Culturally Responsive Training of Teacher Educators

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educated in U.S. public schools are growing immensely, teacher educators must take ... Address correspondence to Mary Anne Prater, 340 MCKB, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602. ... digms, and pedagogical theories and tech.
Culturally Responsive Training of Teacher Educators Mary A n n e Prater T e m m a Harris Devereaux Brigham Young University

ABSTRACT: G i v e n t h a t t h e n u m b e r s o f c u l t u r a l l y a n d / o r l i n g u i s t i c a l l y d i v e r s e s t u d e n t s

being

e d u c a t e d in U . S . p u b l i c s c h o o l s a r e g r o w i n g i m m e n s e l y , t e a c h e r e d u c a t o r s m u s t t a k e r e s p o n ­ s i b i l i t y f o r p r e p a r i n g t e a c h e r c a n d i d a t e s t o w o r k in t o d a y ' s d i v e r s e c l a s s r o o m s . T h i s c a n b e d i f f i c u l t , h o w e v e r , if t e a c h e r e d u c a t o r s a r e n o t c u l t u r a l l y r e s p o n s i v e i n t h e i r c u r r i c u l a r c o n t e n t a n d p e d a g o g y . T e a c h e r e d u c a t o r s c o u l d b e n e f i t f r o m e n g a g i n g in p r o f e s s i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t in t h i s a r e a . In t h i s a r t i c l e , w e d i s c u s s t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e o n c u l t u r a l l y r e s p o n s i v e h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n training. W e f o c u s on the i n t e n d e d o u t c o m e s of p r o f e s s i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t , i n c l u d i n g faculty k n o w l e d g e , skills, a n d d i s p o s i t i o n s , as well as activities to p r o m o t e cultural r e s p o n s i v e ­ ness a m o n g teacher education faculty.

T h e numbers of culturally and/or linguisti­ cally diverse ( C L D ) students being educated in U . S . schools are growing immensely. T h e s e demographic changes in the schools mirror population shifts in the country. For example, if current trends continue, Hispanics will account for 30% of the U . S . population by 2050 ( U . S . Census Bureau, 2008); by 2030, the percentage of school-age children who speak a language other than English at h o m e will reach 40% (Brisk, Barnhardt, Herrera, 6k Rochon, 2 0 0 2 ) . G i v e n these increasing numbers, all teach­ ers must be culturally responsive to be consid­ ered competent educators ( A m b e , 2 0 0 6 ) , and teacher educators must take responsibility for preparing teacher candidates to work in today's diverse classrooms ( A m e r i c a n Associa­ tion of Colleges for Teacher Education, 2003; Athanases 6k Martin, 2006; Talbert-Johnson 6k T i l l m a n , 1999). T h i s can be difficult, however, if teacher educators are not them­ selves culturally responsive (Prater, Wilder,

6k Dyches, 2008). Many faculty members are from the traditional majority culture and lack experience working with diverse populations (Cooper 6k Chattergy, 1993; Ladson-Billings, 2005). W h e n teacher educators and teacher candidates represent the dominant culture, the development of cross-cultural competence and understanding can be hampered (Salend, Whittaker, Duhaney, 6k Smith, 2003). Unfor­ tunately, the impact of a monocultural faculty in higher education is often ignored. In fact, Ladson-Billings (2005) observed that "much of the literature on diversity and teacher edu­ cation is silent on the cultural homogeneity of the teacher education faculty" (p. 230). W e refer to culture in this article as relat­ ing to language, race, and ethnicity, although we recognize that culture can include other important facets, such as gender, class, and re­ ligion (Trumbull 6k Pacheco, 2005). Teacher educators who are culturally competent under­ stand and value the role of diversity in today's societies, including schools and classrooms.

Address correspondence to Mary Anne Prater, 340 MCKB, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602. E-mail: prater© byu.edu.

