science coexist productively with theatrical expression in the field of early childhood ..... rather as a property/characteristic of the celestial bodies and their ...
Section 3: Teaching
f h t i n g T m of Drama with Glow Vlbn in Local KowMge: lDE4 2007Dia!ogms
Crossing Cultural Borders between Science and Shadow Theatre: the Case of Light (part 1I)',*
& Researching
rn
without either one of them supplanting the other. The research carried out in dramdtheatre education has Contributed to overcoming this problem through attempts to teach and learn subjects through theatre (e.g. language, culture, mechanics, mathematics, science), also leading to positive results in developing skills of problem-solving, reading or constructing fictional frames (Fisler, 2003; Simona et a/., 2007). ~t has also contributed through the debate regarding the choice of using "theatre as a learning
Antigoni Paroussi and Vassilis Tselfes
medium" instead of using ideas from other fields (such as scientific ideas) to teach "theatre as art" (~isier,2003;' McCaslin, 1984), a debate that could, also shed light on the possibilities of "science education" and "theatre education" coexisting on an equal footing. Research in the field of science education regarding the same subject has brought to the
Introduction
fore contradictory outlooks. On the one hand, it suggests that the use of narrative forms of expression (as opposed to scientific prose) is the most effective in terms of understanding
With the crossing into the 21' Century and in conjunction with the international social,
scientific content in the context of everyday life (cf. Bnmer, 1992, 1996; Millar and Osborne,
political and technological changes that accompanied it, a series of innovations have started
1998; Norris eta/., 2005; Levinson, 2007). On the other hand, recent bibliography contains
to be applied in the field of compulsory education regarding certain aspects of citizens'
evidence that can be considered as disappointing for this approach. For instance, based on
literacy in the (so-called) new age (AAAS, 1993; Millar & Osborne, 1998; OECD, 2001).
a case-study, van Eijck and Roth (2007, p. 942-943) maintain that
Within this context there is, in Greece, an ongoing effort to breach the traditional boundaries established between the different teaching-learning subjects (Hellenic Ministry of National
drawing on narratives of scientists and aboriginal people explaining a
Education-Pedagogical Institute (HMNE-PI), 2004; Develaki, 2007). This effort is of a great
comparable natural phenomenon (a salmon run), we show that both
research interest, not only in pedagogical-teachingterms, but also on a sociological (Gergen,
traditional knowledge and scientific knowledge, though simultaneously
1995; Bernstein, 1973) / anthropological / cultural (e.g. Cobern & Loving, 2001) level. This
available, are incommensurable and cannot be reduced to each other, as are
interest is particularly strong in the field of early childhood education where, though essentially
the different processes of knowledge construction/evolution inherent to the
oriented towards children's socialization, the teaching goals also concern preparing them
artefacts constitutingthese narratives.
for the subsequent levels of compulsory education (HMNE-PI, 2004). This of itself directly influences the education of early childhood teachers, as the future educators must be able
The same authors do not deny the need of using scientific knowledge in everyday life,
to handle with ease knowledge pertaining to a variety of fields, to adapt it to their students'
nor do they reject the value of traditional knowledge. However, they consider that, in the
age group and to simultaneously unify it within the context of their teaching activities. The last
field of education, science is represented "as a static, singular, and homogeneous body
ability appears difficult to achieve, at least without significantly transforming a certain type or
of knowledge that leaves many students incapable or puzzled about how to solve the
part of the differentcategories of knowledge being used.
problems that they encounter in their daily life while still offered as the universal way to solve
An example of an awkward educational coexistence is that of dramdtheatre education and science education. The two fields appear to be almost incompatible culturally (Snow,
such problems, issues, and concerns". Thus, they pose the research question of "how
1964), educationally (McManus & Furnham, 2006) and probably cognitively (Hudson, 1974).
to deprivilege science in education and to free our children from the regime of truth that prevents them from learning to apply the current cornucopia of simultaneous but different
Nevertheless, in nursery school the two need to coexist and "converse" with each other
forms of human knowledge" (van Eijck & Roth, 2007, p. 944). Our question follows the same direction, but is far narrower. Our interest lies in
1
2
An initial exploration of the same subject was canied out over the academic year 2004-05: the results of this project are presented in Paroussi and Tselfes, 2006. This research supported by the University of Athens in the context of the project 'Kapod'istrias 2005-06".Translation in English: Marian Georgopoulos.
