker is correct. There will be more peanut butter covering a smaller area. Explain that if a person chose to spread the peanut butter onto the whole slice of bread, he/she would still be using the same amount of peanut butter, but any point on the bread would not contain nearly as much peanut butter as a point on the cracker. This relates to light hitting Earth at direct and slanted angles. The smaller (less steep, more slanted) the angle of light, the energy is more scattered (or shared). When sunlight is more directly overhead (a larger angle from the horizon), its energy is more intense because it is not being scattered over a larger area. 7. In the front of the room, place a globe near the corner of the room. Stand back and shine the flashlight on the globe such that the light source is concentrated on the equator. (You may wish to project a square centimeter grid onto a globe.) Ask the students, “Do the Sun’s rays meet areas of Earth’s surface more directly (at about a 90º angle), or are the rays more slanted (oblique angles) when they reach Earth’s surface?” Confirm that the areas on Earth receiving the most direct sunlight are toward the middle of the Earth. Specifically, the light source is shining directly on the equator. The areas closest to the equator, areas up to the Tropic of Cancer and down toward the Tropic of Capricorn, are receiving sunlight that is close to being directly overhead. The farther north or south one travels from the tropics, the angles of sunlight hitting Earth are more slanted. 8. Ask the students if the orientation of the Earth to the Sun, as you have it displayed, stays the same all throughout the year. In other words, “Does the Sun always shine directly over the equator throughout the year?” Confirm that the answer is no, and ask if the students can explain why the equator does not receive direct sunlight each day of the year (even though it almost does). Tell the students that the same reason the equator is not the recipient of direct sunlight all year long is also the explanation for why we have seasons. Confirm that the answer is because the Earth is tilted on its axis at 23.5 degrees and revolves around the Sun. 9. Tell the students that they will engage in a simulation to explain how the tilt of Earth’s axis causes the seasons. •
Place a lamp (without a lampshade) on a desk in the middle of the room.
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Have the students form an ellipse that is actually close to being a perfect circle around the lamp.
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Winter Solstice: Give a globe to the student who is closest to the front, center of the room. Ensure he/she is holding the globe so that the North Pole is at a 23.5º angle tilted toward the front of the room. 117
Back of room
Front of room Source: South Carolina Department of Natural Resources-Southeast Regional Climate Center http://www.sercc.com/education_files/aer_spring_01.html
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Ask the student to orient the globe so that North America is experiencing daylight facing the light source. Ask the two students on either side of the student with the globe to describe the light that they see shining on the globe. (Ensure that the globe is oriented such that the North Pole is not receiving light.)
Winter Solstice Source: http://scijinks.nasa.gov/solstice
Ask the students to identify the hemispheres experiencing summer and winter. Confirm that the Southern Hemisphere is experiencing summer and the Northern Hemisphere is experiencing winter. Explain that during the winter, the North Pole is experiencing 24 hours of darkness. Ask the students, “What month does this represent?” Confirm that this position represents the month of December. Place the December sign on the wall behind the student with the globe. Ask, “Which place on the Earth is receiving the most direct sunlight, where light is the least scattered?” Confirm that the answer is the Tropic of Capricorn, a line of latitude that is 23.5º south of the equator. Areas in the Southern Hemisphere, therefore, are receiving the most direct sunlight. Tell the class that, in this position, the Earth is very close to being its farthest distance from the Sun. Ask if the students remember the name given to describe the Earth’s greatest distance from the Sun. Confirm that perihelion is the correct answer, and it occurs around the first part of January. 118
Tell students that the word “solstice” literally means, “sun stands still,” but its definition refers to the Sun being at its greatest distance above or below the equator. The winter solstice, which occurs on either December 21 or 22 each year, marks the beginning of winter in the Northern Hemisphere, but it also marks the time when the Sun is at its farthest distance below the equator. Tell students that the day of the winter solstice (either December 21 or 22) is the shortest day of the year in the Northern Hemisphere, but as the Earth continues to rotate in a counterclockwise direction around the Sun, the daylight hours during the day will begin to increase over the next few months in the Northern Hemisphere. •
Vernal Equinox: Have the students pass the globe counterclockwise until it reaches the student who is at the side, center of the room. Ensure that the globe is still tilted correctly at about 23.5º on its axis with the North Pole oriented toward the front of the room. Ask the students if they know what month this position represents. Confirm that it is March. Place the March sign on the wall behind the student. Ask the students on either side of the globe to describe where the Sun is hitting the Earth most directly and what they notice regarding the North and South Poles in terms of sunlight. Confirm that in this position at this time of year, the Sun’s rays are most directly reaching the equator. The North and South Poles are neither tilting toward nor away from the Sun. On March 20 or 21 of each year, the vernal equinox occurs. This means that the Sun is directly over the equator and each hemisphere receives equal amounts of sunlight and darkness during the day (about 12 hours of daylight and 12 hours of darkness). Equinox means equal night.
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Summer Solstice: Have the students pass the globe counter- clockwise until it reaches the student in the ellipse/circle who is closest to the back, center of the room. Follow the same procedure as the winter solstice, but use appropriate summer solstice information that includes the following: o The Sun’s rays are shining directly overhead at the Tropic of Cancer. o The summer solstice occurs on or near June 21 each year. o Earth reaches its aphelion during the first part of July.
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Autumnal Equinox: Have the students pass the globe counterclockwise until it reaches the student directly across from the student who represented the month of March. Follow the same procedure as the vernal equinox but note that the autumnal equinox occurs on September 22 or 23 each year. As the Earth continues to travel counterclockwise, the number of daylight hours each day in the Northern Hemisphere will grow shorter.
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Have the students pass the globe around until it reaches the December position again. Explain that this process continues year after year. 119
10. Ask the class what would happen if the Earth were not tilted on its axis. Confirm that there would be no seasons. The climate in an area would be what it normally is during the spring/fall equinoxes. (You may wish to model this by having students orient the globe such that the North and South Poles are straight up and down, not tilted. Using this orientation, all the students to pass the globe around the circle.) 11. Ask the students if they know what most of the Harvard graduates who provided an incorrect explanation as to why the Earth has seasons in the 1988 film A Private Universe stated. (Consider showing the clip at http://www.youtube.com /watch?v=p0wk4qG2mIg.) Confirm that they thought the seasons were caused by Earth’s distance from the Sun. Tell the students that they now know that this idea is incorrect, and they can now provide the correct answer. 12. Distribute the Seasons worksheet. Allow students to work individually or with a partner to complete the worksheet. Either collect the finished papers to grade or review the answers as a class. Summarization: Ask a student volunteer to explain why the Earth has seasons. Confirm that the answer is because the Earth is tilted on its axis and it travels around the Sun in an ellipse that is almost circular. Review definitions with the students such as equinox, solstice, aphelion, and perihelion.
Source: Rhcastilhos http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Seasons.svg
Remind the students that because Earth is round, the Sun’s rays fall on most of the Earth at slanted angles. Where sunlight strikes the Earth at more slanted or smaller angles (measuring from the horizon to the Sun’s ray), the amount of energy is scattered over a larger area, resulting in a decreased intensity of the Sun. Call out months of the year and have various students demonstrate where the Earth (globe) would be in relation to the Sun (lamp). Career Connection: (from http://www.bls.gov/green/solar_power/ and http://www.bls.gov/k12/nature03.htm) Computer Software Developer - Computer software developers are computer specialists who design and develop software used for a variety of purposes. In the solar power industry, computer software is used in forecasting weather and sunlight patterns to assess the feasibility and cost of generating solar power in a particular area. In power plants, software is used to monitor the equipment and to adjust the direction of mirrors or photovoltaic panels so that the maximum amount of energy is captured as the sun moves in the sky. Software developers are responsible for updating, repairing, expanding, and modifying existing programs. Software developers typically have at least a bachelor's degree in computer science or a related discipline, combined with experience in computer programming and software design. 120
Materials scientist - Materials scientists study the structures and chemical properties of various materials to develop new products or enhance existing ones. Current research in the solar power field is focused on developing new materials, especially thin-film cells, and decreasing the cost of photovoltaic panels. Materials scientists are also seeking to increase solar panel efficiency. Efficiency refers to the percentage of available energy that is actually harnessed by the solar cells. Most modern solar cells can only harvest about 10 to 15 percent of solar energy, with some types of panels capable of 25 to 30 percent efficiency. Finally, material scientists are seeking to create building-integrated solar energy technologies that address common complaints about solar panels taking away the aesthetic appeal of a building because of their large and bulky nature. Farmer - Farmers grow crops and raise animals. American farmers run some of the most productive farms in the world. Many sell their extra produce to other countries. Farmers decide when to plant, fertilize, harvest, and sell crops. Farmers watch the prices for the crops they produce and try to sell at the best time. They choose what types of machinery, seeds, and animals to buy. Farmers must be aware of new farming technology and learn about new farming methods. A farmer's work can be very hard. Hours are long, often sunrise to sunset. During busy seasons, a large farm can have more than 100 workers. During planting and harvesting seasons, crop farmers rarely have days off. The rest of the year, they sell their crops, fix machinery, and plan for the next year. Many people learn farming from growing up on a family farm. Young people also learn in farming clubs like Future Farmers of America (FFA) and 4-H. Students who want to be farmers should take classes in math, biology, and other life sciences. Modern farmers make complex scientific and business decisions, so even people who grew up on farms often need more education. More farmers are getting college degrees. Some farms offer apprentice programs. Assessment: • Teacher observation • Seasons worksheet • Consider using the thorough and thoughtful questions on the NASA worksheet available at http://astronomy101.jpl.nasa.gov/workshopfiles/SeasonsV8.pdf. Lesson Enrichment/Extension: • Engage students in a more detailed lesson regarding sunlight intensity and the seasons. Detailed lesson plans are available at http://oceanservice.noaa.gov /education/pd/oceans_weather_climate/weather_and_climate_basics/sunlight_int ensity_lesson.html and http://www.mjksciteachingideas.com/pdf/SeasonsAct.pdf. • Select a season-related lesson plan that includes more math-based activities from http://www.globe.gov/documents/356823/356868/earth_la_seaphen_s4.pdf. • Discuss the changing angle of the Sun as it occurs during a single day. Relate it to the heating that occurs during the day. 121
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Allow students to explore the interactive page at http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com /sites/007299181x/student_view0/chapter2/seasons_interactive.html.
Associated Websites: • Videos http://wn.com/Sun_Earth_season (6 min.) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1lPXZO38uDw (teacher uses interactive applications to explain angles and intensity of the Sun, along with seasons; 7 min.) • Earth, sun, and season relationship (interactive) http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/olcweb/cgi/pluginpop.cgi?it=swf::800::600::/sites /dl/free/0072482621/78778/Seasons_Nav.swf (also available at http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/007299181x/student_view0/chapter2 /seasons_interactive.html) • Science of seasons (includes dates of equinoxes and solstices through 2020) http://www.crh.noaa.gov/lmk/?n=seasons • Seasons information (including seasons on other planets) http://www.nasa.gov/audience/foreducators/postsecondary/features/F_Planet_Se asons.html http://www.lpi.usra.edu/education/skytellers/seasons/about.shtml • Information about the seasons http://www-istp.gsfc.nasa.gov/stargaze/Sseason.htm http://www.brighthub.com/science/space/articles/104232.aspx • When do seasons really begin http://www.badastronomy.com/bad/misc/badseasons.html • Change of seasons (views from space) http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/education/seasons.cfm • Origin of egg equinox standing myth http://www.badastronomy.com/bad/misc/egg_history.html • Find length of daylight for each day during a selected month for a selected location http://www.sunrisesunset.com/predefined.asp
Source: http://scijinks.nasa.gov/_media/en/site/solstice/seasons-earth-orbit_large.jpg
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Name ____________________________ The graphic image below shows the Earth at four different positions during the year.
Image: http://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov/Images/StarChild/solar_system_level2/vivaldi.gif
Numbers 1 - 4: Label Label the season that the Northern Hemisphere is experiencing in each of the Earth’s positions shown above. (Write the name of the season on the dotted line next to nearest to the red number. Numbers 5 – 6: Draw 5. Draw an arrow from the Sun to the Earth in position 1 to show which imaginary latitude line on Earth is receiving the most direct sunlight. 6. Draw an arrow from the Sun to the Earth in position 2 to show which imaginary latitude line on Earth is receiving the most direct sunlight. Numbers 7 – 12: Identify Write the correct position number(s) of Earth that correctly describes each of the following: 7. Solstice ____________ 8. Equinox ____________
9. Sun’s direct rays over Tropic of Cancer ____________ 10. Arctic Circle has 24 hours of darkness ____________
11. About equal amounts of daylight and darkness during a 24-hour period ____________ 12. Days (in terms of daylight) are getting shorter in the Northern Hemisphere as Earth continues to move forward from this position (or these positions) ___________ Numbers 13 - 14: Explain 13. Explain why the Earth has seasons.
14. Explain how the orientation of the Earth affects sunlight reaching the Northern Hemisphere in December. 123
The graphic image below shows the Earth at four different positions during the year.
Spring Winter Summer
Fall Image: http://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov/Images/StarChild/solar_system_level2/vivaldi.gif
Numbers 1 - 4: Label Label the season that the Northern Hemisphere is experiencing in each of the Earth’s positions shown above. (Write the name of the season on the dotted line next to nearest to the red number. Numbers 5 – 6: Draw 5. Draw an arrow from the Sun to the Earth in position 1 to show which imaginary latitude line on Earth is receiving the most direct sunlight. (Tropic of Capricorn, slightly below equator) 6. Draw an arrow from the Sun to the Earth in position 2 to show which imaginary latitude line on Earth is receiving the most direct sunlight. (equator) Numbers 7 – 12: Identify Write the correct position number(s) of Earth that correctly describes each of the following:
1 and 3 7. Solstice ____________ 2 and 4 8. Equinox ____________
3 9. Sun’s direct rays over Tropic of Cancer ____________ 1 10. Arctic circle has 24 hours of darkness ____________
2 and 4 11. About equal amounts of daylight and darkness during a 24-hour period ___________ 12. Days (in terms of daylight) are getting shorter in the Northern Hemisphere as Earth 3 and 4 continues to move forward from this position (or these positions) ___________ Numbers 13 - 14: Explain 13. Explain why the Earth has seasons. The Earth is tilted about 23.5 on its axis, and it revolves around the Sun. 14. Explain how the orientation of the Earth affects sunlight reaching the Northern Hemisphere in December. Because the Earth is round and is tilted on its axis, the Sun’s rays reach the Northern Hemisphere at more slanted angles during December. At more slanted angles, the Sun’s light is scattered over more area, making it less intense. 124
Lunar Learning – It Occurs in Phases
Lesson 11
Lesson Reference: The student simulation demonstrating the phases of the Moon is derived from a NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) lesson located online at http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/education/index.cfm?page=123. Objectives: • Students will identify the eight phases of the Moon by name and shape. • Students will simulate the eight phases of the Moon. • Students will simulate a solar eclipse and lunar eclipse. • Students will be able to explain why lunar and solar eclipses are rare. • Students will gain basic lunar facts to help them better describe the Moon and make comparisons to Earth. National Science Standards: • Content Standard B: Physical Science - Properties and changes of properties in matter - Motion and forces • Content Standard D: Earth and Space Science - Structure of the Earth system - Earth in the solar system Background Information: Earth’s moon is situated in an elliptical (oval-shaped) orbit around Earth. Because it is elliptical and not circular, the Moon’s distance from the Earth changes slightly, varying from approximately 252,000 miles (405,555 km) at its farthest point to 221,000 miles (355,665 km) at its nearest point, with the average distance being close to 240,000 miles (386,243 km). About 30 Earths could fit between the Earth and the Moon. While Earth’s diameter is about 7,920 miles (12,746 km), Earth’s Moon has a diameter of about 2,155 miles (3,468 km), which is close to 1/4 of the Earth’s diameter. Due to a weak gravitational pull (that is 1/6 that of Earth’s gravity), the Moon has no atmosphere. The gravity of the Moon is too weak to trap any gases, such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, etc. Because of this, there is no wind or air of any kind on the Moon. Sound travels through air; therefore, there are no sounds on the Moon. The Moon rotates on its axis in the same amount of time it takes to orbit the Earth; therefore, the same side of the Moon (near side) always faces the Earth. It takes the Moon about 27.3 days to make one revolution around the Earth and reappear against the same background of stars (known as a sidereal month). It takes the Moon about 29.5 days to go from its New Moon phase (where the Moon is aligned between the Earth and Sun), travel around the Earth (which is constantly in motion around the Sun), and return to its New Moon phase position. This is known as the synodic (pronounced sĭ-nŏd'ĭk) or lunar month. Since the length of one day on the Moon is almost a month, daytime on the Moon 125
lasts about 14 Earth days (one-half the orbit time). Temperatures on the Moon can rise above 250° F (121° C) during the day. Nighttime temperatures can go below -250°F (-157°C). As the Moon rotates around Earth, its position relative to the Sun changes. The phases of the Moon are explained in
Sidereal Month
Snyodic Month
27.3 days for Moon to make one orbit around Earth
29.5 days for Moon to return to its same position relative to the Sun and Earth (For example, New Moon to New Moon.)
