Cultural Influences on Chinese Consumers ... - SAGE Journals

Cultural Influences on Chinese Consumers’ Intentions to Purchase Apparel: Test and Extension of the Fishbein Behavioral Intentional Model Dong Shen Marsha A. Dickson Sharron Lennon Catherine Montalto Li Zhang Abstract There were two objectives of this study: (a) to test the cross-cultural applicability of the Fishbein Behavioral Intentional Model by studying Chinese consumers’ purchase intentions for apparel made in the United States and (b) to examine whether culture could enhance the validity of the model. Parents (N = 2,017) of students in the public school systems of Beijing, Shanghai, and Guangzhou completed usable questionnaires. Attitude toward purchasing apparel made in the United States (Ab) significantly influenced Chinese purchase intentions for that apparel (BI), but subjective norms (SN) did not. The validity of the Fishbein model may be product dependent, with culturally symbolic products influenced by both attitude and subjective norm, and products less culturally symbolic influenced only by attitudes. Adding cultural components to the Fishbein model enhanced its ability to explain purchase intentions.

Shen, D., Dickson, M. A., Lennon, S., Montalto, C., & Zhang, L. (2003). Cultural influences on Chinese consumers’ intentions to purchase apparel: Test and extension of the Fishbein behavioral intentional model. Clothing and Texties Research Journal, 21(2), 89-99. Key Words: Fishbein Model, China.

Understanding culture is essential for understanding consumer behavior. Culture influences the priorities consumers place on certain activities and products. As a result, culture influences the likelihood of whether products and services offered within the culture will be successful. Cul-

Authors’ Addresses: Dong Shen, Department of Family and Consumer Sciences, California State University - Sacramento, Sacramento, CA 95819-6053; Marsha A. Dickson, Department of Apparel, Textiles and Interior Design, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506-1405; Sharron Lennon and Catherine Montalto, Department of Consumer and Textile Sciences, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210-1295; and Li Zhang, Peking University, Beijing, China. Acknowledgments: Funding for this project was provided by the Markets and Trade Program; National Research Initiatives Competitive Grants Program; Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service; United States Department of Agriculture.

© International Textile & Apparel Association, 2005

ture can differ from nation to nation, as well as within nations. The importance of culture when marketing consumer products in foreign cultures has become clear as international firms have begun selling their products in other countries. Many marketers recognize the need to understand the unique aspects of each country with which they hope to do business, in order to tailor their products and marketing strategies appropriately (Solomon, 1999). Solomon stresses the important role of culture to consumer behavior by stating, “Consumption choices simply cannot be understood without considering the cultural context in which they are made. Culture is the ‘lens’ through which people view products” (p. 495). Not surprisingly, as the international business world increasingly focuses on China as a potential market, there is a growing body of literature attesting to cultural heterogeneity both across Asia and within China. China is viewed as an attractive market because of the size of its population and Volume 21

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its fast-growing economy. China’s unique cultural position compared with other Asian countries is attributed to dramatic social and political events, including occupation of the country by the Japanese, takeover of the country by the Communists, the Cultural Revolution, and “the opening of traditionally closed Chinese society to the influence of free enterprise and global markets” (Oswald, n.d., pp. 3-4). The events shaping the country’s history have uniquely contributed to consumers’ concerns that new products, technologies, and marketing strategies would destabilize the country’s economy (Oswald). Similarly, Anderson and He (1998) have suggested that China’s cultural uniqueness must be considered by marketers because “consumers are influenced by socialist ideologies and rapid economic development” (p. 152). Focusing on the cultural heterogeneity also seen among consumers within China, Cui (1997) has highlighted consumer values, beliefs, and a host of other differences influencing Chinese consumers in suggesting that it is easy to understand how marketers viewing China as one homogeneous market have had limited business success. Indeed, Chinese consumers have been found to differ in openness to change, interest in material things, and how much they favor a Western lifestyle (Wei, 1997). Oswald (n.d.) concluded an ethnographic study of Chinese women with the idea that U.S. marketers must “contend with the sheer size and multicultural reality of the country” (p. 8). Culture also can affect the cross-cultural validity of theories and models guiding consumer behavior research. The Fishbein Behavioral Intentional Model, which is the focus of this study, describes a person’s intentions to behave in certain ways as a function of the attitude held toward the behavior and the perceptions a person has about others’ expectations for behavior (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). Although the model has been comprehensively applied across different kinds of social behaviors, including apparel purchase (Casselman & Damhorst, 1991; Chang, Burns, & Noel, 1996; DeLong, Minshall, & Larntz, 1987), it was developed in the United States and there have been a limited number of studies of its cross-cultural validity. An especially small number of studies have tested the model with Asian consumers of dress-related products. Lee and Green (1991) tested the model with college students in Korea who had grown up with a Confucian cultural background. They found that the model could be used to explain the students’ intentions to purchase sneakers. Most recently, the model has been tested with Chinese consumers regarding their intentions to purchase traditional gold rings and its value for use in this setting was confirmed (Chan & Lau, 1998). Some researchers might argue that since a few studies have tested the Fishbein model in Asia, it has been proven as valid for the entire population of Asian consumers and for all types of products. However, the one study we found testing the Fishbein model in China with a dress-related product (gold rings), relied on one convenience sample of tourists from the China who were traveling in Hong Kong and another sample of Hong Kong residents (Chan & Lau, 1998). Urging further research, Chan and Lau declared, “It is impossible to draw definite conclusions on the universal applicability of the Fishbein model based on only two Chinese samples and one target product” (Chan & Lau, p. 97). 90