remaining within the current cross-thematic approaches proposed by the Greek curriculum for compulsory education. We are also interested in early childhood education, where children's'literacy as "... an activity, located in the space between thought and text" (Barton
i
-
Section 3: Teaching
& Researching
rnilton, 1998) is of not much use, as children of this age are but rarely occupied with 8 texts. Even t ~ ~ o specifically, re we are interested in the education of the educators of early childhood education. By what means, we wondered, can we help them become scientifically literate so that in their professional life they might be able to examine scientific issues with
support and interpret them. Furthermore, this occurred despite the lecturers' insistent efforts
using the educational field's established narrative structures? Can some of the
by a type of discourse that does not lend itself to a theatrical handling as it is not a narrative
institutionalized forms (HMNE-PI, 2004, p. 253) of creation and expression through the libera] arts, S U C ~as theatrical expression, offer alternative ways of representing scientific issues
one (Norris and Phillips, 2003; Yore eta/., 2003; Noms et a/., 2005). This forces the learning
be suitable for our case? Can such a procedure liberate the Mure educators of nursery schools from the regime of truth, which in our case prevents them from discussing issues with "small children"? In which ways can the teaching and learning of sciencecoexist productively with theatrical expression in the field of early childhood teachers1
borrow from well-known children's stories. They therefore.significantly reshape scientific ideas
to the contrary. These findings support at least two hypotheses. Firstly, the learning of scientific concepts/ideas/models by means of the classic and effective school methods is supported
process' subjects to use a kind of nai've speech in their theatrical representations,which they
that
in animistic directions and this to such a degree that not even the theatrical convention can salvage them. On the other hand, it would seem that the same form of teaching-learning scientific ideas succeeds in constructing and stabilizing satisfactory imaginary representations
ducation?
(Klein, 2006), which can be transposed to the theatrical context in various ways. Secondly, the empirical learning of techniques through theatrical apprenticeship is overpowering. Thus, the ineffable characteristics of this way of learning appear capable of easily supplanting
Background
whatever analytical or theoretical approach might have been used to interpret, or even to anticipate, the techniques that are part of the learning syllabus.
An initial exploration of these questions was undertaken (Paroussi & Tselfes, 2006;
On the basis of these findings and hypotheses, this paper attempts to address the same
& ~aroussi,2008a). This investigation was carried out within the framework of early
question in a different way. More specifically, we suppose that if the teaching and learning of
~~~~f~~
childhoodteachers' education and, using shadow theatre, attempted to present scientific
scientific ideas/concepts/models is accomplished through the use of popularized science
representations encountered on the subject of light in the relevant curriculum subject.
texts and not on the basis of school textbooks and the teaching practices associated to
The exploration was based on the hypothesis that, if early childhood education
these and the students are called to structure and present a shadow-theatre theatrical
undergraduatestudents, already trained in shadow theatre and in science education, are
study centred on one of the scientific ideas they have been taught, then there is a possibility
taughtthrough laboratory work the scientific representations of geometrical optics regarding light (the most widespread relevant scientific theory in compulsory education) and are called
for ways to appear whereby the scientific ideas can be expressed theatrically without
to structureand present a shadow-theatre theatrical study centred on one of the scientific
is a valid one are the following: popularized science texts, to a certain extent, succeed
ideas regardinglight that they learnt, there is then a possibilQ that ways will appear whereby: (,) the scientific ideas can be presented theatrically and (2) conceptual connections can be lnade between the scientific theories and shadow theatre practices, as the latter concern
in representing their scientific content by also using narrative speech (Norris et a/., 2005; on the scientific ideas' theatrical representation instead of being distracted by school-
differentways of handling light and, consequently, can not only be interpreted but anticipated
type procedures regarding the interpretation and prediction of shadow-theatre techniques,
by the scientific theory.
procedures that refer the students to the traditional teaching-learning methods of the natural
being significantly transformed. The reasons behind our belief that the above hypothesis
Halkia & Botouropoulou, 2005); at the same time, the students' interest would focus solely
The results of this project were revealing. Working in small groups of 3-5 people, the
sciences and arouse corresponding negative attitudes in them.
studentswere able to create and present aesthetically satisfying theatrical studies. However, the
studies that were largely based on speech significantly reshaped the scientific in animistic directions. It was almost solely the theatrical studies based exclusively
on the theatrical image that represented the scientific concepts and models satisfactorily. the theatrical techniques of shadow theatre were learnt empirically and were used sumssfullyby the students, but without them being connected to the scientific models that
!