Moon travels counterclockwise
Earth
Earth continues moving around Sun
M
Day 1
Earth
M
Not to scale
Moon travels counterclockwise
Day 1 SUN
Day 27.3
Earth
SUN
M
M
Earth continues moving around Sun
Day 29.5
Earth
Not to scale
detail within the Lesson Presentation (presentation step #9), and the pictures of the Moon phases will help explain the shapes of the Moon that are visible at different times during the month. Sometimes, the Moon passes directly in Earth’s shadow. When this happens, part or all of the Moon may not be visible. This is called a lunar eclipse and occurs when the Sun, Earth, and Moon line up in just the right way. If the Moon passes through the penumbra, the light shadow cast by the Earth, the 1. New Moon; 2. Waxing Crescent; 3. First Quarter; 4. Waxing Gibbous; 5. Full Moon; 6. Waning Gibbous; 7. Third Quarter 8. Waning Crescent Moon is partially eclipsed. If the Moon passes through the umbra, the darkest Source: http://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/StarChild/questions/phases.html part of the shadow cast by the Earth, the Moon is totally eclipsed. When the Earth’s shadow prevents the entire surface facing the Earth to be blocked, it is called a total lunar eclipse. If the Moon rotates around the Earth each month, why doesn’t a lunar eclipse occur each month? It is because the Moon is tilted about 5° in its orbital path around Earth compared to the orbital path of the Earth around the Sun; therefore, the Moon usually passes a little above or below the Earth. As explained in an article at Space.com:
To visualize, think of two Hula Hoops (one inside of the other) — one big and one small — floating on the surface of a pool. Push the
Source: http://lunar.arc.nasa.gov/science /images/eclipse.gif
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inner one down so that half of it is below the surface and half above. When the Moon gets into the ecliptic — right at the surface of the pool — during its full phase, then a lunar eclipse occurs.
Source: http://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov/Images/Star Child/icons/solar_eclipse.gif
On rare occasions, a solar eclipse occurs. This can only happen during the daylight hours when the Moon moves directly between the Sun and the Earth, blocking the Sun for a short time as it continues its orbit the Earth. This is rare, however, because the Moon’s orbital path around the Earth is tilted at about 5° compared to the orbital path of the Earth around the Sun.
The Moon consists mainly of solid rock covered with dust, or regolith (loose, fragmental material covering the surface). This fine dust covers the entire surface of the Moon. There are two theories regarding the origin of the dust. Some think the impact of meteoroids striking the surface pulverized lunar matter into dust, which settled to the surface slowly and evenly. Others think the dust is cosmic dust from space that the Moon’s gravitational pull brought to the surface. Earth has regolith also; however, as NASA’s Exploring the Moon Teacher’s Guide explains:
Source: NASA
By contrast, regolith on Earth is a product of weathering. Weathering encompasses all the processes that cause rocks to fragment, crack, crumble, or decay. These processes can be physical (such as freezing water causing rocks to crack), chemical (such as decaying of minerals in water or acids), and biological (such as plant roots widening cracks in rocks). The rock debris caused by weathering can then be loosened and carried away by erosional agents -- running water (fast-flowing rivers, rain, ocean waves), high-speed wind (by itself or sandblasting), and ice (glaciers).
A geologist-astronaut does field work on the Moon Geologist Harrison H. Schmitt examines a large rock at the Apollo 17 landing site. This large boulder contains numerous rock fragments that were smashed together by the huge impact event that made the 750-kilometer Serentatis basin on the Moon. Source: NASA
Primarily, the Moon has two types of terrain, highlands and lowlands. The highlands are filled with craters surrounded by mountains, and the lowlands are filled with craters that have been flooded with molten lava and appear as dark areas called maria (Latin for sea). The Moon has many different kinds of rocks. Moon basalt is a dark gray rock with tiny holes from which gas has escaped. It closely resembles Earth basalt, but contains different mineral combinations. On the Moon, basaltic lava makes up the dark, smooth surfaces of the lunar plains, which cover about half of the visible side of the Moon. 127
While there are no oceans, lakes, streams, or polar ice caps on the Moon, scientists had reason to believe that water ice might exist on the Moon due to evidence from the Clementine and Lunar Prospector missions, unmanned lunar missions in the 1990s. For water to exist, it would need to be in the form of water ice, which would only be possible in a dark or shaded area on the Moon, since areas exposed to sunlight would cause any water to quickly evaporate, and the gases would escape into space due to the Moon’s weak gravitational pull. Scientists were excited to find conclusive evidence of water ice on the Moon thanks to data obtained from NASA’s LCROSS (Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite) mission in 2009.
Artist's rendering of the LCROSS spacecraft and Centaur separation. Source: http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/ LCROSS/overview/index.html
Although the Earth and stars are beautiful to observe from the Moon, the Moon is a quiet, barren place with a black sky. To date, only twelve astronauts have walked on the Moon’s surface as part of NASA’s six Apollo missions between 1969 and 1972. Edwin “Buzz” Aldrin (the second man to set foot on the Moon after Neil Armstrong in the Apollo 11 mission) described the Moon as “magnificent desolation.” Could the Moon contain useful minerals that could be mined and used on Earth? Could humans build a colony that supports life and live on the Moon? Questions and exploration continues. Materials: • Baseball (or object of similar circumference, approximately 2.9 in or 7.4 cm) • Small marble (or object of similar size; consider making a clay ball of about 0.7 in or 1.8 cm) • String (at least 7.5 – 8.0 ft in length) • Small Styrofoam balls (one per student) • Wooden skewers or sharpened pencils (one per student) • Lamp (using bright, incandescent 100-watt bulb or higher with lampshade removed) • Extension cord • Computer with Internet and projection system (e.g., LCD projector) Advance Lesson Preparation: Place one Styrofoam ball on one end of each sharpened pencil or wooden skewer (covering the sharp end). Lesson Presentation: 1. Direct students’ attention to the baseball displayed at the front of the room. Tell the students that the ball represents Earth. Ask three volunteers to predict how far away the Moon would be from the Earth, assuming the actual size of the Earth was the baseball and the actual size of the Moon was a marble. (Show the marble.) 128
As each of the three students make predictions regarding where the marble (Moon) would be placed, have each student stand at the predicted distance from the baseball. 2. Ask the student volunteers how they arrived at their predicted distances. Ask the class what information would be needed to correctly solve this problem. Tell the class that the average distance from the Earth to the Moon is about 238,000 – 239,000 miles (depending on the source used for information), and Earth’s circumference is nearly 25,000 miles. This means a total of about 9.5 Earth circumferences is equivalent to the average distance between the Earth and the Moon (238,500 ÷ 25,000). 3. Wrap the string 9.5 times around the baseball, marking the stopping point with your finger. Stretch the string from the ball toward the back of the room and hold the marble at the stopping point to demonstrate the scaled distance from the Earth to the Moon. Tell students that the distance from the baseball to the marble is a little over seven feet. If you had used a globe to represent the Earth, the object representing the Moon would have been placed about 30 feet away. Using scaled models of objects and scaled distances is helpful to give us a better understanding of such immense objects and great distances. Another way to think about the distance between the Earth and the Moon is to think about how long it would take to drive about 238,000 miles. If a road around the equator existed, and you drove non-stop at approximately 70 miles per hour, you would drive one time around the Earth in about 357 hours, or about 15 days. Remember, that 9.5 times around the Earth equals about the same distance to the Moon (depending on where the Moon is in its orbit around Earth). So, 15 days to drive around Earth once equates to driving almost 143 days to get to the Moon at 70 miles per hour. (Apollo astronauts traveled at thousands of miles per hour and were able to reach the Moon in about three days.) 4. Ask the class the following questions: o o o
How long does it take the Moon to move around the Earth? Why are we able to see the Moon from Earth if it is so far away? Why does the Moon’s appearance seem to change shape over time? Confirm that it takes the Moon about one month (27.3 days) to make one complete revolution around Earth. We see the Moon because: it is so large; it travels high enough and fast enough to stay in its orbit around Earth; and its surface reflects light from the Sun, but there are times during the month when we cannot see the Moon. The Moon’s appearance seems to change due to the location of the Moon in its orbit in relation to the Sun. Emphasize that the Moon itself does not actually change shape. We see a recurring pattern of changes in the portion of sunlight reflected by the Moon, and we refer to these as the phases of the Moon.
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5. Tell the students that we see a recurring pattern of Moon phases in the night sky. Draw the following shapes on the board and review their names: Crescent (that reveals a small sliver of light), Half Moon (that we refer to as a Quarter Moon – either first of last quarter), Gibbous (which means “humped”), and Full Moon (that reveals a full reflection of one side of the Moon). 6. Tell the students that they will now engage in an activity that will help them understand how the Moon progresses through these phases, resulting in a total of eight phases. 7. Place the lamp in the middle of the room (with the help of an extension cord) and ask the students to form a circle (or ellipse) around the lamp. 8. Distribute a moon stick to each student. Tell the students that the lamp represents the Sun, their head represents Earth, and the white sphere on the stick represents the Moon. 9. Guide students through the following steps to simulate the eight phases of the Moon: 1) New Moon: Instruct students to face the lamp and extend the sphere directly in front of them, raising the sphere enough so they can also see the lamp. (Remind students not to stare at the light bulb.) This view simulates a New Moon. As students look at their moon, they Source: JPL (Jet Propulsion Laboratory) Education at will see that the sunlight is http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/education/index.cfm?page=123 shining on the far side, opposite their view of their moon. From Earth, the New Moon is not seen. Remind the students that as the face the lamp, if their nose was an observer on Earth, the observer would be experiencing daytime on Earth. The intense brightness of the Sun and the location of the Moon in its new moon phase make the Moon impossible to see during the day. If they could land on the side of the ball (the Moon) that is closest to them in this position, it would be dark. The sunlight side of the ball (the Moon) is the side that is closest to the lamp (Sun). Remind students that the Earth would continue spinning on its axis, so in this orientation, an observer on Earth would not see the Moon during the day or night sky. 2) Waxing Crescent: Keeping their arms extended in front of their bodies, have students turn their body and extended arm counterclockwise about 45 degrees. They should face their balls and observe what they now see. They should see the right-hand edge of the sphere illuminated as a crescent. The crescent starts out very thin and fattens up as the Moon moves farther away from the 130
Sun (as the student begins to turn in a circle). We say the Moon is waxing because we are seeing more of its surface illuminated. Waxing means becoming greater in amount. As explained by EarthSky, an award-winning online science resource:
The Moon’s orbital motion is toward the east. Each day, as the Moon moves another 12 degrees toward the east on the sky’s dome, Earth has to rotate a little longer to bring you around to where the Moon is in space. Thus the Moon rises, on average, about 50 minutes later each day. The later and later rising time of the Moon causes our companion world to appear in a different part of the sky at each nightfall for about two weeks. Then, in the couple of weeks after Full Moon, you’ll find the moon rising later and later at night. 3) First Quarter: Have students continue turning left so their moon and body are now 90 degrees to the left of their original position. The right half of the white ball should now be illuminated. This phase is called the First Quarter. 4) Waxing Gibbous: As students continue to turn, they see more and more illuminated surface.
First Quarter Moon
5) Full Moon: When students move their moon so it simulates the Moon being directly opposite the Sun, as viewed from Earth, the half viewed from Earth is fully illuminated. Instruct the students to hold their moon high enough so the "sunlight" is not blocked by their head. Using the background information, explain to the students that the Moon is tilted about Full Moon 5º in its orbital path around Earth, which is why the Moon is typically visible when the Earth is between the Sun and Moon. 6) Waning Gibbous: As students continue to turn, they start to see less and less of the illuminated surface, and while they no longer see a Full Moon, the majority of the Moon is still visible. Emphasize that waning means decreasing or diminishing in size or amount. 7) Third or Last Quarter: Keep students turning, with arms extended, so they are now three-quarters of the way around from their original position. This is the Third, or Last, Quarter. They should observe that the left half of 7 the white ball is now illuminated. (This is the opposite side of the First Quarter phase.) 131
This phase of the Moon occurs around 21 days (3 weeks) after the New Moon phase. The Third Quarter moon will appear around midnight and reach its highest point in the sky around dawn. Ask the students about what time the Moon, in its Third Quarter phase, will set. (If students held the Moon in place and continued to “spin on their axis,” they would notice that when they faced the lamp, it would represent noon (an observer located at a student’s nose would look directly overhead to see the Sun), and they would notice that the Moon would be at a right angle to their right, which represents the Moon that set in the western sky.) 8) Waning Crescent: The continued counterclockwise movement brings a thinning crescent and finally a return to a New Moon. From New Moon to New Moon takes about 29.5 days. 10. Help reinforce student learning by stating names of different phases of the Moon and have students orient themselves correctly to simulate the phase stated. 11. Ask the students how long it takes the Moon to complete one orbit (one revolution) around the Earth. Confirm that it takes about 27.3 days, about one month. This is the same amount of time that it takes the Moon to complete one rotation on its axis, which is why we always see the same side of the Moon. 12. Tell the students that on rare occasions, the orientation of the Sun, Earth, and Moon can result in solar and lunar eclipses. Tell students that eclipse is defined as “the partial or complete obscuring, relative to a designated observer, of one celestial body by another.” Remind students that eclipses are rare because of the tilt of the Moon’s orbital path compared to Earth’s orbit around the Sun. Lunar Eclipse: Ask students to orient themselves in such a way that Earth’s shadow totally eclipses a full moon. (Ensure each student’s back is facing the lamp (as in moon phase step #5) and that he/she has lowered his/her sphere so that his/her face blocks the light from the ball.) A lunar eclipse can be so slight that it is hard to detect, even with a telescope. At other times, a partial or total eclipse occurs that is easy to see, and everyone on the night side of Earth will be able to see it. Explain that if a lunar eclipse happens, it will only last for a few hours as the Moon continues to travel out of Earth’s shadow. Solar Eclipse: Ask the students to carefully orient themselves in such a way that simulates the Moon eclipsing the light of the Sun. Remind students not to stare directly into the light source. Students will find it helpful to squint their eyes. (Ensure students are facing the lamp with each having his/her sphere blocking part or all of the lamp light and creating a shadow on his/her face.) Part of the Earth is in the Moon’s shadow caused by the orientation of the Earth, Moon, and Sun. A solar eclipse can only occur during the day and during the New Moon phase. If a solar eclipse occurs, it will not last long (only a few minutes), and it will not be visible by everyone on the sunny-side of the Earth. Viewers should follow safety procedures for observing a solar eclipse in order to avoid damaging their eyes. 132
13. Have students return to their seats. Tell the students that a helpful trick to determine whether the Moon is waxing or waning is to imagine drawing a straight line from the bottom, center of the Moon to slightly above the top of the Moon. If the majority of the Moon’s illumination is to the right of the imaginary line, it forms the letter “b.” Think “birth” and associate this with growing (waxing). If the majority of the illumination is on the left, it forms the letter “d.” Think “dying,” and associate this shrinking (waning).
