cultural!symbolism!in!traditional!hausa!

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12 Ibraheem A. Waziri, "The Northern Knot: The Arewa Insignia Is Actually Of Christian Northern Origins - ...... C),!minarets!and!kettles!used!for!ablution!before!
CULTURAL!SYMBOLISM!IN!TRADITIONAL!HAUSA!ARCHITECTURE!OF! NORTHERN!NIGERIA! !! ! !! Name:!Maimuna!Bala!Shehu!!!!!!!!!!!Module:!AR597!Dissertation!!!!!!!Supervisor:!Dr!Manolo!Guerci!!!! ! !!

Year of Submission: 2016

School:!University!of!Kent!

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! ACKNOWLEDMENTS! My!profound!gratitude!goes!to!Almighty!Allah!who!has!granted!me!the!life,!the!understanding,! the!wisdom!and!the!privilege!to!write!this!work.!!I!would!also!like!to!acknowledge!with! gratitude,!the!willing!cooperation!and!assistance!of!Dr!Manolo!Guerci!for!urging!me!to! undertake!this!research!and!guiding!me!throughout!with!perceptive!remarks!and!comments.!I! wish!to!also!thank!Professor!Tony!Iweka!of!University!of!Lagos,!Kumbi!Akintola!and!Hajara!Iyal! for!their!very!helpful!feedback!and!references.!Last!but!not!least!I!would!like!to!thank!my!family! for!their!support!and!their!encouragement!to!find!out!more!about!my!culture!and!my!people!as! everything!I!have!discovered!has!made!me!even!prouder!to!be!a!Hausa!citizen!of!Nigeria.!

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! ABSTRACT! The! African! continent! is! diverse! with! a! history! that! is! shaped! by! the! heritage! of! three! civilizations!O!its!own!strong!legacy,!the!Islamic!influence,!and!the!effect!of!western!culture!and! way!of!life.!This!triple!heritage!is!expressed!architecturally!in!all!African!countries,!and!although! a! lot! of! buildings! are! a! fusion! of! all! three! cultures,! they! can! each! be! identified! by! cultural! symbols.! The! traditional! Hausa! architecture! of! Northern! Nigeria! exhibits! the! triple! heritage! system! in! architecture! and! this! ranges! from! the! form! of! the! buildings! to! the! motifs! used! for! ornamentation.! The! cultural! symbolism! is! expressed! as! an! amalgamation! of! influences! in! design,!the!materials!used,!decoration,!as!well!as!the!spatial!organization,!and!these!reflect!how! the! culture! of! the! Hausa! people! responded! to! external! influences.! This! study! highlights! the! achievements! of! the! old! Hausa! builders! in! traditional! design! and! decoration! and! it! illustrates! that!although!the!modern!day!architecture!in!Hausaland!is!gradually!losing!touch!with!the!old,! we!can!draw!inspiration!from!the!olden!days!and!reinvent!them!in!new,!creative!and!modern! ways.!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

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! ! TABLE!OF!CONTENTS! ! CHAPTER!1:!Introduction! !1.1!Intention!of!study....................................................................................................................6! 1.2!Geography!and!historical!background......................................................................................7! CHAPTER!2:!Symbolism!in!Hausaland!! 2.1O!Cultural!symbolism!in!Architecture.......................................................................................11! 2.2O!Triple!heritage!concept..........................................................................................................12! 2.3O!Hausa!art!and!symbols..........................................................................................................13! 2.4!Colour!symbolism...................................................................................................................15! CHAPTER!3:!Case!studies! 3.1!Spatial!scheme!of!Hausa!compounds.....................................................................................17! 3.2!Domestic!(Mallawa!house)!....................................................................................................20! 3.3!Palace!(Zaria!Palace)!..............................................................................................................27! 3.4!Mosque!(Friday!Mosque)!.......................................................................................................34! CHAPTER!4:!History!and!development!of!wall!decoration! 4.1!Types!of!decoration................................................................................................................43! 4.2!Decoration!as!a!display!of!social!status..................................................................................43! 4.3!Islamic!influence!on!decoration..............................................................................................47! 4

4.4!Importance!of!craftsmen!in!traditional!Hausa!architecture...................................................49! CHAPTER!5P!Impact!of!modernity!and!Reinvention! 5.1!Decline!of!traditional!Hausa!architecture...............................................................................51! 5.2!Reinvention!in!the!21st!century...............................................................................................56!! CHAPTER!6P!Summary!and!Conclusion........................................................................................61! Bibliography.................................................................................................................................64! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

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! CHAPTER!1P!INTRODUCTION! 1.1 Intention!of!study! Susan!Denyer!began!her!book,!African(Traditional(Architecture!with!the!following!statement:! ! The!myth!of!darkest!Africa!is!persistent!and!there!are!still!many!people!who!find!it! difficult! to! accept! that! the! traditional! buildings! of! the! continent! merit! more! than! passing!consideration.!One!only!has!to!consider!for!moment!the!vocabulary!used!to! refer!to!them!(including!such!basic!words!as!"mud"!and!"hut",!which!in!English!have! such! derogatory! overtones)! to! realize! that! even! for! those! who! know! and! respect! other! aspects! of! African! culture! it! is! hard! to! avoid! being! drawn! into! a! web! of! selective!and!distorted!perception.1!! ! This!statement!reaffirms!the!fact!that!Africa!is!considered!to!be!architecturally!underdeveloped! and! it! is! a! stereotype! that! continues! up! to! the! present! day.! This! is! why! the! traditional! Hausa! architecture! of! Northern! Nigeria! is! a! subject! that! is! gradually! becoming! neglected! since! the! advent! of! modern! material! and! techniques.! Traditional! Hausa! buildings! are! known! for! their! visually! striking! quality! and! are! usually! identified! by! the! use! of! adobe! bricks! (tubali)! in! cubic! forms,!innovative!construction!methods!and!ornamentation.2!This!dissertation!will!examine!the! traditional!buildings!in!Northern!Nigeria,!how!they!were!influenced!by!external!cultures!and!the! importance! of! symbols! and! design.! The! analysis! of! different! case! studies! will! highlight! how! foreign! culture! and! religion! was! adapted! to! fit! with! the! Hausa! aesthetic! in! architecture! while! shedding!light!on!the!forgotten!building!methods!and!practices.!This!research!will!focus!on:! ! •

Decoration!as!an!integral!part!of!life!in!Hausa!culture!

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Susan Denyer, African traditional architecture (New York: Africana Publishing Company), 1. Nura Jibo, Traditional Hausa Architecture In Northern Nigeria, 1st ed. (Saarbrücken: LAP Lambert Academic Publishing, 2011): 50. 2

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Functional!arrangements!of!spaces!in!traditional!buildings!



Symbols/motifs!meaning!and!importance!in!Hausa!architecture.!!!



Traditional!builders!and!their!role!in!Hausa!architecture.!!!



