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Climate Change perception and adaptation strategies among various stakeholders in Nalanda District of Bihar (India) Kundan Sagar School of Ecology and Environment Studies, Nalanda University, Rajgir, Nalanda, Bihar, INDIA
[email protected]
mitigate the impact and adaptation to climate changes are top most priority for humanity. As it is evident that climate is changing and is very liable to continue changing, even extensive efforts to curb greenhouse gas emissions will only slow climate change, not avoid it.
Abstract The aim of the research was to assess climate change issues of relevance to traditional peoples’ views and knowledge about climate change, its impacts and activities, adaptation strategies together with any perceive hindrance to its adaptation. These people are vulnerable to the effects of climate change due to their marginal location, low levels of technology, and lack of other essential farming resources. The research study was carried out in Nalanda district of Bihar (India), commonly known for its rich culture inherited from various dynasty and birthplace of and great personalities and several religions along with rich wildlife, birds and sanctuaries and immense agricultural activity.
An enhanced understanding of community insights, attitude, and deeds about climate change will provide an important establishment for government’s policy-making, service provider’s guideline development and the engagement of local communities. Throughout the human history, individuals and societies have been threatened by environmental changes and nowadays these risks are magnified; there is, in fact, widespread evidence that climate change is increasingly bringing about dramatic impacts on natural and social systems1. Thus, climate change has been discussed more often in all spheres in all horizons and across all societal build up’s as the enormity of this problem has been affected every form of life on global scale2. Climate specialist’s reports like IPCC, 2001; ACIA, 2005, UNDP 2008, have created a noteworthy measure of proof over late decades in the backing of anthropogenic climate change.
This research also aims to identify indigenous practices that jeopardize the sustainable development module among predominantly smallholder farmers by their knowledge of climate change impacts and adaptation strategies. This study utilizes information from questionnaire surveys administered to bureaucrats. Adaptation occurs through public policy making and decisions made by these stakeholders. The questions covered in the survey included a focus on possible holistic stakeholder perceptions in understanding the climate change effects on the environment, socio-economic status, current preparedness, coverage of climate change issues in current plans, the need to respond and the measures required. Climate change is potential threat to corrode the many development gains made by Bihar and it is believed that frequency and intensity of extreme weather events are likely to exacerbate in future.
We are in Anthropocene i.e. climate is changing and that humans are responsible for these changes3. It is also evident that climate will continue to change in the future as a result of an inescapable outcome of historical greenhouse gas emissions4. These changes are certain to cause impacts; adaptation will be required to avert the most damaging impacts5. Regardless of clear flags from established researchers, it stays misty how viably these messages have been conveyed to and comprehended by those people and associations who will be at the cutting edge in managing the issue. Specifically, conventional farmers whose jobs rely on upon the utilization of common assets, are prone to accept the brunt of unfavorable effects5. The degree to which these effects are felt depends in huge part on the degree of adaptation in light of climate change.
Keywords: Adaptation, Climate Change, Stake Holder, Mitigation.
Introduction Climate change is the most puzzling and convoluted can of worms which humanity is facing. In the past, many of these climatic disruptions had occurred by natural phenomena but from scientific studies, it is evident that most climatic changes, which mankind is witnessing, are likely to result from anthropogenic activities. As a result, the whole world is facing significant risks from climate change, therefore to
Adaptation is generally perceived as a key part of any strategy reaction to climate change6. According to the latest report from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), mankind is going to witness decreases in water supply and food production in many areas, increased risks to coastal areas and increased exposure to more intense extreme events. The climate is changing and is very likely to
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continue changing. Even extensive efforts to curb greenhouse gas emissions will only slow climate change, not avoid it7.
Since climate change effects are felt at various levels from the worldwide to the nearby, reactions to climate change too should be at numerous levels, calling for vital mediations at the neighborhood, sub-national, national, and worldwide levels. At the worldwide level, India's commitment to multilateral arrangements in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) has been noteworthy, and it keeps on supporting for powerful, agreeable and fair worldwide methodologies in light of the rule of 'basic however separated obligations and separate capacities'15.