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Siu, Wang, Chang, and Hui (2001) expressed a similar concern after finding support for another theoretical model developed in the United States among Chinese consumers residing in Beijing. The researchers warned that further testing and validation was needed in different regions of China because “there is great cultural diversity across regions of China” (Siu et al., p. 44).1 The purpose of this study was to assess the role of culture in Chinese consumer behavior. Two specific objectives were pursued. The first objective was to test the Fishbein model for its validity in explaining apparel purchase decisions made by urban Chinese consumers. This test recognizes that national differences between U.S. culture, where many theories have been developed and validated, and China’s culture, may prohibit the valid use of these theories in China. We selected the Fishbein model for the test because of its extensive use by scholars in apparel and textiles (e.g., Casselman & Damhorst, 1991; Chang et al., 1996; DeLong et al., 1987) and for the information it could provide businesses about Chinese consumers if validated. We chose to focus on urban consumers in major cities because urban consumers are generally considered to be the only ones affluent enough to afford foreign products and major cities are where marketers have introduced foreign products. The second objective was to examine whether culture could enhance the validity of the model. This objective assumed that cultural differences within China might have prevented validation of the model in the first objective or could further enhance the model’s explanatory power. We built upon the works of previous researchers who have proposed numerous modifications and extensions to the Fishbein model (e.g., Albarracin, Fishbein, & Middlestadt, 1998; Ajzen, 1991; Dickson & Littrell, 1996; Lee & Green, 1991; Shimp & Kavas, 1984; Warshaw 1980) by adding a cultural component directly into the model. The combined results of the study were expected to provide (a) basic knowledge on Chinese apparel consumer behavior that would be important to researchers for developing theory and designing future studies and (b) applied knowledge that would be valuable to U.S. apparel businesses considering entering China about Chinese consumers’ attitudes toward buying apparel made in the United States, their intentions to buy apparel made in the United States, and the extent that other people and culture influence these purchase intentions.

Literature Review According to the Fishbein model, behavioral intention (BI) is the sum of two components, attitude toward the behavior (Ab) and subjective norm (SN). Attitude toward the behavior is the individual’s favorable feelings about the behavior. It is measured directly or estimated by considering beliefs about the behavior (bi) and the evaluation of these

1

The researchers tested Sprole’s Consumer Style Inventory.


beliefs (ei). Subjective norm regards the individual’s normative beliefs about social pressures to perform the behavior. Subjective norm takes into consideration the opinions of people who are important to the individual (NBj) and the individual’s motivation to comply or not to comply with the expectation of others (MCj) (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). Empirical studies of a variety of behavioral intentions, including condom use (Albarracin, Fishbein, & Middlestadt, 1998), drinking and smoking (Morrison, Simpson, Gillmore, & Wells, 1996), working hard in a class (Koslowsky, Hoffman, & Lazar, 1990), cheating, shoplifting, and lying (Beck & Ajzen, 1991), and purchasing toothpaste (Wilson, Mathews, & Harvey, 1975), have supported the predictive validity of the Fishbein model. However, as we reported earlier, there is virtually no research that has tested the validity of the model for explaining Chinese consumers’ intentions to purchase dress-related products. Culture plays a major role in consumer behavior and consumer psychology. The Fishbein model was developed in the United States. American culture emphasizes individualism, freedom, and equality of opportunity, whereas the core of Chinese culture includes collectivism, “passive acceptance” of fate, submission to authority, and ancestor worship (Hsu, 1981). Pan, Chaffee, Chu, and Ju (1994) have summarized six major differences between these two cultures: (1) U.S. culture emphasizes “active mastery” in the person-nature relationship, whereas traditional Chinese culture emphasizes “passive acceptance” of fate by seeking harmony with nature; (2) U.S. culture tends to be concerned with external experiences and the world of things, whereas traditional Chinese culture emphasized inner experiences of meaning and feeling; (3) U.S. culture is characterized by an open view of the world, emphasizing change and movement, whereas traditional Chinese culture is typified by a closed world view, prizing stability and harmony; (4) U.S. culture places primary faith in rationalism and is oriented toward the future, whereas traditional Chinese culture rests on kinship ties and tradition with a historical orientation; (5) U.S. culture emphasizes horizontal dimensions of interpersonal relationships, whereas traditional Chinese culture places more weight on vertical interpersonal relationships; and (6) U.S. culture values the individual personality, whereas traditional Chinese culture weights heavily a person’s duties to family, clan, and state. (p. 24) Despite the robust status of the Fishbein model for explaining U.S. consumer behavior, the extensive differences between American culture and Chinese culture raise an obvious question – does the Fishbein model work with Chinese consumers? Clearly, further research testing the Fishbein model in China is necessary and, therefore, we developed the following hypothesis: H1 Attitudes toward purchasing apparel (Ab) and subjective norms (SN) are significant predictors of Chinese consumers’ apparel purchase intentions (BI). © International Textile & Apparel Association, 2005

