Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition Flaxseed

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Flaxseed: A Potential Source of Food, Feed and Fiber a

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K. K. Singh , D. Mridula , Jagbir Rehal & P. Barnwal

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Food Grains and Oilseeds Processing Division , Central Institute of Post Harvest Engineering and Technology , PAU Campus, 141 004, Ludhiana, India Published online: 03 Mar 2011.

To cite this article: K. K. Singh , D. Mridula , Jagbir Rehal & P. Barnwal (2011) Flaxseed: A Potential Source of Food, Feed and Fiber, Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 51:3, 210-222, DOI: 10.1080/10408390903537241 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10408390903537241

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Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 51:210–222 (2011) C Taylor and Francis Group, LLC Copyright  ISSN: 1040-8398 print / 1549-7852 online DOI: 10.1080/10408390903537241

Flaxseed: A Potential Source of Food, Feed and Fiber K. K. SINGH, D. MRIDULA, JAGBIR REHAL and P. BARNWAL Downloaded by [${individualUser.displayName}] at 01:53 12 February 2014

Food Grains and Oilseeds Processing Division, Central Institute of Post Harvest Engineering and Technology, PAU Campus, Ludhiana 141 004, India

Flaxseed is one of the most important oilseed crops for industrial as well as food, feed, and fiber purposes. Almost every part of the flaxseed plant is utilized commercially, either directly or after processing. The stem yields good quality fiber having high strength and durability. The seed provides oil rich in omega-3, digestible proteins, and lignans. In addition to being one of the richest sources of α-linolenic acid oil and lignans, flaxseed is an essential source of high quality protein and soluble fiber and has considerable potential as a source of phenolic compounds. Flaxseed is emerging as an important functional food ingredient because of its rich contents of α-linolenic acid (ALA), lignans, and fiber. Lignans appear to be anti-carcinogenic compounds. The omega-3s and lignan phytoestrogens of flaxseed are in focus for their benefits for a wide range of health conditions and may possess chemo-protective properties in animals and humans. This paper presents a review of literature on the nutritional composition of flaxseed, its health benefits, and disease-prevention qualities, utilization of flaxseed for food, feed, and fiber, and processing of flaxseed. Keywords

flaxseed, nutritional composition, health benefits, dehulling, oil expelling

INTRODUCTION Flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum) is one of the most important oilseed crops for industrial as well for food and feed purposes. The Latin name of the flaxseed is Linum usitatissimum, which means “very useful.” It has been used for food and textile fiber for over 5000 years. The term flaxseed and linseed are often used interchangeably. Flaxseed is used to describe flax when eaten by humans while linseed is used to describe flax when it is used for industrial purposes (Flax Council of Canada, 1998). Every part of the linseed plant is utilized commercially, either directly or after processing. The stem yields good quality fiber having high strength and durability. The seed provides oil rich in omega-3, digestible proteins, and lignans. The whole flaxseed is flat and oval with pointed tips, varies in color from dark to yellow, and measures approximately 2.5 × 5.0 × 1.5 mm (Freeman, 1995). Flaxseed contains a seed coat or true hull (also called testa), a thin endosperm, two embryos, and an embryo axis. Embryos form 55% of the total weight of hand-dissected flaxseed, the seed coat and the endosperm account for 36% of the total weight, and the embryo axis is 4% (Bhatty, 1995). Address correspondence to K.K. Singh, Food Grains and Oilseeds Processing Division, Central Institute of Post-Harvest Engineering and Technology, PAU Campus, Ludhiana 141 004, India. E-mail: singh [email protected]

Flaxseed is one of the most important oilseed crops of the world, cultivated in over 2.6 million ha. The important linseed growing countries are India, Canada, China, United States, and Ethiopia. Canada is the world’s largest producer of flax and accounts for nearly 80% of the global trade in flaxseed (Oomah and Mazza, 1998a; Anon., 2000). Table 1 shows the data of flaxseed in some important countries. India ranks first in the world in respect of acreage accounting for 23.8% of the world area and third in linseed production contributing 10.2% of the world production. There are two main types of flax grown worldwide— fiber flax and seed flax. These two types have radically different applications. Fiber flax is mainly grown in Europe. It is used primarily for retting agricultural fields and small bodies of water as well as creating fabrics and threads used in upholstery, fishnets, and twine. Seed flax is grown worldwide for its oilseed. The seed is grown for human and animal consumption. The oil can be consumed and used to manufacture paints, varnishes, linoleum, oilcloths, printing inks, soaps, and numerous other products. Flaxseed is unique among oilseeds because of its exceptionally high content of α-linolenic acid (ALA, 18:3n-3) and lignans. Flaxseed contains 35 to 45% oil, of which 45 to 52% is ALA (Bhatty, 1995). Its ALA content is outstanding among established oilseeds in North America. ALA is classified as an omega3 fatty acid, a group that also includes long-chain metabolites of ALA. Omega-3 fatty acids have anti-inflammatory,

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FLAXSEED Table 1 (2004)

Area, production, and productivity of linseed in important countries

Country

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India Canada China USA Ethiopia Bangladesh France Unite Kingdom Russian Federation World ∗ Source:

Area (m ha)

Production (Million tonnes)

Productivity (kg/ha)

0.630 0.528 0.550 0.200 0.150 0.070 0.080 0.031 0.074 2.645

0.200 0.517 0.460 0.266 0.077 0.050 0.054 0.054 0.058 1.956

317.5 978.8 836.4 1273.7 514.0 714.3 677.9 1741.9 778.5 739.5

FAO Production Year Book (2004).

anti-thrombotic, and anti-arrhythmic properties (Simopoulos, 1999). Fish oil is the traditional source of dietary omega-3 fatty acids while flaxseed oil can be used as a vegetarian source of dietary omega-3 fatty acids. The flaxseed hull is a concentrated source of lignan, i.e., 30.9 mg/g hull vs. 12.9 mg/g whole seed (Madhusudhan et al., 2000; Axelson et al., 1982; Kurzer et al., 1995) which might possess impressive cancerpreventive properties, especially against breast and colon cancer. Flaxseed and meal have traditionally been used primarily in equine and bovine diets and laying hen ration. Due to the positive impact of including omega-3 fatty acids in human diets, there is a significant interest in enriching the omega-3 fatty acid content of meat and lard products produced by swine. Like other monogastric species such as poultry, the fatty acid profile of the meat and fat is directly affected by the source of fat in diet. Therefore, it is possible to change the fatty acid profile, especially the ratio of omega-3 fatty acids, by feeding flax oil or flaxseed, a rich source of omega-3 fatty acids. Omega-3 enriched pork products, produced through feeding of flaxseed, are now available commercially in both Canada and the United States. These products are slowly gaining popularity as they not only deliver omega-3 fatty acids into our diet but are also reported to result in juicier and tastier meat products.

