Conation: Its Historical Roots and Implications for Future Research Laura G. Militello & Frank C. Gentner University of Dayton Research Institute Human Factors Group
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Stephanie D. Swindler & Gary Beisner II Air Force Research Laboratory Logistics Readiness Branch
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“Volition…keeps coming back to me as a critically important thing… as I use to say to my students, I can foul up any of your experiments by an act of will. Now why doesn’t that make ‘will’ more important than the study you’re studying?” -- George Miller quoted in Jing Zhu, 2003, p.7 [1]
ABSTRACT
Conation remains a somewhat nebulous concept, difficult to define in a concrete, easily understood form. The most common depiction of conation is as part of the trilogy of
This conceptual paper is a review of the literature concerning conation. Although there is no single definition for conation, it has been described in several ways including the mental procedure directed toward action including volition and drive, or as the connection between cognition and affect to action. The historical aspects, applications, and research methods for studying conation are brief but informative. Based on the literature review, the application of conation appears to hold considerable promise, especially within the realm of sociotechnical design/systems.
mind which Figure 1. The Trilogy of the includes Mind [2] cognition, conation, and affect (Figure 1), where cognition represents conscious activity, affect represents feeling, and conation is often equated with willing [2]. Some have described conation as the link between cognition and affect [2, 3]. Others have speculated that cognition, conation, and affect may be distinct functions within the brain [4].
KEYWORDS: conative and emotive aspects, sociotechnical systems, psychological issues in collaboration, logistics networks, distributed adaptive logistics
1. INTRODUCTION The concept of conation appears in the writing of early philosophers such as Aristotle and continues to appear in discussions of philosophy, psychology, and education today. Although the term conation has fallen in and out of style, the importance of will or motivation in human performance has been recognized throughout history in a range of settings – including the quote from renowned psychologist George Miller at the beginning of this paper [1]. In spite of the generally accepted notion that conation plays an important role in nearly all human behavior, relatively little applied research has been conducted on the topic. In fact, much of the writing on conation comes from philosophers and theologians.
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The topic of conation has arisen in recent discussions within the Air Force Research Laboratory Logistics Readiness Branch (AFRL/ HEAL). It has been proposed that conation has been a neglected area of research that might help us move beyond the limitations of the current emphasis on the study of cognition and complement or enhance methods such as cognitive task analysis. Air Force logistics is an extremely complex socio-technical system and it has been hypothesized that looking at this system from a conative perspective rather than an exclusively cognitive perspective may reveal important insights. Others have speculated along the same lines [5, 6, 7].
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Some focus on conation in terms of short term motivators. McDougall debated this stance, considering what he described as the “hedonistic view” in which pleasure and pain are the source of all conation inferior to Aristotle’s hormic (purposive) view [15]. He describes the hormic view as the belief that “men and animals are natively endowed with dispositions or tendencies or goals proper to the species, such tendencies being brought into play and guided by cognition of appropriate objects” p. 12. McDougall, a proponent of hormic or purposive psychology, believed that humans were intrinsically goal-setting or purposeful in their actions [16].
Recent findings from the field of neuropsychology provide further support for the importance of conation in predicting behavior, claiming that “conation… may be the missing link between cognitive ability and prediction of performance capabilities in everyday life” [8]. The primary objectives of this project were to: 1) conduct a review of the conation literature; and 2) examine implications of conation research for future US Air Force logistics research.
2. DEFINING CONATION
Others focus on the strength of an individual’s conation, measured alongside other attributes such as intelligence. A recent example is the Goal Orientation Index (GOI) which is an inventory based on Atman’s conation cycle [17, 18]. The GOI is intended to measure individual strengths and weaknesses in goal-setting activities [19].