This “b” indicates a Waxing Crescent.
14. For review and further explanation, show the following short video clips: Phases of the Moon (3 min. 15 sec.): http://www.neok12.com/php/watch.php?v=zX5c60455063656c6c595c41&t=Moon Eclipse of the Moon (2 min.): http://www.neok12.com/php/watch.php?v=zX45704e56606151726a0377&t=Moon If further explanation is needed, select one of the Moon or eclipse simulator links listed in the Associated Websites section of this lesson plan. 15. (optional) Ask the students to illustrate the phases of the Moon (in order) on a piece of paper (or in a science notebook/journal). Also, have them illustrate and provide a written explanation of solar and lunar eclipses. Summarization: Review the lesson by asking student volunteers to name and draw the phases of the Moon in order (a different volunteer for each successive Moon phase). Ask the class why lunar and solar eclipses do not often occur. Ask other review questions as appropriate. Remind the students that while they may not pay much attention to the phases of the Moon, the Moon’s rotation around the Earth is important. Phases of the Moon may be a factor in scheduling a camping trip. Lunar phases are certainly a consideration for military operations occurring at night. Additionally, the Moon’s rotation around Earth helps stabilize our planet in regards to its speed, its slight wobble, and its slight tilt on its axis. The Moon also affects the tides of our oceans, creating low and high tides (with high tides occurring when the Moon is new or full.) Knowing the scientific explanation for the Moon’s appearance helps people understand the world around them and the relationship of motion among the Earth, Moon, and Sun. Career Connection: (from http://www.onetonline.org/link/summary/19-2011.00 http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/oceanographer.html)
and
Astronomer – The duties of an astronomer include observing, researching, and interpreting astronomical phenomena to increase basic knowledge or apply such information to practical problems. Sample job titles include professor, assistant professor, astronomer, research scientist, and lunar and planetary institute director.
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Physical Oceanographer – A physical oceanographer studies the physical conditions and physical processes within the ocean such as waves, currents, eddies, gyres and tides; the transport of sand on and off beaches; coastal erosion; and the interactions of the atmosphere and the ocean. They examine deep currents, the ocean-atmosphere relationship that influences weather and climate, the transmission of light and sound through water, and the ocean's interactions with its boundaries at the sea floor and the coast. Oceanographers must have a keen understanding of biology, chemistry, geology, and physics to unravel the mysteries of the world ocean and to understand processes within it. Evaluation: • Teacher observation • Student illustrations as described in step #15 of the Lesson Presentation Lesson Enrichment/Extension: • Phases Game: Set up - Develop approximately two sets of eight questions regarding the Moon. Make a copy of the sets of questions for each student. Divide students into teams of approximately four members per team. Copy a set of the Moon Phases Cards (shown at the end of this lesson plan) for each team; however, divide the cards into two sets labeled A and B. (The baggie labeled A will have four of the moon phase cards, and the other baggie labeled B will have the remaining four moon phase cards needed to create a complete moon phase cycle.) To play – Divide the students into the teams. Distribute the first set of eight questions to each member of each team. Each team member must write the answers to the questions on his/her own paper, and teams may openly discuss answers (but quietly so as not to allow other teams to overhear answers). When a team believes they have the correct answers, a representative from that team should take one worksheet to the teacher to be graded. If all of the answers are correct, the teacher will give the representative Baggie A, along with the second set of eight lunar questions. If all of the answers to the first set of lunar questions are not correct, the teacher marks an “X” on the paper, and the team member must return to his/her team to try make appropriate corrections. (When a representative from that same team tries again, he/she must take a different team member’s worksheet that does not have an “X.” If a team goes through each team member’s worksheet without getting 100% correct, they are no longer in the game.) Play continues in the same manner once a team receives the second set of lunar questions. Provided a team gets 100% on at least one team member’s worksheet, the team will receive Baggie B (containing the remaining moon phase cards). The first team to place the moon phase pictures in order, beginning with the New Moon, wins. 134
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Enrich students’ understanding of a solar eclipse by following the detailed lesson available at http://www.kidseclipse.com/pages/a1b3c1d1.htm. Explore how the Sun and Moon appear to be the same size in the sky by conducting the activity described at http://www.kidseclipse.com/pages/a1b3c2d1.htm. Share myths, stories, and historical information concerning eclipses. Visit http://www.kidseclipse.com/pages/a1b3c5d0.htm for this interesting information. Consider asking your students to write a creative story to explain an eclipse. Explain the difference between a sidereal and lunar month by showing the animation at http://www.sumanasinc.com/webcontent/animations/content/sidereal.html Allow students to play the online game: Lunar Cycle Challenge. http://sciencenetlinks.com/interactives/moon/moon_challenge/moon_challenge.html
Associated Websites: • Moon Phase Simulators http://astro.unl.edu/naap/lps/animations/lps.html http://aspire.cosmic-ray.org/labs/moon/lunar_phase3.swf http://www.harcourtschool.com/activity/moon_phases/ • Lunar Eclipse Simulator http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/java/scienceopticsu/lunar/index.html • Moon Phase Video http://www.neok12.com/php/watch.php?v=zX6b5c7f0456765261795b6b&t=Moon • Understanding the moon phases (with links for details regarding each phase) http://earthsky.org/moon-phases/understandingmoonphases • Moon phases song http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HkvlrWpsnuQ • Moon Information http://www.astronomy.ohio-state.edu/~pogge/Ast161/Unit2/phases.html http://science-class.net/Notes/Notes_MoonPhases_7th.htm http://science-class.net/Astronomy/MoonPhases.htm (great variety of links) http://www.astronomy-for-kids-online.com/themoon.html http://www.neok12.com/Moon.htm (links to pictures, games, and videos) • Sidereal and Lunar Month http://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/StarChild/questions/question32.html http://www.sumanasinc.com/webcontent/animations/content/sidereal.html • A solar eclipse as seen from the International Space Station (29-second video clip) http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/videogallery/index.html?media_id=144197701 • The Moon’s orbit and rotation http://www.windows2universe.org/the_universe/uts/moon1.html • Detailed, reader-friendly eclipse information (Moon appears red during total lunar eclipses) http://www.mreclipse.com/Special/LEprimer.html • Moon and tides: http://home.hiwaay.net/~krcool/Astro/moon/moontides/ • Find moonrise and moonset times each day during a selected month for a selected location http://www.sunrisesunset.com/predefined.asp 135
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Information about the current position of the Moon for the night sky http://earthsky.org/tonight http://stardate.org/nightsky/moon (shows monthly calendar) Moon Phases Cards (a set of 8 cards for Phases Game described in Lesson Enrichment/Extension)
Source: http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/multimedia/gallery/Earth_Heart_01_a.jpg
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Lesson 12
Search for a Habitable Planet
Lesson Reference: Ares NASA Johnson Space Center’s Search for a Habitable Planet lesson that is part of the solar system activities located online at http://ares.jsc.nasa.gov/Education/pdf_files /ModelingSolarSystem.pdf Objectives: • Students will design a creature that includes some specifically provided characteristics. • Students will document planetary descriptions/properties (such as surface type, surface composition, atmosphere, temperature, etc.) of eight planets. • Students will use application, analysis, and evaluation skills to match invented creatures with potentially appropriate planetary habitats. • Students will match the eight planets in the activity to the eight planets in our solar system. National Science Standards: • Science as Inquiry • Life Science - Structure and function in living systems - Diversity and adaptations or organisms • Earth and Space Science - Earth in the solar system • Science in Personal and Social Perspectives - Populations, resources, and environments
Average Planetary Temperatures Credit: Lunar and Planetary Institute (LPI) Source: http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/multimedia /display.cfm?IM_ID=169
Background Information: (from http://ares.jsc.nasa.gov/Education/pdf_files/ModelingSolarSystem.pdf)
This lesson has students take the places of extraterrestrial creatures exploring our solar system in search of new homes. They define creature life requirements and relate them to planet characteristics in order to choose homes. Several of these creatures have life requirements quite unlike life as we know it, where water and carbon are essential, and some are downright impossible. The goals here are not to study biochemistry, but habitability of planets. Bizarre creatures have to be invented for them to find homes on some of the planets in our solar system. Another goal is to encourage creativity and teamwork in designing creatures and selecting planets. This activity is one that is outside of the box. 137
This lesson focuses on characteristics of planets that make them habitable. Living creatures need food to eat, gas to breathe, and a surface that provides a comfortable temperature, gravity, and place to move around. These requirements are related to what the planet’s surface and atmosphere are made of, and how large (gravity) and close to the Sun (temperature) the planet is located. The inner planets are small (low gravity), relatively warm, and made of solid rock. Some of them have atmospheres. The outer planets are large (high gravity), cold, and made of gaseous and liquid hydrogen and helium. A creature that might be comfortable on a gas giant would not be comfortable on a small rocky planet and vise versa. Materials: • Creature Cards (one copy) • Planet Characteristics (one copy per student) • Solar System Images and Script (one copy for the teacher) • Dry erase board and marker • Art supplies (e.g., Styrofoam shapes, pantyhose eggs, foil, toothpicks, cotton balls, bubble wrap, wiggly eyes, buttons, beads, pipe cleaners, straws, paper, markers, glue, scissors, etc.) Lesson Presentation:
Part One
1. Set the stage by reading the following introduction:
We are space travelers from a distant star system. The crew of our spaceship includes six different types of creatures who live on different planets in that star system. Our star is expanding and getting very hot. Our home planets are heating up and soon we will need new places to live. It is our mission to find habitable planets for our six different types of creatures with different life requirements. In all, we need to find new homes for five billion inhabitants. First we need to know what makes a planet habitable so we can set up probes to measure the characteristics of various planets. The different requirements for life can be related to measurable planetary characteristics. What do creatures require to live?
2. Brainstorm requirements and characteristics needed for creatures to live. Lead the students in producing a table similar to the one below. Encourage free-thinking; there aren't specific right answers, but lead students to the following topics, among others. Life requirements
Planet characteristics
food to eat
surface & atmosphere composition
gas to breathe
atmosphere composition
comfortable temperature
temperature range
ability to move
surface type (solid, liquid, gas)
gravity
size 138
3.
Ask students what kinds of probes might be used to measure these characteristics. Answers may range from general to specific and may be based on science fiction. Examples may include cameras, radar, thermometers, and devices to measure magnetics, altitude, and light in all wavelengths from radio waves, through infrared, ultraviolet, and X-ray to gamma-ray.
4. Divide students into six or more teams (more than one group can design the same creature). Explain that each team represents one of the six different types of creatures on our mission. Today we will make models of creatures having specific life requirements. Later we will collect data on a new planetary system in order to search for new homes. 5. Distribute one creature card to each team. Tell students that each team is supposed to create a creature that fits the characteristics on their creature card. Students may select art supplies (or drawing supplies) and should be able to complete their creatures in approximately 15 - 30 minutes. Students will name their creature ambassador and be ready to introduce it to the class. Encourage teamwork and creativity! (Handle any questions about food and gases as they come, but do not provide this vocabulary ahead of time unless it comes up during brainstorming. Simply explain that they are various chemical elements or compounds. They are needed only for matching with planetary characteristics and should not be tested vocabulary.) Creature
Food
Breathes
Motion
Temperature
A
helium
hydrogen
flies
cold
B
rock
carbon dioxide
flies
hot
C
carbon
oxygen
walks
moderate
D
methane
hydrogen
swims
cold
E
water
carbon dioxide
walks
moderate
F
carbon
oxygen
swims
moderate
6. Ask each team to introduce their creature ambassador and to explain their creature's needs and any specific features of the model. (This will take longer than expected because students really get involved with their creatures.)
Part Two: Tour solar system and evaluate for habitability
7. Distribute a copy of the Planet Characteristics chart (student sheet) to each student. Prepare students for a solar system tour. Tell students that they will take notes on each planet as you guide them on a tour of this solar system. State that the information will be helpful as they search for habitable planets for creatures. (Students will work in the same teams as when they made creatures.) 8. Using the Solar System Images Script, read the text provided (starting at the top and continuing through the planets). 139
9. Have teams compare the planet information that they recorded on their chart with the creature requirements on their creature card. Each team should decide which planet or planets (if any) would make a suitable habitat for their creature. 10. Invite each team to share and explain their decisions. Record student decisions (the matching of creatures with a habitable planet) on the board. The chart below shows appropriate matches. (The chart below also shows the names of the planets in our solar system that match the planet numbers. Do not reveal this information to students yet, even though they may have already made the connection.) Creature Planet(s) A
3, 4 (Saturn & Jupiter), but also 1, 2 (Neptune & Uranus)
B
7 (Venus)
C, F
6 (Earth)
D
1, 2 (Neptune & Uranus)
E
5 (Mars)
No creatures can live on planet 1 (Mercury) because there is not enough gas to breathe. 11. Ask students to create a finale or read the finale below. Now that the creatures have evaluated habitable planets, we will send down spaceships to check out the surfaces in detail. Creatures A, B, D, and E find uninhabited planets that are just suited to their needs. They decide to settle on their chosen planets. Creatures C and F are both interested in the same planet. Creature F finds the salt water to be a perfect home for it, while creature C finds the land to be overpopulated and polluted. They decide that there is not room for one billion more inhabitants and decide to look for a habitable planet in another solar system. 12. Ask students to look at their Planet Characteristics sheet. Tell the students that the characteristics for each planet are actual characteristics of planets in our solar system. Call on student volunteers to match a numbered planet with its correct planet name in our solar system. (Correct answers are listed in the table above and on the Planet Characteristics – Answer Key page.) Summarization: Discuss the relationship between planetary characteristics/properties and living organisms. Ask the students if they would change any features on their creatures after reading about the properties of the planet that might best suit their creature. (For example, if creature B was a perfect match for Planet 7 (Venus), since this planet has such a thick atmosphere, would that affect the thickness and/or size of the creature’s wings?) 140
Career Connection: (from http://astroventure.arc.nasa.gov/is/pdf/AVCFS-astrobiologist .pdf and http://science.jpl.nasa.gov/PlanetaryScience/index.cfm) Astrobiologist – Astrobiologists study life in the universe: how it began, where it’s located, and how it has evolved or changed over time. Three main questions drive their research: How did life begin and evolve? Is there life elsewhere in the universe? What is the future for life on Earth and beyond? Astrobiologists need to understand how many different kinds of science work together. These kinds of science may include biology (microbiology, botany, physiology, zoology), chemistry, physics, geology, paleontology and astronomy. Some astrobiologists spend time writing proposals to ask for funding for their research. They usually work regular hours in laboratories and use microscopes, computers and other equipment. Some use plants and animals for experiments. Many do research outside, and many work with a team. Go online to read about a real astrobiologist, Tori Hoehler, at http://quest.nasa.gov/people/bios/astrobiology/CFS-pdf_files/CFS-hoehlert.pdf. The minimum education required for this position is a bachelor’s degree in biology, astronomy, space science, chemistry or another appropriate subject from an accredited college or university. This course of study must include at least 20 semester hours of physical science or engineering or experience that leads to the understanding of the equipment used for manned aerospace flights. To do research, a Ph.D. is highly desired. Geophysicist - Geophysicists study many physical features of a planet, including its gravity, magnetic field, earthquakes, and internal heat and energy. They use the laws of physics to explore deep within a planet’s interior and to examine a planet’s surface and atmosphere. Geophysicists work in the field to collect data and take measurements. They also work with computers to create models of planetary processes. Related job titles include: geologist, volcanologist, seismologist, hydrologist, geomorphologist, and atmospheric scientist. Geophysicists begin their careers with a bachelor’s degree in geophysics, physics, geology, computer science, or another related science. A strong background in math and science is necessary. You will most likely need at least a master’s degree to become a geophysicist, and a Ph.D. will greatly improve your chances of achieving your dream career. Part-time fieldwork and laboratory work during college is highly recommended to gain hands-on experience. Evaluation: • Teacher observation • Created creature presentation • Planet Characteristics chart • Student creature and planet pairings. (Do not require a perfect match, but allow students to think critically and creatively. Allow adaptations of the environment, such as turning water into hydrogen and oxygen, and other reasonable modifications.) 141
Lesson Enrichment/Extension: • Ask students to write a paragraph explaining why the planet they found will or will not be suitable for their creature. The paragraph could be in the form of a news report to be sent back to their dying solar system. • Conduct the Solar System in My Pocket lesson at http://nightsky.jpl.nasa.gov/docs/SSPocketSS.pdf to provide students with a better idea of the scale model of our solar system. A video presentation of this activity is available at http://nightsky.jpl.nasa.gov/download-view.cfm?Doc_ID=392. Source: • Discuss planetary characteristics that are required for human http://nightsky.jpl.nasa. gov/images/Pocketss.jpg survival and that are provided on Earth. A chart is provided at the end of this lesson plan that may be useful for such a discussion. • Engage students in a lesson focused more upon finding, studying, and designing planets that are habitable specifically to humans using the information and procedures available at http://astroventure.arc.nasa.gov/teachers/pdf/AVGeolesson-1.pdf. • Work with students to help them develop a musical about planets and the solar system. Visit http://discovery.nasa.gov/musical/produce.cfml for details. Associated Websites: • Planet information o http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/index.cfm o http://science.nationalgeographic.com/science/sp ace/solar-system Source: http://solarsystem.nasa.gov o http://www.kidsastronomy.com/the_planets.htm /images/OSS_708.jpg o http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planetselector.cf m?Object=Mercury (short, interesting information about each planet) o http://discovery.nasa.gov/musical/planetary.cfml (planetary musical, a rap song/video, 5.75 min.) • Why Pluto is no longer a planet (video explanation) http://www.neok12.com/php/watch.php?v=zX74496e076e565641416551&t=SolarSystem (3.5 min) • Mars Facts http://quest.nasa.gov/aero/planetary/mars.html • Planet lithographs (download pdf files) http://www.nasa.gov/audience/foreducators/topnav/materials/listbytype/Our_Sol ar_System_Lithograph_Set.html
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Creature Cards We are space travelers from a distant star system. The crew of our spaceship includes six different types of creatures who live on different planets in that star system. Our star is expanding and getting very hot. Our home planets are heating up and soon we will need new places to live. It is our mission to find habitable planets for our six different types of creatures with different life requirements. In all we need to find new homes for five billion inhabitants. Your task: 1) Design a creature that fits the following needs for life. 2) Give it a name. 3) Introduce it to the class and explain how it meets its needs for life. We are space travelers from a distant star system. The crew of our spaceship includes six different types of creatures who live on different planets in that star system. Our star is expanding and getting very hot. Our home planets are heating up and soon we will need new places to live. It is our mission to find habitable planets for our six different types of creatures with different life requirements. In all we need to find new homes for five billion inhabitants. Your task: 1) Design a creature that fits the following needs for life. 2) Give it a name. 3) Introduce it to the class and explain how it meets its needs for life. We are space travelers from a distant star system. The crew of our spaceship includes six different types of creatures who live on different planets in that star system. Our star is expanding and getting very hot. Our home planets are heating up and soon we will need new places to live. It is our mission to find habitable planets for our six different types of creatures with different life requirements. In all we need to find new homes for five billion inhabitants. Your task: 1) Design a creature that fits the following needs for life. 2) Give it a name. 3) Introduce it to the class and explain how it meets its needs for life. We are space travelers from a distant star system. The crew of our spaceship includes six different types of creatures who live on different planets in that star system. Our star is expanding and getting very hot. Our home planets are heating up and soon we will need new places to live. It is our mission to find habitable planets for our six different types of creatures with different life requirements. In all we need to find new homes for five billion inhabitants. Your task: 1) Design a creature that fits the following needs for life. 2) Give it a name. 3) Introduce it to the class and explain how it meets its needs for life.