Thus, adaptation is a necessity. Without adaptation, climate change would be detrimental to every segment. Without adaptation, climate change might make impeding of the each fragment8. The most obliterating antagonistic effects of climate change in India incorporates regular surge, dry season, expanded environmental harm, expanded infestation of product by pests and diseases, depletion of household assets, increased rural-urban migration, increased biodiversity loss, depletion of wildlife and other natural resource base, change in the vegetation type, decline in forest resources, decline infill conditions (soil moisture and nutrients), increased health risks and the spread of infectious diseases, changing livelihood systems9.
At the national level, India has built up the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC), 2008 including national missions at its center, tending to different sectorial parts of climate change; in the meantime, perceiving that the effects of climate change will fluctuate crosswise over states, divisions, areas and populaces and that diverse methodology should be embraced to fit particular sub-national settings and conditions, every single Indian State has been approached to get ready State Action Plans for Climate Change (SAPCCs) in line of the NAPCC16. It is in this connection that the Bihar, a state which has a rich heritage inherited from various dynasties and great personalities and blessed with nature with astonished wildlife, birds and sanctuaries, had come up with its own State Action arrangement (BAPCC) for Climate Change17.
Global climate change has profound implications for the quality of life of millions of people which includes ranchers, herders, undernourished people, ladies and children, uneducated individuals10. Acknowledging these effects, IPCC records two reasons why adaptation is essential in the climate change issue. Initial, a comprehension of expected adjustment is central in assessing the expenses or dangers of climate change. Second, adaptation is a key reaction choice or methodology, alongside relief11. Indigenous and other traditional people are only rarely considered in academic, policy and public discourses on climate change despite the fact that they will be greatly impacted by impending changes. Their livelihoods depend on natural resources that are directly affected by climate change, and they often inhabit economically and politically marginal areas in diverse but fragile ecosystems11. The perspectives of the indigenous people, the way they think and behave about climate change, as well as their values and aspirations have a significant role to play in addressing climate change12.
Accessible proof demonstrates that there is a high likelihood of expansion of the recurrence of climate-related normal risks because of climate change and henceforth increment in potential danger because of climate change related common debacles in India and Bihar is no special case to this18. It is very defenseless against hydro-meteorological normal fiascos, with North Bihar all in all being very surge inclined, and South Bihar being exceedingly dry season inclined.19,20 In the absence of scientific state level climate models and vulnerability studies including the low level of community awareness, Bihar is potentially more sensitive and vulnerable to the climate change and its impacts.
Climate change in context of India and Bihar: India's economy and a larger part of its populace are exceptionally subject to climate change areas, for example, agribusiness, fisheries, tourism and so forth13. Since climate change is required to affect normal and human frameworks antagonistically by affecting changes, these frameworks in India can be considered exceptionally helpless. Climate change is just liable to intensify India's as of now high physical presentation to climate-related calamities as 65 percent of India is drought inclined, 12 percent flood inclined and susceptible to cyclones14.
Study area Nalanda District is one among 38 Districts of Bihar State, India. It is 18th largest district in the State21. It is named Nalanda, after the famous university and the world’s oldest university “the Nalanda University” located here, therefore famous for religious tourism and cultural heritage sites because it is frequently referred in Jain and Buddhist scriptures and hence blessed with rich and glorious history22,39. As per the Bihar tourism department, this district is a hotspot for tourism as it comes under “Buddhist Circuit, Tirthankar Circuit, Islamic/Sufi Circuit and Nature and Wildlife Circuit of tourism”.
As an outcome, environmental change is profoundly liable to effect employments by disturbing social, social, monetary, ecological framework and human resources, diminishing human security and posturing serious dangers to the development of the nation like India13.
Historical Perspective: Founded in the fifth century A.D. Nalanda is known as the old seat of learning. “Cakravartin Ashoka” built monasteries, sanctuaries and Viharas here22,38. Since Lord Buddha visited Nalanda several times, hence this
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area was quite famous center of Buddhist learning, Hiuen Tsang stayed here in seventh century and has left definite depiction of the fabulousness of education and immaculateness of religious life honed here22,39. As per the Archeological survey of India, Rajgir block of this district was the antique capital of Magadhan kingdom which thrived in the 6th century BC. Its relationship with Lord Buddha and Lord Mahavira praises this district. The principal Buddhist board instantly after the Mahaparinirarvana of Lord Buddha, to pen down his lessons, was likewise held at Rajgir. Another block of this district Pawapuri, a righteous and sinless city, is a great pilgrimage center of the Jains. Lord Mahavira, the greatest propounder of Jainism had delivered his last sermon, took Mahaparinirvana and was cremated here.