Examination of conation literature quickly reveals that the term is difficult to define in any concrete sense. Definitions of conation tend to be abstract and therefore open to interpretation. A few commonlycited definitions include: “The aspect of mental processes or behavior directed toward action or change and including impulse, desire, volition, and striving.” [9] “That aspect of mental process or behavior by which it tends to develop into something else; an intrinsic “unrest” of the organism…almost the opposite of homeostasis. A conscious tendency to act; a conscious striving…Impulse, desire, volition.” [10] “Conation connects cognition and emotion (affect) to action; used by an individual when he/she strives to carry out purposeful action.” [2, 3] It is clear from these examples that the meaning of conation has shifted in emphasis over time and in the context of different research pursuits. In fact, many articles mention conation in the introduction, but throughout the body of the paper, use a more widely recognized synonym. Table 1 contains a list of commonly-used synonyms for conation encountered in this literature review project. Our review revealed five different characterizations of conation, including basic drives, values, short-term motivators, individual attributes, and action.
Some focus on the action part of conation as evident in the definitions at the beginning of this section. Kathy Kolbe has written several books exploring this aspect of conation and its relevance to team performance [20]. Kolbe suggests that understanding one’s conative style will allow people to build on their natural talents and avoid trying to adopt a style that conflicts with their natural conation. The different characterizations of conation contribute to the sense that conation is difficult to define and therefore difficult to study with any rigor. In the next section, we will track the use of the term conation by major figures throughout history, further illustrating these different characterizations of conation in different contexts.
3. HISTORY OF CONATION The earliest writing on the topic of conation is attributed to Aristotle (350 B.C.) [21]. Aristotle used the concept of conation in a discussion of how to Table 1. Synonyms for Conation Ambition Dedicated Desire Desire to achieve Dogged Drive Focus Impulse Intent Motivation Persistence Striving Vocation Volition Will define or distinguish concepts such as wishing and desire. Widely quoted excerpts include:
Some focus on conation as innate, primitive drives (hunger, thirst, continuation of the species, etc.). This focus on basic drives points to “free will” and the “endeavor to persist in being” [11, 12]. More recent writings often lead to a discussion of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs [13]. Others focus on conation as a set of deeply held values that evolve throughout one’s life. These values are not easily changed and they influence most decisions one makes [14].
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As experimental psychological research and behaviorism began to gain ground in the US, discussion of and research on topics such as conation, cognition, and affect decreased. Some notable exceptions include Raphael McCarthy’s research attempting to measure conation using galvanic skin response [24]. He reasoned that a conation would be associated with a visceral response that could be recorded via the electrodes of the galvanometer. Soon thereafter, E.H. Wild published a paper on the influences of conation on cognitive measurement, suggesting that the subject’s conation or motivation would impact his/her performance on a test of cognition [25]. As late as 1934, research performed at Duke University on conation as a component of urge was published [26]. Lundholm took an evolutionary view of conation, hypothesizing that curiosity and sleep are the most basic conations and that these two urges differentiate into other impulses as more complex species evolve.
“Wishing is a conation after the good.” “Desire is a conation after the pleasant.” It wasn’t until 1755 that the first written document clearly describing conation as part of the cognitive, conative, affective trilogy appeared in the German theologian and metaphysicist Moses Mendelssohn’s Letters on Sensation. He described the fundamental faculties of the soul as understanding, feeling, and will [6]. Kant (as translated by Watson [22]) lent support to this tripartite view of the mind [6]. As a well-known philosopher of the time, he did much to popularize the notion that the mind can be classified into three components: “There are three absolutely irreducible faculties of the mind, namely, knowledge, feeling, and desire. The laws which govern the theoretical knowledge of nature as phenomenon, understanding supplies in its pure a priori conceptions. The laws to which desire must conform, are prescribed a priori by reason in the conception of freedom. Between knowledge and desire stands the feeling of pleasure or pain, just as judgment mediates between understanding and reason. We must, therefore, suppose that judgment has an a priori principle of its own, which is distinct from the principles of understanding and reason.” Discussion of conation in philosophical and theological circles continued primarily in Scotland in the writings of Dungald Stewart, Thomas Reid, and Sir William Hamilton. In this context, however, Stewart and Reid described conation as one of thirtyseven powers and propensities of the mind [6]. In fact, this list was used by Franz Joseph Gall (17581828) in establishing the field of phrenology, claiming that each of the faculties of the mind had a physical location, thereby making it possible to determine a person’s aptitudes and tendencies based on the bumps and irregularities in his/her skull [6].