Is Attitude Toward the Behavior (Ab) or Subjective Norm (SN) More Important? Since the Fishbein Behavioral Intentional Model was proposed by Ajzen and Fishbein in 1980, researchers have raised several questions beyond whether the model is crossculturally valid. One topic discussed among researchers is whether attitude toward the behavior or subjective norm is more influential to purchase intentions (Albarracin et al., 1998; Lee & Green, 1991; Wilson et al., 1975). Ajzen and Fishbein proposed that the relative importance of these two factors would vary with the kind of behavior being predicted, the conditions under which the behavior was to be performed, and the person who was to perform the behavior. Valleran, Deshaies, Cuerrier, Pelletier, and Mongeau (1992) demonstrated that attitude toward the behavior was a greater predictor of behavioral intention than subjective norm in an empirical study of moral behavior in sport. Likewise, in a study of condom use, Albarracin et al. (1998) found that attitude toward the behavior had a more significant contribution to behavioral intention than subjective norm. Specific to purchasing behavior, two groups of findings have been obtained. Wilson et al. (1975) found that more variance in U.S. consumers’ purchase intentions for toothpaste was explained by subjective norms than by attitude toward buying the toothpaste. Yet, when apparel and other accessories were investigated, most studies obtained opposite findings. For U.S. college students, the variation in their purchase intentions for unisex shirts was explained more by attitude toward purchasing than subjective norms (Casselman & Damhorst, 1991). Similar findings were obtained in studies of U.S. college students’ purchase intentions for brandname casual apparel (Chang et al., 1996), U.S. college students’ purchase intentions for sweaters (DeLong et al., 1987), and U.S. college students’ intentions to purchase sneakers (Lee & Green, 1991). Warshaw (1980) proposed that because important referents, such as spouse, friends, or colleagues, could hold conflicting opinions, people may rely less on subjective norms than attitude when formulating purchase intentions. When it comes to studies using the Fishbein model with Asian cultures, Chan and Lau (1998) found that Chinese consumers’ intentions to purchase traditional gold rings were influenced more by subjective norms than by attitude. Lee and Green (1991) obtained a similar finding with Korean intentions to purchase sneakers. Although these findings suggest that Chinese consumer behavior may be more influenced by subjective norms, we believe that the influence of subjective norms on Chinese consumers’ purchase intentions for apparel made in the United States is weakened due to the shortage of apparel made in the United States currently available in China. Only a small amount of apparel made in the United States has been exported into the Chinese market (Zhang, Dickson, & Lennon, 2002). Since Chinese consumers have not been widely exposed to apparel made in the United States, they are unlikely to discuss purchasing apparel made in the United States or share their experience and opinions regarding purchasing apparel made in the United States. Therefore, we developed the following hypothesis: H2 Attitudes toward purchasing apparel (Ab) explain more variation in Chinese consumers’ apparel purchase intentions (BI) than subjective norms (SN). Volume 21

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Additional Factors Affecting Behavioral Intentions – Acculturation Characteristics Another issue attracting researchers’ attention is whether there are other factors influencing behavioral intentions besides attitude toward behavior and subjective norms. According to Ajzen and Fishbein (1980), all other factors indirectly influence behavioral intentions through the two components rather than directly influencing behavioral intentions; thus, attitude toward behavior and subjective norms are sufficient to predict behavioral intentions. However, numerous researchers have proposed and studied other variables that could aid in the prediction of behavioral intentions (Ajzen, 1991; Beck & Ajzen, 1991; Pomazel & Jaccare, 1976; Ryan & Bonfield, 1975; Schwartz & Tessler, 1972; Zuckerman & Reis, 1978). We anticipated that acculturation characteristics could further explain consumers’ purchase intentions. Acculturation occurs when one was raised within one culture, but adopts cultural norms and values of a different culture (Moschis, 1987). For acculturation to occur, there must be contact between at least two autonomous cultures with changes occurring in one culture as a result (Berry, 1983). Research often addresses acculturation that occurs when people born and raised in one location move to another (e.g., Kang & Kim, 1998; Shim & Chen, 1996). However, globalization and the resulting influx of western culture in many locations around the world means that people no longer have to change residence to encounter two autonomous cultures. People’s values, attitudes, and behaviors reflect their acculturation (Berry, 1990). Measures of acculturation might include individuals’ consumption of cultural products, such as food, movies, and clothing popular in another country. For example, acculturation has been measured by examining the purchasing and wearing of western apparel by consumers residing in non-western cultures (Anspach & Kwon, 1976; Berry, 1990; Matthews, 1979). So in this study, adoption of U.S. cultural products was used as one measure of Chinese consumers’ acculturation. In addition, beliefs, values, and attitudes would be another way to measure acculturation (Moschis, 1987). Therefore, we also used adherence to traditional Chinese values to measure Chinese consumers’ acculturation. Extent of acculturation may provide a significant explanation of variance in consumer behavior beyond that found with attitude toward the behavior (Ab) and subjective norm (SN). For example, a Chinese consumer may have a positive attitude toward purchasing apparel made in the United States and believe that important referents support the purchase of apparel made in the United States, but without the consistency of personal cultural beliefs (s/he does not accept U.S. culture), the final behavioral intention may be low. Thus the following hypotheses were developed: H3a Adoption of U.S. cultural products significantly affects Chinese consumers’ purchase intentions for apparel (BI). H3b Adherence to traditional Chinese values significantly affects Chinese consumers’ purchase intentions for apparel (BI).