Methodology The Project's Structure In order to go ahead with this second exploration, we organized a case study that
h;vrting T m of Drama with G
U Vshn in Local Kowledge: ID.% 2007Dialogues
-
I
-
Section 3: Teaching
& Researching
I
took place within the context of a university course called "Theatrical Applications and the
this quality was confirmed in practice, as the students organized and presented a successful
Teaching of Physics". A total of 35 students of the University of Athens' Department of
final performance during an open-air festival in Athens (in the context of the European project
Eally Childhood Education chose to participate in this project. These students had alrea* successfully attended at least one course on Shadow Theatre and one on Science Education
"Researchers' Night 2006"). The whole activity was concluded with a discussion-evaluation in which all of the
during previous semesters. The project lasted one academic semester (I 2 six-hour sessions),
students participated and which essentially evolved around the question: "What would you
but occupied the students and the lecturers for a considerable period of time outside the
do differently if you undertook the same project again and why?" The data resulting from this
scheduled classes. The students worked with the two lecturers (an educator-puppeteer and a science educator) in groups of 3-5 people. During the course's first phase, the student groups studied 8 different ideas/models selected from the history of science and natural philosophy, ideas and models that more or
discussion were compared to the results of our analysis, the goal being that of reinforcing their validity. The activities, the final performances and the discussion-evaluationwere videotaped. The data thus collected were analyzed with a view to examining different forms of an
less obviously offered answers to the question "What is light?". This selection increased the
effective connection between scientific ideas and theatrical narration, as well as between
number of theoretical ideas to be represented theatrically and we therefore considered that
scientific ideas and representative signs (concerning the design, motion and sound used in
a Priori it contributed to destabilizing the students' conviction that scientific knowledge is
the theatrical studies). Also, we were interested in the ways in which the scientific ideas are
stable, and unique.
transformed by these connections.
The students' studies were based on popularized science texts. The results of each Study were formally presented and discussed with the audience formed by the whole class. The themes presented were: Plato's theory of vision through the emanation of light; the
I
Framework of Analysis
geometrical approach of light transmission; the wave theory of light; light in the Theory of
All of the analysis procedures we followed were qualitative. The "reading" of the theatrical
Relativity; light as a wave-particle; light as the first substance of the Universe ("big bang"
studies as regards the attempted narrative was based on Souriau's model (1950) (see also
theory); light as an instrument (laser beam) and light as a beam of photons.
Tselfes & Paroussi, 2008b). According to this model, a theatrical narrative is composed of
During the second phase, the student groups prepared their own short theatrical studies, based on a main idea closely connected to the scientific idea/model they had already
six dramatic functions and their interactions: the driving force, i.e. the subjecthero desiring
Studied and presented. In these studies (nine in total), the students were not allowed to use
action; the value, i.e. the commodty the subject desires; the commodify's receiver, i.e. the one who benefits from it; the opponent, i.e, the obstacle that the subject comes across;
speech. This choice was imposed de facto. A number of students started preparing their
the arbitration, which decides where the commodity will be awarded; and, the assistant,
theatrical studies by selecting certain excerpts from the texts they had studied and building
who acts in a helping role towards awarding the commodity. The "reading" of a theatrical
their theatrical narrative around them. This situation diverted the student groups' creation
study according to this logic allows one to grasp the scientific idea's importance, in the
from focusing on the theatrical presentation of the scientific idea and tended to lead to
theatrical context, as an element of one of the dramatic functions (e.g. the idealmodel may
rather hackneyed narratives (narratives based on unedited text excerpts which, as a rule, the
be the commodity, it may be used by the opponent or the assistant, it may determine the
Students tended to use without analyzing them). As for the theatrical techniques, the students were guided towards using simple shadow-theatre techniques, constructing small portable
arbitration's decision, etc.). The dramatic functions' identification, and that of their relations, is accomplished through
Stages lighted by low-wattage portable lamps where they played with jointed, cut-out figures
a semiotic analysis. In our case, we used Peirce's model (1964) in combinaiion with puppet
made of cardboard and semi-transparent coloured materials. The reason for this choice
theatre's three means of expression (design, motion, sound) as described by Tillis (1992).
Was, on the one hand, the production of performances that, with a few changes, could also function in the context of school activities and, on the other, the possibility of transporting
According to Peirce (1964), a "sign" constructed by the creator (in our case, the students)
and presenting the performances to audiences outside the University. We supposed that
and understood by the spectator does not simply connect a significant with a signified, but also performs a more complex function. A sign connects a representative, which could in
these two characteristics would direct the students to, respectively, constantly keep in mind their production's pedagogical dimension and pay attention to its theatrical quality. Indeed.
extrernis be considered as the significant and, in our case, is usually composed of parts of the material world (e.g. figures) that are created behind the scenes as separate entities.
