Behavioral models are common in the research literature, especially when adult ... Information seeking behaviors, such as browsing, monitoring, viewing and ...
Comprehensive Literature Review 1 NBS Research Dissemination Support Grant-2005
Running Head: COMPREHENSIVE LITERATURE REVIEW
DRAFT: This manuscript is a work in progress. Please do not cite, copy or distribute without explicit permission of the author.
Investigation of Literacy Skills and Strategies Used While Searching for Information on the Internet: A Comprehensive Review and Synthesis of Research
Laurie A. Henry University of Connecticut
Author’s Note Research for this project was funded by the International Reading Association, Nila Banton Smith Research Dissemination Support Grant, 2005 Award Year
Comprehensive Literature Review 2 NBS Research Dissemination Support Grant-2005 The Internet is rapidly becoming a central source of information for the 21st century. Because the Internet contains so much information and because it is a poorly structured information domain, searching for information becomes central to success and reading becomes critical to this process. Reading on the Internet, especially when you search for information, differs in important ways from reading in traditional, print-based texts (International Reading Association, 2002; Leu, Kinzer, Coiro & Cammack, 2004; RAND Reading Study Group, 2002) thus requiring new reading skills. Reading search engine results, for example, requires new reading strategies for success. The information provided in the results summary consists of text formats that may be unfamiliar, such as uniform resource locators (URLs) that contain host information about a webpage. Searching for information on the Internet, and the literacy requirements this involves, is a central aspect of the new literacies that will define our students' futures (International Reading Association, 2002). A New Literacies Perspective (Leu, Kinzer, et al., 2004) posits first that although traditional literacy skills are still an important component of classroom instruction, new literacy skills are required for learning in online environments. These new literacy skills are grounded in five functions of learning on the Internet: 1) Identify an important question; 2) Search for information in an effective manner; 3) Critically evaluate the information encountered; 4) Synthesize information from multiple sources and in multiple forms; and 5) Communicate the information that has been located to others. The Purpose of this Review The purpose of this project was to conduct a comprehensive literature review of theoretical and empirical research from multiple disciplines in order to establish a clear conceptual framework for defining the literacy skills and strategies that searching for information
Comprehensive Literature Review 3 NBS Research Dissemination Support Grant-2005 on the Internet demands. This review sought to integrate and synthesize the existing literature from the fields of literacy education, information science, cognitive science, library science, sociology, and educational technology to accomplish four main goals: 1) to develop a broad conceptual framework of research incorporating multiple and diverse perspectives of web-based search processes; 2) to synthesize the literature in these disparate fields into a common body of research that can be shared with the literacy community; 3) to identify the specific literacy skills and strategies that individuals use when searching for information on the Internet; and 4) to report any gaps that may exist in this body of knowledge to provide direction for future research in this area. Review Methods This comprehensive literature review investigated theoretical and empirical research from multiple disciplines that focus on searching for information on the Internet. Publications from literacy education, information science, cognitive science, library science, sociology and educational technology were reviewed. Articles were selected if they provided a theoretical framework of web-based search processes, contained a review of literature, or identified specific skills and strategies that individuals use when searching for information on the Internet. Search Procedures Relevant literature was identified using the following procedures. First, the time period searched was January 1980 to June 2005, which encompasses 25 years of research. This period was selected to ensure that relevant research from early networking between educational institutions, a project initiated by the National Science Foundation (1986), would be included. Five online databases were accessed (ERIC, InfoTrac, PsycINFO, Sociological Abstracts, and Wilson Web) and searched using combinations of the following key terms: information,