NUTRITIONAL COMPOSITION OF FLAXSEED Flaxseed is emerging as one of the key sources of phytochemicals in the functional food arena. In addition to being one of the richest sources of α-linolenic acid oil and lignans, flaxseed is an essential source of high quality protein and soluble fiber, and has a considerable potential as a source of phenolic compounds (Oomah, 2001). The composition of flaxseed as reported by various sources is reported in Table 2. Flaxseed contains 35 to 45% oil. Embryos are the major oil storage tissues, containing 75% of the seed oil (Bhatty, 1995). The oil content of the embryo axis is 44.9% and that of embryos is 51.0%. The combined testa and endosperm contain 22.9% oil (Dorrell, 1970).

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Flaxseed oil is present as triacylglycerols in discrete oil bodies with an average diameter of 1.3 µm. Neutral lipids are the major constituent of these oil bodies, accounting for 98% of the total lipids (Tzen et al., 1993). Flaxseed contains 5 to 6% palmitic acid (16:0), 3 to 6% stearic acid (18:0), 19 to 29% oleic acid (18:1n-9), 14 to 18% linoleic acid (18:2n-6), and 45 to 52% ALA (18:3n-3) (Bhatty, 1995). The ALA content is outstanding in plant sources. The tissue’s fatty acid composition is not homogeneous. The linolenic contents in embryos, testa, and endosperm are all higher than that in the embryo axis (Dorrell, 1970). The fatty acid profile of flaxseed and its oil as reported by various authors are tabulated in Table 3. Although flaxseed oil is naturally high in anti-oxidant nutrients, for example, betacarotene, traditional flaxseed oil is easily oxidized after being extracted and purified (Holstun and Zetocha, 1994). Flaxseed oil is low in saturated fat (9% of total fatty acids), moderate in monosaturated fat (18%), and rich in polyunsaturated fat (73%) (Cunnane et al., 1993). Cold pressed flaxseed oil obtained without solvent extraction is suitable for human consumption, but not recommended for cooking and is used as a nutritional supplement which is high in omega-3 fatty acid especially in α-linolenic acid and relatively low in omega-6 fatty acid allowing it to be used to lower the ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 oils in the diet which may have health benefits. The protein content of flaxseed varies from 20 to 30%, constituting mainly globulins (linin and conlinin), glutelin, but no albumin (Care, 1954). The non-protein nitrogen in the seed forms 21.7% of the total nitrogen. Flaxseed proteoses contain a relatively higher proportion of arginine and glutamic acid. The total nitrogen content in flaxseed is 3.25 g/ 100 g of seed (Gopalan et al., 2007). Lysine is the most limiting amino acid in flaxseed. The amino acid composition of flaxseed is shown in Table 4. Anon. (1962) reported that flaxseed proteins possess high digestibility coefficients (89.6%) at 8% level of protein intake and biological value (77.4%). Flaxseed contains soluble and insoluble dietary fiber as well as lignan, a type of phytoestrogen (Shahidi and Naczk, 2004). The proportion of soluble to insoluble fiber in flaxseed varies between 20:80 and 40:60 (Morris, 2003; Mazza and Oomah, 1995). The major insoluble fiber fraction consists of cellulose and lignin, and the soluble fiber fractions are the mucilage gums (Vaisey-Genser and Morris, 2003; Mazza and Biliaderis, 1989). The mucilage accounts for about 8% of the flaxseed weight. The acid hydrolysis products of these polysaccharides are Lgalactose, D-xylose, L-arabinose, L-rhamnose, D-galacturonic acid, and perhaps traces of D-glucose. The mucilage can be extracted by water and has good foam-stability properties (Mazza and Biliaderis, 1989). Mucilage gums are polysaccharides that become viscous when mixed with water or other fluids and have an important role in laxatives. SECO 2 [2, 3-di- (methoxy-4hydroxybenzyl) butane-1,4-diol] is the major lignan present in flaxseed, which is found as the conjugate diglycoside SDG1 (Ford et al., 1999). Among foods, flaxseed is the richest source of SDG1 (7 mg/g or 3.7 mg SECO 2/g), which contains 75– 800 times more SDG1 (Secoisolariciresinol diglucoside) than

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Table 2

The proximate composition of flaxseed

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Nutrients

Whole Flaxseed (%)

Moisture Lipids Protein Carbohydrates Total Dietary Fiber Insoluble Fiber Soluble Fiber Minerals Energy Calcium, mg Phosphorus, mg Iron, mg Carotene µg Thiamin, mg Riboflavin, mg Niacin, mg

6.5 37.1 20.3 28.9 4.8 — — 2.4 530 170 370 2.7 30 0.23 0.07 1.0

7.1–8.3 31.9–37.8 26.9–31.6 — 36.7 - 46.8 30 10 — — — — — — — — —

7 41 20 — 28 — — 4.0 — — — — — — — —

6 30–45 20–25 30–35 10 — — 4.0 — — — — — — — —

— 40–45 24–26 25–27 — — — ∼ 4.0

Meal (%)

Full-fat flour (%)

— 10–12 43–47 34–38 — — — ∼ 7.0

4.50 37 22.4 — 8.2

— — — — — — — — —

*Source: Gopalan et al., 2007; (Hettiarchchy, 1990); Flax Council of Canada; (Bhatty and Cherdkiatgumchai, 1990; Budavari,1996; Daun et al., 2003); Mazza, 2008; Hussain et al., (2006).

any other foods (Mazur et al., 1996; Westcott and Muir, 1996). Johnsson et al. (2000) reported SDG content in the range of 11.7 to 24.1 mg/g and 6.1 to 13.3 mg/g in defatted flaxseed flour and whole flaxseed, respectively. Madhusudan et al. (2000) developed a dry mechanical method to produce a hull–rich fraction from flaxseed, and lignan content of that fraction was 30.9 mg/g vs. 12.9 mg/g whole seed. Flaxseed polysaccharide is composed of two major fractions; a neutral arabinoxylan (75%) and an acidic rhamnogalacturonan (25%). The arabinoxylan is composed mainly of xylose, arabinose, and galactose and the rhamnogalacturonan consists of D-galactose, L-rhamnose, L-fucose, and Dgalacturonic acid (Mazza, 2008). Four phenolic acids identified in defatted flaxseed powder are ferulic acid (10.9 mg/g), chlorogenic acid (7.5 mg/g), gallic acid (2.8 mg/g), and traces of 4-hydroxybenzoic acid (Mazza, 2008). The major flavonoids in flax are flavone C- and O- glycosides. Flaxseed contains 0.88, 2.42, 9.2, 0.24 of α-,β-,γ -,δ-tocopherols, respectively and 12.74 mg/100 seed (wb) of total tocopherols (Mazza, 2008). Flaxseed contains a cyanogenetic glucoside and linamarin (acetone–cyanohydrin-beta–glucoside, C10 H17 O6 N) in small amounts (Vassel and Nesbitt, 1945). Enzyme linase hydrolyses this glucoside releasing hydrocyanic acid. Fiber type linseed has a higher percentage of glucoside than the seed type, Table 3