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Method Survey research was conducted in Beijing, Shanghai, and Guangzhou, the three largest cities in China. To reach a representative sample of adults in each city, we employed a multi-stage cluster sampling procedure with public schools randomly sampled in the first stage and then classes randomly sampled in the second stage. This type of multi-stage cluster sampling is a cost effective means of obtaining a probability sample when a sampling frame does not exist, such as for the population of a city, and the cost of sampling increases with geographic dispersion (Babbie, 2001; Schaeffer, Mendenhall, & Ott, 1986). In each city, 1,000 questionnaires were distributed to parents of elementary and middle school children. The telephone directories’ Yellow Pages provided lists of public elementary schools and middle schools in each city. For each city, six elementary schools and six middle schools were randomly selected and then two classes were randomly chosen from each school. Our first author visited each classroom and asked the children to take the questionnaire home to the designated parent to complete. Through this procedure, we expected to sample the parents of children ranging in age from 6 to 18 at low cost and with little problem of nonresponse. The major limitation of this sampling strategy was that it narrowed the population to which generalizations can be made to primarily married adults with children. However, a very large number of potential consumers fall into this category. Questionnaire Development A questionnaire was developed to measure the primary components of the Fishbein model (i.e., attitude toward the behavior, subjective norm, behavioral intention), acculturation characteristics, and demographics. An English version of the questionnaire was developed first and then the first author translated it into Mandarin. A bilingual English-speaking Chinese graduate student back-translated the questionnaire into English. Adjustments to the questionnaire items were made until consistency in meaning between the English and Mandarin versions was achieved. Components of the Fishbein Behavioral Intentional Model. Attitude toward purchasing apparel made in the United States (Ab) was measured by three items adapted from Ajzen and Fishbein (1980): (a) Buying U.S.-made apparel is foolish or wise; (b) Buying U.S.-made apparel is bad or good; and (c) Buying U.S.-made apparel is impractical or practical. A 7-point semantic differential scale was applied here. Attitude toward purchasing apparel was calculated by summing the three items. Subjective norm (SN) involves normative beliefs of important others (NB) and motivation to comply with these people (MC). Normative beliefs of important others (NB) were measured with three items: (a) Do your family members support your purchasing U.S.-made apparel? (b) Do your friends support your purchasing U.S.-made apparel? and (c) Do salespersons support your purchasing U.S.-made apparel? These items were anchored by “strongly support” (7) and “not at all” (1). Salespersons were relevant to include because of the high density of salespersons in stores © International Textile & Apparel Association, 2005

in China and the many shopping areas where goods are not openly displayed and consumers interested in examining or trying on clothing must ask a salesperson for assistance. Because of these circumstances, there is likely to be fairly extensive interactions between salespersons and consumers, making the salesperson an “important other.” Motivation to comply (MC) was measured by asking the participants: (a) How often do your family members’ opinions influence your apparel purchase decisions? (b) How often do your friends’ opinions influence your apparel purchase decisions? and (c) How often do salespersons’ opinions influence your apparel purchase decisions? These items were anchored by “very often” (7) and “not at all” (1). Prior to calculation, all the scores of normative beliefs and motivation to comply were recoded from “1 to 7” to “-3 to +3”.2 We used three items for our measure of motivation to comply and normative beliefs, rather than the one item recommended by Ajzen and Fishbein because of concerns with diminished reliability when using one-item measures (Babbie, 2001). The summation of outcomes of normative beliefs multiplied by motivation to comply represents subjective norm (SN) (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). Three items adapted from Ajzen and Fishbein (1980) were included in the purchase intention inventory. The first item asked the respondents about the possibility of purchasing apparel made in the United States for themselves within the following 12 months. The second item was “Will you probably purchase U.S.-made apparel next year?” A 7-point scale was used with both questions anchored by highly probable (7) and highly improbable (1). The last question asked the respondents to indicate the possibility they would buy apparel made in the United States for themselves this year. A 0 to 100 scale was used here, where 0 represents no possibility of purchase and 100 represents the highest possibility to purchase. Responses to this item were recoded to 1 to 7 by dividing the original scale into seven equal parts (i.e., scores < 14.3 were recoded as 1) before they were summed with the other two items for the measure of intention to purchase U.S. apparel. Acculturation variables. Our measures of acculturation characteristics were built on the work of previous researchers (Szapocznik, Scopetta, Kurtines, & de los Angeles Aranade, 1978; Teske, Raymond, & Nelson, 1973) who measured acculturation by (a) adherence to values and (b) behavioral adoption (i.e., the adoption of behaviors associated with another culture). Measuring acculturation of values assumes that cultures have typical values, norms, customs, and rules. A common values dichotomy is seen when comparing eastern and western cultures. China is representative of eastern culture, whereas the United States is representative of western culture (Davis, 1993). Values of eastern and western