Creature A Food – Helium Breathes – Hydrogen Motion – Flies Temperature - Cold
Creature B Food – Rock Breathes – Carbon Dioxide Motion – Flies Temperature - Hot
Creature C Food – Carbon Breathes – Oxygen Motion – Walks Temperature - Moderate
Creature D Food – Methane Breathes – Hydrogen Motion – Swims Temperature - Cold
Source: http://ares.jsc.nasa.gov/Education/pdf_files/ModelingSolarSystem.pdf
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Creature Cards (continued) We are space travelers from a distant star system. The crew of our spaceship includes six different types of creatures who live on different planets in that star system. Our star is expanding and getting very hot. Our home planets are heating up and soon we will need new places to live. It is our mission to find habitable planets for our six different types of creatures with different life requirements. In all we need to find new homes for five billion inhabitants. Your task: 1) Design a creature that fits the following needs for life. 2) Give it a name. 3) Introduce it to the class and explain how it meets its needs for life.
Creature E Food – Water Breathes – Carbon Dioxide Motion – Walks Temperature - Moderate
We are space travelers from a distant star system. The crew of our spaceship includes six different types of creatures who live on different planets in that star system. Our star is expanding and getting very hot. Our home planets are heating up and soon we will need new places to live. It is our mission to find habitable planets for our six different types of creatures with different life requirements. In all we need to find new homes for five billion inhabitants. Your task: 1) Design a creature that fits the following needs for life. 2) Give it a name. 3) Introduce it to the class and explain how it meets its needs for life.
Creature F Food – Carbon Breathes – Oxygen Motion – Swims Temperature - Cold
Source: http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/mobile/images/beam_app.png
Source: http://ares.jsc.nasa.gov/Education/pdf_files/ModelingSolarSystem.pdf
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Planet Characteristics Student Sheet
Planet Size # (Diameter)
Surface type & Composition
Atmosphere
Temperature
Other
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
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Solar System Images and Script Today, we are traveling through an outer section of the Milky Way galaxy. There are many, many stars. We are approaching a medium-sized star, the type that often has habitable planets. As we draw closer we see what appears to be eight planets orbiting this star. We will tour this planetary system and use our probes to measure planet characteristics in our search for a habitable planet. Record information about the planets as we take our tour. We will evaluate our results to look for a new place to live. We will now tour this new planetary system, starting from the outside and going toward the star. We are approaching the first planet. 1. The first planet is medium large (49,500 km; 30,757 mi) and made of liquid hydrogen and helium. It has a thick atmosphere of hydrogen, helium, and methane. Its surface is not solid. The average temperature is very cold (-235ºC; -391ºF), and the planet is consistantly windy with intense wind speeds (reaching 1,931 kph; 1,200 mph). 2.
The second planet is very similar to the first except that it has a small ring system. It is medium large (51,000 km; 31752 mi) and made of liquid hydrogen and helium. It also has a thick atmosphere of hydrogen, helium and methane and is very cold (-221ºC; 391ºF).
3.
The third planet is large (120,500 km; 74,875 mi) and has an extraordinary ring system. It has no solid surface, but is a giant mass of hydrogen and helium gas outside and liquid hydrogen inside. The planet is less dense than water. It cold float in a tub of water, if the tub were big enough. The average temperature here is quite cold (-180ºC; -292ºF).
4.
The fourth planet is the largest (143,000 km; 88,856 mi) in this planetary system. Like the third, it is a gas giant made of hydrogen and helium with no solid surface. It is also cold (-150ºC; 238ºF) in the upper atmosphere, but increases in temperature and pressure and becomes liquid in the interior. Gravity is quite powerful here; it’s gravitational pull is stronger than any other planet in this system. The fifth planet is small (6,786 km; 4,217 mi) and rocky. There is a high iron content on the surface, and there is some water ice in polar regions. The thin atmosphere is made up primarily of carbon dioxide. The temperature is moderate (-23ºC; -9.4ºF), but in the summer, the temperature at the equator can reach 70ºF.
5.
6.
The sixth planet is medium small (12,750 km). The surface is made of liquid water and rock with some carbon compounds. The atmosphere is mostly nitrogen and oxygen with some carbon dioxide and water vapor. The average temperature is moderate (15ºC; 59ºF). The gravitational pull of this planet is very similar to the third planet.
7.
The seventh planet is also medium small (12,100 km; 7,519 mi). The atmosphere contains clouds of sulfuric acid droplets. The atomsphere is made of mostly carbon dioxide that is so thick that we can't see the rocky surface beneath it; we need our radar probes. The planet is covered with many volcanoes, some of which may be active. The atmospheric pressure is very great (90 times greater than the sixth planet). The average temperature here is very hot (465ºC; 869ºF); making this the hottest planet in this solar system. The ninth planet is tiny (4880 km) and rocky. It is covered with craters. It has almost no atmosphere (just a hint of helium). Temperatures are generally hot, but extremely variable, ranging from -170ºC (-274ºF) on the space-facing side to 350ºC (662ºF) on the star-facing side.
8.
We have now finished our tour and its time to analyze the data. Teams will decide which planet(s) will support life for their creatures. Source: http://ares.jsc.nasa.gov/Education/pdf_files/ModelingSolarSystem.pdf (with some added information)
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Planet Characteristics – Answer Key Teacher Sheet
Planet Size # (Diameter) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Surface type & Composition
Atmosphere
medium large 49,500 km 30,757 mi medium large 51,100 km 31,752 mi
liquid hydrogen, helium
thick hydrogen, helium, methane
liquid hydrogen, helium
thick hydrogen, helium, methane
large 120,500 74,875 mi very large 143,000 88,856 mi small 6786 km 4,217 mi medium small 12,756 km 7,926 mi medium small 12,100 km 7,519 mi tiny 4878 km 3,029 mi
liquid hydrogen
thick hydrogen, helium
liquid hydrogen
thick hydrogen, helium
solid rock, water ice, high iron content solid rock, liquid water, carbon compounds solid rock, surface has volcanoes
Thin, mostly carbon dioxide
solid rock; covered with craters
none (helium)
medium nitrogen, oxygen thick carbon dioxide
*Average Temperature
Other
very cold -235ºC -391ºF very cold -221ºC -391ºF
Intense wind
cold -180ºC -292ºF cold -150ºC -238ºF moderate -23ºC -9.4ºF moderate 15ºC 59ºF very hot 465ºC 869ºF variable range -170ºC to 350ºC -274ºF to 662ºF
Spectacular ring system; not dense Strongest gravitational pull summer – high of 70ºF at equator Gravitational pull similar to planet #3
(windiest planet in solar system)
Planet Name Neptune
Uranus
Hottest planet; intense atmospheric pressure
Saturn
Jupiter
Mars
Earth
Venus
Mercury
* Temperatures for this chart were obtained from Astro-Venture: Astronomy Educator Guide EG-2005-10501-ARC available at http://astroventure.arc.nasa.gov/teachers/pdf/AV-Astronolesson-Part3.pdf.
Source: http://nightsky.jpl.nasa.gov/news_archive/planets3a_700sm.jpg
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Lesson Enrichment/Extension: Human Survival For discussion: Human Need
Food
Oxygen
Water
Moderate temperature (Average global temperature above 0ºC and below 50ºC; above 32ºF and below 122ºF)
Protection from poisonous gases and high levels of radiation
Gravity
Reason Gives us energy so that we can move, grow, and function. It also gives us nutrients to build and mend bones, teeth, nails, skin, hair, flesh, and organs. Helps us to obtain energy from sugars. Allows nutrients to circulate through the body. Helps to regulate body temperature. The cells that make up our bodies are made mainly of water. Allows us to maintain an average body temperature of 98.6°F/37°C and to maintain water in a liquid state at all times.
To prevent cancer, disease, and damage to the body.
Allows our biological systems to develop and function normally. Holds the atmosphere to the Earth so it doesn’t escape into space.
Factors that Provide This Nitrogen is a nutrient.
Oxygen helps us get energy from sugars. (related to temperature) Water vapor is a greenhouse gas in our atmosphere.
Star type Orbital distance Planetary mass (orbits of large planets/objects could disrupt) Greenhouse gases reradiate heat. Ozone protects from UV. Our atmosphere doesn’t have high levels of poisonous gases. Planetary mass Nitrogen provides pressure.
If a planet has all of these astronomical and atmospheric conditions, is it habitable to humans?
It is not necessarily habitable to humans, because it may not have other conditions necessary for human habitation. The Earth is a system and requires many different factors to work together for the system to work. Source: The information above is from NASA’s Astro-Venture curriculum, specifically the geology educator guide available at http://astroventure.arc.nasa.gov/teachers/pdf/AV-Geolesson-1.pdf. For more information about Astro-Venture and to view other Astro-Venture educator guides, visit http://astroventure.arc.nasa.gov/teachers/teach.html.
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Payload Packaging
Lesson 13
Lesson Reference: There are numerous sources for the activity that directs students to design a container that can safely deliver an egg to the ground after being dropped. Objectives: • Students will define payload. • Students will see how rovers have been sent to Mars. • Students will design a cost-effective package to safely deliver a payload. • Students will use teamwork, critical thinking, and problem solving skills. National Science Standards: • Science as Inquiry • Physical Science - Properties and changes of properties in matter - Motion and forces - Transfer of energy • Earth and Space Science - Earth in the solar system • Science and Technology - Abilities of technological design • History and Nature of Science - Science as a human endeavor - History of science Source: http://marsrover.nasa.gov/mission/images/step9_br350.jpg
Background Information: Although early astronomers once thought Martians had dug canals on the planet, further study and improved technology revealed no visible signs of life. Was there life on Mars at one time, though? Scientists continue to examine the planet as they have done for many years. The United States and the Soviet Union (Russia) began sending man-made space probes (defined as “a spacecraft carrying instruments intended for use in exploration of the physical properties of outer space or celestial bodies other than Earth”) to Mars in the 1960s. Mariner 4, launched by the U.S. in 1964, became the first successful flyby of Mars. As explained at http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/index.cfm, NASA’s Solar System Exploration site:
The spacecraft sent back 21 black and white images of the Martian surface - the first pictures taken of another planet from space. The spacecraft found that Mars was a battered, cold and barren world. Scientists learned they would need retro rockets in addition to parachutes to safely deliver a spacecraft through the planet's thin atmosphere to the surface. Mariner 4 also found Mars' weak radiation belt. 149
The United States had the first successful spacecraft, Mariner 9, to orbit Mars in 1971, and the U.S. achieved a Martian landing with Viking 1 on July 20, 1976. (Mars 2, a Soviet spacecraft that arrived to orbit Mars 13 days after Mariner 9 in 1971, carried a lander; however, because the lander entered the Martian atmosphere too steeply and its parachute failed to open, it crashed onto the surface. The Mars 3 mission resulted in the first successful landing of a This image of the Martian "Utopian lander in late 1971; however, contact was lost with the lander Plain" was taken by Viking Lander 2 in 20 seconds after it landed.) Both the Viking 1 and Viking 2 1976. missions had two sets of spacecraft: an orbiter and lander. Source: http://www.nasa.gov/centers/langley These two missions produced “a vivid overall picture of a cold /images/content/672443main_viking. weathered surface with reddish volcanic soil under a thin, jpg dry carbon dioxide atmosphere, clear evidence for the existence of ancient river beds and vast floods, and no detectable seismic activity. Although no traces of life were found, Viking found all elements essential to life on Earth (carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen and phosphorus) were present.” NASA, the Russian Federal Space Agency (also known as Roscosmos), and the European Space Agency (ESA) have, to date, been the only agencies to successfully achieve orbiting spacecraft around Mars. (Japan and China have made attempts.) The United States has led in the success of successful landings. In 2008, the Phoenix spacecraft (the first mission in NASA’s Mars Scout program) landed on Mars. It was the first lander to explore the surface of a polar region. As explained on NASA’s Solar System Exploration site:
The lander's robotic arm could dig up to half a meter (20 inches) into the Martian soil and return it for analysis to a special bake-and-sniff oven. Phoenix verified the presence of water-ice in the Martian subsurface, which NASA's Mars Odyssey orbiter first detected remotely in 2002. Phoenix's cameras also returned more than 25,000 pictures from sweeping vistas to near the atomic level using the first atomic force microscope ever used outside Earth.
