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CREATIVITY AND MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES: DIFFERENCES ACCORDING TO GENDER AND COURSE IN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION M.C. Martínez-Monteagudo1, R. Escortell1, B. Delgado1, C.J. Inglés2 1
2
University of Alicante (SPAIN) Miguel Hernández University (SPAIN)
Abstract There are many unknowns that have left open previous studies regarding the study of creativity and multiple intelligences, attending to the variables of gender and course. The aim of the present study was to analyze these differences in Spanish students of Primary Education and Secondary Education. The “Test de Inteligencia Creativa” (CREA) and the “Cuestionario de Detección de las Inteligencias Múltiples” were administered to a sample of 222 students (48% boys) aged 6 to 17 years. The results show differences according to the course variable evidencing, initially, the need to implement the current educational methodologies in order to be consistent with the reality of the students. However, the gender variable seems not to be, as a priori, as conditioning when it comes to studying both creativity and multiple intelligences, and therefore, as opposed to previous researches. Keywords: creativity; multiple intelligences; gender; course; Primary Education; Secondary Education.
1
INTRODUCTION
Creativity has been studied over the years in the field of neuropsychology. Nonetheless, previous authors [1] emphasize that creativity is a highly desired skill in all areas of today's society, but especially for education. In this regard, it should be noted that education is currently undergoing a difficult period in which evaluation processes have become standardized and students and educators are under great pressure [2]. Its antecedents, that is to say, traditional education, designed a model of teaching "one size", independent of personal characteristics, emphasizing the practical and functional aspects, giving rise to a standard type of mind that has been perpetuated until our days [3]. As a solution to this situation, it has been emphasized the importance of betting on an interdisciplinary learning environment that recognizes creativity as a key element in learning [4]. Closely related to creativity and alternatives for change in educational systems, the Theory of Multiple Intelligences [5] stands out. It shows that cognitive competence is best described in terms of skills, talents, or mental abilities called "intelligences". In this sense, there it is described the linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, bodily-kinaesthetic, visual-spatial, intrapersonal, interpersonal [5], naturalist and existential intelligences [6]. The theory of multiple intelligences bets on a teaching-learning model in which the student is the nucleus of the process and prime the development of skills and strategies of each of the intelligences, resulting in greater success in school performance [7]. For its part, it has been noted the priority of developing multiple intelligences to make a qualitative change in the current educational model [8]. As for previous research, both the study of creativity and multiple intelligences have shown inconclusive results in the variables of gender and course. Thus, with respect to creativity and the gender variable, the bulk of studies carried out during the last years with children and adolescents postulate the absence of differences between boys and girls [9, 10, 1, 11]. Recently, a research [12] has analyzed the relationship between gender, creativity and psychopathology with 106 Spanish youths and adults (M = 22 years) through CREA [13], and found that there are no differences between boys and girls attending to creativity, but showing that in the group of boys there is a relationship between psychopathology and creativity. Special mention should be made of a review study [14] with 30 researches conducted in Brazil with children, youth and adults. In the same, it is evidenced the existence of differences of gender in the scores of creativity, measured in the majority of cases through Torrance Test of Creative Thinking (TTCT; 15). In doing so, children excel in cognitive abilities (fluency, flexibility and cognition), while they do it in verbal creativity, sensitivity or emotional factor, original ideas and intrinsic motivation. The studies carried out under the course variable have shown numerous findings using the CREA [13] as an evaluation tool. They have shown that creativity is inversely proportional to the passage of the