Comprehensive Literature Review 4 NBS Research Dissemination Support Grant-2005 education, literacy, skills, strategies, search* and Internet. This search resulted in a total of 1,963 items. All abstracts of the 1,963 items were scanned to identify potentially relevant publications that addressed the central topic: literacy skills and strategies used while searching for information. Following this initial screening, 509 items were deemed relevant for inclusion. After duplicate items were removed, a total of 256 items were identified for further review. These included 9 reviews of the research literature and 247 studies. Next, a set of selection criteria were applied to the studies to determine if it met the standards required for inclusion in this review. Selection Criteria Generally, the research standards set forth in the National Reading Panel (2000) were used as a guide to further screen the 217 research studies. However, this process was modified in two ways: 1) to include qualitative studies that were published in peer-review journals; and 2) to include participants of all ages from both in school and out of school settings. The final set of selection criteria were as follows: Criterion 1. The National Reading Panel (2002) criteria was utilized as follows: a) published in English in a refereed journal; b) focused on children’s reading development in the age/grade range from preschool to grade 12; and c) used an experimental or quasi-experimental design with a control group or multiple-baseline method. This criteria was extended to include: a) focused on development of literacy skills and searching strategies in the age/grade range from preschool to adult, including both in school and outside school settings; b) used qualitative or mixed methodology designs, including case studies. Criterion 2. The study focused on literacy skills and strategies used while searching for information on the Internet. Studies that looked at searching online databases and cataloguing
Comprehensive Literature Review 5 NBS Research Dissemination Support Grant-2005 systems in isolation were removed. Those studies that compared database and catalogue searching to Internet searching were maintained. Criterion 3. The study clearly described an acceptable research methodology to include experimental, quasi-experimental, case study, mixed method or qualitative approaches. Criterion 4. The study provided a strong theoretical rationale and identified specific research questions. Results of Screening Procedures The final set of articles included a total of six literature reviews from the fields of Library Science and Information Science and 126 studies across six research fields (see Table 1). Limitations The fields of Library Science and Information Science are so closely related that there is substantial overlap between these two research fields. The studies reviewed should be combined into one field of research, Information and Library Science, which makes up the majority of the research being conducted in the area of searching on the Internet. Data Analysis The final set of research publications was critically analyzed to accomplish the four main goals of this project. This stage of analysis was conducted using NVIVO (diGregorio, 2000) for organizing the literature and documenting specific attributes of the research. Specific themes were selected and coded within each document. Results The results of the literature review are divided into three sections. Section 1, Conceptual Frameworks, identifies the multiple and diverse perspectives from the five fields of research (literacy education, information science, cognitive science, library science, sociology and
Comprehensive Literature Review 6 NBS Research Dissemination Support Grant-2005 educational technology) included in this review. These perspectives are then combined to develop a broad conceptual framework as a guiding principle for future research in searching. Section 2, Searching Skills and Strategies, reports the specific skills and strategies that have been identified in the research literature. Additionally, the literacy skills that were identified are specifically noted. Section 3, Future Research, reports gaps in the current body of research and suggests new directions for future research in this area. Conceptual Frameworks This review of literature encompasses multiple fields of research and multiple conceptual frames within those fields. Two main theoretical perspectives emerge from these fields: cognitive and behavioral. These two perspectives are discussed in relation to the existing research. Development of a broad conceptual framework for future research in this area, which encompasses both cognitive and behavioral views, is presented. Cognitive Models A cognitive model focuses on the interactions between the user and the search process. References to knowledge structures and an emphasis on higher order thinking is common across studies from this perspective (Bilal, 2000, 2001; Bruce, 1999; Kuhlthau & et al., 1992; Tenopir & et al., 1991). Cognitive processes, such as information processing and metacognition, are also important components to research in this area (Ellis et al., 2002; Ford & Ford, 1993; Ford, Miller, & Moss, 2005). Some researchers use very focused cognitive perspectives. For instance, Agosto (2002) looks at cognitive limitations within information environments as a component of bounded rationality (Simon, 1955, 1956) that constrains the decision making process. Additionally, Carroll (1999) identifies knowledge types (world, system, task and domain) that are critical to the information gathering process.