Climate and agro ecological situation: Nalanda district is lying in III-B zone of Bihar state whose majority population earns its livelihood from agriculture28. The district has 183377 hectares of net sown areas and the areas in which sowing activities are done more than once include 75258 hectares and in this way, the percentages net sown area and the area sown are more than once comprises 78.79 and 23.34 percent respectively of the total areas of the state21 . In this district, the farmers are progressive, committed, innovative and hardworking despite having a small size of land holdings29. In Nalanda, potato cultivation has been taken up in a wide coverage approx. 28,000 ha by a large number of small and medium land holding farmers. In this way, farmers of this district are getting handsome yields by using latest technologies, hence the farmers from this district hold the world record by producing 660 quintal onions per hectare, the previous record of highest yield of onion was 550 quintals per hectare held by a farmer in the Netherlands30 . While another from this district, by leading a silent agricultural revolution in the area cultivated astonishing 22.4 tons of rice on one hectare of land, without using any herbicides, hence surpassed the previous record of 19.4 tones achieved by the Chinese agricultural scientist Yuan Longping, also known as the “father of rice”31.
Physiography and Topography: The district of Nalanda is spread in an area of 2367 Sq. Kms with latitude: 25.1368° North ; longitude: 85.4438° East and a population of 2370528 has been pre-eminently an agricultural district. Bordering Patna District in north and north-west, Gaya District in South, Luckhisarai District in the east, Jahanabad District in the west and Nawada district in South-east, this district comprises of 3 sub division and 20 blocks covering 249 village panchayats23,24. Nalanda has a rugged topography that sometimes proves unfavorable for agriculture yet agriculture is the main occupation here. The Nalanda District is divided into two main parts which include “Hills Land of Rajgir and Giriyak” which consist of two parallel ridges extending around 65 km and “cultivated Agriculture Land” – mostly uneconomic holdings, fragmented land25,26.
Climate change impacts in Nalanda In last decades, the vicious cycle of climate change already affected Nalanda districts. There has been a direct impact on the migration of rural population. The majority of the migrated rural populations are causalities of climate change phenomenon instead of crop loss, livelihood loss, and habitat loss. From the BAPCC reports, it is also evident that in 2011, Nalanda district was a flood prone area but in 2009, 2010, 2013, it was drought prone area. These are effects of temperature variance instead of climate change which has adversely affected the agricultural patterns and the socioeconomic strata. Incessant rain, over-flowing rivers is wreaking havoc in various parts of Nalanda.32
The Phalgu river flowing through Nalanda is considered sacred for the Hindus with the other rivers in Nalanda include Mohane, Jirayan, Kumbhari. This district is located within the Mid-Ganga basin, in the southern margin of the Gangetic plains, and soil can be characterized by four types of soil viz. clay loam, fine loam, loam and course loam, mainly derived from alluvial deposit of southern Ganga Plain. Majority of rocks are the crystalline rocks exposed in Rajgir Hills and forming the bedrock slopping towards north consists of phyllites and quartzites along with pegmatitic intrusions21,25. There are some hot springs. The hill town of Rajgir, surrounded by seven hills is in the midst of lush green forest.27,39
Several blocks of Nalanda are reeling under floods which have claimed many lives and severely affected the lives of hundreds. In the last year 2015 there has been scanty rainfall in Bihar. As a result it created drought situation in some districts.33 The irregular rainfall and anthropogenic activities caused decrease in the hot spring flow in Rajgir.34,39 It is an irony that several blocks of Nalanda district are facing imminent danger of floods while more than half a dozen blocks which include Nagarnausa, Rajgir in the state are facing the drought-like situation.
District demography and district development indicators: The entire population of the district has been living in 360797 households whose average size is of 7.0 persons24. The population is heavily concentrated in rural areas which is an indicator of the population depending mostly on agriculture and allied activities in the rural center. Scheduled Tribes population in the district is miserably low. The percentage of literacy rate-differences between male and female is excessively high with literacy rate 64.43 and sex ratio 91424.