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years, that is to say, the older the results are lower [10]. Likewise, it has been postulated that creativity rises to 18 years of age and declines progressively from that moment forward [16]. Evoking similar data, previous study [17] postulate that creativity changes with age, with a greater tendency between 6 and 11 years old and decreasing from the age of 12. Finally, it is important to note other contribution where the authors reveal through a review study that children and adolescents are more creative than adults [14]. In relation to multiple intelligences, there is a predominance of publications that find differences depending on the gender variable. A good example of this is a study [18] in which, in order to validate the Self-Efficacy Inventory for Multiple Intelligences in children, differences were found in favour of the boys in logical-mathematical intelligence and in favour of the girls in interpersonal and naturalistic intelligence. In the same line other authors [19], using as a tool the “Inventario del Profesor para las Inteligencias Múltiples en Primaria” [20, 21] affirmed the existence of statistically significant differences in favour of the boys in the logical-mathematical intelligences and musical, in front of the predominance of the girls in the corporal and social intelligences. As for international samples, a publication found, in a sample of 302 students of Secondary of India, that the boys stand out in the logical-mathematical, corporal and intrapersonal intelligence; while the girls do it in the musical, interpersonal and existential [22]. On the other hand, it has been shown in a previous research [23] that girls predominate in verbal, corporal, musical, social and naturalistic intelligence with 517 students from Cyprus (15-18 years). With different results, other publication [24] claim, with 300 Iranian University students, that girls predominate in all intelligences except the interpersonal one. According to the course, it has been established that students aged 15 to 16 present higher levels in multiple intelligences compared to students aged 17-18 [23]. On the other hand, previous research [25] found evidences in 200 students of India (14-16 years) about that in course 8 it emphasizes the visual-spatial intelligence and in course 9 they do the musical, logicalmathematical, corporal and naturalist. Also, other study established, with 96 students from India (10 to 19 years) that multiple intelligences decrease with age [26]. Finally, mention a recent research [27] with 162 Bosnian youth (16-25 years) showing once again that multiple intelligences decrease with age, specifically linguistics in their study sample . This research is especially relevant when it comes to clarifying the controversy expressed in the scientific literature on the existence or not of gender differences in terms of creativity. In the same way, it provides information about the stages in which the creativity is shown more accentuated and allows to verify the evolution that this follows along the years. As far as multiple intelligences is concerned, it aims to provide data about the courses in which each of the intelligences predominates, as well as the levels at which they present lower values, data that will be of great importance in determining the effectiveness or not of the educational programs established at the present time, as well as of the methodology that governs the teaching-learning processes in the current schools. Likewise, and in relation to the variable gender, it will expand the data offered so far by the investigations, centered mainly on the study of academic intelligences, being able to extend the range of study given the age group that includes the sample. Taking into account the controversy raised regarding the differences in the results of the previous empirical evidence, the following hypotheses are established: (1) there are no statistically significant differences in the creativity scores according to the gender variable; (2) there are statistically significant differences in the levels of creativity in favour of Primary school students compared to Secondary school students, (3) statistically significant differences in the scores of multiple intelligences are found according to gender, specifically logical-mathematical intelligences and musical in boys and girls in verbal, social, naturalistic and corporal intelligence; and (4) statistically significant differences in the scores of multiple intelligences are established according to the course variable in favour of Primary students.
2
METHODOLOGY
2.1 Sample To carry out the research, a Primary and Secondary Education Center of the municipality of Benidorm (Alicante) were randomly selected, with a total sample of 222 students. The Primary School counted on a total of 418 students enrolled in Primary Education, distributed in three groups: A, B, and C. Of these three groups, one of each course was selected, that is to say from course 1 to course 6, forming
a total sample of 116 students (52.57% male). It should be noted that participation was fair, ranging from 15-20% of the total participation in each course. In the case of Secondary Education, the center had a total of 320 students enrolled in this course, divided into three groups: A, B and C. Of these, a st group was selected from each course, that is, from 1 course to course 4, making up a total sample of 106 students (50.94% male). As in Primary School, participation was fair, ranging from 22-28% of the total participation in each course.