2 Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) operationalized attitudinal and normative measures with a –3 to +3 scale. When changed to 1 to 7 or another variation, the potential range of values and their order are changed (Ryan & Bonfield, 1975); thus, we felt that it was necessary to maintain the –3 to +3 scoring. However, we were concerned that Chinese respondents may be confused by a scale containing both negative and positive numbers, so we used 1 to 7 on the questionnaire itself, and then recoded the items before analyzing the data.


cultures are inconsistent and sometimes contradictory, such as the values of individualism versus collectivism (Santayana, 1934; Xing, 1995). We adopted a 10-item scale (7 = strongly agree, 1 = strongly disagree) developed by McCullough, Tan, and Wong (1986) and Tan and McCullough (1985) that is based on characteristics of Chinese culture. The scale measured adherence to traditional Chinese values and norms regarding women, old people, relatives, marriage, losing face, returning favors, and showing affection (see all items in Table 1). Higher scores reflected greater adherence to traditional Chinese values and norms. We did not separately measure adherence to traditional U.S. values and norms since we thought it was unlikely that individuals would accept both sets of values and norms due to their inconsistency (Santayana, 1934; Xing, 1995).

Table 1. Measures of Acculturation Characteristics Adherence to Traditional Chinese Values Women should stay at home. It is everyone’s responsibility to respect older people. Every family should have a son. I have a very traditional relationship with my parents. I always act properly in order to prevent embarrassment. I believe expressing appreciation is good behavior. I have a close relationship with my relatives. Kissing one’s spouse in a public place is not acceptable. People should be committed to their marriage during their whole life. People should control their own actions. U.S. Cultural Events and Cultural Products When I go to the movies, I always want to see American films. I like American pop music very much. I like American fast food. I like American football. I am interested in American stars, such as American movie stars and sport stars. I like American style drinks, such as Coca-Cola and coffee. When I am shopping, I always want to buy American brands if I have enough money. Chinese Cultural Events and Cultural Products When I go to the movies, I always want to see Chinese films. I like Chinese classical music very much. I like Chinese traditional food. I like soccer. I am interested in Chinese stars, such as Chinese movie stars and sport stars. I like Chinese style drinks, such as tea. When I am shopping, I always want to buy Chinese brands.

Consumption of cultural products and participation in cultural events were assumed to be behaviors that reveal the extent to which an individual has taken on the identity of a culture (Moschis, 1987). Accordingly, we developed pairs of 7-item measures measuring the extent that individuals liked both U.S. and Chinese movies and music, food and drink, brand names of products, and sports and celebrities (see Table 1 for list of all items). All these cultural events and products were available in large Chinese cities. Because it was reasonable to expect some individuals to like to parVolume 21

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ticipate in or consume both U.S. and Chinese foods, music, products, and others, the sum of the differences between corresponding items represented the degree of western behavioral adoption. For each pair of items, difference scores were calculated by subtracting an individual’s liking to participate in Chinese cultural events or consume Chinese cultural products from the paired item reflecting liking to participate in U.S. cultural events or consume U.S. cultural products. The seven difference scores were then summed for all seven pairs of items with higher measures reflecting greater adoption of U.S. cultural products.3 The range of possible difference scores represents the entire range of possible degrees of adoption of U.S. cultural products over the seven items (-42 = lowest degree of adoption of U.S. cultural products, +42 = highest degree of adoption of U.S. cultural products). Instrument Pretests We pretested the instrument two times before it was finalized and distributed. The first pretest focused on the reliability of the acculturation variables. Chinese scholars and students (N = 37) at U.S. universities participated by completing questionnaires that were distributed by electronic mail. The questionnaire was in English. Among the respondents, 23 were men, 13 were women, and one did not provide information on sex. The U.S. events and products scale achieved a Cronbach’s alpha of .69 in the pretest, whereas the Chinese events and products scale achieved a Cronbach’s alpha of .57. Adherence to traditional Chinese values received a Cronbach’s alpha of .60. All reliabilities were in the acceptable range (.50 or higher) for a pretest (Nunnally, 1967). The second pretest was conducted in China to determine whether the content of the questionnaire was understandable and that resulting responses were complete and reasonable. Fifteen (10 men, 5 women) students attending People’s University in Beijing, China completed the Mandarin version of the questionnaire in approximately 20 minutes. The suggestions the students made to clarify the wording and response categories of questionnaire items were incorporated into the final survey instrument.

Results Preliminary Analyses Usable questionnaires were returned by 2,017 respondents (870 men, 999 women, 148 sex not specified); the usable response rate was 67.2%. Approximately 58% of the participants were 31 to 40 years of age and approxi-

3 We used the following calculation: Adoption of U.S. Cultural Products = (U.S. movie – China movie) + (U.S. music – China music) + (U.S. food – China food) + (U.S. football – soccer) + (U.S. celebrity – China celebrity) + ( U.S. drink – China drink ) + (U.S. brand – China brand). 4 When data were collected in Autumn 1998, the exchange rate was 1.0 U.S. dollar for 8.3 Yuan.