MacLean in 1949 published a paper linking the trilogy of the mind to brain science [4]. Although Gall’s earlier attempt to map human attributes to specific regions of the brain via phrenology was completely discredited, research in the mid-1900s on patients with brain damage led to an understanding of localization of verbal skills in the Broca’s region of the brain. These recent discoveries legitimatized brain science as an exploration of localized function within specific portions of the brain. MacLean proposed three partially independent sub-brains. Although he never claimed that cognition, conation, and affect were located in these physically distinct sub-brains, parallels were certainly evident.
4. APPLYING CONATION Current applications of conation research fall into three categories: business, education, and mental health applications. Kathy Kolbe is perhaps the most recognized name associated with conative research and applications. She has published several books on the topic, and established a management consulting firm that provides team building, personnel selection, and process improvement consulting based on her own and others’ conation research [20, 27-31]. In the field of education, Snow and his colleagues have done much to raise awareness of the importance of conation in explaining individual differences in learning beyond those predicted by tests of intelligence [32]. The work of Atman and Davis has been used to develop scales of conative capacity to predict success at distance learning [17, 19]. In the field of mental health, Boston, Meier and Jolin
The well-known British psychologist, Alexander Bain, was perhaps the first to write about conation in the context of education in his influential text, Education as a Science [23]. Bain suggested that issues of emotion and motivation should be considered in the field of education, and that it is important to draw from sciences such as psychology to improve the art of education. Bain’s perspective is seen today in modern educational and psychological research on individual differences in learning styles, lifelong learning, goal-directed behavior, and intrinsic/extrinsic motivation.
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developed a system termed moral reconation therapy to aid former law-breakers in changing their decision processes post-incarceration to increase the likelihood that they would be able to obtain and maintain legal employment [33]. Each of these applications of conation is described in turn.
tests dating back to Webb [36]. Weschler goes on to list research supporting the importance of conative factors, including Lanks and Wynn Jones “perseveration” factor [37], Brown’s discussion of character traits as factors in intelligence tests [38], Cattell’s tests of temperament and ratings of intelligence [39], and Alexander’s X factor (“temperament rather than ability”) and Z factor (“an aspect of temperament related to achievement”) [40].
4.1. Conation and Management Consulting The prime author applying conation to business applications is Kathy Kolbe of Kolbe, Inc. Applying the techniques she developed in educational research to business, Kolbe developed “KolbeWAREwithal®,” which is reported to predict the value a team effort will add to a business’ bottom line with 92 percent accuracy. WAREwithal claims to gauge the sustainable viability of the company by giving managers assessments of a team's profitability, goal attainment, efficiency, and congruency – using her measures of team conation. The implication is that managers may be “unwittingly mismanaging resources” [34].
Cronbach and Snow [41] take Weschler’s assertions further, suggesting that it is not enough to predict who will succeed, but that educators must convert probable losers into probable winners. Snow and Jackson’s [32] provisional taxonomy places conation firmly in the middle of affection and cognition, asserting its key role in both personality and intelligence. In the field of adult learning, Mezirow describes transformative learning theory as the process of affecting change in a frame of reference [42]. The frame of reference contains cognitive, conative, and emotional components. Mezirow identifies four critical activities needed to change one’s frame of reference: x Critical reflection of assumptions, x Validating contested beliefs through discourse, x Taking action on one’s reflective insight x Critically assessing it One premise of transformative learning theory is that conation plays an important role in the type of autonomous thinking expected of adult learners. While children may be able to learn well by assimilating explanations offered by an authority figure, adult education, according to Mezirow, should apply transformation learning principles to encourage and support autonomous thinking.
Ms. Kolbe identifies four types of instinctual tendencies that drive action: 1) The instinct to Probe initiates Fact Finder activity; 2) The instinct to Pattern forces one to Follow-thru; 3) The instinct to Innovate drives the Quick Start energy; and 4) The instinct to Demonstrate drives Implementer actions. These four predispositions for action are described in Kolbe’s book, the Conative Connection [20]. Many of Kathy Kolbe’s inventories and strategies are described in and derived from these four characteristic action modes and the associated behaviors. Individuals have a predisposition to act in these four modes in varying degrees. By capturing their typical behavior in inventories, Kathy Kolbe captures their Modus Operandi (MO), or typical way of operating. These MOs can be captured in the Kolbe Conative Index (KCI) that feeds her other products and modeling systems.