2.2 2.2.1
Instruments “Inteligencia Creativa. Una medida cognitiva de la creatividad”, sheets A and C [13]
The CREA is a standardized instrument whose main function is the indirect measurement of creative intelligence through the generation of questions. The test requires that the subject be able to produce the most questions based on an image based on age (sheets A, B and C). In the present study, only sheets A and C were used since the age of study ranged from 6 to 17 years. The performance of the test provides a direct score that translates into a centil score, establishing 3 creativity scales (low, medium and high) with their attendant characteristics. It should be noted that it meets the technical requirements established for psychological tests [28] as well as high reliability and validity indexes [13]. Similarly, previous publication [29] analyzed his psychometric properties by defending his standards of validity, brevity and reliability, representing one of the most solid proposals for the measurement of creativity.
2.2.2
“Inventario del Profesor sobre las Inteligencias Múltiples en Educación Primaria” [20, 21]
The inventories were taken and adapted for a Spanish sample [21] by the original author [20] who, in turn, adapted them from those collected from the Montgomery Knolls Early Chilhood schools [30]. Scores are calculated independently for each intelligence, being these evaluated with the following criteria: 0-2 (low level), 2.5 to 4 (medium-low level), 4 to 6 (average level), 6.5 to 8 (medium-high level) and from 8.5 to 10 (high level). The instrument consists of a total of eight inventories, one for each of the multiple intelligences, i.e. linguistic, logical-mathematical, naturalist, musical, bodily-kinaesthetic, visual-spatial, interpersonal and intrapersonal (does not evaluate the existential). Each of which, in turn, consists of 10 items of observation measured through a Likert scale of 0 to 1, punctuated by the teacher based on the skills that, under his perspective, the student present in each one of the intelligences. The inventory meets the standards of validity, brevity and reliability [19]. Also, previous author [31] performed an analysis of the reliability of each of the intelligences through the Cronbach coefficient, obtaining indexes superior to 0.91 in each intelligence. Similarly, it has been confirmed the validity of the inventories for the detection of high capacities [32]. As inventories have not been subjected to the procedures for standardization (as opposed to CREA) and, in order to guarantee the reliability of the questionnaire in the present study, the Cronbach coefficient was calculated for the sample from elementary school. The results obtained (.93) support the reliability of the results.
2.2.3
“Cuestionario de Detección de las Inteligencias Múltiples para el alumnado de Secundaria” [33]
The questionnaire presents the same structure as the previous one, with the exception of the mode of execution, since in this case the students themselves are the ones who carry it out. It consists of eight inventories, one for each one of the intelligences in which the student values the degree in which it manifests the raised abilities. Likewise, it uses a three-level Likert rating system (1 = Always, 0 = Never, 0.5 = Sometimes). Also, this questionnaire has been validated in a sample of Persian students [34]. In order to guarantee the reliability of the questionnaire in the present study, the test was carried out using the Cronbach coefficient, obtaining results (.77) that support the reliability of the questionnaire.
2.3 Data analysis Both the data processing and the corresponding statistical analysis were performed with the SPSS software version 19.0.
In the first place, the normality test (Kolmogorov-Smirnov) was carried out in order to verify if parametric tests were possible, given the total composition of subjects when the sample was distributed (not in all cases greater than 30 subjects). Based on this, the analysis was performed through parametric tests, the Mann-Whitney U being the statistic used for the study of the gender variable (since only two groups were compared) and the Kruskal Wallis H for the variable course, because when comparing courses independently the sample size was less than 30 and there were more than two categories to compare.
3
RESULTS
Next, the results obtained are presented as a function of the creativity and multiple intelligences variables, once the Kolmogorov-Smirnov normality test was performed, showing the need to use nonparametric tests to analyze the results.
3.1 Creativity In order to verify the existence of statistically significant differences as a function of the gender variable, the results are submitted to the Mann-Whitney U statistic, showing that the differences found are not significant (see Table 1) Table 1. Mann-Whitney U for the results of CREA attending the gender variable.