Early delivery of rovers to Mars used rocket power, a parachute, and an airbag system. Shortly before landing, the rover was surrounded by the airbag system. It was released above the Martian surface and bounced (as high as a 10-story building) on the ground until it came to a stop. The airbags deflated, and the rover rolled out. Source: http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/MPF/mpf/edl/edl1.html
The United States has sent rovers to Mars since 1997. In 1997, NASA’s Mars Pathfinder mission resulted in the U.S. achievement of landing the world’s first wheeled rover on another planet. (The Soviets landed the world’s first unmanned rover, Lunokhod 1, on the Moon on November 17, 1970.) After the aid of rocket power and a parachute during descent, the Mars Pathfinder used an aircushioned, bouncing landing technique to deliver Sojourner (the six-wheeled, microwave-oven-sized, 23-pound, remote150
controlled rover) to the Martian surface on July 4. This mission was the predecessor for the delivery of future rovers such as Spirit and Opportunity, each weighing almost 400 pounds and landing in January 2004, and Curiosity, a car-sized 2,000 pound rover whose landing was in August 2012 near the Martian equator. As explained at NASA’s Solar System Exploration site: Spirit:
Three Generations of Rovers Models left to right: Spirit/Opportunity, Sojourner, Curiosity Source: http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/jpeg/PIA15280.jpg
Described as a ‘wonderful workhorse,’ Spirit explored for years beyond its original 92-day mission. The rover revealed an ancient Mars that was very different from the Mars we see today. Spirit uncovered strong evidence that Mars was much wetter than it is now in a silica patch apparently produced by hot springs or steam vents. The rover captured movies of dust devils in motion, leading to a better understanding of Martian wind. Spirit continued to make discoveries even as it was stuck in deep sand at a spot dubbed Troy at Gusev Crater on Mars. On 25 May 2011, NASA ended efforts to contact the marooned rover and declared its mission complete. The rover had been silent since March 2010.
Opportunity: The second rover to land on Mars has returned dramatic evidence that its area of Mars stayed wet for an extended period of time long ago, with conditions that could have been suitable for sustaining microbial life. Scientists believe that Opportunity's Meridiani Planum landing site ‘was once the shoreline of a salty sea on Mars.’ Opportunity also has analyzed exposed rock layers recording how environmental conditions changed over time. Opportunity holds a Martian driving record: more than 20 km (12.4 mi) as of March 2010. The fourth rover to explore Mars is NASA’s Curiosity. For the first time, a crane landing procedure was used to deliver the rover to the Martian surface. In February 2013, Curiosity used a drill on its robotic arm to drill into a rock and collect a core sample, a first for a rover. An analysis of the rock powder revealed some essential ingredients for life: sulfur, nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus and carbon. Clay and sulfate minerals suggest that the rock formed in a watery environment, one that would not be too salty. (Spirit and Opportunity detected evidence of a past watery environment in a different area of the planet, but evidence suggested the water would have been too salty for life.) In 2013, John Grunsfeld, NASA associate administrator for the agency's Science Mission
Curiosity’s Sky Crane Maneuver,
Artist’s Concept Source: http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/ jpeg/PIA14839.jpg
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Directorate stated, "The most advanced planetary robot ever designed is a fully operating analytical laboratory on Mars." With the success of landers and rovers on the Martian surface, space scientists and enthusiasts hope for a manned mission to Mars in the future. Materials: • Payload Packaging Challenge sheet (one per group) • Materials Price List (one per group) • Computer with Internet access, external speakers, and a projector (optional) • Materials as listed on the Materials Price List (See the Materials Price List at the end of this lesson. These materials can be modified as needed.) • (optional) measuring tape • (optional) timer Source:
Advance Lesson Preparation: http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ The goal of this lesson is for students to design and build an dryden/images/content/7357 41main_TT2-2468.jpg object capable of being released several feet above the ground and delivering an egg safely to the ground. Students can use any materials the teacher has available. Here are some helpful ideas. Cut pieces of poster board into smaller pieces. For nylon hose, consider the approximately inexpensive off-brand of knee highs at discount stores. Consider asking a fast food restaurant to donate hamburger containers. Adjust the “materials price list” page to reflect the materials and prices that you deem appropriate for your class. Prior to conducting this lesson, determine the location from which your students will drop their payload packages. Consider the following: the top of a multi-leveled stairwell (inside or out), open window of a high level room, the press box or top bleacher at the school football or baseball field, or consider asking the fire department or the utility company to bring a bucket truck. Lesson Presentation: 1. Write the term payload on the board. Ask students what this term means. Confirm that in aerospace, payload refers to valuable “cargo” (or luggage) that is carried by a plane or rocket. If a rocket is delivering a satellite into space, the satellite is the rocket’s payload, for example. 2. Tell students that rockets have carried rovers as payload to Mars. The U.S. has sent rovers such as Sojourner (that landed in 1997), Spirit and Opportunity (that landed in 2004), and Curiosity (that landed in 2013) to Mars. Explain that these rovers had to be delivered to Mars safely. 3. (optional – strongly suggested) Show the one-minute video, How Do You Get to Mars, at http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/msl/multimedia/videos/index.cfm?v=32&a=2. 152
Next, to visually explain how the Mars rovers get to Mars and how the early rovers landed using the bouncing technique, show the 6.5-minute video at http://wn.com/mars_exploration_rover_spirit. (Two alternate “bounce landing” videos include the ten-minute Rover Mission to Mars Animation available online at http://marsrovers.jpl.nasa.gov/gallery/video/animation.html and a 3.5-minute video at www.youtube.com/watch?v=GKnZrueYRAY.) Finally, show the five-minute video, Curiosity’s Seven Minutes of Terror, online at http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/videogallery/ index.html?media_id=146903741 to explain how the Curiosity rover landed on Mars using a sky crane method. 4. (optional) Tell the students that today’s activity will require them to be engineers. To learn more about the engineering process, watch the short Intro to Engineering video clip at http://education.nationalgeographic.com/education/activity/landing-aspace-probe-or-rover/?ar_a=1&ar_r=999. 5. Tell students that they are going to design a payload package, or lander, capable of delivering a rover, represented by an egg, safely to Mars, represented by the floor/ground. They will be dropping their payload from a higher altitude. (Hopefully, a location is available that will allow students to drop the package from a height of two or three stories.) Explain that this is a competition. The winner of the competition will be the group that designs the cheapest package/lander that delivers the rover (egg) safely to Mars (the floor/ground). 6. Arrange students in small groups of two or three members per group. 7. Distribute one Payload Packaging Challenge sheet and a Materials Price List page to each group. Explain that questions asked once students begin will cost them money, so it is important to listen carefully! Tell students that not only are they responsible for creating a safe delivery package, they are responsible for designing a cost-effective package. Show students the materials that are available and go over the price for each. Explain that when students determine they are ready to purchase an item, they are to write the item on the Payload Packaging Challenge sheet, and ONE person from the group will bring the sheet to the teacher for the teacher to initial and observe the student getting the item(s) purchased. They do NOT have to list all the items at once. They can list and obtain items during the building process. Distribute an egg in a small, plastic self-sealed bag to each group. Tell students that there is no cost for these items (egg and bag) as another company developed and paid for this “rover.” Your task is to land it safely on Mars (the ground). Ask students if they have any questions before you start charging for questions, which would be considered a “consultant fee.” 8. Set a reasonable time limit for students to build their payload package/lander and allow students to begin. 153
9. Once time is up, collect each group’s Payload Packaging Challenge sheet and go to the drop location. 10. (optional) Measure the height from which students will drop their package. Tell the students that they will determine the average speed at which their package traveled. Explain how to calculate the speed. They will divide the distance their package traveled by the amount of time it took for it to hit the ground. Speed = distance/time Example: distance = 10 feet (3 meters); time = 2 seconds Speed = 5 ft/s (or 1.5 m/s)
Source: https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/ ssep/images/galleryDSC01185-thm.jpg
11. Before each group drops its payload package/lander and calculates the speed, allow each group to announce the name of their payload package/lander and its cost. 12. After all groups have dropped their payload package, determine the winner by learning who built the cheapest package/lander that delivered the payload to the floor/ground without damage. 13. If time permits, return to the classroom and list the cost of each group’s lander and display the results of each group’s payload. Discuss the results. Summarization: Discuss why utilizing non-manned space exploration vehicles is important. (safety issues due to unknown factors; longevity of the mission; weight in terms of additional items that humans would have to take such as food, clothing, restroom; size of spacecraft as a smaller craft can be built since it does not have to accommodate the size of a human; economics; machines do not have to return to Earth) Career Connection: (from http://www.mymajors.com/careers-and-jobs/SpacecraftSystems-Engineer, http://careers.stateuniversity.com/pages/419/Systems-Engineer.html, http://www.bls.gov/k12/science05.htm, and http://quest.arc.nasa.gov/people/cfs/generic /computer_specialist_105.pdf) Spacecraft Systems Engineer – This position operates, installs, calibrates, and maintains integrated computer/communications systems, consoles, simulators, and other data acquisition, test, and measurement instruments and equipment, which are used to launch, track, position, and evaluate air and space vehicles. They record and interpret test data. This position falls under the broader career category of aerospace engineering. In general, systems engineers coordinate the work among many engineers, each of whom is an expert in one part of the system. For instance, in the building of a jet airliner, electronics specialists are responsible for the guidance and control systems. Structural engineers design the body of the plane. Other experts decide on a power source for the jet. Still others design landing and takeoff methods. Each specialist concentrates on one area. The systems engineer coordinates all of these specialized efforts. 154
Engineering Technician - Engineering technicians solve technical problems. Some help engineers and scientists do research and development. They build or set up equipment. They do experiments. They collect data and calculate results. They might also help to make a model of new equipment. Some technicians work in quality control where they check products, do tests, and collect data. Most technicians focus on one type of engineering such as electrical engineering. They help to design or test electronics. Other types of engineering technicians work in aerospace, environmental, industrial, mechanical, or civil engineering. People who have a two-year college degree in engineering technology have the best chance of getting a job, but some people train in the Armed Forces. High school students who want this job should take as many science and math courses as they can. Computer Specialist - Computer specialists write, test and manage computer programs (detailed instructions for computers). They break down each computer task into a series of steps the computer can follow. They then use a computer language to write these instructions. After writing the program, they test it to make sure the computer follows the steps correctly and they fix any problems they find. Computer programmers work in offices and spend most of their time on the computer. The minimum education required for this position is a bachelor’s degree in computer science, information science, mathematics, engineering, physical science or a similar subject from an accredited college or university. It is helpful to have experience with computers from internships or summer jobs. Since computer science changes quickly, all computer programmers must keep their skills up-to-date by seeking training throughout their career. Sample job titles include: systems programmer, applications programmer, computer programmer, and systems administrator. Evaluation: • Teacher observation • Payload package/lander created by each group • Payload Packing Challenge data sheet for each group • Result of payload drop (Did the egg break, or did it remain intact?) Lesson Enrichment/Extension: • On the back of the Payload Packaging Challenge sheet, have groups write a paragraph to describe their lander and their lander’s performance. Have groups write a paragraph describing any changes they would make on a future lander. • Allow students to make changes to their initial designs and try the challenge again. • Have students use the scientific method (question, research – if applicable, hypothesis, experiment, analysis, and conclusion) to write an explanation of today’s experiment. In their conclusion, have them write what they would change or do differently next time. 155
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Offer a similar payload packaging challenge to students using the following: o Have students (in groups of 2-3 members) make an equilateral triangle on cardstock paper with sides measuring 8” long. o Have them cut out the triangle and fold each corner toward the center in order to create a tetrahedron. o Using a hole-punch, punch a hole in the top of each of the 3 tips of the tetrahedron. o Provide students with string, an egg, a small plastic self-sealing bag, 3 balloons, and 3 cotton balls. Additionally, provide them with material to construct a parachute (gift-wrap tissue paper or grocery store plastic bags work well). o Tell students their design challenge is to create a spacecraft capable of delivering the egg to the ground from a specified height using the materials provided to them. Have students build a robot arm. The lesson focus is to develop a robot arm using common materials. Students will explore design, construction, teamwork, and materials selection and use. This particular lesson is available at http://www.tryengineering.org/lesson_detail.php?lesson=5.
Associated Websites: • Payload packer http://www.nasa.gov/audience/foreducators/stseducation/stories/Raillan_Young_Joy_ Norris.html • Mars Science Laboratory http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/msl/ • Sojourner information http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/details.php?id=5913 http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/profile.cfm?MCode=Pathfinder http://spacepioneers.msu.edu/robot_rovers/sojourner.html • Spirit and Opportunity information http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/details.php?id=5917 http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/fact_sheets/mars03rovers.pdf • Curiosity information http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/details.php?id=5918 • Mars activities http://marsrover.nasa.gov/classroom/pdfs/MSIP-MarsActivities.pdf
Pathfinder delivering the first rover, Sojourner, to Mars Credit: NASA
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List students in your group. _____________________________________________ Write the name of your company. _________________________________________ Write the name of your lander. __________________________________________ List each item you purchase to build your payload package and the cost of each item. You can purchase as few or as many items as you want unless your teacher gives you different instructions. Remember, the cheapest package that safely delivers the rover (egg) wins!
ITEM
COST
Teacher’s Initials
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. If you have more items to purchase, list them on the back of this page. What is the final TOTAL cost of your payload package? ___________________ After the competition, write the results of your team’s design on the back of this paper. Explain why you think your design worked the way it did, and explain what your team would change if you were to do this activity again. 157
MATERIALS PRICE LIST Item Consultant Questions
Price $ 10,000
Cardboard/Styrofoam container
250,000
Cardboard (per sheet)
100,000
Poster board (per sheet)
70,000
Paper Plate (per plate)
30,000
Construction/Color Paper -1 sheet
25,000
Plastic Bag
40,000
Nylon hose
20,000
Balloon
15,000
Handful of Packing Peanuts
25,000
Bubble Wrap
25,000
Duct Tape – 12 inches
60,000
Masking Tape – 12 inches
50,000
Use of hot glue – per 5 minutes
40,000
Glue (regular)
35,000
Markers
20,000
Newspaper
20,000
String - 60 cm
20,000
* Sorry, NO refunds or exchanges!
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Moon and Mars Rover Relay
Lesson 14
Lesson Reference: This lesson is modified from NASA’s Robots and Rovers: Rover Relay lesson located in the guide at www.nasa.gov/pdf/200173main_Lunar_Nautics_Guide.pdf. Objectives: • Students will simulate sending a signal/message from Earth to a lunar or Martian rover. • Students will experience and understand time delays for sending a signal from Earth to Mars and from Earth to the Moon. • Students will identify and define vocabulary associated the Moon and Mars. National Science Standards: • Earth and Space Science - Earth in the solar system • Science and Technology - Abilities of technological design • History and Nature of Science - Science as a human endeavor
Source: http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov /msl/images/FollowYourCuriosity.jpg
Background Information: Earth’s nearby celestial neighbors, the Moon and Mars, have sparked human curiosity, imagination, and dreams of exploration for centuries. It was not until 1959 that two countries, the United States and the Soviet Union (Russia) had developed the technology to successfully send unmanned objects about 240,000 miles away to the Moon, and it became a race to see which rival country would be the first to land a man on the Moon. On February 3, 1966, the Soviet Union’s Luna 9 spacecraft became the first spacecraft to successfully land on the Moon. It was a rough landing, but it landed well enough for its camera to transmit the pictures directly from the Moon’s surface to Earth. In December 1968, the crew of Apollo 8 became the first humans to orbit the Moon. (The first living specimens to go around the Moon - without going into orbit, similar to an Apollo 13 path and return safely to Earth were turtles, wine flies, plants, and bacteria, among others, as part of the Soviet Union’s Zond 5 mission in September 1968.) The historic moment of landing man on the Moon, however, occurred on July 20, 1969, by the United States. Neil Armstrong, the commander of the Apollo 11 mission, became the first human to walk on the Moon, followed by his fellow astronaut Edwin “Buzz” Aldrin, Jr. To date, the United States is the only country that landed men on the Moon, a total of 12 Source: to be exact, with Eugene Cernan being the last to leave http://spaceplace.nasa.gov/review/solarsystem-scramble/images/moon2.jpg as part of the Apollo 17 mission in December 1972. 159
While lunar missions subsided in the 1980s, they resumed in the 1990s. Not only did the United States and Russia continue lunar missions, but Japan (achieving a lunar flyby, orbit, and impact in the early 1990s along with another orbital mission in the late 2000s), Europe (launching an orbiter in 2003), China (launching a lunar orbiter in 2007 and 2010), and India (launching a lunar orbiter in 2008) have become active participants in lunar exploration. Although the Soviets have not (to date) achieved manned lunar landings, they have other “first accomplishments” regarding lunar visits. Luna 16 was the first unmanned, robotic mission ever to return a sample, which consisted of more than 100 grams of lunar soil. Additionally, the Soviets landed the world’s first unmanned rover, Lunokhod 1, on the Moon on November 17, 1970. As a NASA site explains, “The rover's operators had to contend with a 5-second delay between sending a command to the rover and seeing the results of the command, due to the round-trip travel time of radio signals at the speed of light.”