Architecture!as!a!constant!reinvention!based!on!old!and!new!styles.!!!

The!study!shows!the!significant!role!of!cultural!identity,!traditional!geometries!and!customs!in! the! formation! and! composition! of! architecture.! Traditional! architecture! is! very! important! because!it!represents!and!forms!part!of!the!country’s!history.!There!is!a!lack!of!appreciation!for! the!old!design!because!people!are!trying!to!look!to!the!west!for!inspiration,!however!studies!of! ancient!buildings!in!Northern!Nigeria!can!enhance!our!understanding!of!cultural!exchange!and! pave! the! way! for! people! to! design! without! losing! their! identity! in! order! to! keep! up! with! the! times.!! 1.2O!Geography!and!historical!background!! Located!at!the!inner!corner!of!the!Gulf!of!Guinea!on!the!west!coast!of!the!African!continent,! Nigeria! spans! an! area! of! 923,768! km2,! stretching! 1,046! km! NorthO! South! and! 1,127! km! EastO West.3!It!is!a!heterogeneous!country!in!terms!of!its!socioOcultural!organization!and!ideological! preferences.! With! a! population! figure! of! over! 150! million! people,! there! are! about! 400! ethnic! groups! each! upholding! different! social! practices! and! concepts! and! speaking! over! 300! local! dialects! however,! the! dominant! ethnic! groups! are! the! Hausa,! Yoruba! and! Igbo.! In! terms! of! religion,! the! North! is! mainly! a! Muslim! populated! area! and! the! South! is! mainly! made! up! of! Christians.! 3

Oluwagbemiga Paul Agboola and Modi Sule Zango, ‘Development of Traditional Architecture in Nigeria: A Case

Study of Hausa House Form.’ International Journal of African Society Cultures and Traditions Vol.1, No.1 (2014) : 63. Accessed October 29, 2016. http://www.eajournals.org/wp-content/uploads/“Development-of-TraditionalArchitecture-in-Nigeria-A-Case-Study-of-Hausa-House-Form”.pdf

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Figure!1.1.!Location!of!Nigeria!in!Africa!

! ! The! Hausa! constitute! the! largest! cultural! group! in! the! northern! region! of! Nigeria,! and! Hausaland! is! located! between! the! confluence! of! the! Rivers! Niger! and! Benue.! A! myth! of! undetermined!antiquity!proposes!that!Hausaland!was!said!to!have!evolved!from!seven!states! founded!by!a!common!family,!the!Hausa(bakwai((the!Hausa!seven).!According!to!this!folklore!a! man!called!Bayejida!travelled!to!Daura!where!he!killed!a!snake!that!had!long!prevented!people! drawing!water!from!a!well.!He!then!married!the!queen!of!Daura!and!his!children!became!the!

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fathers!of!the!seven!cityOstates.4!The!seven!true!Hausa!states,!as!shown!in!figure!2,!are!Biram,! Daura,!Gobir,!Katsina,!Kano!and!Zaria!(Zazzau).!! ! !

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Figure 1.2. The Hausa City-States

Islam! was! introduced! to! Nigeria! from! the! Mali! Empire! in! the! 14th! century! and! by! then! the! Hausa! cityOstates! had! already! been! established.! The! Fulani! tribe! from! Senegal! migrated! eastwards!following!the!river!Niger!and!eventually!put!down!roots!in!Hausaland,!which!brought! about!a!new!age.!These!Fulani!people!already!had!a!strong!Muslim!identity!and!their!primary! goal! was! to! spread! the! religion! of! Islam! throughout! Hausaland.! It! remained! an! urban! religion! for! sometime! as! the! Hausa! people! mixed! traditional! practices! with! Islam! and! this! did! not! sit! 4

Cliff Moughtin, Hausa Architecture, 1st ed. (London: Ethnographica, 1985), 18.

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well!with!the!Fulani.!They!preached!against!it!and!eventually!Islamisation!became!uniform!with! the!Jihad!of!the!19th!century,!led!by!a!Fulani!man!Usman!Dan!Fodio!(1754O1815)5.!This!Jihad!was! a!holy!war!against!pagan!and!animistic!traditional!customs!and!it!led!to!a!general!reform!in!the! way! of! life! of! the! Hausa! people! and! organization! of! cityOstates! into! emirates.! This! Jihad! also! served! as! a! tool! for! the! unification! of! the! Hausa! and! Fulani! tribes.! At! the! start! of! the! 20th! century,!the!British!colonized!Nigeria!and!took!command!over!the!government!of!the!previous! emirates!and!added!Borno!to!the!existing!emirates!to!establish!the!Northern!region!of!Nigeria.!! Presently,! the! most! populous! state! is! Kano! and! the! most! historic! old! cityOstate! is! Zaria! now! located!in!Kaduna!State.!The!out!dated!cityOstates!are!contained!with!a!wall,!a!commercial!area! and! a! monarchical! type! of! administration.! Despite! the! western! and! Islamic! influences,! some! preOIslamic!rituals!that!do!not!go!against!the!tenets!of!Islam!still!remain!in!the!portion!of!the! ceremonies! that! preserved! monarchical! power.6! The! language! spoken! by! the! Hausa! people! is! also! called! Hausa,! which! is! the! main! Chadic! language! (a! branch! of! the! AfroOasiatic! language! family).!!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 5

Isah. Bolaji Kashim, Temitope. P Ologunwa and B.A Ogunlade, "Sustainable Hausa Design, Culture And Usability: A Reflection On The Art Of Northern Nigeria.", Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal 1, no. 5 (2014): 53. 6

luwagbemiga Paul Agboola and Modi Sule Zango, ‘Development of Traditional Architecture in Nigeria: A Case Study of Hausa House Form.’ International Journal of African Society Cultures and Traditions Vol.1, No.1 (2014) : 64. Accessed October 29,2016. http://www.eajournals.org/wp-content/uploads/“Development-of-TraditionalArchitecture-in-Nigeria-A-Case-Study-of-Hausa-House-Form”.pdf

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! CHAPTER!2.0!SYMBOLISM!IN!HAUSALAND! 2.1!Cultural!Symbolism!in!Architecture! ! Historically,! people! in! all! cultures! of! the! world! have! wisely! associated! meanings! with! chosen! graphics!and!forms.!This!is!mostly!due!to!the!communicating!nature!of!the!human!mind,!which! is! structured! to! perceive! dayOtoOday! experiences! in! a! symbolic! way.! Culture,! as! a! term! is! synonymous!to!human!behaviour;!it!encompasses!the!traditions,!principles,!art,!customs,!and! the!social!organization!of!a!specific!group!of!people.!The!evolution!of!architecture!can!be!traced! back! to! the! late! Stone! Age,! when! hunterOgatherers! searching! for! food,! erected! the! first! primitive! structures7.! These! structures! were! at! first! simple! and! temporary! but! evolved! over! time!into!highly!improved!forms!specifically!due!to!the!advent!of!agriculture!as!people!began!to! settle! in! one! location! for! longer! periods.! Other! specialized! functions! such! as! food! storage,! commerce,!culture!and!religion!allowed!for!the!expansion!of!the!shelter!types,!as!houses!began! to!portray!symbolic!as!well!as!functional!values.!! Generally,!symbolism!may!be!categorized!as!follows:! i.