Comprehensive Literature Review 7 NBS Research Dissemination Support Grant-2005 Behavioral Models Behavioral models are common in the research literature, especially when adult users are studied. Information seeking behaviors, such as browsing, monitoring, viewing and searching, are clearly outlined in the research (Choo, Detlor, & Turnbull, 1999; Hsieh-Yee, 2001; Large, Beheshti, & Rahman, 2002; Wilson, Ford, & Ellis, 2002; Yuan, 1997).
A behavioral
framework that focuses on the relationship between motivation for searching (the reason for conducting a search) and the actions or behavioral responses during the search (the strategies that are used to obtain the desired information) may be the most helpful in exploring Internet search processes (Choo, Detlor, & Turnbull, 1999). Paradigm Shift In studies that focus on students in school settings, a shift from the typical teachercentered classroom to a learner-centered classroom is noted by several researchers (Bilal, 2000; Bowler, Large, & Rejskind, 2001; Cooper, 2002). This trend moves students away from a passive learner model to that of active learner, thus having an impact on their information seeking success through increased engagement in the search process (Bowler, Large, & Rejskind, 2001). A Broad Conceptual Framework Development of a broad conceptual framework that integrates both cognitive and behavioral perspectives seems appropriate for research that focuses on information search processes on the Internet. Studies that are user centered (Lazonder, Biemans, & Wopereis, 2000; Nahl, 1998; Nahl & Meer, 1997; Palmquist, 2001) and studies that are interface centered (Gordon & Pathak, 1999; Jansen, Spink, & Pedersen, 2005; Kumar, Suri, & Chauhan, 2005) split the field of research into two disparate categories. An integrated conceptual framework would
Comprehensive Literature Review 8 NBS Research Dissemination Support Grant-2005 seek to bring these two separate areas together for a more holistic view of Internet searching. With a focus on interactions between the user and information space, not merely one element versus the other, a better understanding of searching on the Internet will undoubtedly result. The Internet is a complex information resource that requires a complex method of study. In recent years, research questions have become multifaceted as the Internet is more commonly used as a research setting. This requires researchers to be more knowledgeable in multiple perspectives to seek the complex answers to these multifaceted research questions. An Internet Information Search Model (see Diagram 1, in progress) that integrates both cognitive and behavioral perspectives would provide researchers with opportunities to ground their work in traditional theories while exploring information retrieval in the relatively new and complex environment of the Internet. Research efforts that cut across the barriers between these two theoretical perspectives will become commonplace in the near future as the nature of research within the information space of the Internet continues to change. Searching Skills and Strategies Many of the studies that focused on user interactions and behaviors reported strategy use when searching for information. These strategies are grouped into four main categories: 1) specific search strategies; 2) information reduction methods; 3) literacy strategies; and 4) new literacy skills. In addition, to these strategies, a pattern of obstacles emerged from the research that prevented users from completing successful information searches. Specific Search Strategies Specific search strategies encompass users’ first interactions with search engine interfaces. These include keyword descriptors, search phrases using Boolean logic, and category search. In most instances where initial keyword descriptors were used, one or two word terms
Comprehensive Literature Review 9 NBS Research Dissemination Support Grant-2005 were utilized (Bilal, 2000, 2002a; Choo & Marton, 2003; Dennis, Bruza, & McArthur, 2002). The consequence of this strategy was that search results encompassed a wide body of information whether it was relevant for the intended purpose or not (Bowler, Large, & Rejskind, 2001; F. L. Brown, 1999). The use of Boolean logic and more advanced searching techniques were often met with increased success (Becker, 2003; Bond, 2004; Gordon & Pathak, 1999). However, this was not always the case (Ellis et al., 2002). This finding reinforces work by Spink and Saracevic (1992, 1993) that the selection of search terms is one of the most important aspects of searching for information on the Internet. Several studies reported that users did not use the Help function within search engines for assistance when they were met with failure during the search