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MARY ANNE PRATER AND TEMMA HARRIS DEVEREAUX

They can infuse cultural knowledge and adapt their curricula and pedagogy to the dynamics of differences in the classroom. Specifically, culturally competent teachers "understand culture and its role in education," "take re­ sponsibility for learning about students' cul­ ture and community," "use student culture as a basis for learning," and "promote a flexible use of students' local and global culture" (LadsonBillings, 2001, p. 98). Teacher educators need to be culturally competent for at least two reasons. First, the classroom teaching force is predomi­ nately White and generally lacks the skills to teach and work with C L D students (Smolen, Colville-Hall, Liang, 6k MacDonald, 2006). Successful programs prepare future teachers with specific knowledge, skills, and disposi­ tions to work with C L D populations, and they integrate cultural and linguistic diver­ sity into all courses and practicums (Gay, 2002; Howard 6k Aleman, 2008; O'Hara 6k Pritchard, 2008). Second, teacher educators need to be culturally competent to respond to potentially changing demographics in the university classroom (Prater ct al., 2 0 0 8 ) . A s C L D populations grow across the United States, a predominately aging White professo­ riate will face an increasingly diverse student body (Cooper 6k Chattergy, 1993). Currently, approximately 88% of the full-time university faculty in the field of education are White ( A m b e , 2006). T o recruit and graduate C L D teacher candidates, teacher educators must be responsive to their unique needs (Salend et al., 2003). Faculty members must be aware of perspectives, beliefs, and experiences of C L D candidates that can create barriers for suc­ cess in higher education. Oftentimes, when faculty members are not responsive to their diverse university students, they can easily engage in misunderstandings and interactions with students that leave the students feeling disrespected and belittled. T h e s e effects can seriously hamper diverse college students' per­ sistence (California Tomorrow, 2002). Although teacher educators report be­ lieving in the importance of being culturally responsive (Smolen et al., 2006; Tatto, 1996), they d o not necessarily demonstrate these

skills and dispositions. For example, many faculty members do not feel adequately knowl­ edgeable to infuse diversity topics into their courses and curriculum ( A m b e , 2 0 0 6 ) . A d ­ ditionally, faculty members feel unprepared to address emotionally and socially difficult issues surrounding the topics of diversity that arise in the classroom (Taylor, 1999). Many sources discuss culturally respon­ sive programs geared toward helping preservice teachers become more culturally respon­ sive (e.g., Barnes, 2006; Farmer, Hauk, 6k N e u m a n n , 2005; Marhley, Bonner, McKisick, Henfield, 6k Watts, 2007; McAllister 6k Ir­ vine, 2002; Morrier, Irving, Dandy, Dmitriyev, 6k U k e j e , 2007; Salend et al., 2003; Seidl, 2007; Townsend, 2002; Trumbull 6k Pacheco, 2 0 0 5 ) . Very few descriptions for higher education faculty development can be found in the literature (Brisk, 2 0 0 8 ) . S o m e authors advocate cultural and linguistic pro­ fessional development for teacher educators but generally do not provide specific recom­ mendations for doing so (e.g., Lucas, Villegas, 6k Freedson-Gonzalez, 2 0 0 8 ) . W i t h i n this article, we discuss the literature on culturally responsive higher education training. W e fo­ cus on the intended outcomes and activities that can be used to promote cultural respon­ siveness among teacher educators.

Intended Outcomes for Faculty Professional Development Multicultural transfonnation in higher educa­ tion occurs at three levels: faculty, courses, and program (Brisk, 2008). T h e focus here is on the faculty. T h e first step to creating pro­ fessional development experiences for faculty members is to identify the intended outcomes of the program. W e describe them in the cat­ egories of dispositions, knowledge, and skills.

Dispositions One's preconceived notions, worldviews, para­ digms, and pedagogical theories and tech­ niques are deeply embedded (Hobson-Horton 6k Owens, 2004; Oltjenbruns 6k Love, 1998).