Personality!symbolism;!

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Cultural/!religious;!

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Economic/!technological!symbolism!and;!

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Political/!periodic!symbolism.!

Cultural!symbolism!in!architecture!may!be!seen!as!a!reflection!of!culture!varieties!in!the!spatial! organization,!forms!and!patterns!adopted!in!different!traditional!settlements.!Architecture,!as!a!

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Rikko L. S. and D. Gwatau, "The Nigerian Architecture: The Trend In Housing Development", Journal of Geography and Regional Planning 4 no. 5 (2011): 274, accessed November 31, 2017, http://www.academicjournals.org/journal/JGRP/article-abstract/2CA7B9940839.

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visual! art! form,! finds! expression! in! built! forms,! symbolically! communicating! and! giving! relevance!to!its!users8.!! For! this! research,! the! cultural/! religious! aspect! of! symbolism! will! be! discussed! with! focus! on! how!it!is!expressed!in!the!architecture!of!northern!Nigeria! ! 2.2O!the!triple!heritage!concept! Architecture!in!Hausaland!is!complex!and!has!largely!been!influenced!by!different!cultures.!In! order! to! appreciate! the! arrangement! of! spaces! and! the! decorations! employed! in! Hausa! architecture,! as! well! as! the! symbolism! behind! them,! one! needs! to! understand! the! triple! heritage!concept.! This! concept! was! developed! by! Professor! Ali! Mazrui! in! order! to! provide! a! basis! for! the! study! and!analysis!of!African!architecture!in!general.9!The!concept!highlights!three!major!components! that!form!African!history:!indigenous,!Islamic!and!Western.!These!three!distinct!cultures!have! been! integrated! into! the! African! traditions,! deeply! rooted! in! the! minds! of! its! people! both! consciously! and! unconsciously! and! are! evident! in! the! style! of! music,! politics,! art,! and! architecture.!! The! movement! of! people! from! North! Africa,! through! the! Saharan! caravan! routes,! mainly! influenced! the! indigenous! architecture.! There! is! a! possibility! that! the! distinguished! medieval! Sudanic!empires!like!Ghana,!Mali,!Songhai!and!Kanem,!developed!from!the!migration!of!North! Africans! into! this! area.! This! is! shown! when! comparing! Ancient! Egyptian! Architecture! to! SubO Saharan! Architecture! and! West! African! buildings.! Some! similarities! include! the! use! of! clay! (adobe! or! mud)! and! brick! for! building,! the! presence! of! vaulted! roofs,! rooftop! ventilators,! external!stairs,!similar!doors!and!windows,!and!enclosed!courtyard!systems.10! Islamic! principles! were! gradually! integrated! into! Hausa! culture! over! many! generations.! Islam! was!first!introduced!into!Africa!by!the!Muslim!conquest!of!Egypt!and!North!Africa!in!7th!century! AD.!Through!the!transOSaharan!trade!routes,!it!was!able!to!spread!to!Hausaland!from!the!Mali! 8

Abraham George, "Development Of Symbolic Pedagogical Tools For Communication In Architecture." (PhD diss., University of Calicut, 2005). 9 Nnamdi Elleh, African Architecture, 1st ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1997): 8. 10

Nnamdi Elleh, African Architecture, 1st ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1997): 47.

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Empire!in!the!14th!Century.!With!the!advent!of!Islam,!the!Hausa!people!began!to!build!mosques! and!adjust!both!their!lifestyle!to!conform!to!the!religious!principles.!The!western!influence!on! Hausa!architecture!is!fairly!recent.!Northern!Nigeria!was!colonized!in!the!early!20th!century;!this! brought! about! modernization,! which! includes! the! use! of! new! building! materials,! change! in! settlement!pattern,!new!symbols!of!design!among!others! !This!triple!heritage!concept!is!reflected!in!Hausa!architecture!both!spatially!and!ornamentally.! The! Hausa! people! had! their! own! pagan/animistic! culture! but! with! the! advent! of! the! western! and!Islamic!influences,!they!adapted!their!designs!to!suit!the!Hausa!way!of!life.!! 2.1!Hausa!art!and!symbols! The! purpose! of! art! has! frequently! been! intertwined! with! impressions! of! governance,! power,! and! control.! The! aesthetic! components! of! graphic! artistic! forms! are! sometimes! influenced! by! the!role!of!art!as!a!way!of!signifying!political!importance.!This!notion!is!true!in!Hausaland!as!the! national!heraldic!symbol!for!the!Hausa!people!is!an!emblem!often!referred!to!as!the!dagi(or!the! northern! knot.! The! symbol! is! a! four! sided! diamond! shape! overlapped! by! two! ellipses! in! intertwined! loops11! (Fig.! 3)! and! it! is! an! older! and! traditionally! established! motif! of! Hausa! identity.! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

Figure 2.1. The Northern Knot

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Beverly B Mack, Muslim Women Sing, 1st ed. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2004): 22

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It!is!such!a!poignant!symbol!of!Northern!Nigerian!authority!and!political!individuality!that!it!was! used! by! statesmen! headed! by! Alhaji! Ahmadu! Bello,! the! first! premier! of! Northern! Nigeria.! Its! exact! origins! are! unknown! but! some! have! speculated! that! it! is! a! variation! of! a! North! African! Christian!cross12.!Northern!Africa!had!a!strong!Christian!identity!and!through!the!trans!Saharan! trade!it!may!have!found!its!way!to!the!early!Hausa!cityO!states!thus!influencing!the!pattern.! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

Figure 2.2. - The Celtic knot

! ! The! Hausa! people! used! the( dagi! motif,! variations! of! it,! arabesque! patterns! and! geometric! abstract! patterns! as! a! form! of! expression.! The! custom! of! using! elaborate! lines! and! forms! as! embellishment!has!more!or!less!become!their!national!identity!and!these!symbols!remain!ever! present!in!different!aspects!of!life!such!as!clothing,!pottery,!crafts,!design!and!architecture.!! ! ! ! ! 12

Ibraheem A. Waziri, "The Northern Knot: The Arewa Insignia Is Actually Of Christian Northern Origins Newsrescue.Com", Newsrescue.Com, last modified 2013, accessed January 21, 2017, http://newsrescue.com/thenorthern-knot-the-arewa-insignia-is-actually-of-christian-northern-origins/#axzz4W9ChfjAl.

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! ! ! ! ! Figure!2.3.!Embroidered!Hausa!

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Figure!2.4.!Hausa!male!gown!(babban(rigaa)!