The Central Groundwater Board (CGWB) scientist said the groundwater reservoirs in as many as 11 blocks of the state are in semi-critical condition. A large number of households in these cities still have limited access to safe drinking water. The Storm-ravaged several homes and thunderstorm accompanied by heavy rains lashed this district35. It is also
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evident from table 1 that there is significant spatial and temporal distribution of Indian Summer Monsoon Rainfall (ISMR) during June-September and scientific study proved that departure in minimum and maximum temperatures from average values influences plant physiological conditions viz. respiration, water requirement, and growth, thereby affecting yields 36.
Analyzing the capacity of stakeholders to cope with and adapt to climatic events is fundamental to characterizing current and possible future vulnerability. Understanding the role of stakeholders in the decision- making process will assist in the implementation of adaptation policies. Therefore, the purpose of this survey was two fold - first to survey stakeholder perceptions of their capacity to adapt to a changing climate and next to identify stakeholders' information needs regarding adaptation to climate change
The climatic variability directly impacts yields at crop level and also affects soil quality; water resources; brings in pests, diseases and weeds etc. further aggravating the impact on the cropping system, thereby reducing the yield per hectare of land or per unit of livestock at the farm level37. The adverse impact of climatic variability on agriculture production at farm level gets aggregated to the level of the food system regarding food shortages and rising prices which can also endanger food and livelihood security36. Changes in the climate had affected the fisheries sector of this district which include the effect on aquatic habitats (quantity and quality), ecosystem productivity, distribution and abundance of aquatic competitors and predators/disease thereby affecting the livelihood and food security of fishing communities.
Stakeholders in the study: Stakeholders are those who have interests in a particular decision either as individuals or as representatives of a group. They are people who influence a decision or can influence it as well as those affected by it. In this study, stakeholders were defined as 1) those affected by climate change, 2) those positioned most effectively to advance adaptation. The required data and information were collected from a direct field study based on the results of questionnaires that were administered in ten selected villages in Nalanda district of Bihar, primarily from Nalanda, Rajgir, Biharsharif , Pawapuri, and Harnaut. Information used in this paper is generally qualitative in nature based on field observation, household survey and informal discussion with key informants conducted in two phases first November December 2016 and second June –July 2017. Only villages that were easily assessable were randomly selected.
It has already been observed that the distribution of important fish species and plankton has been affected due to changes in temperature and rainfall patterns over the catchments of its rivers37. Since, the impact of climate change can not be ignored, hence this study solicited stakeholders' opinions on climate change adaptation and their needs for information on the issue.
For the purpose of administering the questionnaires, household heads above the age thirty-five years were purposively administered questionnaires to. More experienced and matured farmers were administered questionnaires to because they are better at distinguishing climate change from the merely inter-annual variation of weather scenarios. A total of 300 questionnaires were administered to each of the villages and only to households' heads that were willing to be administered questionnaires to.
Methodology This study is an attempt to assess the perceptions of Indigenous People in selected villages/wards in Nalanda district of Bihar on climate change issues and adaptation/coping measures and identify indigenous response options for information and knowledge that will help in policy making that may have positive impact on the life of the local and marginalized poor people who are directly affected by climate change. This research uses an approach, which seeks to gain insights from the stakeholders themselves based on a household survey. The data were collected from 975 households in Nalanda district, India.
The crucial reason for this decision is to pay attention to those who were more interested and concerned by the incidence of climate change. Approximately 15 to 20 min was spent to complete one questionnaire. The study was conducted at the face-to-face level and obtained a response rate of approximately 98%.
We also surveyed the heads of various departments of district administration who are important actors in adaptation - who have the current and experience of coping with and adapting to climate variability and extremes. They can provide information on climate change impacts and adaptations; they can also assess the viability of proposed adaptive measures. The research community and the district administration (stakeholders) can develop adaptation strategies together by combining scientific information and local knowledge and experiences of change and responses. Adaptation occurs through public policy making and decisions made by these stakeholders.