I %tirig
T -
of &ma with GloM Vmon in Local Kowledge: /Dm 2007 w
ues
On scene, each representative interprets an entity, a function, a relation, etc. of the World
Sectjon 3: Teaching s&
described by the performance. However, what the interpretation finally is depends on the
being connected to any of the dramatic functions. For instance, one of the descriptive theatrical studies was based on the scientific
sign's referent. In our case, we consider that the referents are connected with the theatrically
idea whereby light is the first substance of the universe.
he scientific idea results from
projected ideas which, though they are not necessarily represented by material constructions
observations (expansion of the Universe) and is based on the hypothesis that
nor interpreted through specific theatrical images, form the performance's connections (served by the representatives and interpretants) and give meaning to the messages
light has a material shape, that it is a particular substance which, under certain conditions of
transmitted to the spectator/observer. Indeed, according to Tillis (1992), whether a shadow-
students presented a description of the "big bangntheory, where light played a secondary
theatre construction (a representative) interprets that which the referent dictates depends
role. During the first act, the students used a blue balloon lit up from the interior, which
on the design, the motion and the sound accompanying it (and which, in our case, does not
appeared behind the screen, in a context of absolute silence. The balloon slowly inflated
include speech).
and burst when its image covered the screen. The design, the motion and the final bang
energy accumulation, can create elemental particles (corpuscles). In the theatrical study, the
For instance, a light beam or a photon (two different scientific representations of light)
interpreted the explosion, making reference to commonly experienced contexts. The silence
can constitute the narrative's driving force (the subject desiring the action). As a result, it is
before the explosion interpreted absolute non-existence, referring to the contrast of the
possible that it personifies the light beam or the photon, reshaping the scientific ideas in an
incidental music that started immediately after. During the second act, the first elementary
animistic direction. The degree to which this occurs depends on the referent suggested by
particles appeared, represented by the symbols used in science (e, p, n, H). On the whole,
the theatrical study's signs. If the techniques that are used are suitably chosen, it is probable
this choice created a satisfactory scientific referent, on whose basis the following scenes
that the narrative will be read as a succession of natural events (events that are explained on
also functioned. In the third act celestial bodies and formations (galaxies) appeared and in
the basis of the relations the light beam or the photon have, according to the scientific theory,
the fourth our solar system. The lighting between the second and third acts changed from
with the material bodies). What is crucial here is the choice of design, motion and sound
blue to orange to red, interpreting the light's modification described by the scientific theory.
that can lead to such a reading of the theatrical study. We consider that a pertinent choice can facilitate the theatrical convention to lead the spectator towards understanding ideas
slowly darkened and the celestial bodies appeared brightly. Over the last three acts, the
and events of a non-human world, even if the spectator's reading functions on the basis of
incidental music was uniform and its evolution interpreted the passage of time. The motion
analogies to human relations, characters or behaviours.
was coordinated with the music and interpreted the cosmic environment, at times changing
Because of the semiotic model's circularity and of the internal relations among the
For the same reason, from roughly the middle of the third act onwards, the background
narrative's functions, it is both possible and acceptable that this type of analysis does not
the size and focus of the images on the screen (the constructions behind the screen drawing closer or farther away from it) and at others the cosmic entities' positions (through moving
lead to univocal results. For this reason, the results of each study's analysis were compared
the constructions or through moving the lamps behind the immobile constructions when the
to the data collected while it was being elaborated and/or to the discussion-evaluation'sdata.
background was dark). This description failed to interpret the theory's basic fact, namely that it is from light that there arose the first forms of particles, which later formed all the celestial bodies. It also did not interpret some of the mechanisms through which it is supposed that
Results and Discussion The students created nine theatrical studies. Of these, two were unable to attain a theatrical narrative structure. In these two studies, the successive scenes interpreted natural
this came to be. Here we are confronted by a singular situation. The "big bang" theory is known to the wider public as a scientific description of the world's creation, without a creator: "At the
events that did not contain a subject desiring action, did not refer to a disputed commodity,
temporal moment zero, there was a big explosion. With it, space and time were born. For the first few seconds, only light existed. Then, the first particles were formed. Then ...".
etC. The remaining seven studies constituted narratives in which the scientific ideadmodels
The theory and the models supporting this description, as well as the role of light, are not
were interpreted either through the driving force's function (three studies) or through a
commonly known. Thus, after reading the popularized science texts, the students of this
commodity (one study) or through the assistant (two studies). Lastly, in one study with a
group chose to consider the more familiar passages as important and to demote the theory.
narrative structure, the scientific/philosophic idea of light was used in the design, without
They vigorously upheld their conviction regarding the correctness of this choice during both
Planting T m of Drama wiM Global ! A s h in Local KwIedge: / D M 2007 CWques