The second application of conation in the field of education is distance learning. In this case, the focus tends to be on measuring the conative capacity of an individual to predict or explain performance and endurance. Measures of conation in this context tend to focus on goal-orientation. Atman, for example, indicated that the academic achievement of distance learners may be influenced by their goal accomplishment style and psychological type [43]. Davis summarized research studies that used the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) and the Goal Orientation Index (GOI) to determine the conative capacity of distance learning students enrolled in satellite-delivered instruction, when compared with a control group of “normal” individuals not taking distance learning courses [19]. Davis hypothesized that “individuals who have a high conative capacity
4.2. Conation and Education Conation has been examined within three specific areas of education. The first is individual differences in learning. Moving forward from Bain’s claims that educators must foster the learner’s conation or desire to learn, well-known intelligence researcher David Wechsler raised the issue of the important contribution of non-cognitive elements to intelligence [35]. Although conation was not a widely discussed component of intelligence at the time, Wechsler found evidence of conative constructs in intelligence
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are intrinsically motivated and more effective in goalsetting techniques, and have more volitional control to overcome distractions, to stay focused, and to achieve their goals.” She concluded that distance learners appear to be intrinsically motivated and have more volitional control. Distance learners must strive toward academic achievement and remain selfmotivated. They must have a high volitional control over their behavior and learning to be successful [19].
“infosphere” is to optimize logistic operations, such efforts may fail because of the lack of focus on people who use such systems and have to collaborate within these systems. Usually, when the human has been considered in the development of new systems, the concentration has been on the cognitive aspect of the human and no other perspective has been considered [45]. The examination of other perspectives, specifically conation, could significantly account for other aspects of the human (e.g., will, volition, motivation) that may influence the successful implementation of automated or collaborative systems within an existing work process. By evaluating the conative aspects of users’ actions that influence the use of automated systems, we may uncover various key issues that address the development of these systems. Questions to consider include, what role does conation play when a user is learning a new automated system and what effect does this have on the success of the system; what impact does conation have on collaboration (for both dispersed and co-located teams) and collaborative systems; how might conation influence the training of newly implemented automated systems; and could conation help provide better strategies for selecting and managing an adaptive workforce for dynamic organizations?
4.3. Mental Health and Conation Conation has also been used in therapy, more specifically to reduce the number of repeat offenders in the justice system as illustrated by Boston, Meier, and Jolin [33]. In 1998, the Better People program, based in Portland, Oregon began using a sixteen-step program to curb recidivism rates. The program is based around a technique termed Moral Reconation Therapy (MRT®), which uses (a) cognitive behavioral therapy with MRT®, (b) assistance with gaining employment, and (c) assistance with employment retention. The goal is to “change one’s thinking and behavior”, instead of the traditional method of corrections, which is to require prisoners serve their time. The present study reported a decrease in recidivism to those who participated in the Better People program, and a study conducted by the National Institute of Justice showed that those “who participate in MRT® showed a moderate but statistically significant drop in misconduct and recidivism” [44].
Conation has been applied in business management consulting, life-long and distance learning, childrearing, and therapy of former prisoners. The common core of these conation applications focus on identifying the “natural” or instinctive conations (goals, values, modes of operation) of individuals and assisting them to capitalize on those conations in pursuing and achieving life-long goals. These applications focus on identifying and cultivating conations into purposeful and enduring behaviors with positive outcomes. However, there are an abundance of fields of research where conation can be applied. These areas of research (specifically, socio-technical systems) could benefit greatly by considering the human’s drive to act resulting in a greater understanding of the interaction between human and machine.
4.4. An Unexplored Application: SocioTechnical Design/Systems Although conation has been applied to several different areas, other applications could benefit from the study of conation including socio-technical design/systems. By incorporating a conative aspect into socio-technical design/systems, certain factors can be examined (e.g., motivation, will, volition). The application of conation to socio-technical design raises many important questions, including what impact does conation have in the socio-technical design of automated systems (i.e., collaborative systems), what role does users’ motivation and drive play in the successful implementation of new IT [45]?