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mately 35% were from 41 to 50 years of age. The average age was 39. Most participants (94.2%) were married. Over 41% had graduated from high school and 34.8% had graduated from college. Approximately half the participants worked for the government, manufacturers, or wholesalers and retailers. Thirty percent of participants reported household incomes between 27,601 Yuan ($3,325) and 51,600 Yuan ($6,217).4 Approximately 70% of participants had three family members. Reliability Tests Before proceeding to the tests of hypotheses, we assessed the reliability of each measure. The Cronbach’s alpha for all variables were suitable with the results as follows: intentions to purchase clothing made in the United States (α = .80), attitude toward purchasing apparel made in the United States (α = .77), normative beliefs of important others (α = .76), motivation to comply (α = .70), U.S. events and products (α = .80), Chinese events and products scale (α = .76), and adherence to traditional Chinese values (α = .75). Hypotheses Testing Multiple regression was used to test H1 that the two independent variables comprising the Fishbein model, attitude toward purchasing apparel and subjective norms, significantly predict the dependent variable, Chinese consumers’ apparel purchase intentions. The model significantly explained Chinese consumers’ purchase intentions for apparel made in the United States (F(2, 1951) = 1103.548, p < .0001, R2 = 0.531). There was a significant positive relationship between attitude toward purchasing apparel and purchase intentions for apparel made in the United States (β = .726, p < .0001); the relationship between subjective norms and apparel purchase intentions, however, was not significant. Although the statistical model was significant, H1 was not supported. Only one of the two variables expected to predict behavioral intentions did so significantly. To test H2 that attitude toward purchasing apparel would explain more variation in apparel purchase intentions than subjective norms, apparel purchase intentions was the dependent variable in two separate models, with subjective norms the independent variable in Model 1, and attitude toward purchasing apparel the independent variable in Model 2. The regression results showed that 53.2% of the variation in apparel purchase intentions was explained by attitude toward purchasing apparel (F(1, 1956) = 2219.69, p < .0001). Attitude toward purchasing apparel was significantly positively related to apparel purchase intentions (β = .729, p < .0001). In contrast, subjective norms explained only 0.8% of the variation in apparel purchase intentions (F(1, 1989) = 16.09, p < .0001). Subjective norm was significantly positively related to apparel purchase intentions (β = .09, p < .0001). A Davidson-MacKinnon J-test (Greene, 1997) was used to determine whether the R-squares from the two regression models with the same dependent variable, but different independent variables, were significantly different. As seen in Table 2, the first step was to calculate the regression coefficient for attitude toward purchasing apparel. Step 2 used that coefficient to calculate estimated scores for apparel purchase intentions. In step 3, the estimated scores for apparel purchase intentions were included as a second inde© International Textile & Apparel Association, 2005

pendent variable in a regression model also including subjective norms; regression coefficients were obtained for each independent variable along with tests of their significance to apparel purchase intentions. In the remaining steps, a similar procedure was followed though the roles of the independent variables were reversed. A regression coefficient was obtained for subjective norms and that coefficient was used to estimate apparel purchase intentions, then attitude toward purchasing apparel and the estimated scores for apparel purchase intentions were included in a regression model. Model 1 containing attitude toward purchasing apparel explained a significantly greater amount of variation in apparel purchase intentions than Model 2 with subjective norms because the beta of estimated apparel purchase intentions at step 6 was 0.726 (p < .0001) and statistically significant, whereas, the beta of the estimated apparel purchase intentions at step 3 was 0.024 (p < .03) and not statistically significant by the p < .01 criterion used for this study.5 Therefore, H2 was supported. Attitudes toward purchasing apparel explained more variation in apparel purchase intentions than did subjective norms. Next, a series of multiple regression analyses and Ftests were used to test H3a and H3b, which hypothesized that both adoption of U.S. cultural products (H3a) and adherence to traditional Chinese values (H3b) would account for significant amounts of variation in apparel purchase intentions after taking into consideration attitude toward purchasing apparel and subjective norms. Attitude toward purchasing apparel and subjective norms were the two independent variables in Model 1; one more independent variable, adoption of U.S. cultural products, was added in Model 2, and adherence to Chinese traditional values replaced adoption of cultural products in Model 3. As shown in Table 3, in Model 1, 53.1% of the variation in apparel purchase intentions was explained by the independent variables: attitude toward purchasing apparel and subjective norms (F(2, 1951) = 1103.548, p < .0001). There was a significant positive relationship between attitude toward purchasing apparel and apparel purchase intentions (β = .726, p < .0001), but the relationship between subjective norms and apparel purchase intentions was not significant. In Model 2, when adoption of U.S. cultural products was added as a third independent variable, 54.4% of the variation in apparel purchase intentions was explained (F(3, ) = 771.433, p < .0001). In addition, there was a signifi1941 cant positive relationship between adoption of U.S. cultural products and apparel purchase intentions (β =.123, p < .0001). In Model 3, 53.5% of the variation in apparel purchase intentions was explained after adherence to Chinese values was included as an independent variable (F(3, 1939) = 742.376, p < .0001). Adherence to Chinese values was significantly and negatively related to apparel purchase intentions (β = -.054, p < .001). In order to test whether adoption of cultural products significantly increased the explanations of variation

5 In all tests of significance, we chose to use p < .01 as the criterion for significance since a number of tests were to be performed and the sample size was large.