Fatty acid profile of flaxseed

Fatty acids

Whole linseed (%)

Palmitic acid C 16:0 4.6–6.3 Stearic acid C 18:0 3.3–6.1 Oleic acid C18:1 19.3–29.4 Linoleic acid C18:2 14.0 Linolenic acid C 18:3

— — 3.6 g 3.2 g 11.4g

Linseed oil (%)

4.21–8.71 6.0 3.52–8.17 2.5 22.17–41.72 19.0 4.82–19.13 24.1 33.22–54.79 47.4

5.0 3.6 19.5 15.6 55.8

*Source: (Hettiarchchy et al., 1990); (Kettler, 2006; Bhatty, 1995); Dixit, 2007); (Turner, 1987); Mazza, 2008.

and ripe seed contain less glucoside than the immature seed. Whole flaxseed contains 250–550 mg/100 g cyanogenic glycoside (Mazza, 2008). Defatted dehusked flaxseed meal (variety Garima) contained 0.48% cyanogenic glycoside, a toxic constituent, which can be removed by the process optimized by Sahu et al. (2006). Flaxseed meal contains 2.3–3.3% phytic acid, which has been considered as an anti-nutritional component in seeds resulting in lower absorption of micronutrients. Recent research has shown that phytic acid has antioxidant, anticancer, hypocholesterolemic, and hypolipidemic effects (Mazza, 2008). Flaxseed meal also contains 10 mg/100 g Linatine (gammaglutamyl-1-amino-D-proline) which induces vitamin B6 deficiency (Mazza, 2008).

Table 4

Amino acid composition of flaxseed

Amino acid Alanine Arginine Aspartic Acid Cystine Glycine Histidine Isoleucine Leucine Lysine Methionine Phenylalanine Proline Serine Threonine Tryptophan Tyrosine Valine

Brown Flax Yellow flax Flaxseed (omega) g/100 g protein (Norlin) g/100 g protein mg/g of N 4.4 9.2 9.3 1.1 5.8 2.2 4.0 5.8 4.0 1.5 4.6 3.5 4.5 3.6 1.8 2.3 4.6

4.5 9.4 9.7 1.1 5.8 2.3 4.0 5.9 3.9 1.4 4.7 3.5 4.6 3.7 NR 2.3 4.7

*Source: Morris, 2003; Morris, 2003; Gopalan et al., 2007.

— 560 — 120 — 120 310 360 230 100 270 — — 210 100 180 320

FLAXSEED

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DISEASE PREVENTION AND HEALTH BENEFITS OF FLAXSEED Flaxseed has three major components making it beneficial in human and animal nutrition, (i) a very high content of alpha linolenic acid (omega-3 fatty acid) essential for human; (ii) a high percentage of dietary fiber, both soluble and insoluble, and iii) the highest content of “lignans” of all plant foods used for human consumption. Lignans appear to be anti-carcinogenic compounds (Lay and Dybing, 1989). The National Cancer Institute (United States) has evaluated flaxseed along with a number of other potential food ingredients, as a component of “designer foods” (Stitt, 1990). The omega-3s and lignan phytoestrogens of flaxseed are in focus for their benefits for a wide range of health conditions and may possess chemo-protective properties in animals and humans (Muir et al., 1999; Westcott and Muir, 2003; 1996; Setchell et al., 1980; 1981; Adlercreutz et al., 1986; Thompson, 1999; Thompson et al., 1996; Adlercreutz, 1990; Adlercreutz,1996a;1996b; Adlercreutz et al., 1991; Serraino and Thompson, 1992; Sathyamoorthy et al., 1994; Rickard et al., 2000; Mousavi and Adlercreutz, 1992; Morris, 2001; Kashtan et al., 1992; Jenab and Thompson, 1996; Ingram et al., 1997; Adlercreutz et al., 1995; Adlercreutz,1988; Ohr, 2002). The omega-3 fatty acids include ALA (18:3n-3), an essential fatty acid, and its long-chain metabolites. In omega-3 fatty acids, the first double bond is located at the third carbon from the methyl end of the hydrocarbon chain. For omega-6 fatty acids, it is located at the sixth carbon (Mantzioris et al., 2000). Omega– 3s have two primary functions—as structural fats in membrane tissues, and as precursors for prostaglandins, which are mediators in controlling blood pressure, clotting, immunity, and other physiological activities. Human metabolism converts 5–10 percent of α-linolenic acid into long chain omega–3s, DHA, and EPA typically obtained from fish oil or algae. All three omega–3s are important to cell-membrane function and metabolic health (Best, 2004). Omega–3 fatty acids are responsible for forming a group of hormones-like compound called prostaglandins, which help in fighting many diseases. They make the cell permeable, which helps in the protection of cells against invading bacterial toxins, infections, and viruses (Javed, 1999). The αlinolenic acid in flaxseed can reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) osteoporosis, rheumatoid arthritis, and cancer (Adlercreutz, 2007; Kettler, 2001; Spence et al., 2003; Clark et al., 2000; Prasad et al., 1998). Omega-3 fatty acids present in flaxseed help in reducing blood triglycerides, blood pressure, platelet reactivity, neutrophil activity, and increase blood HDL cholesterol thereby helping in lowering CVD risk (Gorder et al., 1986; Cunnane et al., 1993; Li et al., 1999). Bloedon et al. (2008) found that flaxseed reduced lipoprotein a (Lp[a]) by a net of 14%, and reduced the homeostatic model assessment of insulin-resistance index (HOMA-IR) by 23.7% compared to wheat in 10 weeks. In men, flaxseed reduced HDLC concentrations by a net of 16% and 9% in 5 and 10 weeks, respectively. Ground flaxseed (50 g/day) consumed over four weeks increased average daily ALPA plasma levels by about 10