Culturally Responsive Training of Teacher Educators

Erroneous beliefs

and assumptions can

be

21

criticism and be prepared to learn from others,

emitted in teacher educators' pedagogy and

including teacher candidates. They must be

curriculum and passed on to preservice teach­

willing to change faulty and damaging pre­

ers, who consequently take them into their

conceived notions toward those from diverse

own classrooms. Even faculty's

backgrounds (Parameswaran, 2 0 0 7 ) .

self-identity,

cultural identity, and awareness have

been

found to affect their ability to educate preser­

Knowledge

vice teachers to be multiculturally competent ( S m o l e n et al., 2 0 0 6 ) . Participation in pro­

In addition to acquiring culturally responsive

grams can help when they are geared toward

dispositions, teacher educators need to assume

helping

perceptions

knowledge about diversity and how it affects

and attitudes and develop a more culturally

the schools for which they are preparing fu­

faculty e x a m i n e

their

responsive approach in their curriculum and

ture teachers. Authors have suggested that

interactions with others (Oltjenbruns 6k Love,

faculty receive training in a myriad of topics,

1998). T h e following two outcomes have been

such as social justice and power

advocated in the literature.

ties between social groups (Parameswaran,

inequali­

diversity. T h e importance of valu­

2007), the concept of privilege (Allan, 2003),

ing diversity may seem obvious, but it cannot

and diversity-related legal issues (O'Hara 6k

be ignored. If teacher educators do not value

Pritchard, 2 0 0 8 ) , among others. We selected

diversity, they cannot genuinely demonstrate

three critical concepts that most directly affect

Value

educators

teacher candidates, which the literature sug­

will not have a positive effect on preservice

gests should be included in teacher education

teachers' beliefs about diversity if they them­

professional development.

cultural responsiveness. T e a c h e r

selves do not value diversity and then exem­ plify the values they espouse ( T a t t o , 1996). Self'reflection

of personal

cultural

values,

Diversity need

standards.

to know the

Teacher

educators

standards for diversity

as defined by professional associations, ac­

beliefs, and attitudes. Most prospective teachers

creditation organizations, and states.

They

enter preparation programs unfamiliar with

should be familiar with standards within the

their own cultural values and stereotypical

operations of the teacher education program

knowledge of the culture of others (Hoover,

(e.g., recruitment and retention of diverse

Klinger, Baca, & Patton, 2 0 0 8 ) . "Learning

teacher candidates and faculty), as well as

about culture begins as an inside-out

with diversity standards for teacher candidates

pro­

cess—first developing cultural self-awareness"

(e.g., culturally responsive teaching practices).

(Tmmbull & Pacheco, 2005, p. 2 5 ) .

Self-

T i m e in faculty professional development can

is often used in teacher prepara­

be devoted to acquainting faculty with these

tion programs to develop self-awareness. It

standards and to developing matrices demon­

reflection

involves "a cycle of thought and action in

strating where these standards will be met in

which educators explore their values, atti­

courses and fieldwork (O'Hara 6k Pritchard,

tudes, thoughts, and experiences . . . develop

2008; Prater et al., 2 0 0 8 ) .

new realizations and appreciations as means to

Role of first language and culture in learning.

reconstruct their knowledge . . . and engage in

Children develop the language that is used in

behaviors that are congruent with their con-

their home environment, and they bring it to

stmction of reality" (Black, Sileo, & Prater,

the classroom. This rich knowledge provides

2000, p. 71). Self-reflection is important not

the basis for further language

only for teacher candidates but also for fac­

the means for acquiring concepts,

ulty members, who must examine their own

important aspect of their identities (Clayton,

backgrounds that shaped their cultural values,

Barnhardt, 6k Brisk, 2008). T h e

beliefs, and attitudes. In doing so, they must

must be understood between conversational

development, and an

differences

recognize that because they come with biases,

and academic language proficiency, demands

they need to be willing to openly listen to

of academic language and classroom tasks in

22

MARY ANNE PRATER AND TEMMA HARRIS DEVEREAUX

different content areas, and the importance of a safe, welcoming classroom, among other im­ portant factors (Clayton et al., 2008; Lucas et al., 2008). Faculty must acquire an understand­ ing of language and cultural effects on C L D learners such that they are better able to em­ bed that knowledge within theit courses; they must also "challenge preservice teachers' at­ titudes towatd, beliefs about, and expectations of C L D populations" (Brisk, 2008, p. 2 5 0 ) . Instructional practices for CLD learners. All teachers need to learn effective teaching prac­ tices for C L D students. T e a c h e t candidates can acquire these skills only if those preparing the candidates know the skills and can effec­ tively teach them. T h e adage You can't teach what you don't know applies here. In addition to having a working knowledge of appropriate instructional practices, teacher educatots must have access to ongoing resources for additional knowledge and support (O'Hara 6k Pritchard, 2008).