process (Becker, 2003; Bond, 2004; Gordon & Pathak, 1999; Hembrooke, Granka, & Gay, 2005). Two participants in Bilal’s work (2002) reportedly accessed the online Help in Yahooligans! on two separate occasions, however no options were selected to obtain assistance. The “fix-up” strategy most often used was a modification of the initial keyword search (Bilal, 2002a; Gunn & Hepburn, 2003) Information Reduction Methods Most Internet searchers use what Agosto (2002) calls reduction methods to minimize the information that is encountered during the search process. These reduction methods include returning to known sites and familiar points as well as consistent use of a favorite search engine and browsing by subject categories when available (Agosto, 2002; Becker, 2003; Bilal, 2000; F. L. Brown, 1999; Choo, Detlor, & Turnbull, 1999; Choo & Marton, 2003; Paris & Tibbo, 1998). In addition to these reduction methods, specific Internet habits were identified for monitoring
Comprehensive Literature Review 10 NBS Research Dissemination Support Grant-2005 information where users had bookmarked favorite information resources such as newspaper sites (B. Brown & Sellen, 2001; Choo, Detlor, & Turnbull, 1999). Literacy Strategies In addition to the search strategies identified above, specific literacy strategies were also identified in the research. Among these literacy strategies, spelling and vocabulary were identified as critical for successful searching (Bilal, 2000, 2001, 2002a; Colaric, 2003; Ushida & Thomson, 2003). Misspellings and lack of vocabulary knowledge were common obstacles that impeded the search process. Skimming and scanning techniques were two reading strategies that appeared across multiple studies (Agosto, 2002; Choo & Marton, 2003; Ozmutlu, Spink, & Ozmutlu, 2004) along with the use of visual cues, headings and pictures (Bowler, Large, & Rejskind, 2001; Palmquist, 2001) to quickly evaluate whether webpage content matched the intent of the search. New Literacies Identification of an important question. Many Internet searchers experienced failure because they were unable to identify the specific research question or fully understand the search task presented (Becker, 2003). Regardless of the format of the question, many students sought topic information rather than the appropriate information needed to answer the research question (Bilal, 2000, 2001, 2002a; Bowler, Large, & Rejskind, 2001; Branch, 2003; McNabb, Hassel, & Steiner, 2002). Teachers should instruct students in defining their information need before they begin the search process (Bilal, 2002b). Searching for information. As reported earlier, the majority of users conducting information searches utilize only one or two keyword searches and do not take advantage of Boolean logic or advanced search features (Becker, 2003; Bowler, Large, & Rejskind, 2001;
Comprehensive Literature Review 11 NBS Research Dissemination Support Grant-2005 Choo, Detlor, & Turnbull, 1999). Other unsuccessful attempts at searching were the result of a lack of knowledge of how search engines function. For example, Bilal’s work (1999, 2000, 2001) reports that many students attempted to use natural language for keyword searching, which is not supported by the Yahooligans! search engine interface. Additionally, many users did not know how to refine their search when they were met with failure (Clausen, 1997; Dennis, Bruza, & McArthur, 2002). Evaluation of information. Skimming and scanning techniques were reportedly used as an initial evaluation of information for relevancy (Agosto, 2002; Bowler, Large, & Rejskind, 2001; Choo & Marton, 2003; Ozmutlu, Spink, & Ozmutlu, 2004). Critical literacy skills were also reported to be an important component of assessing webpage content (Bilal, 2002b; Branch, 2003; Dennis, Bruza, & McArthur, 2002). Additionally, Bowler, Large and Rejskind (2001) declare the importance of authorship, reliability and accuracy of information as part of the evaluation process. Synthesis of information. The synthesis of information across multiple sources and forms is an important component of learning on the Internet. Adolescents are often quick to cut and paste information chunks directly into documents without understanding the text that was selected (Bowler, Large, & Rejskind, 2001). Often times, students spend several hours assembling a rather limited amount of information onto posters or other presentation formats resulting in an inadequate learning experience (XXXX). More emphasis needs to be placed on the synthesis of information for optimal learning to occur. Communication of information. Communication of information is often the end product of a research project, whether it be in the form of a poster, oral presentation or other such artifact.