Sojourner with rock, Yogi Source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa. gov/planetary/image/marspath_ yogi_rov.jpg
Along with exploration of the Moon, space scientists were and still are eager to learn more about one of our closer planet neighbors: Mars. The first rover to land on Mars was Sojourner in 1997, sent by the United States. (Read more about Martian exploration in Lesson 13: Payload Packaging.) Although the Soviet rover operators had to contend with a delay between sending signals to and receiving signals from a lunar rover, U.S. rover operators contend with an even longer delay between sending information to and receiving information from rovers on Mars, a one-way delay of 3-22 minutes!
The relay game in this lesson attempts to let the students experience the difficulty involved in communicating commands to a rover, waiting for the rover to perform the commands, and receiving confirmation. Additionally, this game allows students to learn or reinforce learning about the Moon and Mars. Materials: • Moon Team Cards • Mars Team Cards • Teacher: Card Information (one copy to use as a reference when discussing the connection between the word printed on each card and either the Moon or Mars) • Laundry basket (or table or taped floor area) (one for each team) • Two envelopes labeled Message (one envelope per team) • Clipboard with a paper list of the words on the team’s cards (one for each team that lists only the words on the cards pertaining to the specific team) • Pen for each team • Designated starting boundary for each team (such as a cone, chair, piece of tape, etc.) • Timer (or watch with a second hand) • (optional) Computer with Internet and projection system 160
Advance Lesson Preparation: Make a copy of the Moon Team Cards and the Mars Team Cards for each team and cut the cards out, resulting in 14 individual cards for each team. Consider using cardstock and/or laminating the cards for durability and easy re-use. Consider pre-determining team members for each of the two teams. Lesson Presentation: 1. Engage the students by telling them that you want to try an experiment. Tell them that you would like to time the class to see how long it takes to send a message to the class, but only by relaying the message to one student at a time – like the old “telephone” game. Ensure the students are seated in rows or in a line. Think of a word or short phrase and whisper it in the ear of the student in the front row of the far side of the room (or in the front of a line). Instruct him/her to whisper the same word/phrase to the student behind him/her, and that process will continue until the message reaches the last student. Time the class to see how long it takes to complete the task. Hopefully, the message that reached the last person was correct. 2. Regardless of whether or not the message was correct when it reached the last student, explain to the class that they have essentially simulated how a message gets sent from Earth to the Moon or Mars. A signal is sent through space. The distance the Moon or Mars is from Earth as these objects orbit the Sun affects the amount of time it takes for a signal to get there.
Source:
Explain the following to students: The speed of http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/images/mep/allabout mars/EarthMarsOrbitTop.jpg light travels about 186,000 miles (300,000 km) per second. The Moon is about 240,000 miles (384,000 km) away; therefore, the delay of a one-way radio signal from the Earth to the Moon is about 1.28 seconds. The distance that the information has to travel is a factor in how long it takes for the communication to arrive at its destination. The distance a message must travel to get from the Earth to Mars is about 35,000,000 miles! That difference makes for longer time lapses on Mars reception than Moon reception. One-way radio transit between Mars and Earth can range from about 3 – 22 minutes, depending on where the planets are in relation to one another in their orbits around the Sun. To put this in prospective, that means that if you sent a message to a Mars rover and were waiting for it to respond, you would have to wait about 6 – 44 minutes from the time you sent your message to the time you received a confirmation message from the rover.
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3. Explain to the students that they will be participating in a relay race and working with their team to collect cards related to either the Moon or Mars. The way the relay game is played will allow them to simulate a time delay between information sent from mission control on Earth to a rover robot on the Moon or Mars and then receiving signals from the rovers. Although transmitting information to a rover on Mars would certainly take more time than sending a message to a rover on the Moon, that specific detail will not be simulated in this game. The idea is to experience communication with a time delay and get an idea of how mission control and rovers communicate with one another. Tell the students that this game is also a fun way to help them learn or remember information about the Moon and Mars. 4. (optional) Tell the students that prior to playing the game, they will watch two short videos about the Moon and Mars. Moon: If you have a subscription to BrainPOP®, play their five-minute video about the Moon located at http://www.brainpop.com/science/space/moon/. If you do not have a subscription, show the 5.5-minute video about the Moon located at http://www.videojug.com/film/what-is-the-moon. Mars: http://www.neok12.com/php/watch.php?v=zX737f47445c5a5c0778526b&t=SolarSystem (7.5 minutes) 5. Review the Moon Team Cards and the Mars Team Cards with the class. Discuss how the word printed on each card relates to the Moon or Mars. (Use the Teacher: Card Information page.) 6. Place each team’s individual cards in a laundry basket (or other) with the print facing up and arranged so that all of the cards can be viewed. Place each team’s basket an equal distance across the room from each team’s starting point. 7. Designate a starting point for each team and one honest, responsible person to be the “communication officer” (referee) for each team (The teacher and a teacher assistant may wish to be the communication officers.) The communication officer is responsible for ensuring that he/she knows the correct message being sent from mission control and confirms that the rover returns the appropriate message. The communication officer will have a pen and a clipboard with a piece of paper that lists all of the words on the team’s cards. 8. Divide the students evenly into two teams with one being named the Mars Team and the other the Moon Team. Have each team form a line behind the established starting boundary. State that the last student in the line represents mission control (where a team on Earth directs a space mission) and the first person in line represents a rover. Students between these two individuals represent the time delay caused by the long distances between the Earth and the Moon and Mars. Tell the students that if they were actually representing distances between Earth and the Moon and Mars in this game, there would be many more students on the Mars 162
Team because Mars is much farther away from Earth than the Moon. For this activity, however, the distances are not to scale. 9. Provide an overview of the game: Explain that the teams will whisper a word from a card from mission control to the rover (like playing telephone). Once the rover receives the word, he/she will race to the area where the team’s cards are located and retrieve the card with that word on it. The first team to retrieve all their cards wins. 10. Provide the details of the game: o The mission control representative (last person in line) will identify a card for the robot rover to retrieve. In order to make sure there is evidence of which card the mission control representative has selected, he/she will circle the word on a piece of paper that a communication officer for each team will have. At that point, the communication officer is the only other person who knows the word about to be whispered up the line to the rover. o
The mission control representative will then hand an empty envelope labeled Message to the person in front of him/her (or immediately next to him/her if students are forming a line standing shoulder to shoulder) and whisper the word in his/her ear.
o
That person passes the envelope and whispers the word to the person in front of/next to him/her, and the process continues until the envelope and message reaches the rover at the front of the line.
o
The rover runs (or walks quickly or crawls, as preferred by the teacher) and selects the card that displayed the word that was whispered to him/her and returns to the front of the line.
o
The rover places the card (message) in the envelope, and the students then pass it back one-by-one until the envelope reaches mission control.
o
The mission control representative then opens the envelope and looks at the card, along with the communication officer, to confirm that the robot obtained the correct message. In the event the robot did not obtain the correct card, the communication officer will return the card to the basket while the mission control representative starts the process again with the original word he/she whispered.
o
If the robot’s returned message (card) is correct, then: The communication officer keeps the card. The mission control representative gives the empty envelope to the person directly in front of/beside him/her and then moves to the front of the line to become the next rover. All of the other team members move back one space (toward mission control). The process then begins again with the new mission control representative and rover. 163
11. Ask the students if they have any questions. If there are no questions, give the first mission control representative an empty envelope. Then, give the signal for the teams to begin. After the first team collects all of their cards (or the teacher-designated amount needed to win), the game is over. 12. Once the game is over, assemble the students together for a class discussion using the discussion question provided in the Summarization section. Summarization: Discuss the following: • What are the similarities and differences of your relay game compared to that of real scientists communicating with rovers? • What are things that scientists and engineers need to consider in order to best communicate with a rover on the Moon or Mars? • What difficulties/disadvantages does a time delay create? • How might a time delay affect a manned mission to Mars in the future? Career Connection: (from http://quest.arc.nasa.gov/people/cfs/generic/engineer_106.pdf, http://quest.arc.nasa.gov/people/cfs/generic/software_engineer_121.pdf and http://quest.arc.nasa.gov/people/cfs/generic/physical_science_tech_101.pdf) Engineer - Engineers design, as well as develop and test products, machinery, factories, and systems such as buildings, robots, instruments, spacecraft, airplanes, motors, and other equipment. When designing a new product, engineers first figure out what it needs to do. They then design and test the parts, fit the parts together and test to see how successful it is. They also write reports on the product. Most engineers work in office buildings or laboratories. Some work outdoors at construction sites. Some must travel to different work sites. The minimum education required for this position is a bachelor’s degree in engineering from an accredited college or university. Engineering degrees are generally offered in electrical, mechanical, aerospace, or civil engineering. To do research, a Ph.D. is highly desired for this position. Computer Software Engineer - A software engineer writes the software that is used in automated systems. Automated systems help people do their jobs by providing them with information, giving them advice, performing repetitive tasks, or, in some cases, by controlling actual systems. The computer software contains the instructions that tell the system what to do. The first job of a software engineer is to understand the tasks that are going to be automated. Then, a systems analyst will decide how the automation system can assist or enhance the performing of those tasks. After that, the software engineer, usually working in a team, will create programs to perform the functions desired by the users of the system. The software engineer will test the system to make sure it works the way it is supposed to work. 164
For most programming jobs, a Bachelor of Arts or Science is sufficient, if in a technical field like computer science, electrical engineering, or a physical science. For other jobs, a masters or doctorate in computer science or electrical engineering may be required. Sample job titles include: computer programmer, computer scientist, and systems analyst. Physical Science Technician - Physical science technicians help scientists and engineers with their products and experiments. They set up and run laboratory instruments. When there are problems with the instruments, physical science technicians fix them. They also check and track experiments, make observations of the experiments, record results, and often make conclusions. Physical science technicians gather data from various sources such as field notes, design books, and lab reports. They look at the data and report any errors or data that do not fit with the rest. Physical science technicians usually work regular hours and, depending on their area of study, may work in a laboratory or outdoors. They spend a lot of time on the computer. At least two years of specialized training in science or science-related technology is required to be a technician. This training may be earned at a technical institute, vocational school, from a community college or junior college, or from work experience. It is helpful to have some experience from internships or summer jobs in laboratories. Evaluation: • Teacher observation Lesson Enrichment/Extension: • Play the game using a variety of objects (such as a golf ball, tennis shoe, helmet, etc.). • Play the game using student spelling words. • Have the students write an essay about the Moon or Mars that uses words from the game. Associated Websites: • Radio Waves and Speed of Light (discusses signals to/from the Moon and Mars, also has chart showing oneway time delays from Earth to other planets, the Sun, and other stars using distances in December 2005) http://www.aerospaceweb.org/question/astronomy/q0254. Source: http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/multime shtml dia/thumbs/sell2-20120804• Distance from Earth to Mars (includes info about signal delays) http://www.universetoday.com/14824/distance-from-earth-to-mars/ • Lunar Exploration Timeline (listed dates are launch dates) http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/lunartimeline.html • Mars Exploration Timeline (listed dates are launch dates) http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/chronology_mars.html 165
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Curiosity news article
http://abcnews.go.com/Technology/wireStory/nasa-reveal-contents-drilledmartian-rock-18707759 Moon videos o http://www.neok12.com/php/watch.php?v=zX027042720e5d4875587877&t =Solar-System (5.5 min.) o http://www.gamequarium.org/cgi-bin/search/linfo.cgi?id=4652 (10 min.) o http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/science/spacesci/exploration/moon-101-sci/ (almost 3 min.) Mars videos http://www.brainpop.com/science/space/mars/ http://www.neok12.com/php/watch.php?v=zX737f47445c5a5c0778526b&t=SolarSystem (7.5 min.) Challenges on the way to Mars (article) http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Human_Spaceflight/Mars500_diary_challenges _on_the_way_to_Mars
Source: http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/images/msl20110602_PIA14175.jpg
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Moon Team Cards Lunar
Waxing
Crescent
Waning
Quarter
One-sixth
Moon buggy
Craters
Basalt
1969
Regolith
Month
Russia
United States
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Mars Team Cards Fourth
Spirit
Red Planet
Phoenix
Curiosity
Carbon Dioxide
Ice
Seasons
Canyons
Olympus Mons
Roman
Sojourner
Demos
One-third
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TEACHER: CARD INFORMATION Relevance of relay game cards to the Moon: • Lunar – word that means of or relating to the Moon • Month – the approximate amount of time it takes for the Moon to complete an orbit around Earth (about 27 days to orbit; 29 days to cycle through the phases of the Moon) • Regolith - loose, fragmental material covering the lunar surface • Craters – holes/indentions on the Moon’s surface caused by meteoroid and/or asteroid strikes; These are preserved due to essentially no atmosphere and no active geological processes on the Moon. (There is no weather, wind, volcanic eruptions, erosion, etc.) • 1/6 – gravity of the Moon compared to that of Earth’s gravity (A person who weighed 120 pounds on Earth would weigh 20 pounds on the Moon.) • 1969 – the year man first landed on the Moon; The first man to step foot on the Moon was Neil Armstrong on July 20, 1969. The last human to step foot on the Moon, to date, was Eugene Cernan in December 1972.) • Waxing – moon is visibly getting larger • Quarter – Half of the Moon is visible during the Quarter Moon phase. • Crescent– The small sliver of the Moon visible during the month is called a Crescent Moon. • Waning – moon is visibly getting smaller • Moon buggy – vehicle (also called lunar rover) driven on the Moon by astronauts during the Apollo 15, 16, and 17 missions (The three lunar rovers are still on the Moon today.) • Basalt – an igneous rock found on much of the Moon’s surface • Russia – Sent the world’s first unmanned rover, Lunokhod 1, to the Moon. It landed in 1970 (when the country was still the Soviet Union). • United States - To date, only this country has accomplished manned lunar landings. Relevance of relay game cards to Mars: • Fourth – Mars is the fourth planet from the sun. • Red Planet – planet nickname due to the iron oxide (rust) on its surface • Spirit – rover that launched from Earth in the summer of 2003 and landed on Mars in January 2004 • Curiosity – car-sized, 2,000-pound rover that landed in 2012 • Phoenix – Launched in 2007, the Phoenix lander (not a rover) landed in 2008. Its mission is to study the history of water and habitability potential of Mars. • Sojourner – Launched Dec. 1996, this was the world’s first successful rover to land and operate on Mars in 1997. It weighed about 23 pounds and was about the size of a microwave oven. • Carbon Dioxide – gas that makes up most of the Martian atmosphere • Seasons – Mars has 4 seasons. • Ice – The polar ice caps are a surface feature of Mars. It has a north and south pole. • Olympus Mons – largest volcano in our solar system; located on Mars • Canyons – surface feature on Mars; Valles Marineris is largest canyon in solar system • Roman – Mars is named for the Roman god of war, Ares. • Demos – one of the two moons of Mars (The other moon’s name is Phobos.) • 1/3 – The gravity on Mars is about 1/3 that of the Earth’s. 169
Moon Team: Communication Officer (for clipboard)
Moon buggy
OneCrescent Waning Waxing sixth
Lunar
Quarter
Russia
1969
Craters Basalt
Regolith
Month
United States
----------------------------------
Mars Team: Communication Officer (for clipboard)
Red Planet
Olympus OneCuriosity Phoenix Mons third
Spirit
Seasons
Fourth
Ice
Canyons Roman Demos
Sojourner
Carbon Dioxide
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Strange New Planet
Lesson 15
Lesson Reference: This lesson is adapted from the Strange New Planet lesson located in Mars Activity Book: K-12 Classroom Activities Booklet available at http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/classroom/pdfs /MSIP-MarsActivities.pdf. Objectives: • Students will perform various observations. • Students will simulate pre-launch reconnaissance, a flyby, an orbit, and and landing. • Students will determine the challenge of performing celestial observations from Earth. • Students will determine the importance of planning and asking questions. • Students will practice effective communication and teamwork. National Science Standards: • Science as Inquiry • Physical Science - Properties in matter • History and Nature of Science - Science as a human endeavor - Nature of science - History of science Background Information: (from http://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/StarChild/questions/question37.html) The earliest record of an existing telescope is from a patent application in Holland on October 2, 1608. The application was made by Dutch spectacle maker Hans Lippershey (sometimes found as Lipperhey). Lippershey applied to be granted exclusive rights to make and distribute an instrument that would allow you to see distant objects as if they were nearby. The instrument consisted of a positive lens at one end of a narrow tube and a negative lens at the other end. His claim for the invention was soon challenged by a couple of other men and the Dutch authorities eventually ruled that the situation was confused, and refused to grant a patent to anyone. The telescope went on, regardless of who invented it, to be one of the most important scientific instruments of the 1600s. For example, it allowed for observations of phenomena in the universe which eventually led to the acceptance of the sun-centered solar system. Galileo was the first one who used the telescope for astronomy, making wonderful discoveries about our Moon, the moons of Jupiter, and other things.