Table 2. J-test Comparing the Ab Model and the SN Model for Predicting Intentions to Purchase Apparel Made in the United States Step 1.

Model 1:

Step 2.

Calculate

Step 3.

Regression:

Step 4.

Model 2:

Step 5.

Calculate

Step 6.

Regression:

BI = a1 Ab ∧ a1 = 0.729 ∧ BI = 0.729Ab ∧ BI = c1SN + c2BI = c1SN + c2 (0.729Ao) ∧ c1 = 0.024 (p < .128) ∧ c2 = 0.726 (p < .0001) BI = b1 SN ∧ b1 = 0.09 ∧ ∧ BI = 0.09SN ∧ ∧ BI = d1Ab + d2 BI = d1Ab + d2 (0.09SN) ∧ d1 = 0.726 (p < .0001) ∧ d2 = 0.024 (p < .128)

in apparel purchase intentions, an F-test was applied (Greene, 1997). (R2 2 - R12) / J F [ J, n-K ] = (1 – R22) / (n – K) R12 : R2 2: J: K: n:

R2 of Regression Model 1 (restricted model) R2 of Regression Model 2 (unrestricted model) number of restrictions (J = 1 in this study) number of parameters (K=3 in this study) sample size

Table 4 shows that when Model 2 was compared to Model 1, it accounted for significantly greater variation than Model 1(F(1, 1941) = 55.336, p < .0001). The F-test was also applied to test whether adding adherence to Chinese cultural values significantly increased the variance explained in apparel purchase intentions. Model 3 explained a significantly greater amount of variation than Model 1 (F(1, 1939) = 16.68, p < .0001). Chinese consumers’ acculturation characteristics significantly contributed to explanations of variance in apparel purchase intentions for both the model including the adoption of the U.S. cultural products measure and the model including the adherence to traditional Chinese values measure. H3a and H3b were both supported. Volume 21

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Table 3. Effects of Acculturation Characteristics on Purchase Intentions Independent Variable

Dependent Variable

Beta (p)

Model 1 Attitude toward purchasing apparel made in the U.S. (Ab)

Purchase intentions for apparel made in the U.S. (BI)

0.726 (.0001)

Subjective norms (SN)

df

R²

F (p)

1,951

0.531

1,103.548 (.0001)

1,941

0.544

771.433 (.0001)

1,939

0.535

742.376 (.0001)

0.024 (.128)



0.686 (.0001)


0.022 (.156)

Adoption of U.S. cultural products

0.123 (.0001)



0.728 (.0001)


0.016 (.318)

Adherence to traditional Chinese values

-0.054 .001)

Table 4. F-tests for the Effects of Acculturation Characteristics on Purchase Intentions Comparison

J

K

n

R12

R2 2

F (J, n-K)

p

Model 1 vs. Model 2

1

3

1,944

0.531

0.544

55.336 (1, 1941)

.0001

Model 1 vs. Model 3

1

3

1,942

0.531

0.535

16.680 (1, 1939)

.0001

Note. Model 1 includes independent variables of Ab and SN. Model 2 adds adoption of U.S. cultural products as an independent variable after Ab and SN. Model 3 substitutes adherence to traditional Chinese values as an independent variable after Ab and SN.

Discussion and Conclusions The first objective of this study was to test the Fishbein Behavioral Intentional Model for its validity in explaining apparel purchase decisions made by urban Chinese consumers. We measured Chinese consumers’ intentions to purchase apparel made in the United States The results indicated that attitude toward purchasing apparel made in the United States (Ab) significantly influenced Chinese purchase intentions for apparel made in the United States (BI). However, subjective norms did not significantly influence apparel purchase intentions. In other words, it appears that for these urban Chinese consumers, their attitudes about purchasing certain garments are adequate for predicting purchase in96


tentions. Accordingly, the Fishbein model only partially works with Chinese consumers when their purchase intentions for apparel made in the United States are studied. The main explanation may lie in the current Chinese situation. Currently, there has been only a small amount of apparel made in the United States exported into the Chinese market (Zhang et al., 2002). Due to the shortage of apparel made in the United States, Chinese consumers are unlikely to discuss purchasing apparel made in the United States or share their experience and opinions regarding purchasing apparel made in the United States. This finding differed from the test of the Fishbein model that was conducted by Chan and Lau (1998) who found that the purchase intentions for traditional gold rings were influenced by subjective norms. The nature of the product does seem to influence whether the model works in its entirety. The purchase of a product that © International Textile & Apparel Association, 2005