! 2.2O!Colour!symbolism!in!Hausaland! Human! colour! perception! originates! from! the! understanding! of! the! three! main! colours:! red,! white!and!black.!!Communities!all!over!the!world!appear!to!recognize!them!and!associate!them! with!certain!symbolic!meanings.!In!Hausaland,!Black!represents!unfavourable!or!harmful!things! while! white! represents! the! opposite.! White! in! the! Hausa! language! (fari)( is! used! to! symbolize! good!qualities,!for!example,!farin(ciki!literally!translated!as!‘white!stomach’!is!used!to!describe! happiness!and!farin(jini!literally!translated!as!‘white’!blood!is!used!to!describe!someone!who!is! well!loved!in!society13.!It!is!important!to!note!that!Hausa!people!differentiated!the!colour!white! itself! from! the! European! white! skin.! The! term! jar( fata! is! used! to! describe! a! white! person! meaning! that! Hausa! people! perceived! the! colour! white! based! on! social! and! moral! attributes! rather! than! white! skin! colour.! The! colour! red! is! fairly! ambiguous;! sometimes! it! can! be! associated! with! mysticism! or! power,! while! in! some! contexts! it! denotes! negative! qualities.!! Other! colours! like! green,! blue! and! yellow! have! monotheistic! Islamic! symbolism! in! Hausaland.! Blue! signifies! the! community! of! Islam,! green! is! used! as! a! symbol! of! the! prophet! and! religion,! and! yellow! or! gold! signifies! royalty! partly! because! the! dyes! and! paints! were! expensive.! The! importance!of!art!and!colour!in!the!Hausa!culture!cannot!be!overstated,!the!desire!to!adorn!or! 13

Pauline M. Ryan, "Color Symbolism In Hausa Literature", Journal of Anthropological Research 32, no. 2 (1976): 141.

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beautify! is! something! that! is! inherently! Hausa! and! it! is! a! quality! that! is! respected! and! recognized!all!over!the!world.!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

Figure!2.5.!Calabash!from!Kasuwan!Magani!Market,!Kaduna!State,!Nigeria!

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Figure!2.6.!Jigawa!palace!featuring!the!dagi!motif!and!other!decorative!patterns!

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! CHAPTER!3:!CASE!STUDIES! Symbols! and! motifs! are! employed! on! façades! and! interior! walls! to! enhance! built! forms,! however!cultural!symbolism!as!a!whole!also!includes!an!understanding!of!the!representational! quality! of! spaces! and! the! cultural! influences! in! the! spatial! schema.! In! this! regard,! the! configuration,! and! architectural! vocabulary! of! different! Hausa! buildings! as! well! as! the! motifs! used! should! be! examined.! ! Three! key! features! generally! describe! or! inform! traditional! Hausa! architecture:!the!room!or!primary!cell,!the!courtyard!(figure!3.1).!The!traditional!Hausa!builder! explores!these!three!themes!in!design!and!produces!a!variation!of!buildings!from!residential!to! religious!in!order!to!satisfy!the!architectural!programme!dictated!by!society.!! 3.1O!Spatial!scheme!of!Hausa!compounds! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

Figure!3.1.!!Three!key!features!in!traditional!African!and!Hausa! compound!

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Figure!3.2.!Traditional!plan!of!an!African!Compound!

! The!plans!of!traditional!Hausa!buildings!generally!adhere!to!the!traditional!African!model!of! having!rooms!arranged!within!or!around!a!courtyard,!which!are!then!enclosed!by!the! compound!wall!(figure!3.2.)!The!original!purpose!of!the!compound!wall!may!have!been!to!serve! as!a!defensive!mechanism!or!a!windO!break!but!with!the!advent!of!Islam!it!was!used!as!a!symbol! for!something!entirely!different.!The!walls!are!now!employed!as!a!visual!barrier!in!order!to! provide!the!levels!of!privacy!needed!for!the!separation!of!the!genders!(auren(kulle).(According! to!Smith,!the!religious!classification!of!marriage!for!the!hausa!people!include!auren(kulle;( purdahO!type!marriage!with!complete!seclusion!of!the!wife!:!auren(tsare;(partial!seclusion!of!the! 18

wife,!and!auren(jahilaiO!marriage!of!the!ignorant!with!no!seclusion!of!the!wife14.!The!Hausa!is! heavily!informed!by!the!purdah!type!marriage!(auren(kulle)!which!is!why!the!walls!surround!the! compound!completely.! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

Figure!3.3.!Traditional!plan!of!a!Hausa!compound!

! The!notion!of!privacy!using!a!wall!is!further!reinforced!by!the!presence!of!an!entry!hall!(zaure)! which!usually!has!a!round!shape!with!a!conical!thatched!roof.!The!zaure(is!accessed!through!the! 14

M. G Smith, The Economy Of Hausa Communities Of Zaria, 1st ed. ([London]: H.M.S.O. for the Colonial Office, 1955): 50.

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main!door!(kofa)(and!it!prevents!men!from!entering!the!main!house.!Only!invited!guests!are! able!to!proceed!to!the!next!entry!hall!where!they!are!received!by!members!of!the!family! (shigafa).(The!forecourt!or!entrance!courtyard!(kofar(gida)!separates!the!shigafa!and!zaure!;the! unmarried!men!have!their!huts!built!here.!The!interior!part!of!the!house!(cikin(gida)(is!divided! into!units!for!immediate!family!members,!women,!and!young!boys!who!haven’t!reached! puberty.!The!rooms!within!the!cikin(gida!contain!the!women's!reserved!sleeping!areas,!kitchen,! and!adjoining!huts!for!the!extended!family.!The!cikin(gida!is!a!multifunctional!part!of!the! compound!and!!a!range!of!different!activities!!are!carried!out!within!that!space!simultaneously.! For!example,!a!typical!scenario!is!one!whereby!the!older!men!may!be!slaughtering!an!animal! that!would!be!used!to!prepare!lunch,!while!youngsters!scurry!in!between!them.!Not!too!far! away!the!wives!may!be!cooking!with!a!firewood!stove!while!young!girls!sing!folk!songs.!All! these!activities!happen!together!in!tandem!as!the!Hausa!are!very!family!oriented!and!this!is! reflected!in!their!domestic!dwellings.15! ! 3.2O!Domestic!buildings!(Mallawa!house)! A!good!example!of!!a!large!residential!variation!of!the!archetypal!Hausa!compound!is!the! Mallawa!compound!in!Zaria.!The!Mallawa!are!a!very!large!extended!family!that!belong!to!the! royal!lineage!of!Zaria,!one!of!the!Hausa!cityO!states.!In!Zaria!there!are!four!dynasties!that!form! the!political!sphere,!The!Mallawa,!the!Bornawa,!the!Katsinawa!and!the!Suleibawa.!These!four! dynasties!contend!for!the!title!of!Emir((ruler)(and!because!the!strongest!group!often!gains! power,!they!remain!together!in!the!same!compound.!The!zaure!in!a!domestic!Hausa!compound! usually!maintains!a!north!south!orientation!as!seen!in!(Figure!3.3.)!however,!the!Mallawa!zaure! is!oriented!towards!the!towards!south!east.!A!reason!for!this!may!be!that!the!location!of!the! public!streets!that!link!the!essential!parts!of!the!city!(city!gates,!market,!mosque,!palace)!did! not!conform!with!the!northOsouth!orientation.!Since!the!Hausa!compound!grows!with!every! new!family!addition,!the!exact!date!it!was!built!is!unknown,!but!it!is!speculated!to!be!around! 15

The cikin gida contains everything that the family needs for day-to-day activities, thus reducing the need for the women to leave the compound unless when necessary

20

1804!after!the!successful!Jihad!of!Usman.!Mallam!Musa!(founder!of!Mallawa!dynasty)!was! appointed!as!a!flag!bearer,!therefore!it!is!very!possible!that!he!had!this!large!compound!built! around!that!time.!!