Out of the 100 questionnaires administered to each of the villages, some were rejected because not all were completely returned or answered. The questionnaires for administrators were filled by group of five volunteers. The volunteers met the respondents explaining the study and the purpose of the questionnaire. The questionnaire could be answered through the volunteer or personally filled only once. This questionnaire comprised of 21 questions, mostly multiplechoice, but also some open questions. The questions were on the stakeholders' general perceptions about climate change, their climate information needs,
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potential impacts of climate change and their significance, their current preparedness to climate change and its impacts, coverage of climate change issues in current plans, and the need to respond and the needed measures to be taken. 25 officials from Central and State administrative service answered to the questionnaire. Responses were collected and stored by in a PC. Open questions were coded by a simple and subjective coding system.
years, they claimed that there is less rainfall, more likely to notice changes in the timing of the rains and more likely to notice a change in the frequency of droughts and floods as well as crop infestation and output drop. About 86.5% of the traditional farmers studied from the various villages agree that climate change has led to various forms of crops infestations there by reducing the quality and quantity of crops produced. In turn there is a significant increase in the cost of food crops as agreed by more than 90% of the respondents.
Results About 80 % percent of the inhabitants of the villages studied were farmers, even those who claimed not to be farmers engage themselves in little farming activities. • 57% respondents were males while 43% were females. • 74% of the respondents fall between 35 to 50 years. • Remaining 26% fall between the 51 to 65 years of age. The Environment is changing due to Anthropogenic Activity 7%
5% 3%
Stongly Agree Some what Agree
20%
Do knot Know 65%
Figure 3: Changes in rainfall, temperature and over all climates
Some what Disagree
Figure 2: Is village environment changing? Considering the issues of environmental change, majority (65%) (fig. 2) of the respondents strongly agree that the environment has been changing over the years due to human activities such as farming, burning, deforestation, unplanned construction, urbanization and industrialization. About 80 % of the respondents said that climate change is a critical environmental issue that needs immediate attention. In analyzing the issues of climate change, 78% of the respondents agreed that the climate in particular is changing due to diverse human activities and 75% strongly agree that the temperature has been rising over the past few decades as shown in figure 3. In the same vain, 81 % of them expressed that rainfall is decreasing every year with varied rainfall anomalies.
Figure 4: Weather, rains, and climate change Also, there have been problems of flood and drought which contribute significantly to the problems associated with climate change that threatened the livelihood of the inhabitants of the study area. As shown in figure 5, about 60% agree that there has been an increase in incidences of floods during the rainy season. 90% respondents agree that there have been increasing incidences of droughts during the dry season. Apart from the impact of climate change on crop production in the study area, almost 82% of the indigenous people studied stress that the environment is suffering from excessive de-vegetation that is presently instigating fuel scarcity and loss in forest resources.
As shown in figure 3, 66% of the respondents agree that due to these the weather and in turn the environment is becoming dry every year affecting human settlement within the study area. The rainfall is declining and not supporting. Crop production was strongly stated by about 85% of the respondents. Experienced farmers and more elderly inhabitants were more inclined that temperature has increased and rainfall quantity is falling in figure 4. From their experience over the
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Vol. 10 (8) August (2017) There are many factors hindering adaptation techniques of combating climate change. Gender influences adoption level indirectly through access to complementary inputs. Nonavailability of the desired variety of seed and higher price of quality seeds were the most significant hindering factors in the adaptation strategies. In response, 46.05% of the respondents stress that lack of improving seeds is the major hindrance to adoption of modern techniques, About 9.8% of the responded saying that the main hindrance for them is the lack of money to acquire modern techniques. About 24% of the respondents feel the lack of assessing to water for irrigation farming is the major hindrance while 15% said their obstacle is the lack of current knowledge on adaptation methods. About 4% feel strongly that lack of information on weather incidence is the biggest obstacle.
Figure 5. Crop and climate change In the study area, majority of the traditional people depend much on environmental resources which are already under threat and this is already affecting the livelihood of people as opined by about 90% of the respondents. According to 97% of the respondents, the poor are usually always mostly affected by the incidence of climate change while the remaining 3% of the respondents do not know who are being affected more. 32% of the respondents said that the impact of climate change is more on food production, 28.5% of the respondents said the impact is more on health, 20.5% of the respondents subscribed that the impact is more on biodiversity loss, 4.7% stress that the impact is more towards instigating disaster and 7.5% of the respondents were of the opinion that businesses are more jeopardized by climate change.