Skills Teacher educators need knowledge and dis­ positions, but they also must be capable of infusing multicultural perspective into the curriculum, modeling skills (specifically, ef­ fective teaching practices), and creating open and safe classroom environments. W e now describe these skills in mote detail.

Infuse multicultural perspectives into the cur­ riculum. "The goal of infusing a course with a multicultural perspective involves weaving various concepts related to diversity into the very fabric of the coutse—through choice of textbook . . . case studies . . . examples . . . learning activities and assignments" (Oltjenbruns 6k Love, 1998, p. 54). Most literature on how to adjust curriculum and teaching materials to teflect multiple cultutes and per­ spectives is designed for the classroom teacher (e.g., Bennett, 2003; Davis, 2006; Manning 6k Baruth, 2008), but it could easily be applied at the higher education level. For example, teacher educators should ensure among other things that (1) instructional materials depict contributions of petsons from various cultures, (2) cultural and language-related objectives

are added to course outcomes, and ( 3 ) as­ signments include attention to C L D students (Brisk, 2 0 0 8 ) . Model a variety of CLD instructional and assessment strategies. "Culturally responsive pedagogy is founded o n the premise that rather than being considered deficits, students' cultural backgrounds can be used to serve and enhance theit learning" ( A m b c , 2006, p. 6 9 2 ) . Culturally responsive teachers adjust their in­ struction to the cultural backgrounds of their students, instead of requiring the opposite. For example, some cultural groups prefer collabor­ ative problem solving—that is, together rather than as competitive individuals. In this situa­ tion, a culturally responsive teacher would use collaborative learning structutes rather than force independent and competitive structures on the students (Trumbull 6k Rothstein-Fisch, 2008). Culturally responsive teacher educators in higher education are no different. T h e y should model a variety of culturally responsive instructional and assessment sttategies in the higher education classroom.

Create open and safe classrooms where stu­ dents can express themselves without fear. T o create open and safe classrooms, faculty must emphasize that full participation is a right and a duty. They must also stress tolerance of diverse opinions, particularly those that are contrary to their own. Faculty members can role-play exercises with students that commu­ nicate the impact of rejection and ridicule by others (Parameswaran, 2 0 0 7 ) .

Culturally Responsive Development Activities O n c e the intended outcomes for professional development have been established, activi­ ties that best meet these outcomes can be designed and implemented. In T a b l e 1, we provide an example of intended outcomes and potential activities to accomplish those out­ comes. Activities may include attendance at conferences, self-directed projects, discussion groups, consultation with experts, workshops, reflection activities, and so forth (Nevarez-La Torre, Sanford-DeShields, Soundy, Leonard, 6k Woyshner, 2008).

Culturally Responsive Training of Teacher Educators

Table 1.

23

S a m p l e Structure of a Faculty Professional D e v e l o p m e n t P r o g r a m 1

Activities Study

Journals

Value diversity

X

X

Self-reflection

X

X

Intended

Workshop

Outcomes

Discussion

Plan

Dispositions K

Knowledge X

Standards Role of l a n g u a g e / c u l t u r e

>

X

A p p r o p r i a t e instruction

x

X

Skills Infusion

X

M o d e l i n g strategies

X

X

X

Open/safe classrooms

X.

X

X

•Activities Workshop with experts. Study/observe others. Self-reflection journals Professional development plan Discussion or work groups.

Create

incentives and/or

convenience

for

ulty who are not receptive, for those who may

A l t h o u g h faculty may be

view themselves as fully culturally sensitive in­

more receptive to participating in training if

dividuals and inclusive instructors ( G a l l a v a n ,

they are compensated for their time and efforts

T r o u t m a n , 6k Jones, 2 0 0 1 ) .

faculty participation.