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times in healthy adults. It also resulted in the reduction of serum total cholesterol 6–9% and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol 9–18% (Cunnane et al., 1995). In humans flaxseed lowers serum total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol; however, it has no effect on serum high-density lipoprotein cholesterol and triglycerides. The findings of the study suggest that the hypocholesterolemic effect of flaxseed probably resides in the non–oily part and not in the α-linolenic ´ acid. Reductions in hypercholesterolemic atherosclerosis by flaxseed, flaxseed with very low alpha-linolenic acid, and SDG were 46%, 69%, and 73%, respectively. The anti-atherogenic effect of SDG could be due to its antioxidant activity and also its lipid-lowering effect (Jenkins et al., 1999; Prasad, 2000b). The study carried out by Ridges et al. (2001) indicates that the regular inclusion of foods containing soy and linseed in the diets may improve plasma lipids in hypercholesterolemic postmenopausal women. Human beings should consume a diet that contains a certain ratio of omega-3 and omega-6 essential fatty acids. Over the past 100 to 150 years, the consumption of vegetable oils from corn, sunflower seeds, safflower seeds, cottonseeds, and soybeans increased, so the consumption of omega-6 fatty acids increased greatly. The ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 fatty acids is 20:1 to 30:1 in Western diets today (Simopoulos, 1999). The recommended ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 fatty acids is in the range of 4:1 to 10:1 for adults, and omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acid intakes should account for at least 3 and 0.5% of energy intake, respectively (Carter, 1993). Flaxseed favorably affects immunity with the help of two major components— eicosanoids and cytokines. ALA and lignans in flaxseed modulate the immune response and may play a beneficial role in clinical management of autoimmune diseases (Javed, 1999). Flaxseed contains some compounds that influence the absorption of nutrients. These compounds include cyanogenic glycosides, linatine, phytic acid, lipid oxidation products, and phytoesterogens. However, studies of flaxseed in human nutrition indicate that the presence of these compounds, while undesirable but are not harmful at current levels of flaxseed intake. Flaxseed consumption at levels of 50 g per day for several weeks has beneficial effects and no apparent illness. The studies funded by the National Cancer Institute (Sweden) have shown that lignans may possess cancer-preventive properties (Axelson et al., 1982). Lignans offer protection against breast and colon cancer due to their anti-estrogenic and/or antioxidative effects (Kurzer et al., 1995). In addition, epidemiological data show that lignans have anti-mitotic, anti-tumor, and anti-oxidant activities (Carter, 1993). Supplementation of a high-fat diet with flaxseed flour (FF) or defatted flaxseed meal (FM) (5% or 10%) reduced the epithelial cell proliferation by 38.8 to 5.4% and nuclear aberrations by 58.8 to 65.9% in female rat mammary gland, with optimum effects seen with the 5% FF (Serraino and Thompson, 1992). Flaxseed is the richest source of mammalian lignan precursors. The two primary mammalian lignans are enterodiol and its oxidation product, enterolactone. They have been shown to possess weakly estrogenic and anti-estrogenic activities and may

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prevent estrogen-dependent cancers. They can be formed in the mammalian intestinal tract by bacterial action on plant lignan precursors. The ingestion of 10 g of flaxseed per day can reduce breast cancer risk (Hasler, 1998). Kuijsten et al. (2005) investigated whether crushing and milling of flaxseed enhances the bioavailibility of enterolignans in plasma in 12 healthy subjects who supplemented their diets with 0.3 g whole, crushed, or ground flaxseed per kg body weight per day. The mean relative bio-availability of enterolignans from whole compared with ground flaxseed was 28% (P ≤ 0.01), whereas that of crushed compared with ground flaxseed was 43% (P ≤ 0.01). Crushing and milling of flaxseed substantially improved the bioavailability of enterolignans. Thompson et al. (2000) found that dietary modification with flaxseed and its components, such as lignans, could reduce tumor growth in patients with breast cancer in a placebo-controlled clinical trial. Demark-Wahnefried et al. (2001) found that a flaxseed-supplemented, fat-restricted diet might affect prostate cancer biology due to high lignan and omega-3 fatty acid intake. Flaxseed lignan SDG and its mammalian lignan metabolites, enterodiol and enterolactone, also had anti-oxidant activity (Kitts et al., 1999). Prasad (2000a) found that the antioxidant activity was highest with SECO and ED and lowest with vitamin E. The antioxidant potency of SECO, ED, EL, and SDG was 4.86, 5.02, 4.35, and 1.27 respectively, as compared to vitamin E. SECO, ED, and EL are respectively 3.82, 3.95, and 3.43 more potent than SDG. The effectiveness of SDG in hypercholesterolemic atherosclerosis, diabetes, and endotoxic shock could be due to these metabolites. Kitts et al. (1999) studied the antioxidant activity of the flaxseed lignan SDG and its mammalian metabolites enterodiol (ED) and enterolactone (EL). It was found that the efficacy of SDG and particularly the mammalian lignans ED and EL to act as antioxidants in lipid and aqueous in vitro model system, at relatively low concentrations (i.e., 100 micro M), potentially achievable in vivo, is an evidence of a potential anti-carcinogenic mechanism of flaxseed lignan SDG and its mammalian metabolites ED and EL. A study carried out by Prasad (1997) on SDG isolated from flaxseed suggest that SDG scavenges hydroxyl radical and therefore has an antioxidant effect. Flaxseed and its lignan have potent anti-estrogenic effects on estrogen receptor-positive breast cancer and may prove to be beneficial in breast cancer prevention strategies (Bergman et al., 2007). Hutchins et al. (2000) examined the effect of dietary intake of a lignan-rich plant food (flaxseed) on urinary lignan excretion in postmenopausal women. These women consumed their habitual diets plus 0, 5, or 10 grams of ground flaxseed per day compared with the 0-gram flaxseed diet, consumption of 5 or 10 grams of flaxseed significantly increased excretion of enterodiol by 1009 and 2867 nmol/day, respectively, significantly increased the excretion of enterolactone by 21242 and 52826 nmol/day, respectively, and significantly increased excretion of total lignans (enterodiol + enterolactone + matairesinol) by 24333 and 60640 nmol/day, respectively. The effects of flaxseed consumption on urinary estrogen metabolite