Administrators Survey: The questionnaire started with the question on general perceptions about climate change. The vast majority of the respondents agreed with the statement that climate change is caused by human actions. However only 43% of the respondents agree that the climate has already changed, about 38% of the stakeholders said that climate change has been identified as a risk in disaster mitigation or risk register. But more than 95% respondents said that the greenhouse effect has not been defined anywhere within the risk register of disaster management or government environmental protection document. 81% of stakeholder said climate change is not significant for his/ her sector. 19% were not sure. Stakeholder information needs: A majority (81%) of the stakeholders said that so far, they have not received enough information on climate change issues to support their decision-making and planning at work. 19% were not aware about the issue. The stakeholders were given a list of alternative information needs on climate change issues. Of these alternatives, the responses emphasize information on regional) impacts (about 62% of respondents), on impacts on India (48%), on local impacts (33%), on probabilities of occurrence of extreme events (27%), uncertainties of estimates (14%).
In responding to issues on the sustainability of the environment, about 80% of the respondents incline that climate change can be a hindrance towards the struggle towards achieving sustainable environmental development in Bihar. Regarding awareness, 23% of the respondents agreed that there is an awareness on climate change in the study area, 28% of the respondents said they do not know and finally, majority 48% of the respondents declined to say that the awareness on climate change is very weak in the study area and Bihar as a whole.
Climate change impacts and their significance: The respondents considered that some of the changes and impacts such as mean temperature rise, milder winters and shortening of the growing season will have both positive and negative impacts from the point of view of their sectors. For most sectors, increases of possibility of major floods, weather extreme events, increases in windiness and precipitation were considered negative. Changes in rainfall and increase in dry periods were also considered negative but for many respondents they were also neutral (having not positive or negative impacts).
In response to adaptation strategies to climate change, 47.1% of the respondents said that they cultivate different/varieties of crops as adaptation strategies. It was perceived that adapting to climate change by planting different varieties of crops is high. Some farmers restrict themselves to different planting dates by shortening the growing season. These changes occur when there is a reduction in rainfall and a change in the timing of the rains or a change in the frequency of drought caused by temperature increase and insufficient rains. In another vein 19.6% of the respondents adopt water maximization by practicing irrigation farming while 2.3% said they adopt shortening season strategies in combating climate change. 9.8% responded that they adapt fertilizer as a climate change adaptation strategy, 10% opined that they increase the extent of land put into agriculture.
Solution to climate change: Most of the respondents (52.4%) felt that mitigation was the most efficient measure to combat climate change, 19% said adaptation like advanced planning, research, development of new
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technology and preparing for extreme events etc. to be among the most efficient measures to adapt to climate change. 37% respondents say they have produced an action plan. About 63% say that they do not have any action plan produced.
The stakeholders seemed to be in general quite well aware of climate change issues in general and they seemed to be also aware of adaptation as an issue. It seems, however, that in many sectors the issue has not been discussed and concrete measures or plans have not been made so far but the issue has been acknowledged. Most respondents had received enough information on climate change issues to support their work so far. It is possible, though, that those stakeholders that were not so familiar with the climate change questions, did not respond to the questionnaire in the first place. Even though aware of the issue, many uncertainties about climate change and its impacts and information needs were expressed.
It is surprisingly to know half of operational plans of the organizations or sectors that the respondents represented (52% of respondents), climate change issues had not already been taken into account, 37% of the plans covered climate change issues. Most of the plans dealt with both mitigation and adaptation (41%). 32% of the plans treated only mitigation issues.
The need for research on adaptation, impacts and climate change, information dissemination and education was also often emphasized. Many stakeholders responding to the study also said that measures taken in Nalanda District so far to adapt to climate change have not been sufficient. The types of measures suggested that authorities should take were: research on adaptation, research on climate change impacts and scenarios; integration of climate change issues into planning at all levels, integrating sectoral planning and cooperation; information dissemination on climate change and adaptation issues and research results; regulation and new legislation to enhance adaptation; economic measures and creating incentives for private sector; enhancing innovations and technological development; education and training on climate change and adaptation; analyzing risks, risk assessment, monitoring and evaluation systems; taking more active part in international negotiations and work; and developing decision making system.