Figure 3.4. Mallawa family tree, 1982 ! According!to!the!family!tree!(Figure!3.4)!Malam!Musas!descendants!should!show!the!most! development!in!terms!of!additional!housing!is!the!Yero!and!the!Turaki!Moh’d!family.!The!other! siblings!have!a!small!number!of!descendants!therefore!the!main!rivalry!for!the!throne!in!the! family!group!would!be!between!those!families.!Malam!Sambo!is!the!first!son!so!even!though!he! had!no!offspring,!he!occupies!the!biggest!part!of!the!house.! !

21

Figure 3.5. Mallawa family home, Zaria in 1962 ! When!comparing!Fig.!14!and!15!it!can!be!seen!that!the!changes!in!the!Sambo!and!Jamo!area! were!fairly!minimal!with!only!a!few!additional!units.!The!opposite!can!be!said!for!the!Yero!and! Turaki!quarters,!as!new!buildings!were!added!to!accommodate!the!increasing!family.!! ! !

22

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

Figure 3.6. Mallawa family home, Zaria in 1981

! Even!though!the!building!has!gone!through!a!lot!of!changes!over!time,!it!still!conforms!to!the! fundamental! scheme! for! a! Muslim! family! in! Hausaland.! The! compound! wall! that! completely! surrounds!the!vicinity!is!present!and!so!are!the!other!features!such!as!the(zaure,!the!kofa(gida,( the!courtyard!spaces,!the!room!units!and!the!cikin(gida.(( Most! of! the! walls! are! made! using! the! traditional! Hausa! method! of! mud! construction! but! the! Mallawa!compound!surprisingly!has!no!external!decorative!features.!In!Hausaland,!motifs!and! 23

symbols!are!usually!used!to!signify!social!status,!the!high!class!individuals!usually!embellished! their!house!with!bold!designs!so!it!seems!odd!to!have!little!to!no!ornamentation.!Schwerdtfeger! suggests!that!this!lack!of!ornamentation!is!done!deliberately!so!that!it!does!not!rival!that!of!the! Emir’s!palace16.! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

Figure 3.7. Mallawa home 1962 (Turaki Mohamed’s Section)

! The! main! decorative! feature! present! in! the! Mallawa! building! is! in! form! of! roof! pinnacles! or! zanko((pluralOzankwaye)!protruding!from!the!corners!of!the!building!(Figure!3.7).!The!origin!of! these! pinnacles! have! not! been! determined! exactly! however,! Moughtin! suggests! some! connection!to!ancient!Egypt!by!saying:! ! The! roots! of! Hausa! architecture! are! lost! in! antiquity,! but! it! is! possible! that! it! shares!a!common!ancestry!with!the!great!buildings!of!Pharaonic!Egypt.!Some!of! 16

Friedrich W Schwerdtfeger, Hausa Urban Art And Its Social Background, 1st ed. (Münster: Lit, 2007).: 32.

24

the!early!preOdynastic!hieroglyphics!depict!houses!with!small!pinnacles!similar! to! the! Zankwaye! that! decorate! Hausa! buildings.! The! whole! character! of! the! Egyptian!house!drawings!resembles!that!of!the!architecture!of!both!present!day! Nubia!and!Hausaland…17! ( ( ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

Figure!3.8.!Types!of!Hausa! roof!pinnacles!(Zankwaye)!

!

Figure!3.9.!!House!forms!and! hut!shrines!in!pre!dynastic! Egypt!

Over!time,!Hausa!builders!have!developed!a!classification!for!different!kinds!of!Zankwaye(but!it! is! unclear! whether! it! is! categorized! based! on! a! symbolic! quality! or! a! more! practical! one.! Perhaps!it!is!a!combination!of!the!two.!! A!Hausa!builder,!Haruna!Ibrahim!gave!a!practical!justification!for!the!presence!of!the!Zankwaye.! He!explained!that!the!edges!of!mud!structures!when!exposed!to!heavy!downpour!may!erode! away!and!the!Zankwaye!reduce!this!vulnerability!by!increasing!mass!where!it!is!really!needed18.! Rope! ladders! are! also! fastened! to! it! in! order! to! gain! access! to! the! roof! for! renovation.! A! 17

Nnamdi Elleh, African Architecture, 1st ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1997): 25.

18

Akel I Kehera, "The Architecture Of The West African Mosque: An Exegesis Of The Hausa And Fulani Models" (MSc. Diss, Massachusetts Institute of technology, 1987).

25

fascinating! symbolic! trait! of! the! Zankwaye( is! that! it! was! used! for! identification! in! the! Hausa! landscape.!Since!most!traditional!buildings!in!the!old!cities!had!Zankwayes!of!different!styles,! people! would! use! them! as! a! reference! when! giving! directions.! These! two! suggest! that! the! zanko,! previously! a! functional! feature,! eventually! developed! into! a! decorative,! symbolic! and! integral!element!in!Hausa!architecture.! The!symbolic!meaning!behind!the!Zankwaye!goes!beyond!decoration;!it!is!also!used!in!literary! terms!as!a!form!of!personification,!for!example,!the!tuft!of!hair!left!on!a!cleanOshaven!infants! head! is! often! called( Zanko! and! it! is! a! sign! of! beauty.! Furthermore,! the! turban! of! the! royalty! usually!has!two!pinnacles!pointing!out!and!these!have!also!been!described!as!Zankwaye!(Figure! 4.0).19! There! are! intrinsic! evocations! and! meanings! conveyed! in! the! built! forms! in! Hausaland,! and! these! elements! will! always! remain! present,! serving! as! ethnoOcultural! components! in! a! wider! context.!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

Figure!3.10.!!Portrait!of!the!Emir!of!Kano,! Muhammadu!Sanusi!II!with!his!turban! featuring!protruding!zankwaye!

19

Akel I Kehera, "The Architecture Of The West African Mosque: An Exegesis Of The Hausa And Fulani Models" (MSc. Diss, Massachusetts Institute of technology, 1987).