excretion in postmenopausal women were examined by Haggans et al. (1999). Flaxseed supplementation significantly increased urinary 2-OHEstrogen excretion (p < 0.0005) and the urinary 2/16α-OHE1 ratio (p < 0.05) in a linear, dose-response fashion. There were no significant differences in urinary 16 αOHE1 excretion. These results suggest that flaxseed may have chemoprotective effects in postmenopausal women. The study done by Phipps et al. (1993) to evaluate the effect of the ingestion of flaxseed powder, known to produce high concentrations of urinary lignans, on the menstrual cycle in 18 normally cycling women using a balanced randomized cross-over design, suggest a significant specific role for lignans in the relationship between diet and sex-steroid action, and possibly between diet and the risk of breast- and other hormonally-dependent cancers. Various epidemiological studies have shown a correlation between a high level of urinary lignans and low incidence of cancer, particularly hormone-dependent cancers such as breast and prostate cancer (Nesbitt and Thompson, 1997; Adlercreutz et al., 1995; Adlercreutz, 1995; 1990). In a study conducted by Power and Thompson (2007), using the preclinical athymic mouse postmenopausal breast-cancer model, combining flaxseed with soy protein or genistein with enterodiol and enterolactone, was found to negate the tumorstimulatory effects of soy protein or genistein alone. If these studies can be confirmed in clinical trials, then the consumption of combined soy and flaxseed or their phytoestogens, may reduce the tumor growth stimulatory effect of soy or genistein. This may indicate that if soy is consumed with lignan–rich foods, it may continue to induce its other beneficial health effect without inducing an adverse effect on post-menopausal breast cancer. The effect of lifetime, gestation, and lactation or afterweaning exposure to 5 or 10% flaxseed or SDG and flaxseed oil components on the mammary gland structures of virgin female rat offspring at post-natal day 50 were studied by Tou and Thompson (1999). It was reported that lifetime or gestation and lactation exposure to 5 or 10% flaxseed induced structural changes in the mammary gland that may potentially reduce mammary cancer risk. Demark-Wahnefried et al. (2001) carried out a preliminary clinical trial on 25 men having prostate cancer, who were fed 30 g per day ground flaxseed for 4 weeks as a part of low fat diet. It was found that prostate cancer cell proliferation decreased and apoptotic death of cancer cell increased in patients using ground flaxseed as compared to the control group. This effect may be possibly due to lignans present in flaxseed. Flaxseed has a potential to increase laxation due to highdietary fiber content, which absorbs water and increase intestinal bulk (Cunnane et al., 1995) and thus play an important role in preventing and curing constipation condition. Feeding trials of roughly ground partly defatted flaxseed to patients suffering from constipation predominant irritable bowel syndrome showed a significant reduction in constipation and abdominal symptoms (Tarpila et al., 2004). Muir et al. (1999) showed that the addition of SDG at 15 mg/kg of rabbits resulted in 33% reduction in atherosclerotic plaques on a high cholesterol

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FLAXSEED

diet compared to control subjects on a high cholesterol diets alone. Clark et al. (2001) studied the reno-protective effects of flaxseed in Lupus nephritis patients for a period of two year. A decline in serum creatinine was found from a mean of 0.97 mg/ dl to a mean of 0.94 mg/dl. The decline in micro-albumin was also observed in this study. Male Han:SPRD-cy rats were pair fed a 10% flaxseed or control rat chow diet for eight weeks from weaning and was found that flaxseed ameliorates Han:SPRD-cy rat polycystic kidney disease through moderation of the associated chronic interstitial nephritis. The diet alters the renal content of polyunsaturated fatty acids in a manner that may promote the formation of less inflammatory classes of renal prostanoids (Ogborn et al., 1999). UTILIZATION OF FLAXSEED AS FOODS Flaxseed is emerging as an important functional food ingredient because of its rich contents of α-linolenic acid (ALA), lignan, and fiber. It is primarily used for decoration and texture in baked products. It is critical, however, that whole flaxseeds are of high quality but damaged seeds are prone to develop rancidity, a process detectable by a musty “oil paint” smell in the seeds. Also, the seeds must be cracked or ground to access their full nutritional value as whole seeds were designed by nature to travel through the gastrointestinal tract intact (Best, 2004). Flaxseed has been incorporated into baked foods (Pohjanheimo et al., 2006), dairy products (Kangas et al., 2006), and dry pasta products (Lee et al., 2004; Hall et al., 2005; Marconi and Carcea, 2001). Flaxseed flour 15% w/w, had shown to improve the shelf life of fresh pasta by suppressing microbial activity (Manthey et al., 2008). Xu et al. (2006) reported that flaxseed flour (15%w/w) delayed mold growth in noodles. Hall et al. (2005) recommended that 850 µm or 600 µm flaxseed particles be used in breads to get the good quality baked products. Use of ground flaxseed at a 10% level markedly increased loaf volume, specific loaf volume, Dallman degree, and retarded bread staling (Mente, 2008). Owing to the high mucilage content, the flaxseed hull has high-water absorption, moisture–binding capacity, as well as lubricity. This helps dough throughput and puffing during extrusion processing (cereals, snacks, or pet foods) or as a transfatfree shortening alternative in cookies, muffins, breads, and other baked foods where the water absorption can impact the mixing time and dough-handling characteristics. Whole milled flaxseed holds up well under deep frying, contributing color and flavor and can be used to replace up to 50% of the bread crumb or flour portion of a batter, breading, or crust (Best, 2004). Flaxseed has 35–45% oil so a similar amount may be omitted from any recipe requiring oil that also includes flaxseed. Similarly, 15 grams of ground flaxseed steeped in 45 ml water for 2 min will substitute for one egg. Flaxseed contains no gluten for those with gluten allergy. Whole or ground flaxseed can replace some of the flour in bread, muffin, pancake, and cookie recipes. Cookies containing up to 20% of full-fat flaxseed flour were acceptable in relation to their overall acceptability (Hussain et al., 2006). The