Provide

(see Neverez-La T o r r e et al., 2008; Oltjenbruns & Love, 1998; Prater et al., 2008),

cation.

workshops

on

multicultural

edu­

Most faculty members' resistance to

holding the training during already scheduled

transforming pedagogy and culturally respon­

meetings can also work. In fact, one university

sive curriculum is not based on racism or

discovered that by devoting every other fac­

classism but rather a lack of knowledge on its

ulty meeting to training, its faculty meetings

execution

ran more efficiently and no less work was ac­

Love ( 1 9 9 8 ) describe a yearlong professional

complished ( O ' H a r a 6k Pritchard, 2 0 0 8 ) .

development program that began with basic

(Ambe,

2 0 0 6 ) . Oltjenbnins

and

in'

discussions of race, ethnicity, culture, social

leadership

training.

class, prejudice, and discrimination and ended

are generally

recruited

with presentations on effective approaches to

nationally and, once hired, often relocate to

meet the educational needs of C L D students

a geographic region with which they are not

and

familiar, new faculty orientation can address

higher education.

Prot'ide an orientation eluding

department

Given

that faculty

chair

for new faculty,

local multicultural issues. Local demographics can be profited, and instructional

develop­

on the experience of C L D learners in Provide instruction on how to infuse

responsiveness

into pedagogy

and

cultural

curriculum.

ment can be fostered that focuses on culturally

Most teacher preparation programs require

related classroom behaviors, learning styles,

separate coursework

course expectations, and faculty-student com­

and/or linguistic diversity and, second, field

munication and interaction. Orientation for

experiences relating to either or both (e.g., Lu­

department chairs can focus on skills for facili­

cas et al., 2008; Salend et al., 2 0 0 3 ) . However,

tating faculty discussions of multiculturalism

most professionals also advocate infusion of

in curriculum and teaching practices (Wunsch

multicultural and linguistic content across the

6k Chattergy, 1991).

teacher preparation curriculum (Gay, 2C02;

Conduct

a needs assessment

among the fac'

in, first,

multicultural

Morrier et al., 2007; Oltjenbruns 6k Love,

ulty. Needs assessments can provide profes­

1998). "Instructional strategies, visual aids, as­

sional development planners with a sense of

signments, and assessment tools should reflect

where faculty are and where they would like

multicultural perspectives, and be manifested

to go with their multicultural education. S u c h

in the actions, speeches, attitudes, and other

planners should be prepared, however, for fac­

practices of both instructors and students"

24

MARY ANNE PRATER AND TEMMA HARRIS DEVEREAUX

( A m b e , 2006, p. 695). Experts from both in­ side and outside the university can "help raise faculty members' level of cultural conscious­ ness and . . . provide various effective teaching strategies for infusing culturally responsive and responsible pedagogy across the curriculum" (Gallavan et al., 2 0 0 1 , p. 13). Faculty mem­ bers who have successfully infused courses can be invited to share their experiences with other faculty, including challenges and out­ comes (Oltjcnbnins & Love, 1998).

observations in both would be of great value to faculty. A t one university, faculty members created their own professional development plans to enhance their cultural responsive­ ness. Nearly the entire faculty chose to ob­ serve culturally responsive teaching at both the university and the public school to im­ prove their own knowledge and skills (Prater et al., 2 0 0 8 ) .

Create a midticultural education

newsletter.

Create professional development plans cen­ tered on diversity. A t one university, faculty members were asked to identify their strengths and weaknesses across five domains of cultur­ ally responsive education. They then created one goal for each area to work on throughout the year (Prater et al., 2008). Faculty at an­ other institution developed self-directed proj­ ects on infusing linguistic diversity topics into their syllabi (Nevarez-La Torre et al., 2008).

A multicultural newsletter could incorporate articles written by anyone affiliated with the university, including local school personnel (Gallavan et al., 2001). Faculty could share what they have learned about alternative and sensitive teaching strategies and about em­ bedding diverse topics into their curriculum and instruction, among other things. Diverse faculty, staff, or students could be highlighted by sharing their personal journeys. Implement a mentoring program to develop

Encourage faculty to engage in formal self-

rapport between diverse students and the faculty.

reflection. A s part of a series of professional development activities, C o o p e r and Chattergy (1993) created workshops in which the use of narrative self-reflection was used. Faculty members were asked to reflect on specific questions in writing and share their insights with others. T h e s e questions centered on the norms and values of respective cultures— namely, those of the faculty members, the organization, and the students. Such writings can then serve as points for rich discussion among faculty members.