26

! 3.3O!The!Hausa!palace!–!Zaria!Palace! The!Zaria!palace!is!the!home!of!the!ruling!Emir!in!Zaria!and!it!was!originally!built!by!the!Habe! Hausa! rulers! who! called! it! Gidan! Bakwa.! After! the! Jihad! it! was! made! the! centre! of! political! power! in! Zaria! and! it! has! been! altered! and! renovated! many! times! over! the! centuries.! The! original!builder!of!the!palace!was!the!most!renowned!Hausa!traditional!builder!called!Mallam! Mikhaila! but! his! honorary! title! is! Babban! Gwani.! After! he! died,! his! sons! and! grandsons! took! over! his! title! of! Babban! Gwani! and! they! supervised! subsequent! alterations! to! the! palace.! As! earlier!mentioned,!the!title!of!Emir!in!Zaria!rotates!among!the!four!ruling!dynasties!therefore! the!palace!is!a!temporary!home!for!the!Emir!and!his!immediate!family!while!he!is!still!in!power.! !

!!

Figure!3.11.!Emir’s!Palace,!Zaria!(1971)!

27

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Figure!3.12.!Plan!and!section!of!reception!rooms,!Zaria!!(1977)! ! All!the!four!royal!families!have!their!own!residences!like!the!Mallawa!house!but!they!are!usually! close!to!the!palace,!the!palace!itself!is!located!in!the!heart!of!the!city.!This!central!location!preO dates!Islamic!influence,!however!it!remains!significant!because!the!Zaria!palace!is!the!symbol!of! religious! authority,! administrative! power! and! unity.! Leary! describes! a! typical! Hausa! palace! by! saying:! !It! resembles! in! macrocosm,! the! traditional! walled! compound! with! entrance! zaure!leading!first!to!a!semiOprivate!courtyard,!the!kofar!gida,!then!to!the!senior! man’s! reception! hut,! shigafa.! Beyond! this! is! the! sleeping! hut,! turaka! and! a!

28

private!courtyard!the!cikin!gida,!occupied!by!wives!and!children20! This! notion! holds! true! when! one! studies! the! plan! of! the! palace! (Figure! 3.11).! It! can! be! considered!as!an!enlarged!form!of!the!typical!Hausa!compound!because!it!maintains!the!main! elements!but!reproduced!at!a!much!larger!scale.!The!most!important!elements!on!the!plan!are! the! public! rooms! or! staterooms! facing! the! semiOprivate! courtyard! (kofar( gida).! The! less! important!elements!are!the!cikin(gida(and!the!women’s!quarters,!these!remain!primarily!sparse! because!of!the!temporary!nature!of!the!monarchy.!Leary!points!out!a!very!crucial!thing!in!the! plan!by!saying:!! The! palace! reception! area! is! therefore! equivalent! to! the! shigafa! of! an! ideal! Hausa!compound!and!with!its!offset!entrances!and!asymmetrical!plan!remains,! despite! indirect! influences! from! the! Mediterranean! littoral,! essentially! an! African!building.21! Although!the!shigafa!is!present,!it!takes!on!a!whole!new!meaning.!This!is!because!the!size!of! the! Hausa! compound! has! been! increased! significantly! and! the! purpose! is! now! one! of! government.!The!shigafa!changes!from!one!chamber!with!varied!entry!points!where!the!head! of!the!compound!(maigida)!greets!his!male!guests!and!relatives!to!a!collection!of!units!where! the! Emir! can! greet! visiting! royalty! and! have! meetings! with! his! appointed! ministers.! Thus! the! symbolic!quality!of!the!shigafa!transitions!from!a!domestic!one!to!and!stately!one.! Wall!design!in!the!palace!is!concentrated!around!doors;!this!is!most!likely!due!to!the!preOIslamic! custom!of!placing!written!charms!above!openings!to!protect!the!family!members!from!burglars,! evil!spirits!and!intruders!(Figure!3.14).! 22!The!shapes!are!similar!to!the!Tuareg!fertility!charms! specifically!called!talhatana,(which(is!a!mixture!of!the!circle!and!the!triangle.23!Although!they!

20

Allan Leary, "A Decorated Palace In Kano", AARP, no. 12 (1977): 11-17.

21

Allan Leary, "A Decorated Palace In Kano", AARP, no. 12 (1977): 11-17 Jonathan Bloom and Sheila Blair, The Grove Encyclopedia Of Islamic Art And Architecture, 1st ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009): 143. 22

23

J. C Moughtin, Taner Oc and Steven Tiesdell, Urban Design, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Taylor & Francis, 2007): 181.

29

originate! from! an! animistic! religion,! the! traditional! builders! reinterpreted! them! in! a! way! that! did! not! go! against! the! Islamic! religion.! ! The! builders! also! used! simple! lines! to! enhance! the! arches!of!the!interior!parts!of!the!rooms.! ! ! ! ! !

Figure!3.13O!(A)!Talhatana!charms!!!!!!(B)!Geometric!shapes!derived!from!charms!

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

Figure!3.14.!Decoration!above!door!openings!(1980)!

!

!

30

! ! ! ! ! ! !

Figure!3.15.!Roof!arches!with!decorative!lines!(2015)!

! One!of!the!most!detailed!decorations!in!Hausaland!is!seen!on!the!monumental!gate!that!leads! into!the!entrance!courtyard!of!the!palace.!Essentially,!the!gate!of!the!palace!serves!as!the!kofa( in! a! grander! scale! and! this! is! why! the! design! is! more! intricate! and! stylized.( The! entire! decoration!is!low!relief!and!made!by!hand.!The!builder!uses!a!mud!based!plaster!to!mould!the! patterns!on!the!surface!of!the!wall;!after!this!mud!sets,!he!then!whitewashes!it!and!paints!over! it!using!different!colours.! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! Figure!3.16.!Relief!decorator!at!work! 31

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

Figure!3.17.!Zaria!Palace!in!1963!

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

Figure!3.18.!Zaria!Palace!in!1980!

32

! ! ! ! ! ! !

Figure!3.19.!Zaria!palace!in!2015!

! The!gate!has!undergone!many!reconstructions!over!the!years!under!different!Emirs.!Each!Emir! appointed! the! descendants! of! the! original! royal! builders! to! supervise! each! renovation.( There! have! been! four! commissioned! renovations! of! the! wall,! however! certain! motifs! still! remain! present! in! all! models;! these! include! the! dagi( or! northern! knot! (A),! the! staff! of! office! (B),! the! sword!(C),!and!several!abstract!decorative!motifs!(D).!These!motifs!are!very!specific!to!royalty;! other!residential!buildings!in!Zaria!refrained!from!using!these!symbols!in!order!not!to!disrespect! the! authority! of! the! Emir.! There! is! a! considerable! decrease! in! size! of! the! motifs! from! the! original!structure!to!what!it!is!now.!! ! A! !

C!

B! D!

Figure!3.20.!Decorative!motifs!on!the!Zaria!palace!gate!