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effect of adding flaxseed (7.3%, 11.6%, and 15.5%) to muffins on consumer acceptability was evaluated by Ramcharitar et al. (2005) who reported that flaxseed muffin (11.6%) was “neither liked nor disliked” to “liked slightly” in overall acceptability. Flaxseed flour is used commercially in breads in the United States by one or more large bakeries selling thousands of loaves per day (Burckhardt, 1989) and by many bakeries and chain stores in Canada (Berglund, 2002). A pasteurized, finally milled whole flaxseed suspended into soymilk, fruit beverages, or meal replacement beverages at 2– 3% will undergo pasteurization and homogenization and only minimally thicken the product. Adding 2.2% flaxseed to soy milk will contribute 1,200 mg omega –3, 1.4 g dietary fiber, and 85 mg in total phytoestrogens as lignans and isoflavones to an 8 oz (227 g) serving (Best, 2004). Ground flaxseed can be stirred into orange or other juices, into smoothies, or added to about any baked product. Flaxseed oil is used in home-made salad dressing cooked in oatmeal, drizzled on cooked vegetables, included in smoothies, and can be used for stir frying at moderate temperatures (http://www.ag.ndsu.nodak.edu/plantsci/flaxseed.htm). The North Dakota flaxseed cultivar “Omega,” a yellow or golden flaxseed, is preferred in Europe and also sold in Japan, Korea, and in climate states’ food markets. Its yellow color when ground blends well as a food ingredient. Ground or whole flaxseed can be added to almost any baked product and adds a nutty flavor to bread, waffles, pancakes, and other products if it composes 6–8% of the dry components of the formula. Some other food uses of flaxseed are—ready-to-eat breakfast cereals, breakfast cereals, breakfast drinks, salad dressings made with cold-pressed flaxseed oil, salad toppings, biscuits, meat extenders, crackers, soups, bagels, fiber bars, and cakes. Some of the important linseed-based products designed for helping food companies and consumers to add functional properties into many different food products are linofiber, linoprot55-protein concentrate, linohusk, etc. Quality and Stability of Flaxseed and its Products Flaxseed products are stable despite their high ALA content. Storing milled flaxseed at ambient temperatures for more than 4 months did not cause noticeable changes in quality. The endogenous antioxidants in the milled flaxseed may account for this stability (Malcolmson et al., 2000). Flaxseed products can tolerate heat to a certain extent. Heating at 178◦ C for 1.5 hours did not change the ALA content in the whole flaxseed. ALA decreased from 55.1 to 51.3% in ground flaxseed under the same conditions, and the ALA content dropped to 51.7% in lipid extracts under the same conditions (Chen et al., 1994). UTILIZATION OF FLAXSEED AS FEED The deoiled cake is a most valuable feeding cake; perhaps the most favorite cattle feed. It is good in taste and contains 36% protein with 85% digestibility. It is fed to both milch cattle and

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for fattening animals. The screw-pressed cake contains about 7 to 10% oil, while cake obtained from ghani may contain up to 14% fat (Salunke and Desai, 1986). The cakes from hydraulic presses have 9 to 12% oil. A typical proximate composition in linseed cake is dry matter 96.8%, protein 30.5%, fat 6.6%, nitrogen–free extract 43.2%, crude fiber 9.5%, and mineral matter 7% (Brown, 1953). The linseed cake is valued for its appetite–stimulating and slightly laxative effects and good for animals, both as a feed component and as a nutritional additive. Scholljegerdes and Kronberg (2007) reported that ground flaxseed is a viable option for use as an energy supplement to steers grazing native pasture in the Northern Great Plains in improving growth performance without reducing forage utilization. Other sources of fat such as micronized soybeans and Megalac can be completely substituted by whole untreated flaxseed as the fat source in the diet of early lactating cows without any adverse effect on production and flaxseed increased milk protein percentage and its omega-6 to omega-3 fatty acids ratio (Petit, 2002). Holstein cows when fed with a control diet with no flaxseed, a raw flaxseed, a micronized flaxseed diet, and an extruded diet showed that flaxseed supplementation improved total nutrient utilization with no adverse effects on ruminal fermentation. Extrusion failed to protect flaxseed from ruminal digestion; however, micronization can be used to increase the ruminal undegraded protein value of flaxseed (Gontheir et al., 2004). Replacing barley grain with flaxseed in the diet of lactating Holstein cows increased the beneficial fatty acids in milk without depressing nutrient digestibility (Soita et al., 2003). Gain and efficiency were greatest for cattle fed diets containing flax and were substantially improved (p < 0.05) relative to diets containing full-fat soybeans (Drouillard et al., 2000). An experiment was conducted to evaluate the growth performances and carcass fatty acid profiles of pigs fed with graded levels of flaxseed meal. Inclusion of 15% dietary flaxseed meal increased the α-linolenic acid content from 11 to 47 (± 0.8) mg/g of back fat (P < 0.001) and from 5 to 10 (± 0.4) mg/g of loin tissue (P < 0.001). Increasing dietary flaxseed meal decreased the saturated fatty acid content of back fat (P < 0.01) (Eastwood, 2008). The effect of feeding whole flaxseed and hot water-extracted whole flaxseed to rainbow trout was examined by Thiessen et al. (2003). In this study, the diet containing 12% whole flaxseed combined with 41% fish meal and 5% fish oil was fed to rainbow trout showed improvement in growth performance and possibility of replacing fish oil by 50% with the flaxseed. Low mucilage flaxseed product, i.e., dehulled flaxseed and pea protein concentrate in equal parts proved to be high protein, high-energy ingredients that are highly digestible and palatable to juvenile rainbow trouts. Inclusion of 40% low-mucilage flaxseed product and pea-protein concentrate allowed the reduction of 47% of the fish meal and 55% of the fish oil component of the diet with favourable weight gain and feed efficiency. Likewise, inclusion of up to 60% low mucilage flaxseed product and canola protein concentrate allowed the reduction of 62% of the fish meal

component of the diet with favourable performance (Thiessen et al., 2004). Research at North Dakota State University and the University of Idaho incorporated dehulled flaxseed into extruded fish feed at three levels (0, 9, and 18%) and fed to yellow perch (Perca flavescens) for 6 months. The content of ALA in the fish muscle lipid increased from 0.5% to 13.7% when the content of the dehulled flax in the diet was increased from 0% to 18%, respectively (Wiesenborn et al., 2005). Therefore, dehulled flaxseed is a promising alternative to marine fish oil for elevating the content of omega-3 fatty acid content in farm raised fish. Thiessen (2004) reported that the use of the lower-cost alternatives like peas, canola, and flaxseed to fish meal and fish oil could result in immediate and very significant savings in feed costs without compromising fish performance and end-product quality. Gonzalez–Esquerra and Leeson (2000) reported that feeding flaxseed to mature roosters in pellet or crumbled form increased its average metabolic energy (AMEn) from 3,654 kcal/kg to 4,277 kcal/kg, respectively. Proper flaxseed processing as pelleting, autoclaving, and microwave roasting led to higher true metabolizable energy values for leghorn roosters, mainly as the result of increased ether extract utilization (Shen et al., 2004). Autoclaving, pelleting, and microwave roasting effectively increases the utilization of major fatty acids and nitrogen in flaxseed for adult chicken (Shen et al., 2005). It is known that feeding omega-3 enriched diets to poultry increases the omega-3 content of eggs and meat and thus enriched poultry products offer consumers an alternative to enhance their omega–3 daily intake (Leskanich and Noble, 1997). Egg innovations, as well as other companies producing omega -3 enriched eggs, uses flaxseed in the poultry feed to alter the fatty acid composition of the egg yolk. Such type of an egg may provide nearly half of the optimal daily intake level of α-linolenic acid. Feeding flaxseed to laying hens increases the omega-3 fatty acid in the egg by 6 to 8 times, making one egg equal to 113 (4 oz) of cold water fish as some of the omega-3 fatty acids. Further, research supported by the North Dakota Oilseed Council in Nebraska and Texas indicated the consumption of up to 14 flax eggs/week improves the nature of blood lipids (Berglund, 2002). The addition of 3 and 6% flaxseed oil into the feed of laying hens for a period of 25 weeks was investigated by Kozlowska et al. (2008) who reported that flaxseed oil had a significant effect of enriching the eggs in α-linolenic acid total omega-3-polysaturated fatty acid. The cholesterol concentration in yolk decreased by about 5% compared to the control group. Moreover, feeding hens with the enriched diets did not result in any significant changes in the quality parameters of eggs, laying efficiency, and the consumption of feed per egg.