CREA
Boys
Girls
Statistical significance
Range (N)
Range (N)
Mann-Whitney U (sign. asin bilateral)
112.36 (115)
110.57 (107)
6053.50 (.83)
The course variable was analyzed using the Kruskal Wallis H (see Table 2). The data obtained nd showed differences in the creativity scores being 2 of Primary the course in which they reached th higher levels and 4 of Secondary in which the levels were lower. Depending on the results obtained after the contrast statistic, differences are assumed according to the course variable. However, one can only assume as significant the difference produced between groups and those that are at the same distance in terms of difference of ranges. That is, between the Primary scores versus the Secondary scores, both in their entirety. Table 2. Kruskal Wallis H for the results of the CREA attending to the course variable. Range (N) Primary 1
st
146.92 (19)
Primary 2
nd
175.20 (23)
Primary 3
rd
174.88 (21)
Primary 4
th
85.86 (18)
Primary 5
th
130.53 (17)
Primary 6
th
Secondary 1
103.19 (18) st
Statistical signification
.00
95.82 (30)
Secondary 2nd
75.23 (28)
Secondary 3
rd
94.08 (25)
Secondary 4
th
56.72 (23)
3.2 Multiple Intelligences For the analysis of multiple intelligences the same procedure was followed as in case of the previous variable. The Mann-Whitney U shows that the differences found between males and females in each of the multiple intelligences is not statistically significant (see Table 3).
Table 3. Mann-Whitney U for multiple intelligences according to gender variable Range (N)
Range (N)
Boys
107.78
Girls
115.50
Boys
109.49
Girls
113.66
Boys
111.36
Girls
111.65
Boys
109.46
Girls
113.69
Boys
106.86
Girls
116.49
Boys
108.86
Girls
114.88
Boys
105.54
Girls
117.90
Boys
110.24
Girls
112.86
Linguistic
Naturalist
Visual-spatial
Body-kinaesthetic
Musical
Logical-mathematical
Intrapersonal
Interpersonal
Mann-Whitney U Sig. asint (bilateral) .37
.63
.97
.62
.26
.44
.15
.76
The variable course was analyzed independently as a function of each intelligence for each Primary and Secondary course. Table 4 shows the results of the contrast statistic. It was evidenced the existence of differences in the scores of all the intelligences in all the courses. However, it is only possible to assume as significant the difference produced between groups and those that are at the same distance in terms of difference of ranges. That is, between the cycle of Primary versus Secondary of both in their totality, being these majors to the first in the eight intelligences. In the same st way, it is worth noting that 1 of Primary is the course in which the scores in all the intelligences are st inferior and 1 of Secondary in which the students got a higher level in the eight abilities. Table 4. Kruskal-Wallis H for multiple intelligences according to course variable Sig. asint (bilateral)
4
Linguistic
.00
Naturalist
.00
Visual-spatial
.00
Bodily-kinesthetic
.00
Musical
.00
Logical-mathematical
.00
Intrapersonal
.00
Interpersonal
.00
CONCLUSIONS
The present study analyzed the differences in scores of creativity and multiple intelligences, attending to the variables gender and course in Spanish students of Primary and Secondary Education. As for creativity, there were no significant differences between the scores of boys and girls, which allows confirmation of the first hypothesis. These findings are consistent with the predominant trend
evidenced in publications over the past few years [9, 1, 11, 12], although it is contrary to previous research [14]. The dissonance of results may be due to the different measurement methods used, since even though the same construct is being measured, doing so with different instruments can lead to variations in the results [35]. One possible explanation for this absence of gender differences is related to biological processes related to creativity. In this sense, the brain structures involved may be the same in boys and girls given that, creativity is the result of the integrated action of multiple cognitive and affective processes involved in numerous activities [36]. On the other hand, the results obtained allow the confirmation of the second hypothesis, since the Primary students presented higher scores than the Secondary ones. Specifically, the creativity nd presented high values in the first courses of Primary (being 2 the course with more optimal levels), th suffering a sharp decrease in Primary 4 and later to maintain in average levels in Secondary. Such evidence is congruent with previous research which states that the development of creativity occurs inversely proportional. Thus, it has been established that at an older age, the results of creativity tests are lower [10]. In the same way, the present study expands the findings obtained in previous studies in th which it is verified that the verbal creativity descends abruptly when arriving at Primary 4 [37]. In this case, it can be said that this condition is also met by measuring creative intelligence. The evidences found can provide information about the methodologies used in classrooms today. Thus, it is demonstrated that the students present high creativity scores during the first years of Primary School and, later, this one decreases as the levels pass. All this can