33

This! is! certainly! different! from! the! ideas! of! the! older! generation! builders,! they! used! larger! symbols! to! portray! the! impression! of! the! supremacy! and! influence! of! the! inhabitant! of! the! house! or! compound.! This! notion! changed! through! the! years! and! now! the! symbols! rely! on! imagery!to!transmit!that!message!rather!than!the!size.24! ! 3.4O!Friday!mosque!(Masallacin(Jumma’a)( Islam! requires! all! male! members! of! society! to! attend! the! Friday! prayer;! it! is! a! community! occasion!therefore!a!large!mosque,!capable!of!accommodating!a!big!gathering!was!needed!in! every!cityOstate.!The!Friday!Mosque!in!Zaria!was!built!at!the!end!of!the!era!of!the!puritanical! fever! (jihad),! around! late! 1830’s! and! 1840’s.! The! primary! chief! builder! at! the! time,! Mallam! Mikhaila! often! referred! to! as! Babban! Gwani,! built! the! mosque.! His! skill! and! technique! in! building!was!so!revered!throughout!Hausaland!that!he!was!personally!appointed!by!the!leader! of! the! Jihad,! Usman! Dan! Fodio! to! construct! the! mosque.! The! prototype! for! the! general! configuration! of! a! mosque! was! derived! from! the! Prophets! mosque! in! Madinah25.! Its! main! features!include!a!rectangular!compound!with!doors!penetrating!the!external!walls,!the!qiblah( wall! facing! the! direction! of! the! Ka’abah! in! Makkah! (east),! and! columns! arranged! along! the! qiblah(wall!(Figure!3.21).!Babban!Gwani!took!this!general!format!and!merged!it!with!the!Hausa! architectural! spatial! requirements! to! produce! the! Zaria! Mosque.! The! Zaria! mosque! is! located! within!a!courtyard!enclosed!completely!by!a!compound!wall!with!each!wall!facing!a!particular! cardinal!point.!Entry!points!into!the!space!are!through!chambers,!that!is,!zaures(or!shigafas(that! have! stepped! doorways! to! conceal! the! view! therefore! giving! the! worshippers! inside! some! privacy!from!the!outside.!The!qibla(wall!is!oriented!towards!the!east!and!a!tower!is!attached!to! the! far! side! of! the! mosque.! This! structure! conforms! to! the! recurring! Hausa! principle! of! the! compound!wall,!enclosed!courtyard!and!units!located!within!the!courtyard,!while!conveying!the! symbolic!imagery!of!a!mosque!(Figure!3.22).! 24

Friedrich W Schwerdtfeger, Hausa Urban Art And Its Social Background, 1st ed. (Münster: Lit, 2007): 238

25

Akel I Kehera, "The Architecture Of The West African Mosque: An Exegesis Of The Hausa And Fulani Models" (MSc. Diss, Massachusetts Institute of technology, 1987).

34

! ! ! ! ! ! !

Figure!3.21.!The!Prophets!Mosque!at!Madinah!622CE!

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

Figure!3.22.!Zaria!Friday!mosque!plan!!

35

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

Figure!3.23.!Zaria!Friday!mosque!sections!and!elevation!

36

The!Zaria!Friday!mosque!is!widely!considered!to!be!the!high!point!of!ecclesiastic!traditional! Hausa!architecture26.!Its!spatial!arrangement!was!very!remarkable!and!creative,!and!the! structural!expertise!of!Babban!Gwani!has!never!been!matched!in!any!other!traditional!mosque! in!Hausaland.!Babban!Gwani!employed!virtually!every!method!ever!used!in!building!traditional! Hausa!structures,!enhanced!them!with!his!personal!ideas!and!merged!them!in!a!composed!and! rational!way.!His!reinterpretation!of!the!basic!Hausa!vault!is!particularly!remarkable.!The!origin! of!the!Hausa!vault!has!not!exactly!been!determined!but!Professor!LaBelle!Prussin!suggests! some!connection!to!early!Fulani!tent!structures27.!The!early!Fulani!people!were!nomadic!and! often!erected!temporary!domical!tent!structures.!After! the!Jihad,!they!integrated!into!Hausaland!and!this!tent! was!gradually!transformed!into!the!vaulted!mud! structure!dwellings!of!the!Hausa!people.!Over!time!the! builders!discovered!the!structural!system!of!the!vault! allowed!them!to!create!rooms!bigger!than!3.5m!square! and!if!constructed!properly,!it!would!be!able!to!cover!up! to!8m!square.!The!vault!is!made!up!of!‘arches’!however! these!are!not!proper!arches!in!terms!of!construction.! Essentially,!each!arch!is!made!up!of!reinforced!corbels! that!are!positioned!one!on!top!of!the!other!until!they! converge!at!the!top.!The!structure!is!then!covered!in! mud!so!from!the!outside!it!appearance!is!that!of!a!real! vault.!Sometimes!they!resemble!domes!depending!on! the!angles!at!which!the!corbels!are!placed.! Figure!3.24.!Section!through!arch! !

26

Z. R Dmochowski, An Introduction To Nigerian Traditional Architecture Volume One: Northern Nigeria, 1st ed. (London: Ethnographica in association with the National Commission for Museums and Monuments, 1990): 2.15 27

Labelle Prussin, "An Introduction To Indigenous African Architecture", Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 33, no. 3 (1974): 183-205.

37

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

Figure!3.25.!Hausa!vault!under!construction!

! The!Friday!mosque!main!prayer!space!has!a!space!of!about!20!x!23!metres,!which!is!far!too! wide!for!the!‘Hausa!vault/dome’!to!span.!In!order!to!solve!this!problem,!Babban!Gwani! employed!a!particularly!innovative!solution!at!the!time!by!erecting!six!main!domes!of!about!7m! square!each!to!completely!cover!the!prayer!hall.!To!achieve!this,!he!used!two!major!walls,! twentyOone!piers!and!one!solitary!wall!in!the!middle!of!the!plan.!The!design!of!the!coffering!on! the!roof!plan!may!at!first!appear!random!or!illogical!to!a!casual!observer!however,!it!is!the! epitome!of!numerous!generations!of!construction!experimentation!(Figure!3.26).!! ! ! !

38

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

Figure!3.26.!Zaria!Friday!Mosque!roof!plan!

! The!domes!and!arches!that!carry!them!are!connected!to!form!a!firm!monumental!structure!by! successive!beams!that!follow!the!sides!of!the!arches.!This!is!done!in!order!to!transfer!the! weight!of!the!mud!domes!to!the!wall!using!the!smallest!amount!of!load!possible!therefore! making!it!more!efficient.!One!striking!visual!attribute!of!the!Zaria!mosque,!which!possibly! contributes!to!its!charm,!is!the!use!of!the!double!arches!connected!to!twin!piers!repeatedly! through!the!space.!!This!was!done!in!order!to!free!up!the!space!and!increase!the!stability!of!the! building.!Babban!Gwani’s!use!of!the!twin!arch!was!such!an!important!development!in!mud! building!construction!because!it!enabled!the!creation!of!voids!with!less!obstruction;!this!gives!a! very!open!and!visually!pleasing!effect!to!one!who!walks!through!the!space.!