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Materials: • Paper towel or toilet paper tubes (one per group) • Rubber band (one per group) • Pieces of blue cellophane (one per group - available at most art/craft stores) • Observations data sheet (one per group) • Colored pencils (one set per group) • At least one spherical object made to look like a strange new planet For example, decorate a medium-sized Styrofoam ball with various colors, including blue. You may place small “alien” or bug stickers randomly on the planet. You may use a toothpick to insert into the ball and place a grape on the other end to represent a moon. You might spray something on the planet or moon to make it smell. The possibilities are endless. • Cloth, box, or other material to hide the spherical object(s) Advance Lesson Preparation: • Create “telescopes” by using a rubber band to attach a blue piece of cellophane over one end of each paper towel/toilet roll. Overlap the piece of blue cellophane in order to have two layers of cellophane covering one end of the paper towel/toilet paper tube. • Decorate the spherical object(s) as desired to make them interesting to observe and that require careful observation up close from all angles. • Place the spherical object(s) relatively close to one another at the front of the room. Cover these objects with a cloth or box. • Make copies of the Observations data sheet (one per group). Lesson Presentation: 1. Divide students into groups of at least three, but no more than five, members per group. 2. Distribute one “telescope” and one data sheet to each group. 3. Ask the students if they have ever been interested in exploring and what methods they use to explore something. Tell them that they will be space explorers today. 4. Ask one member from each group to take the “telescope” and line up across the back of the room. While group members are making their way to the back of the room, ask students if anyone knows who invented the telescope. (While Galileo is credited for being the first person for using the telescope for astronomy purposes, Hans Lippershey is the first person to have applied for a patent for his telescope invention.) 5. Instruct the other group members who are seated to turn and face the back of the room until instructed to do otherwise. 172
Pre-launch Reconnaissance 6. Instruct the “explorers” with the telescope to look toward the front of the room where the objects are covered. Tell them that you are going to uncover the object(s) in just a moment and that they will observe the object(s) using their telescope. Ask the students with the telescopes to close one eye and look through the telescope with their other eye. (The blue cellophane should be at the end of the tube towards the object(s) as opposed to being against one’s eye.) 7. Reveal the object(s) at the front of the room just long enough for students to observe. After about thirty seconds, cover the object(s) and instruct the students with the telescopes to go back to their group and describe what they saw. 8. Groups should sketch the description in Box 1 on their data sheet. 9. Instruct groups to select another member to take the telescope and go to the back of the room. (If a group has less than 5 members, ask the same “telescope” students to return to the back of the room again.) 10. Repeat steps 6 - 8, except for step 7, ask the students with the telescope to remove the blue cellophane at the end of their telescope. 11. After the students describe their observations with their groups, have groups sketch the description in Box 2 on their group’s data sheet.
Source: http://marsed.asu.edu/sites/default/files/st yles/book_image/public/images_book/strange %20new%20planet_lessons.JPG
12. Ask students what they think the blue covering represented. (Earth’s atmosphere) Discuss how Earth’s atmosphere can distort images and color when trying to study celestial objects. The Flyby
(NASA picture of Mariner 2 which flew by Venus in 1962)
13. Instruct groups to face the back of the room again and to send another group “explorer” to the back of the room. This time, have these students in the back of the room form a single file line. Tell these group representatives that they will actually get to walk past the object(s). Emphasize that they should look closely, but continue walking. They cannot stop in front of the object(s)! Once they understand, reveal the objects and allow the group representatives to walk by in front of the objects and then go back to their seats. Remember to cover the objects once the students have walked past the front of the objects. 14. Ask students what they demonstrated when walking past the object. (a flyby) 15. Have the group’s flyby explorers describe what they observed while other group members sketch the verbal description in Box 3 on their data sheet.
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16. Inform students that they will send another group member to observe the objects. If anyone in the group has anything specific they want their next “explorer” to look for regarding the object(s), they should inform the group member at this time. The Orbit 17. Instruct everyone to face the back of the room. Have the next group of explorers form a circle around the object(s). Tell the explorers that they will walk in a circle, keeping their hands to themselves, about 4 times around the objects. Reveal the object(s) and instruct the students to begin walking around the object(s). 18. After about 4 times around, cover the objects and instruct the representatives to return to their group and describe what they saw. Have students complete Box 4 on their data sheet. 19. Ask students what walking around the objects represented. (orbiting) The Landing
(NASA picture of Sojourner, the rover that landed on Mars in 1997)
20. Tell the groups that they will have one last opportunity for someone to view the object(s). Once groups have selected their last person to view the object(s), allow the group to give any final instructions to the member. (If someone from a group has not made an observation yet, that person must make the last observation for his/her group. Everyone in the group must contribute to the observations.) 21. Direct all of the last explorers to form a circle around the object(s) while everyone else faces the back of the room. Allow these observers to touch and smell the object(s), but they cannot pick up the object(s). 22. Cover the object(s) and send the last explorers back to their groups to describe their observations and complete Box 5 on their data sheet. 23. Ask students what being allowed to touch the objects represented. (landing) 24. Conduct a class discussion about what team members asked their exploration representatives to look for during observations. (e.g. Did anyone ask a member to look for a particular color, texture, or feature related to the object?) 25. Allow each group to share their Box 5 drawing prior to revealing the object(s). 26. Reveal the object(s) and discuss why the groups did or did not come close in their drawings or overall description of the object(s). 174
27. Ask students to try to identify any specific features on the strange, new planet(s). Ask students to explain why they think this may or may not be a safe place to visit or colonize. Are there any indications that a human could benefit from any aspect of the planet(s)? If further space missions to the planet(s) were possible, what would be the purpose of those missions? Summarization: Ask students why we might prefer to have a progression of observation methods rather than choosing to land first. Confirm correct responses and/or lead students to consider some of the following factors: money, technology, weather, terrain, and/or other dangerous situations. Ask students what the group members remaining at their desks during the flybys, orbits, etc., may simulate. (a mission control center) Ask students if questions played an important role in the groups’ collection of data. Explain that questions are important in determining the course of action in missions. Effective communication is vital to creating an accurate picture or an accurate assessment of a situation. Information from different sources can be gathered and evaluated at a central location. Teamwork and effective communication among scientists, engineers, pilots, and others involved in the mission is crucial to the mission’s success. Everyone brings something of value to the table, even if it is just the person who always asks questions.
Career Connection: (from http://science.jpl.nasa.gov/PlanetaryScience/index.cfm and http://quest.arc.nasa.gov/people/cfs/generic/physical_science_tech_101.pdf) Planetary scientist - The duties include studying the atmospheres, surfaces, and interiors of planets; understanding the origins of planets and the physical processes at work; and using radar to determine the physical characteristics of asteroids and to search for asteroids that may pose a hazard to Earth. This work performed by planetary scientists allows them to improve our understanding of the planets, moons, and smaller bodies in the solar system. Research is carried out in the laboratory, from astronomical facilities throughout the world, and from spacecraft and landers, including the Mars rovers. Go to http://quest.nasa.gov/people/cfs/specific/heldmanj.pdf to read about a real planetary scientist, Dr. Jennifer Heldmann. Physical science technician - Physical science technicians help scientists and engineers with their products and experiments. They set up and run laboratory instruments. When there are problems with the instruments, physical science technicians fix them. They also check and track experiments, make observations of the experiments, record results, and often make conclusions. Physical science technicians gather data from various sources such as field notes, design books, and lab reports. They look at the data and report any errors or data that don’t fit with the rest. Physical science technicians usually work regular hours and, depending on their area of study, may work in a laboratory or outdoors. They spend a lot of time on the computer. At least two years of specialized training in science or science-related technology is required to be a technician. This training may be earned at a technical institute, vocational 175
school, from a community college or junior college, or from work experience. It is helpful to have some experience from internships or summer jobs in laboratories. Evaluation: • Teacher observation • Space Exploration Observations data sheet Lesson Enrichment/Extension: • Engage students in the Detecting Planet Transits lesson available at http://kepler.nasa.gov//files/mws/DetectingTransitsSSSmsGEMS.pdf. (A transit is when a planet passes between an observer and a star, blocking out some of the star’s light.) Students model NASA's Kepler mission observations of planetary transits (a planet moving in front of a star) by standing in a circle with model star (light bulb) in the center, and observing, through rolled up paper viewing tubes, a "bead" planet orbiting the star. • Have students research space probes that have conducted planet flybys. • Have students create their own planet along with a description of its location, topography, neighboring planets or moons, and any life forms. Associated Websites: • News regarding the search for other planets http://planetquest.jpl.nasa.gov/news • Kepler, a NASA space telescope responsible for finding planets http://kepler.nasa.gov/Mission/QuickGuide/howKeplerFindsPlanets/ http://www.nbcnews.com/id/49840320/ns/technology_and_science-space/t/moreyears-keplers-planet-hunting-mission-extended/
Source: http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/images/PIA02973_700X540.jpg
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Observations Box 1
Box 2
Box 3
Box 4
Box 5
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Source: http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/ipbrowse/PIA15416_ip.jpg
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Super Stars
Lesson 16
Lesson Reference: Adler Planetarium http://www.adlerplanetarium.org/documents/curriculumresources/Life%20Cycle%20of%20Stars.pdf Objectives: • Students will realize the relationship between the mass and color of stars and the life expectancy of stars. • Students will identify colors of the coolest and hottest stars. • Students will be able to describe the sun as a star. • Students will be able to explain how and when black holes form. • Students will visually demonstrate the life cycle of stars and be able to describe the life cycle of stars. National Science Standards: • Science as Inquiry • Physical Science - Properties and changes of properties in matter Background Information: (from http://science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/focusareas/how-do-stars-form-and-evolve/)
Source: http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages /hubble/science/ngc6362.html
Stars are born within the clouds of dust and scattered throughout most galaxies. Turbulence deep within these clouds gives rise to knots with sufficient mass that the gas and dust can begin to collapse under its own gravitational attraction. As the cloud collapses, the material at the center begins to heat up. Known as a protostar, it is this hot core at the heart of the collapsing cloud that will one day become a star. Threedimensional computer models of star formation predict that the spinning clouds of collapsing gas and dust may break up into two or three blobs; this would explain why the majority the stars in the Milky Way are paired or in groups of multiple stars. As the cloud collapses, a dense, hot core forms and begins gathering dust and gas. Not all of this material ends up as part of a star — the remaining dust can become planets, asteroids, or comets, or it may remain as dust. Stars are fueled by the nuclear fusion of hydrogen to form helium deep in their interiors. (According to the information at http://space.about.com/od/glossaries/g/star.htm, “At the high core temperatures of a star, atoms move so fast that they sometimes stick to other atoms when they collide with them, forming more massive atoms and releasing a great amount of energy. This process is known as nuclear fusion.”) The outflow of energy from the central regions of the star provides the pressure necessary to keep the star from collapsing under its own weight, and the energy by which it shines. 179
The smallest stars, known as red dwarfs, may contain as little as 10% the mass of the Sun and emit only 0.01% as much energy, glowing feebly at temperatures between 30004000 K. Despite their diminutive nature, red dwarfs are by far the most numerous stars in the universe and have lifespans of tens of billions of years. On the other hand, the most massive stars, known as hypergiants, may be 100 or more times more massive than the Sun, and have surface temperatures of more than 30,000 K. Hypergiants emit hundreds of thousands of times more energy than the Sun, but have lifetimes of only a few million years. Although extreme stars such as these are believed to have been common in the early universe, today they are extremely rare; the entire Milky Way galaxy contains only a handful of hypergiants. In general, the larger a star, the shorter its life, although all but the most massive stars live for billions of years. When a star has fused all the hydrogen in its core, nuclear reactions cease. Deprived of the energy production needed to support it, the core begins to collapse into itself and becomes much hotter. Hydrogen is still available outside the core, so hydrogen fusion continues in a shell surrounding the core. The increasingly hot core also pushes the outer layers of the star outward, causing them to expand and cool, transforming the star into a red giant. If the star is sufficiently massive, the collapsing core may become hot enough to support more exotic nuclear reactions that consume helium and produce a variety of heavier elements up to iron. However, such reactions offer only a temporary reprieve. Gradually, the star's internal nuclear fires become increasingly unstable - sometimes burning furiously, other times dying down. These variations cause the star to pulsate and throw off its outer layers, enshrouding itself in a cocoon of gas and dust. What happens next depends on the size of the core. For average stars like the Sun, the process of ejecting its outer layers continues until the stellar core is exposed. This dead, but still ferociously hot stellar cinder is called a white dwarf. White dwarfs are roughly the size of our Earth despite containing the mass of a star. This fate awaits only those stars with a mass up to about 1.4 times the mass of our Sun. Main sequence stars over eight solar masses are destined to die in a titanic explosion called a supernova. In a supernova, the star's core collapses and then explodes. The star no longer has any way to support its own mass, and the iron core collapses. In just a matter of seconds the core shrinks from roughly 5000 miles across to just a dozen, and the temperature spikes 100 billion degrees or more. The outer layers of the star initially begin to collapse along with the core, but rebound with the enormous release of energy and are thrown violently outward. Supernovae release an almost unimaginable amount of energy. For a period of days to weeks, a supernova may outshine an entire galaxy. On average, a supernova explosion occurs about once every hundred years in the typical galaxy. About 25 to 50 supernovae are discovered each year in other galaxies, but most are too far away to be seen without a telescope. 180
If the collapsing stellar core at the center of a supernova contains between about 1.4 and 3 solar masses, the collapse continues until electrons and protons combine to form neutrons, producing a neutron star. Neutron stars are incredibly dense. If the collapsed stellar core is larger than three solar masses, it collapses completely to form a black hole: an infinitely dense object whose gravity is so strong that nothing can escape its immediate proximity, not even light. Kelvin Kelvin (K) is a unit of measurement based on absolute zero, the point at which atoms in everything, not just water, stop moving or “freeze” due to the absence of any heat energy. Absolute zero occurs at 0 K (-273°C or -459°F). It is common to see temperatures of stars recorded this unit of measurement, such as 10,000 K. Kelvin is used to measure the temperature of different colors of light. K-W-L Chart A K-W-L chart is a chart with three columns. The heading of the first column is “K,” which stands for “know.” The “W” should be the heading for the middle column, and this stands for “want to know.” The heading of the last column is “L,” which stands for “learned.” At the beginning of the lesson, students state what they know about a topic and what they hope to learn about a topic. At the end of the lesson, students identify things they learned. Materials: • For a class of 30: 18 red balloons, 8 yellow balloons, 3 white balloons, and 1 blue balloons (1 balloon for each student in a class of 30) • Wooden beads, marbles, round pebbles, or very small wadded pieces of paper • Scissors or pin (to pop balloons) • Life Cycle of Stars Information Chart • Copies of Colors & Lives of Stars (one copy per student) • Dry erase board, chalkboard, or chart paper with appropriate marker Advance Teacher Preparation: Prior to beginning the lesson, place one wooden bead, marble, or small wadded piece of paper, inside each balloon. This lesson can be done by providing every student a balloon, as indicated in the materials list, or it can be completed using four student volunteers at the front of the room. (One student will hold a red balloon, one will hold a yellow balloon, one student will hold a white balloon, and one student will hold a blue balloon.) Lesson Presentation: 1. Create a K-W-L chart on the board or on chart paper. Ask students what they know about stars and record their answers under the “K” column. Ask students what they would like to learn about stars and record their answers under the “W” 181
column. To help students identify what they know and what they would like to learn, consider asking some of the following questions: o Are all stars the same? o Do we know how stars form or what makes them shine? o How long do stars live? o Do stars live or last forever? o Are stars close to each other? o How do black holes form? o Will the Sun turn into a black hole? 2. Tell students that they will learn about the characteristics and lives of stars in this lesson.