A t one large university, a mentoring program between diverse students and faculty was cre­ ated. Approximately 39% of the faculty vol­ unteered to participate. They were assigned no more than two diverse students, with whom they met every 2 weeks. T h e program was suc­ cessful in that it personalized advisement and offered support and a sense of belonging (Gal­ lavan et al., 2001). In the design of a mentoring program, it is best to select mentors who will not be serving as evaluators of the student (e.g., course instructors). Otherwise, conflict can oc­ cur in determining which role faculty members are playing (Prater et al., 2008).

Study individuals

different

from

yourself.

A t another university, faculty members in­ terviewed diverse teacher candidates in the candidates' homes about their lives and ex­ periences in the program. T h i s activity was deemed to be the most enjoyable and pow­ erful activity of a 4-year culturally respon­ sive professional development program for faculty, particularly because it provided the faculty members insight into students' per­ sonal lives and the impact that culture and language play in their university lives (Prater et al., 2 0 0 8 ) . Observe culturally responsive teaching. O b ­ servations could take place in the university and in the public school classroom. In fact,

Conclusion Although we present several ideas of intended outcomes and activities, thete is yet to be a consensus on the most effective model of pro­ fessional development activities for teacher educators. Despite the emphasis placed on institutions to teach faculty how to incorpo­ rate culturally responsive pedagogy into their curriculum and instruction, no sources were identified that explain how this can best be accomplished.

Culturally Responsive Training of Teacher Educators

T w o additional caveats need

mentioning

25

K - 1 2 public school system will occur when it

here. First, personal and professional beliefs

is successfully instituted at the teacher educa­

and practices must be allowed

tion program level.

to

develop

B

gradually over time (Nevarez-La Torre et al., 2 0 0 8 ) . Faculty members' attitudes and beliefs have evolved over a long period and will not change overnight. In fact, culturally respon­ sive training needs to be conducted over a series of years (e.g., O ' H a r a 6k Pritchard, 2008; Prater et al., 2 0 0 8 ) . S e c o n d , culturally responsive programs are most effective when institutional support exists, particularly if the program is expanded to the institutional level (e.g., Jones, Castellanos, 6k C o l e , 2002; Talbert-Johnson 6k Till­ man, 1999). For example, the campus climate has a great deal to do with how well C L D uni­ versity students perform (Helm, Sedlacek, 6k Prieto, 1998). T h u s , this discussion of poten­ tial outcomes and activities of teacher educa­ tor professional development must be viewed as only a portion of a much larger complex plan for promoting cultural responsiveness in higher education. T h i s article provides an outline of the knowledge,

skills,

and

dispositions

that

teacher educators need to prepare teachers for a changing student population.

These

knowledge and skill sets are not unlike those needed by teacher candidates. G i v e n the pau­ city of literature related to teacher educators, we refer the reader to other articles addressing cultural competencies of teacher candidates. In particular, we suggest an article by G a y (2002)

in which she discusses five general

topics around which cultural diversity teacher preparation should revolve. Similarly, Lucas and colleagues ( 2 0 0 8 ) discuss six principles of second-language learning and three types of appropriate pedagogies for

linguistically

responsive teaching. T h e s e competencies and principles apply to teacher educators as well. Teacher educators have the great respon­ sibility of preparing teachers for today's diverse classroom. Teacher candidates who are not prepared in programs based o n culturally rele­ vant pedagogy will have difficulty engaging in culturally responsive pedagogy in their own classrooms ( Q u i o c h o

6k Rios, 2 0 0 0 ) .

Any

long-lasting change that will occur within the

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MARY ANNE PRATER AND TEMMA HARRIS DEVEREAUX

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M a r y A n n e P r a t e r earned her doctorate in special education from U t a h S t a t e Univer­ sity. S h e is currently professor and chair of the Department of C o u n s e l i n g

Psychology

and Special Education at Brigham Young University. T e m m a H a r r i s D e v e r e a u x earned her spe­ cialist in education degree in school psychol­ ogy from Brigham Young University. S h e is currently a school psychologist in the N e b o School District, U t a h .

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