is a tradition in a society would logically be influenced by others’ opinions. By their designation as traditional, these products are highly symbolic of a culture’s norms and beliefs. Perhaps the subjective norm component of the Fishbein Behavioral Intentional Model is most relevant with highly symbolic products. Certain apparel products might be viewed as having greater symbolism than others. Before using the model, thought should be given about the extent that the product is symbolic. Besides, because of the heterogeneity within China, Chinese consumers often hold different views about products, including clothing. So sometimes the important referents, such as friends or relatives, could hold conflicting opinions. Under this circumstance, the confusion could make people rely less on subjective norms (Warshaw, 1980). The second objective of this study was to examine whether culture could enhance the validity of the model. Particularly, whether variations in Chinese apparel consumers’ cultural values and adoption of U.S. products influenced their purchase intentions for apparel made in the United States was investigated. Previous studies had questioned whether attitude toward purchasing apparel and subjective norms were the only two factors affecting apparel purchase intentions (e.g., Albarracin et al., 1998; Bandura, 1977; McCaul, O’Neill, & Glasgow, 1988). We found we could improve explanation of Chinese apparel purchase intentions by adding acculturation characteristics to the model. Although the improvement in predicting purchase intentions contributed by acculturation characteristics was small, the improvement was statistically significant. The extent that Chinese consumers had adopted U.S. cultural products and events, such as drinks, food, and movies, was more influential to purchase intentions than was diminishing adherence to traditional Chinese values. This is logical because apparel made in the United States is an example of U.S. cultural products and if individuals have adopted other U.S. cultural products then it is easy to envision them adopting another such product. On the other hand, there may be several factors that could moderate values and thus reduce the correlation between values and purchase intentions. Besides investigating the Fishbein model for its use as a theoretical framework for understanding Chinese consumer behavior, this study makes methodological contributions with the test of two acculturation characteristics variables, adherence to values and behavioral adoption. The behavioral measure and the value measure showed reasonable reliability and validity (face and construct validity). Additionally, the sampling strategy we used to reach a representative sample of adult consumers in urban China was cost effective, especially since a high response rate was achieved. Distributing questionnaires through the Chinese educational system was applied for the first time in this study. Others may wish to use a similar strategy in the future; however, researchers interested in conducting studies in China should be aware that Chinese law, enacted since we conducted this study, allows surveys to be conducted only by agents authorized by the Chinese government and restricts foreign institutions and individuals, and foreign-supported institutions and individuals, from this type of activity (“China adopted the regulations . . .”, 1999). What are the implications of our findings to U. S. ap© International Textile & Apparel Association, 2005

parel businesses wishing to enter and target China’s market? Attitude about buying U.S.-made apparel had the greatest influence on buying intentions. The more wise, good, and practical that Chinese consumers viewed buying apparel made in the U.S., the greater their intentions to buy that clothing in the future. Previous research suggests that attitude about the product influences attitude toward buying the product (Dickson & Littrell, 1996). It seems likely that price, quality, and other product attributes could easily contribute to Chinese consumers’ positive or negative feelings about buying U.S.-made apparel; however, further research is needed. But beyond the influential role of attitudes, the findings of our study suggested that Chinese consumers’ purchase intentions for U.S.-made apparel were also significantly affected by their cultural values and patterns of behavior. When Chinese consumers shifted their values away from traditional Chinese values toward western values, intentions to purchase U.S.-made apparel increased. Additionally, greater levels of adoption of western products increased intentions to purchase U.S.-made apparel. Exposing Chinese consumers to U.S. culture and encouraging Chinese consumers to purchase U.S. products may be an effective way to increase U.S.-made apparel purchases. Thus, U.S. apparel businesses may be able to pursue strategies in China much like those that they have adopted in their brand marketing. U.S. apparel businesses frequently market the image of lifestyles highly reflective of western values. If taking this approach, the most effective avenue may be to use media advertising, since Chinese consumers are becoming more and more exposed to advertisements and rely on advertisements as a guide to select products (Xu, 1992). The link found between adoption of western products and increased intentions to purchase U.S.-made apparel suggests another marketing strategy. Researchers and marketers may benefit from identifying sets of western products that complement each other by having similar symbolic meanings; thus, forming consumption constellations (Solomon, 1999). Identifying U.S. products that Chinese consumers view and prefer similarly to U.S. apparel may suggest cooperative advertising strategies that would be more cost efficient than if the companies marketing the products pursued independent advertising. As mentioned previously, our sample was limited primarily to married Chinese consumers with school children. Single Chinese consumers, especially those who are from 18 to 28 years old, might represent a potential market segment for apparel made in the United States, but they are not included here. Although our sample does not limit the value of the theoretical tests conducted in this study, the ability to generalize these consumers’ intentions to purchase apparel made in the United States to the entire Chinese population is limited. Ariga, Yasue, and Wen (1997) have suggested that single Chinese consumers between the ages of 18 and 28 years believe that foreign products act as a medium through which western culture can be experienced. They respect western culture and they are proud of owning products with well-known brand names, especially foreign brand names. As such, intentions to purchase apparel made in the United States may be even stronger and behavioral adoption of cultural products may have even greater influence for this segment than for the consumers we studied. Volume 21

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Our sample was also limited to urban consumers residing in the cities of Beijing, Shanghai, and Guangzhou. Chinese urban consumers have much higher household incomes, higher brand-name awareness, and greater recognition of foreign brands than do rural consumers (Schmitt, 1997). Until incomes of rural Chinese improve to the point that foreign marketers see value in pursuing these consumers, a focus on urban consumers is justified. When rural consumers have greater access and exposure to foreign products, it will then be necessary to test the validity of the Fishbein model with this group and determine their intentions to purchase apparel made in the United States.

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