“Star Birth” Clouds Source: http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/universe /rel_stars.html
3. Distribute a Colors & Lives of Stars sheet to each student. While distributing the sheets, ask students, “What is a star?” 4. Inform students that a star is a ball-shaped gaseous celestial (of or relating to the skies or heavens) body of great mass that shines by its own light. Have them complete the definition on their worksheet. State that because stars are so massive, they have a gravitational pull. 5. Ask for four students to volunteer to stand in front of the class, each with a different colored balloon. (If you are providing a balloon to each student, distribute the balloons at this time.) 6. Explain that the main difference between stars is mass. (Mass is the amount of material that makes up an object.) Astronomers express the mass of a star in terms of solar mass. This measurement compares a star’s mass to that of the sun’s. Tell the students that the sun has a solar mass of one. So, an eight solar mass star (for example) is eight times more massive than the sun. 7. Guide students in the completion of #2 on their Colors & Lives of Stars page. Students should number the colors of stars in order from least massive to most massive, with 1 being least and 4 indicating most massive. (Answers: 1=red, 2=yellow, 3=white, 4=blue) 8. Tell students that as they do the balloon activity in class, they will hear answers to the questions on their paper. For example, they know now the answers to the next question. Tell students to follow along carefully in class in order to complete the remaining questions during the lesson. 9. Ask students which balloons they think are the coolest and hottest stars. Tell students that red stars are the coolest and blue stars are the hottest. Tell students to number the temperature of the stars in order from coolest to hottest on question #4 by writing a 1 beside red, a 2 beside yellow, a 3 beside white, and a 4 beside blue. Ask, “What color is the Sun?” (yellow) Tell students that the Sun is the closest star to us. It is about 93 million miles away from Earth. 182
State that they now know that the sun is only warmer than red stars. Tell students that red stars have a temperature of up to about 6,300ºF. The hottest blue stars range in temperature from about 50,000ºF to 90,000ºF. 10. Ask students which color star they think will live the longest and why. 11. Guide students through the series of steps written on the Life Cycle of Stars Information Chart. As you call out each new age, write it on the board, and then tell students what to do for the new age of their star (balloon). Also, periodically ask students for their predictions of what they think will happen next. For each age, tell students what to do for their “star” (colored-balloon). Remind them to answer questions on their note-taking sheet as you all proceed. 12. Some helpful vocabulary to include during the continuation of the lesson: (definitions/explanations from NASA) -
nebula – A nebula is a cloud of dust particles and gases in space
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planetary nebula: Planetary nebulae are ball-like clouds of dust and gases that surround certain stars. They form when a star begins to collapse and throw off the outer layers of its atmosphere. When viewed through a small telescope, this type of nebula appears to have a flat, rounded surface like that of a planet.
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black hole: If the collapsed stellar core is larger than three solar masses, it collapses completely to form a black hole: an infinitely dense object whose gravity is so strong that nothing can escape its immediate proximity, not even light.
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supernova: A supernova is the death explosion of a massive star, resulting in a sharp increase in brightness followed by a gradual fading. At peak light output, supernova explosions can outshine a galaxy. The outer layers of the exploding star are blasted out in a radioactive cloud. This expanding cloud, visible long after the initial explosion fades from view, forms a supernova remnant.
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neutron star: This star is the imploded core of a massive star produced by a supernova explosion. Neutron stars result from massive stars that have mass greater than four to eight times that of our sun. After these massive stars have finished burning their nuclear fuel, they undergo a supernova explosion. This explosion blows off the outer layers of a star into a beautiful supernova remnant. The central region of the star collapses under gravity. It collapses so much that protons and electrons combine to form neutrons; hence, the name "neutron star." A neutron star is about 12 mi (20 km) in diameter and has the mass of about 1.4 times that of our sun. This means that a neutron star is so dense that on Earth, one teaspoonful would weigh a billion tons! Because of its small size and high density, a neutron star possesses a surface gravitational field about 2 x 1011 times that of Earth. Neutron stars can also have magnetic fields a million times stronger than the strongest magnetic fields produced on Earth. Neutron stars are one of the possible ends for a star. Neutron stars can be observed as pulsars. 183
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pulsars: Pulsars are spinning neutron stars that have jets of particles moving almost at the speed of light streaming out above their magnetic poles. These jets produce very powerful beams of light. Like a ship in the ocean that sees only regular flashes of light, we see pulsars "turn on and off" as the beam sweeps over the Earth. Neutron stars for which we see such pulses are called "pulsars", or sometimes "spin-powered pulsars," indicating that the source of energy is the rotation of the neutron star.
Pulsar is in the center of the supernova. Source: http://www.nasa.gov/centers/godda rd/news/topstory/2008/magnetar_ hybrid_prt.htm
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white dwarf: For average stars like the Sun, the process of ejecting its outer layers continues until the stellar core is exposed. This dead, but still ferociously hot stellar cinder is called a white dwarf. White dwarfs are roughly the size of our Earth despite containing the mass of a star.
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black dwarf: A black dwarf is a white dwarf that has cooled down enough that it no longer emits light. It takes tens to hundreds of billions of years for a white dwarf to cool down entirely, and the universe hasn't been around that long; therefore, there are no black dwarfs yet.
13. After all stars have met their fate, review the life cycle of the stars. Emphasize which star died first and last. Ask students what they notice about the mass of the star in relation to how long the star lived. Discuss the fate of the yellow stars like our sun. Note that they live quite a long time and don’t become either black holes or neutron stars. Review the formation of black holes. Ask students if the majority of stars become black holes. (no) Summarization: To summarize today’s lesson, finish the K-W-L chart by asking students what they learned from this activity. List student responses on the chart under the “L.” Then, either review the answers to the student worksheet or collect the worksheets to evaluate. Career Connection: (from http://www.noao.edu/education/being-an-astronomer.php, and http://www.insidejobs.com/jobs/telescope-operator, and http://quest.arc.nasa.gov/people/cfs/generic/astrophysicist_100.pdf) Astronomer – Most astronomers concentrate on a particular question or area of astronomy such as planetary science, solar astronomy, the origin or evolution of stars, or the formation of galaxies. Observational astronomers design and carry out observing programs with a telescope or spacecraft to answer a question or test the predictions of theories. Theorist work with complex computer models of a star’s interior, for example, to understand the physical processes responsible for the star’s appearance.
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Astronomers use sophisticated digital cameras attached to a telescope and computers to gather and analyze research data. The actual time spent at a telescope collecting data for analysis is only the beginning. Most of their time is spent in an office analyzing the data, creating computer programs that allow them to more efficiently search through the data, writing research papers, and completing other administrative tasks like attending meetings. Because astronomy is a relatively small field but attractive to many students, there is great competition for jobs. After attaining a Ph.D., it is common to take a postdoctoral position, a temporary appointment which allows an astronomer time to concentrate on research, publishing papers, and building their reputation in the field. Astronomy-related positions are also available for those without an advanced degree. In addition to universities and laboratories, astronomy-related positions are available at other facilities, such as planetariums and science museums. Telescope Operator – The duties include being responsible for the maintenance and daily operations of the telescope’s physical and electronic equipment, maintaining other viewing equipment at an observatory, ensuring proper alignment of telescope using proper coordinates, assisting engineers and technicians in diagnosing telescope equipment problems, and operating or tending hoists or winches to lift and pull loads using poweroperated cable equipment. A telescope operator position falls under the broader career category of hoist and winch operators. A telescope operator must be a team player who pays close attention to details and has excellent math and computer skills. Those interested in such a position should expect to have at least a two-year degree with training in math, physics, or a related technical field. Learn more about the job of a telescope operator by reading about the work of Michael Alegria, a real telescope operator, at http://www.npr.org/2010/06/04/127477503/seeing-stars-a-telescopeoperators-night. Astrophysicist - Astrophysicists study objects in the universe, including galaxies and stars to understand what they are made of, their surface features, their histories and how they were formed. To study these bodies, astrophysicists often come up with new tools and ways to investigate them. Astrophysicists spend most of their time in laboratories and offices looking at a lot of information gathered by instruments such as telescopes, sensors and probes. They decide what the information means and write papers and reports about what they find. Some also spend time discovering rules about how objects in space are formed or structured. A small portion of an astrophysicist’s time is spent actually making observations with instruments. This may require travel to faraway locations. The minimum education required for this position is a bachelor’s degree in physics, mathematics, astrophysics, astronomy, or a related subject from an accredited college or university. This study must include one physics or engineering lab in aerospace instrumentation. To do research, a Ph.D. is highly desired for this position. Related job titles also include: space scientist, research scientist, and stellar spectroscopist. 185
Evaluation: • Teacher observation • Colors & Lives of Stars worksheet Lesson Enrichment/Extension: • Have the students make and learn how to use a star chart. The materials are Source: http://www.nasa.gov/images/content/49887main_stellar2.jpg available at http://www.lhs.berkeley.edu/StarClock/ skywheel.html. • Complete a star classification activity. Materials are available at http://www.middleschoolscience.com/starclassification.pdf. • For a worksheet on star types (M-O) go to http://www.middleschoolscience.com/starcolorhw.pdf. • Engage students in a star sequencing lesson. The detailed lesson is available at http://btc.montana.edu/ceres/malcolm/cd/html/stars1.html#activity1. • Select from activities at http://scifiles.larc.nasa.gov/docs/guides/guide2d_03.pdf and http://www.middleschoolscience.com/earth.htm. • Find several star activities including practice with the Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram at http://www.starrynight.com/education/pdf/LessonPlang2HighSchool.pdf and http://teacherlink.ed.usu.edu/tlnasa/units/AstroVentureAstronomy/AV_Astronom y_Intro.pdf (see Lesson 9: Planetary Temperature as a System). Associated Websites: • Star videos http://www.brainpop.com/science/space/lifecycleofstars/ (about 5 min.) http://www.nasa.gov/mov/196759main_049_LifeCycle_Star.mov (about 5 min.) • Star information http://www.adlerplanetarium.org/investigate/explore/outthere/stars http://science.howstuffworks.com/star.htm http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/universe/rel_stars.html http://www.pbs.org/seeinginthedark/astronomy-topics/lives-of-stars.html • Different types of stars (white dwarf, neutron, etc.) http://www.angelfire.com/realm/shades/horoscopes/adefinitions.htm • How stars form and descriptions of stars http://nasascience.nasa.gov/astrophysics/how-do-stars-form-and-evolve • Questions and answers about stars http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/ask_astro/stars.html • Kelvin and temperature http://www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/bec/temperature.html http://www.school-for-champions.com/science/temperature_scales.htm
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Source: Adler Planetarium http://www.adlerplanetarium.org/documents/curriculum-resources/Life%20Cycle%20of%20Stars.pdf
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Picture Credit: NASA/CXC/M. Weiss Picture source: http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/multimedia/display.cfm?IM_ID=9363 Chart source: Adler Planetarium http://www.adlerplanetarium.org/documents/curriculum-resources/Life%20Cycle%20of%20Stars.pdf
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COLORS & LIVES OF STARS NAME ________________________
1. Star: a ball-shaped ___________ celestial body of great _______ that shines by its ______ light. 2. Number the following colors of stars in order from least massive to most massive, with 1 being the least massive and 4 being most massive. ____ red
_____ yellow
______ white
3. Which color star has the least mass? _________
_____ blue the most mass? __________
4. Number the star colors in order from coolest to hottest with 1 being coolest and 4 being hottest. ____ red
_____ yellow
______ white
5. Which color star is the coolest? _________
_____ blue
the hottest? __________
6. Our sun is what color star? _________ 7. Which color star grows the fastest? ___________ 8. At around 55 million years or so, a white star may quickly explode resulting in a ___________ star, the very dense core of a massive star produced by a supernova explosion. 9. At around 8 billion years old, a yellow star becomes a ________________, and its temperature _______________ . 10. At around 12.5 billion years old, a star that began as a yellow star ____________ , and the outer portion of it is released as __________
_________.
The star
becomes a __________ _________ (which is the slowly cooling core of a star). 11. At around 200 billion years old, the red star ___________ . becomes a _______ ________ .
The remaining core
12. As yellow, white, and blue stars grow larger (becoming red giants), what happens to their temperature and color? _________________________________________________________________ 13. What is a supernova, and which stars (in terms of color) will result in a supernova? _________________________________________________________________ 14. Which color star can become a black hole and why? _________________________________________________________________ 15. Describe stars that live the longest. ____________________________________ 16. Describe stars that have the shortest life. _______________________________
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COLORS & LIVES OF STARS – ANSWER KEY 1. Star – a ball-shaped gaseous celestial body of great mass that shines by its own light. 2. Number the following colors of stars in order from least massive to most massive, with 1 being the least massive and 4 being most massive. __1_ red
__2__ yellow
___3__ white
3. Which color star has the least mass? _red__
__4__ blue
the most mass? __blue___
4. Number the star colors in order from coolest to hottest with 1 being coolest and 4 being hottest. __1_ red
__2__ yellow
___3___ white
5. Which color star is the coolest? __red__
__4__ blue
the hottest? ___blue____
6. Our sun is what color star? _yellow__ 7. What kind of star grows the fastest? ___blue/hottest____ 8. At around 55 million years or so, a white star may quickly explode resulting in a _neutron_ star, the very dense core of a massive star produced by a supernova explosion. 9. At around 8 billion years old, a yellow star becomes a _supergiant_, and its temperature _cools_ . 10. At around 12.5 billion years old, a star that began as a yellow star _grows_ , and the outer portion of it is released as _planetary nebula_. The star becomes a _white_ _dwarf_(which is the slowly cooling core of the star). 11. At around 100 billion years old, the red star _shrinks_ . The remaining core becomes a _white_ _dwarf_ . 12. As yellow, white, and blue stars become larger (becoming red giants) what happens to their temperature and color? They cool, turning red. 13. What is a supernova, and which two stars (in terms of color) will result in a supernova? __an explosion of a star; white and blue__ 14. Which star can become a black hole and why? _blue star due to its incredible mass__ 15. Describe the stars that live the longest. _stars that remain cool over their lifetime/least massive stars_ 16. Describe stars that have the shortest life. stars with high temperatures/massive star
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