Comprehensive Literature Review 12 NBS Research Dissemination Support Grant-2005 Creative use of information is demonstrated when information is used in the most effective and appropriate way to communicate an idea. It involves decisions about how to transform information into a product that reflects the student’s thinking and not the regurgitation of someone else’s thoughts, how to organize the information and what format of communication is used (Bowler, Large, & Rejskind, 2001, p. 217). Communication is a critical part of information literacy on the Internet because it demonstrates one’s ability to synthesize information as a response to a specific research question (Clausen, 1997; Erdelez, 2000; Gunn & Hepburn, 2003; Pritchard & Cartwright, 2004). Future Research Only a few studies have examined children’s use of the Internet and searching for information in particular (Bilal, 2000, 2001, 2002a, 2002b; Schacter, Chung, & Dorr, 1998; Shenton & Dixon, 2003; Vansickle, 2002; Watson, 2001). There is widespread agreement that children’s use of the Internet for information retrieval purposes should be a focus of research in the future (Becker, 2003; Bilal, 2000, 2001, 2002a; Broch, 2000; Moore & St. George, 1991; Vansickle, 2002). In addition, the effects of prior knowledge and skills related to Internet searching (Carroll, 1999) and searching for different purposes in various settings (Christensen & Bailey, 1998) should be earmarked for future research. Many agree that systematic research in the area of searching for information on the Internet should continue (Flanagin & Metzger, 2001; Ford, Wilson, Ellis, Foster, & Spink, 2000; Gibson & Oberg, 1998). Conclusion
Comprehensive Literature Review 13 NBS Research Dissemination Support Grant-2005 This review examined the research across multiple disciplines and from multiple theoretical frameworks in order to provide a comprehensive representation of the studies conducted in the area of searching for information on the Internet. This review contributes the following: 1) A broad conceptual framework that encompasses both cognitive and behavioral models; 2) Evidence that identifies strategy use when searching for information on the Internet; 3) Evidence that identifies specific literacy skills and the new literacies required when learning from the Internet; and 4) Identification of future research that is needed in this field. Notes This study was supported by the Nila Banton Smith Research Dissemination Grant awarded by the International Reading Association in 2005. The results of this study will be presented at the International Reading Association Annual Convention to be held in Chicago in May, 2006.
Comprehensive Literature Review 14 NBS Research Dissemination Support Grant-2005 References Agosto, D. E. (2002). Bounded Rationality and Satisficing in Young People's Web-based Decision Making: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Becker, N. J. (2003). Google in perspective: understanding and enhancing student search skills. New Review of Academic Librarianship, 9, 84-100. Bilal, D. (2000). Children's use of the Yahooligans! Web search engine: I. Cognitive, physical, and affective behaviors on fact-based search tasks. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 51(7), 646-665. Bilal, D. (2001). Children's use of the Yahooligans! Web search engine: II. Cognitive and physical behaviors on research tasks. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 52(2), 118-136. Bilal, D. (2002a). Children's Use of the Yahooligans! Web Search Engine. III. Cognitive and Physical Behaviors on Fully Self-Generated Search Tasks. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 53(13), 1170-1183. Bilal, D. (2002b). Perspectives on children's navigation of the World Wide Web: does the type of search task make a difference? Online Information Review, 26(2), 108-117. Bond, C. S. (2004). Web users' information retrieval methods and skills. Online Information Review, 28(4), 254-259. Bowler, L., Large, A., & Rejskind, G. (2001). Primary school students, information literacy and the Web. Education for Information, 19(3), 201-223. Branch, J. L. (2003). Nontraditional undergraduates at home, work, and school: an examination of information-seeking behaviors and the impact of information literacy instruction. Research Strategies, 19(1), 3-15.