5. METHODS USED IN CONATIVE RESEARCH
A specific arena of application is Air Force logistics where the automation of logistic systems is becoming more prominent. The automation of such systems provides an easier way to track, plan and control military supplies. Although the goal of the logistic
Empirical research on conation, using standard experimental methods, is quite limited. When published, this research is often criticized for not actually assessing conation, but instead measuring a
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related (often simpler) construct [46-48]. Nonetheless, many authors have developed surveys intended to assess conative capacity or conative style. Others in mental health professions have attempted to influence conation to change behavior. Still others have advocated teaching strategies to support a student’s conation to learn.
5.3. Educational Techniques In 1997, Snow and Jackson conducted a review of constructs and measures they viewed as promising for future research in understanding student commitment to learning. They included a broad range of instruments, which assessed a plethora of constructs related to conation [see Snow & Jackson (32) for a complete listing of the instruments].
Unfortunately, publication outlets tend to seek detailed discussions of theory and findings more than methods. As a result, our access to the precise methods used to assess, measure, influence, and support conation is limited. However, the limited findings from our literature review, regarding methods used in each of these pursuits is presented below.
Others in education have proposed methods for influencing conation in learners or increasing conative capacity in order to improve performance. Examples include Marzano’s [52] discussion of “habits of mind” and how to influence them, as well as Mezirow’s [42] transformative learning focusing on critical, reflective, and creative thinking. In their discussion of the learner-centered classroom, McCombs & Whisler [53] proposed techniques to help teachers and administrators better understand student perceptions so that they can reflect on their impact and adapt as needed.
5.1. Assessing Conation A number of attempts have been made to develop surveys to assess conation. Search Fritz [49] developed an Inventory of Conation for a dissertation project. Factor analysis of subject responses revealed eight common aspects of conation, including striving for vocational success, social prestige derived from material possessions, social contact, physical improvement, social status, financial security, attention, and potential gain.
6. CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSIONS Conation is a concept that has been recognized as a key component of the human condition for over 1500 years. Conation has been studied and examined from many perspectives in this time, although rarely in an empirical way. This stems, in part, from the complexity and abstractness of the term. The few attempts to study conation empirically have been criticized for oversimplifying or distorting the concept.
The Kolbe Conative Index [20] has a slightly different focus. This index consists of a survey used to aid individuals in understanding their own conative style. Other well-known personality inventories, such as the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, also contain conative elements [19].
Applied research in the area of conation is relatively more established, particularly within the field of education. Educators of children and adults, in classrooms and distributed environments, have developed strategies to motivate students, aid students in developing goal-setting strategies, and in developing a lifelong conation for learning.
Atman’s Goal Orientation Index [17] has yet another focus, employing a series of questions about one’s goals and strategies for attaining goals as a means of assessing conative capacity. Conative elements have even been incorporated into a psychometric scale instrument designed to measure the Internet experience [50].
Looking forward, examining conation may be useful in several different ways. Perhaps the most pressing application of conation research is in the sociotechnical design process. The domain analysis used to shape new and redesigned systems should take into account important conations of a range of individual
5.2. Influencing Conation In addition to the 16-step moral reconation therapy described previously (MRT®), others such as Assaglioli [51] have attempted to help people modify their conation in order to change behavior or have a more fulfilling life. Assagioli’s self-help book is “intended to be a tool for the explanation, development, and utilization of will.”
users, as well as conations relevant at cultural and system levels. Although we are hesitant to propose yet another task analytic approach (given the many largely overlapping techniques available today),
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existing techniques address conation at a largely superficial level and generally only through a cognitive lens. Strategies for examining conation may be warranted in the future. In order to avoid needless redundancy, it will be important to leverage existing cognitive task analytic techniques as strategies for examining conation are developed.
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Finally, although previous attempts to study conation empirically have been met with criticism, it may be time to re-examine these issues. The study of conation is likely to have significant impact on the design of systems, particularly large socio-technical systems comprised of a broad range of humans and technologies. Conation is likely to play a large role in how humans interact with technologies as well as with each other.
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