UTILIZATION OF FLAXSEED AS FIBER Flax fibers are among the oldest fiber crops in the world. Deseeded stalks (straw) from fiber type linseed plant are processed

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to yield a fiber resembling flax. The yield of fiber of dry flax straw is about 20–25%. The use of flax for the production of linen goes back 5000 years. Pictures on tombs and temple walls at Thebes depict flowering flax plants. The use of flax fiber in the manufacturing of cloth in Northern Europe dates back to pre-Roman times. A flax fiber is a natural and biodegradable composite, which exhibits good mechanical properties and low density. Its mean specific mechanical characteristics are 42 GPa and 675 MPa for the Young’s modulus and failure stress, respectively (Charlet et al., 2006) that is comparable with those of the E-glass fibers, which reach 30 GPa and 1000 MPa respectively (Gay, 1997). A flax fiber can be described as a 20 µm wide cylindrical composite with concentric layers of cell wall, which differ in terms of chemical composition and morphology. The thickest cell wall is itself made of micro-fibrils of cellulose, which are embedded in polysaccharide matrix and lay at about 10◦ from fiber axis (Wang et al., 2001). Flax fiber is soft, lustrous, and flexible. It is stronger than cotton fiber but less elastic and blends well with wool, silk, cotton, etc. The best grades are used for linen fabrics such as damasks, lace, and sheeting. Coarser grades are used for the manufacturing of twines and ropes. Marketing of flax fiber is generally based on subjective methods of evaluation, but strong interest has existed for developing objective standards such as those that exist for cotton (Akin, 2006). Flax fiber is also a raw material for high quality paper industry for the use of printed currency notes and cigarette paper (http://asamb.in/commodityProfile/Linseed.htm). In addition to cigarette paper, flax fibers are also being used for pulp and paper, erosion control mats, reinforcing materials in plastics, and particle composite products (Domier and Kerr, 2000). Mats made from flax fibers with or without the addition of other materials may be suitable for use as insulation, filters, upholstery, padding, carpet backing, geotextiles for erosion control, and horticultural applications (Berglund, 2002). The rough and strong linseed fiber can effectively be used for low–cost roofing tiles based on convertible polymers and for fiber–reinforced plastic (http://nsdl.niscair.res.in/bitstream). The ecological advantage and high specific mechanical properties encourage the use of flax fibers in composite applications to replace the classical synthetic reinforcements such as glass with the natural one. In a study carried out by Van de Wayberg and Verpoest (2002) to examine the use of flax fiber as knitted reinforcement for polyester resin, it was found that flax fibers certainly had the potential for use in composite applications. Flax fibers have been used in mortar material and found to be effective in controlling restrained plastic shrinkage cracking than commercially available polypropylene and glass fibers for the mortar mixture (Boghossian and Wegner, 2008). Linoleum is a resilient, durable material made from all natural ingredient including flax fiber and oil. It makes an ideal flooring material, which requires less maintenance and is completely biodegradable, stands up to heavy foot traffic, and is easy on legs.

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UTILIZATION OF LINSEED OIL IN INDUSTRY Traditionally, linseed is grown for oil purposes. About 20% of the total oil produced is used at farmers level, and the rest of the 80% goes to industries in various forms, such as boiled oil, borated oil, eposidized oil, aluminated oil, urethane oil, isomerized oil, etc. (http://nsdl.niscair.res.in/bitstream). The high linolenic (C 18:3) content of linseed makes the oil an excellent drying agent in paints, resins, inks, soaps, varnishes, wood treatment, linoleum, etc. Linseed oil is the most commonly used carrier in oil paint. It can be used as a painting medium, making oil paints more fluid, transparent, and glossy. It is available in a variety of forms, such as cold-pressed, alkali-refined, sunbleached, sun-thickened, and polymerized. A paste of linseed oil and chalk powder, glazing putty, is a traditional sealant for glass windows that dries hard within a few weeks and then can be painted over. Linseed oil dries slowly and shrinks little upon hardening when used as a wood finish. Linseed oil does not cover the surface as varnish does, but soaks into the visible and microscopic pore, leaving a shiny but not glossy surface that shows off the grain. Wood treated with linseed oil is resistant to denting and scratches and is easily repaired. Several coats of linseed oil is the traditional protective coating for the raw willow wood of cricket bats, and thus have a special cultural place in cricketplaying countries. Fire departments treat the wood handles of hand tools that have metal implements (axes, plaster hooks, etc.) with linseed oil to prevent buildup of static electricity. Linseed oil is also often used by billiards/pool cue makers, cue shafts, as a lubricant/protectant for wooden recorders, and used in place of epoxy to seal modern wooden surfboards.