Comprehensive Literature Review 15 NBS Research Dissemination Support Grant-2005 Broch, E. (2000). Children's Search Engines from an Information Search Process Perspective. Brown, B., & Sellen, A. (2001). Exploring users' experiences of the Web. Brown, F. L. (1999). What users know and why they know it: an examination of search behavior and search service rules. Internet Reference Services Quarterly, 4(4), 57-73. Bruce, H. W. (1999). Perceptions of the Internet: what people think when they search the Internet for information. Internet Research, 9(3), 187-199. Choo, C. W., Detlor, B., & Turnbull, D. (1999). Information Seeking on the Web--An Integrated Model of Browsing and Searching. Proceedings of the ASIS Annual Meeting, 36, 3-16. Choo, C. W., & Marton, C. (2003). Information Seeking on the Web by Women in IT Professions. Internet Research, 13(4), 267-280. Christensen, E. W., & Bailey, J. R. (1998). Task Performance Using the Library and Internet To Acquire Business Intelligence. Internet Research, 8(4), 290-302. Clausen, H. (1997). Internet information literacy: some basic considerations. Libri, 47, 25-34. Colaric, S. M. (2003). Instruction for Web Searching: An Empirical Study. College & Research Libraries, 64(2), 111-122. Cooper, L. Z. (2002). A case study of information-seeking behavior in 7-year-old children in a semistructured situation. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 53(11), 904-922. Dennis, S., Bruza, P., & McArthur, R. (2002). Web Searching: A Process-Oriented Experimental Study of Three Interactive Search Paradigms. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 53(2), 120-133.
Comprehensive Literature Review 16 NBS Research Dissemination Support Grant-2005 Ellis, D., Wilson, T. D., Ford, N., Foster, A., Lam, H. M., Burton, R., et al. (2002). Information Seeking and Mediated Searching. Part 5. User-Intermediary Interaction. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 53(11), 883-893. Erdelez, S. (2000). Towards Understanding Information Encountering on the Web. Proceedings of the ASIS Annual Meeting, 37, 363-371. Flanagin, A. J., & Metzger, M. J. (2001). Internet Use in the Contemporary Media Environment. Ford, N., & Ford, R. (1993). Towards a Cognitive Theory of Information Accessing: An Empirical Study. Information Processing and Management, 29(5), 569-585. Ford, N., Miller, D., & Moss, N. (2005). Web search strategies and human individual differences: Cognitive and Demographic factors, internet attitudes, and approaches: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Ford, N., Wilson, T., Ellis, D., Foster, A., & Spink, A. (2000). Individual Differences in Information Seeking: An Empirical Study. Proceedings of the ASIS Annual Meeting, 37, 14-24. Gibson, S., & Oberg, D. (1998). Learning To Use the Internet: A Study of Teacher Learning through Collaborative Research Partnerships. Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 44(2), 239-241. Gordon, M., & Pathak, P. (1999). Finding Information on the World Wide Web: The Retrieval Effectiveness of Search Engines. Information Processing & Management, 35(2), 141180. Gunn, H., & Hepburn, G. (2003). Seeking Information for School Purposes on the Internet. Canadian Journal of Learning and Technology, 29(1), 67-88.