Discussion The stakeholders were selected for this study based on the assumption that they are either affected by climate change most and/ or they are in the position to act in adaptation. However, from the point of view of the national economy, some of the significant sectors are under-represented in this study. Also, it would have been good to include more representatives of the social policy sector in this study as they are important potential actors in adaptation policies and plans. The number of representatives from these sectors was small partly due to difficulties in identifying and involving the respondents. Some of the respondents found the questionnaire is hard to answer, mainly for two reasons. First, for some sectors or stakeholders the issue of climate change and its impacts are still distant and the issue is not discussed or treated within the sector and in its plans. Secondly, some stakeholders found the questions difficult to answer as they were not targeted clearly to their sector or type of work. The officials of district administration mostly know the climate change issue well and the issue is also discussed within these sectors but not between them. Therefore, for the stakeholders from these sectors, the questionnaire was easier to answer.
Interestingly some of the stake holders, who are well educated, raise question about the government ambitious programme to build Bihar Sharif as smart city and expressed their concerns whether in coming future, this smart city will able to counteract increasing disasters and climate changes impacts.
The response rate to the questionnaire was quite good. Many respondents had also taken time and effort to answer the questions with care. It seems that many stakeholders have already thought about and discussed adaptation and climate change questions in their work within their sectors and also concrete measures – mainly in mitigation, but also some adaptation measures – are implemented or planned. The need to take action was often stressed and the importance of mitigation was emphasized.
Conclusion The findings of this study show that the threat of climate change for traditional farmers is more on health, food supply, biodiversity quality and fuel wood availability than on businesses and disaster instigation. Indigenous people adapting to climate change strategies in the study area include planting different varieties of crops, cultivating different crops, changing the extend of land put into crop production, changing to irrigation farming, the use of chemical fertilizer and improvement in water maximization.
Another issue often mentioned was uncertainties. There are still many uncertainties concerning the changes, their direction and magnitude, the impacts, time frames, causes of the phenomena and extreme events. Therefore, the need for research and information to support decision-making and planning was often stressed. The stakeholders also expressed the need for guidelines, recommendations and new regulation to guide decision-making at the local or regional levels.
Factors hindering the use of quality seed are found to be the non-availability of the desired variety seeds and higher price of quality seeds. The analysis has revealed to a great extent that the indigenous people in the study areas take the issues of climate change seriously. The perceived hindrances to adoption of modern technique as adaptation strategies of
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Vol. 10 (8) August (2017) 11. Field Christopher B., ed., Managing the risks of extreme events and disasters to advance climate change adaptation: special report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change, Cambridge University Press (2012)
climate change include lack of improved seeds, lack of assess to water for irrigation farming.
Future Research No doubt, the climate change adaptation is an opportunity for social reform, for the questioning of values that drive inequalities in development and our unsustainable relationship with the environment. But this outcome is by no means certain and growing evidence suggests that too often adaptation is imagined as a non-political, technological domain and enacted in a defensive rather than a progressive spirit. Adaptation has been framed in terms of identifying what is to be preserved and what is expendable, rather than what can be reformed or gained.
12. ICAR Network Project on Impact, Adaptation and Vulnerability of Indian Agriculture to Climate Change, Annual Report 2008-09, 130 (2008) 13. Kumar Jainendra, Land use analysis: a case study of Nalanda district, Bihar, Inter India Publications (1986) 14. Kumar Manoj, Population Growth and Its Impact on Land Use Pattern: A Case Study of Nalanda District, Geographical Perspective, 9, 27 (1995) 15. Kavi Kumar K.S., Climate change impacts on India, India and Global Climate Change: Perspective on Economics and Policy from a Developing Country, Environmental Modeling & Assessment, 14(1), 1–16 (2007)
It is also matter of future research that how “The different actors perceive contrasting roles for adaptation? What is the cost of adaptation? Can the burgeoning academic and policy interest in adaptation be levers to address these deeper questions of sustainability and justice, as well as adjusting to meet the more proximate risks presented to us by a changing climate? What institutional arrangements are best suited to implementing adaptive management?”
16. Le Treut H., Somerville R., Cubash U., Ding Y., Mauritzen C., Mokssit A., Peterson T. and Prather M., Historical overview of climate change science, In Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA (2007)
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(Received 30th June 2017, accepted 22nd July 2017) *****
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Suggested Citation : Sagar, Kundan. "Climate Change perception and adaptation strategies among various stakeholders in Nalanda District of Bihar (India)." Disaster Advances, 10 (8), 39-47(2017):
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