indicate that the students leave of Kindergarten with some creative talent, which is diminished as the levels advance. In this regard, some authors have emphasized that human beings are born with great talents, but after passing through school many of the qualities are lost [2], which invites to reflect on the effectiveness of current teaching-learning programs. Regarding the third hypothesis established, no significant differences were found in any of the intelligences evaluated between boys and girls in the sample, resulting in the non-confirmation of the third hypothesis. These results are contrary to the findings established by the bulk of previous research [24, 18, 23, 19, 22]. Although they are in line with that established previous study [27] with 162 Bosnian University students. This dissonance of results may be due to the fact that in the present study the complete inventory with the 80 items was used to evaluate the multiple intelligences, whereas the previous ones make a synthesis of the same by limiting the number of questions [19]. Likewise, the questionnaire for the Primary sample has been evaluated by teachers and, sometimes, the results may vary according to their interpretations, as observed in previous research [32]. However, it must be taken into account that in the case of Secondary School students have been those who have valued their intelligence and no differences were found in the values obtained. Attending to the course, the evidence found does not allow the confirmation of the fourth hypothesis given that, contrary to previous studies [26, 27, 23, 25], it is High School students who have higher scores. Thus, the scores obtained in the first Primary courses are significantly lower than those obtained in later courses. Focusing on the type of intelligence, during the first Primary courses predominate logic-mathematical and visual-spatial, with linguistics experiencing a progressive growth until the end of the period. In contrast, the body and naturalist intelligences become the weak points of the students, according to the opinion of the teachers. When arriving at Secondary, all the intelligences in general experience a remarkable growth, although the social and the corporal are the best considered by the students and the linguistic, visual-spatial and logical-mathematical, the worst evaluated. These results may be due, once again, to the demands of the educational curriculum, since during the Primary courses the methodologies of work in the academic subjects are not as rigid as in Secondary, effect that can take the older students to opt for more social and bodily skills. In the same way, the development stage plays an important role. As it has been pointed recently [38], the process of socialization is very important throughout life, but friendship becomes the most relevant factor in the socialization of adolescents. In the early stages, the family is the social agent of the child, but as it progresses and reaches puberty this role disappears giving prominence to the peer group, an effect that is increased in our days due to the revolution of social networks and Information and Communication Technologies [39]. The present study provides insightful data on the controversy over gender differences in creativity and multiple intelligences, as well as the ages at which both variables predominate. This information is of great importance when developing effective teaching-learning programs that are not only focused on academic areas and that allow an integral development in young people. And as it has been affirmed
[40], all children are extraordinary and each of them is a different world. Therefore, it is not enough to focus their education on the mere transmission of data, but it is necessary to provide academic, personal and social knowledge tools so that they can face the situations that present their life. About both the limitations and the future lines of research, it is important to note the revision of Primary and Secondary Education curricula, in order to establish studies focused on the application of intervention programs for the development of creativity and multiple intelligences. That is, a renewal of educational ideals in which the transmission of skills is combined with the development of creative skills is necessary. In the same way, it is convenient to use the results to establish intervention programs based on the development of multiple intelligences, highlighting the Gardner Project Spectrum and its collaborators [30].Finally, it is advisable to leave open new lines of research taking into account the aspects that have been able to limit the analysis of the variables. A good example of this is the multiple intelligence questionnaires, the students' lack of confidence in the examiner, the response biases derived from the quantity of the sample, the contrast of results with other evaluation procedures, etc. These aspects will allow to give greater validity to the study, as well as generalize the obtained results, resulting in findings that allow to optimize the educational programs contributing thus to an education that allows to develop the maximum of the students potential.
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