PROCESSING OF FLAXSEED Dehulling of Flaxseed Dehulling flaxseed is an important process for preparing value–added industrial products. Flax, as quoted earlier, is well known for its many health benefits. However, the hard outer surface of flaxseeds means that, eaten whole, the inside kernel and other healthy nutrients may not be easily digested by the human body. The usefulness of flaxseed as an energy-dense ingredient in monogastric diets has been hampered by the level of soluble fiber, which increases gastric viscosity and leads to reduced nutrient availability (Bell and Keith, 1993). The laxative nature of the meal arises from its content of petosans and mucilage (Bhatty and Cherdkiatgumchai, 1990). As flax mucilage occurs mainly in the epidermis layer of the seed coat (Dev and Quensal, 1988), removal of the hull will eliminate most of the mucilage and much of the underfiber. The flaxseed hull does not readily detach from the embryo; however, flax mucilage has traditionally been removed by aqueous extraction (Cui et al., 1994; Fedenuik and Biliaderis, 1994; Garden-Robinson, 1994; Mazza

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et al., 1992; Mazza and Biliaderis, 1989; Susheelamma, 1987; Wannerberger et al., 1991). Although the mucilage obtained is claimed to be fairly free of contaminants the wet process is not economical since it involves multiple steps, including drying. Dry dehulling of flaxseeds by mechanical means to remove flax mucilage was investigated by Smith et al. (1946) and Dev and Quensal (1988) using a simple process of fractionating ground flaxseed with graded sieves, and also an air-separation method. Abrasive dehulling is a front-end method of removing the outer layer of whole flaxseed, thereby reducing its fiber content and improving its functional and nutritional properties. The use of mechanical methods is compatible with products to be labelled “organic,” under the U.S. National Organic Progress. A prototype Tangential Abrasive Dehulling Device (TADD) was developed (Oomah et al., 1981) and further refined (Reichert et al., 1986) which was adopted for dehulling of flaxseed. The yield of hull and rate constant were affected mostly by speed and to a lesser extent by dehulling time. The amount of hull recovered increased with decrease in moisture content and when the moisture-adjusted seeds were stored for at least 24 hours, the seed weight and oil content were the major seed factors responsible for the dehulling quality of flaxseed (Oomah et al., 1996). Dehulling by TADD increased the concentration of oil and protein and decreased the carbohydrate content in dehulled flaxseed irrespective of cultivars. The hull fractions had the highest carbohydrate and palmitic acid contents and the lowest concentration of stearic and oleic acid compared to the whole and dehulled seeds (Oomah and Mazza, 1997). The effect of microwave treatment and dehulling time were investigated by Oomah and Mazza (1998b) on yield of fractions obtained on dehulling three flaxseed cultivars by the application of an intermediate–sized batch dehuller; microwave-treated seeds produced higher yields of medium and fine hull fractions than untreated seeds which increased with increasing dehulling time. Flaxseed samples when defatted and separated into flour and hull fractions by a liquid cyclone process (Sosulski and Cadden,1982), then the hull formed 37.5% of the seed and contained less than 1% oil, 20% protein, and 32.9% total monosaccharides (Bhatty and Cherdkiatgumchai, 1990).

treatment of this residue, and the final separation of oil, water, and solid fractions. Omega-3 fatty acids are sensitive to heat, oxygen, and light, thus flaxseed oil is usually cold pressed from whole seed. All forms of excess heating should be avoided (Shukla, 2003). Screw pressing is a simple, flexible, safe, and continuous mechanical pressing procedure (Singh and Bargale, 2000). Lowmoisture content typically resulted in better oil yield, but also elevated the oil temperature the most (Singh et al., 2002a). The high oil temperature may promote oxidation in flaxseed oil and disallow a “cold–pressed” claim for the product (Zheng et al., 2003). The organic food industry allows mechanical pressing but not solvent extraction as usually performed (Agricultural Marketing Service, 2000; Singh et al., 2002b). Decreasing the seed moisture content from 7.8% to 2.3% increased the proportion of oil extracted from 31.4% to 49.6% respectively (Dedio and Dorrell, 1977). Extraction of flaxseed oil was performed with supercitical carbon dioxide and was reported that the α–linolenic acid content of the SC-CO2 extracted oil was higher than that obtained by solvent extraction (Bozan and Tomelli, 2002). Supercritical CO2 extracted the most oil with the highest antioxidant capacity of all evaluated procedures resulting in a defatted flaxseed hull containing the highest (53 mg/g) secoisolariciresinol diglucoside (SDG) level (Oomah and Sitter, 2009). Ultrasonic power, extraction time, extraction temperature, and solvent to solid ratio on the yield of flaxseed oil have been investigated by Zhang et al. (2008) who found that ultrasoundassisted extraction requires a shorter extraction time and a reduced solvent consumption. Moreover, the yield of flaxseed oil has been found to increase with the increase of the ultrasonic power and to decrease as the temperature is increased. Zheng et al. (2003) reported that the oil recovery from pressing dehulled flaxseed with a screw press was lower than that from whole flaxseed, but the oil productivity from pressing dehulled flaxseed was higher than that from whole flaxseed. Furthermore, the oil and meal temperatures from pressing dehulled flaxseed were significantly lower than those from whole flaxseed. Specific mechanical energy was significantly higher when pressing whole flaxseed than when pressing dehulled flaxseed.

Oil Expelling

CONCLUSION

Flaxseed oil, a rich source of dietary omega–3 fatty acids is commonly obtained by cold pressing whole seed. Industrial linseed oil is obtained after crushing, cooking, expression, and solvent extraction. Zheng et al. (2003) found that when whole Omega flaxseed was pressed through a 6-mm choke of a screw press, an inverse relationship between seed moisture content (6.1–11.6% range) and oil recovery (70.1–85.7%) was observed. Gros et al. (2003) standardized a new process for the extraction of linseed oil which comprises the following stages—crushing, expression, demucilagination, by electric discharges, centrifugal separation of mucilage and solid residue, enzymatic or electric

Based on the information, it is evident that flaxseed is the richest source of α-linolenic acid oil and lignans. It is a considerable potential source of high quality protein, soluble fiber, and phenolic compounds. Studies proved that flaxseed has tremendous potential in disease prevention particularly cardiovascular disease (CVD), osteoporosis, rheumatoid arthritis, cancer (breast, colon, and prostate cancer), and constipation and also affects immunity favorably. Flaxseed contains cyanogenic glycosides, linatine, and phytic acid that influence the absorption of nutrients. However, studies indicated that the presence of these compounds, while undesirable but no apparent illness has been

FLAXSEED

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observed at the intake of 50 g per day. Flaxseed is emerging as an important ingredient for the development of various functional foods. The pressed cake of flaxseed is one of the most valuable feeding ingredients and considered favorite for cattle feed. It is good in taste and contains 36% protein with 85% digestibility. Feeding omega-3 enriched diets to poultry increases the omega-3 content in eggs and meat and thus enriches poultry products. Flax fiber is biodegradable and composite, which exhibit good mechanical properties and low density. The flaxseed has tremendous potential to be used as human food, animal feed, and good quality fiber.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors wish to express sincere thanks to the Department of Science and Technology (DST), New Delhi, India for providing financial assistance to carry out this work. The help and guidance rendered by Dr. R.T. Patil, Director, CIPHET, Ludhiana during the course of the preparation of this manuscript is thankfully acknowledged.

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