Comprehensive Literature Review 17 NBS Research Dissemination Support Grant-2005 Hembrooke, H. A., Granka, L. A., & Gay, G. K. (2005). The Effects of Expertise and Feedback on Search Term Selection and Subsequent Learning. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 56(8), 861-871. Hsieh-Yee, I. (2001). Research on Web search behavior. Library & Information Science Research, 23(2), 167-185. Jansen, B. J., & Pooch, U. (2001). A Review of Web Searching Studies and a Framework for Future Research. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 52(3), 235-246. Jansen, B. J., Spink, A., & Pedersen, J. (2005). A Temporal Comparison of AltaVista Web Searching. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 56(6), 559-570. Kuhlthau, C., & et al. (1992). Exploration into Stages in the Information Search Process in Online Information Retrieval: Communication between Users and Intermediaries. Proceedings of the ASIS Annual Meeting, 29, 67-71. Kumar, R., Suri, P. K., & Chauhan, R. K. (2005). Search Engines Evaluation. DESIDOC Bulletin of Information Technology, 25(2), 3-10. Large, A., Beheshti, J., & Rahman, T. (2002). Gender differences in collaborative Web searching behavior: an elementary school study. Information Processing & Management, 38(3), 427-443. Lazonder, A. W., Biemans, H. J. A., & Wopereis, I. G. J. H. (2000). Differences between Novice and Experienced Users in Searching Information on the World Wide Web. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 51(6), 576-581.
Comprehensive Literature Review 18 NBS Research Dissemination Support Grant-2005 McNabb, M. L., Hassel, B., & Steiner, L. (2002). Literacy Learning on the Net: An Exploratory Study. Moore, P. A., & St. George, A. (1991). Children as Information Seekers: The Cognitive Demands of Books and Library Systems. School Library Media Quarterly, 19(3), 161168. Nahl, D. (1998). Ethnography of Novices' First Use of Web Search Engines: Affective Control in Cognitive Processing. Internet Reference Services Quarterly, 3(2), 51-72. Nahl, D., & Meer, M. P. (1997). User-Centered Assessment of Two Web Browsers: Errors, Perceived Self-Efficacy, and Success. Proceedings of the ASIS Annual Meeting, 34, 8997. Ozmutlu, S., Spink, A., & Ozmutlu, H. C. (2004). A day in the life of Web searching: an exploratory study. Information Processing & Management, 40(2), 319-345. Palmquist, R. A. (2001). An overview of usability for the study of users' Web-based information retrieval behavior. Journal of Education for Library and Information Science, 42(2), 123136. Paris, L. A. H., & Tibbo, H. R. (1998). Freestyle Vs. Boolean: A Comparison of Partial and Exact Match Retrieval Systems. Information Processing & Management, 34(2-3), 175190. Pritchard, A., & Cartwright, V. (2004). Transforming What They Read: Helping Eleven-YearOlds Engage with Internet Information. Literacy, 38(1), 26-31. Schacter, J., Chung, G. K. W. K., & Dorr, A. (1998). Children's Internet searching on complex problems: performance and process analyses. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 49(9), 840-849.
Comprehensive Literature Review 19 NBS Research Dissemination Support Grant-2005 Shenton, A. K., & Dixon, P. (2003). Comparison of Youngsters' Use of CD-ROM and the Internet as Information Resources. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 54(11), 1029-1049. Tenopir, C., & et al. (1991). Strategies and Assessments Online: Novices' Experience. Library and Information Science Research, 13(3), 237-266. Ushida, E., & Thomson, C. K. (2003). The World Wide Web as a Teaching and Learning Resource: Observation of Learners' Performance in the Resource Based Learning of Japanese as a Foreign Language. Vansickle, S. (2002). Tenth Graders' Search Knowledge and Use of the Web. Knowledge Quest, 30(4), 33-37. Watson, J. (2001). Snapshots of a Teen Internet User: One Way To Learn about Information Literacy. Educational Media and Technology Yearbook, 26, 115-124. Wilson, T. D., Ford, N., & Ellis, D. (2002). Information seeking and mediated searching. Part 2. Uncertainty and its correlates. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 53(9), 704-715. Yuan, W. (1997). End-User Searching Behavior in Information Retrieval: A Longitudinal Study. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 48(3), 218-234.
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Research Field Number of Studies Literacy Education 3 Information Science 78 Cognitive Science 1 Library Science 32 Sociology 4 Educational Technology 8 Table 1. Total number of studies reviewed in each research field.