39

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

Figure!3.27.!Zaria!Friday!mosque!axonometric!view!

The! spatial! qualities! and! structural! composition! of! the! Zaria! Friday! mosque! made! it! a! really! exceptional! architectural! achievement.! The! external! part! of! the! mosque! exhibited! just! its! sculptural! forms! with! no! adornment! while! the! interior! forms! were! enriched! with! striking! decorative! motifs! shaped! in! plaster.! Mallam! Mikhalila! did! this! deliberately! in! order! to! ensure! that! the! surface! adornment! did! not! overshadow! the! architectural! merits! of! the! mosque;! if! anything,!they!were!only!meant!to!accentuate!and!complement!the!design.!In!accordance!with! stern!Muslim!beliefs,!the!use!of!animal!and!human!icons!were!strictly!forbidden!in!design!and! only! geometric! shapes! and! patterns! were! used.! The( talhatana;derived! motifs! like! the! ones! present!in!the!Zaria!Palace!also!make!an!appearance!here!in!the!form!of!circles!and!triangles.! Some!patterns!were!sometimes!incised!into!the!mud,!while!other!patterns!were!super!imposed! in!several!layers!and!then!left!to!dry!thus!giving!them!a!three!dimensional!quality!of!their!own.! Although!a!few!sections!of!the!mosque!have!been!demolished,!coating!the!exterior!and!interior! with!cement!and!plaster!has!preserved!the!form.! !

40

! ! ! ! ! ! Figure!3.28.!Zaria!Friday!Mosque,!North!Aisle! ! interior!view,!1920!

Figure!3.29.!Zaria!Friday!Mosque,!Central!Bay! Interior!view,!1920!

! ! ! ! ! ! !

Figure!3.30.!Zaria!Friday!Mosque,!colums!showing!circular!and!triangular! talhatana(derived!motifs!

! ! ! ! ! ! ! Figure!3.31.!Zaria!Friday!Mosque,!Central!eastOwest! aisle!1980! 41

! ! ! ! ! ! ! Figure!3.32.!Zaria!Friday!Mosque,!piers,!vaults!and!columns!with!geometric!patterns,!1980! ! ! The!case!studies!analysed!all!serve!different!purposes!but!two!main!things!remain!common!in! all!three!buildings.!Firstly!the!traditional!Hausa!builders!remain!conscious!of!the!Hausa!spatial! configuration!and!adhered!to!it.!Secondly,!decoration!in!form!of!motifs!or!sculpture!is!very! important!when!articulating!the!spaces.!The!motifs!and!symbols!employed!however!may!vary! in!their!placement,!size!and!style!depending!on!the!context!in!which!it!is!used.! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 42

! CHAPTER!4:!HISTORY!AND!DEVELOPMENT!OF!WALL!DECORATION! 4.1O!Types!of!decoration! In!Hausaland,!the!motifs!employed!in!design!represent!the!pinnacle!of!the!feeling!of!celebration! that!exists!innately!in!a!traditional!labourer!at!work!and!are!produced!quite!expressively,!with!a! lot! of! colour! and! vigour,! not! unlike! an! artist! with! his! canvas.! According! to! Schwerdtfeger,! external!wall!ornamentation!can!be!categorized!into!two!types!based!on!the!different!types!of! craftsmen.!The!first!type!is!the!early!moulded!shapes!that!beautify!the!houses!of!royal!families,! administrative! officials! and! wealthy! members! of! society.! The! old! traditional! builders! made! these!decorations!in!mud!using!just!their!hands,!eyes!and!a!general!idea!of!proportion.!These! motifs! were! often! coated! with! a! waterproof! sustance! called! laso( and! then! painted! with! very! bright!colours.!The!second!type!is!a!style!that!emerged!sometime!after!the!second!world!war! when!cement!became!the!material!of!choice!in!building.!Decorators!in!this!style!are!called!mai( shafe!and!they!use!iron!tools!and!stencils!to!scratch!patterns!into!horizontal!layers!of!cement! plaster.! This! form! of! decoration! is! relatively! cheaper! and! was! quicly! adopted! by! the! aspiring! common! class! because! the! mud! decoration! was! mainly! reserved! for! royalty! and! high! class! members!of!society.(! ! 4.2O!Decoration!as!a!display!of!social!status! The! types! of! decorations! found! on! the! façade! of! buildings! were! dependant! on! the! status! of!! inhabitants!of!the!building!making!it!relatively!easy!to!differentiate!the!lower!class!citizens!from! the!high!class!citizens.! Wealthy!merchants!imported!European!materials!after!the!second!world!war!and!they!wanted! to!display!their!newly!acquired!assets!while!conforming!with!the!traditional!building!styles.!This! is!why!a!lot!of!their!buildings!displayed!Western!items!like!bicycles,!cars!and!sewing!machines.! The!one!penny!coin!used!at!the!time!featured!a!hexagram!or!star!of!david!therefore!the!star! 43

was!also!used!as!a!recurring!motif!for!traders!(Figure!4.1!and!4.3).!!Less!wealthy!traders!often! copied!these!rich!merchants!by!decorating!their!houses!in!the!same!styles!so!that!they!would! also!appear!rich.!This!made!the!trading!community!the!most!important!employers!of!both!the! traditional!builders!(maigini)!and!the!masu(shafe!decorators.! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Figure!4.1.!Star!of!david!on!traders!house!in!Zaria! !

Figure!4.2.!Bicycle!motif!on!building! façade!in!Zaria!

! ! ! ! ! Figure!4.3.!Star!of!david!on!oneOpenny!colonial! coin!

44

The! Emir! and! other! highOclass! people! usually! employed! the! traditional! builders! because! the! traditional!method!is!considered!more!prestigious.!The!Emir!has!the!power!to!call!on!the!most! accomplished!group!of!builders,!whose!high!ranking!members!were!given!royal!titles!like!sarkin( magina! and! Babban( Gwani! that! could! be! passed! on! to! their! descendants.! These! builders! are! employed! to! build,! decorate! and! renovate! the! palace! therefore! they! were! considered! very! integral! members! of! society.( The! decorations! of! the! palace! are! not! meant! to! flaunt! wealth;! rather! they! should! show! authority! and! ultimately! signify! the! grandeur! of! the! Emir! and! his! administration.! Traditional! builders! achieved! this! imagery! of! power! by! filling! the! façade! and! entrance!of!the!palace!with!big!striking!daguna((singular(dagi)(highlighted!using!vivid!colours!as! seen!in!the!Zaria!palace.!! The!magini(refrained!from!using!the!royal!symbols!on!private!houses!as!mentioned!earlier,!this! was! previously! because! they! feared! the! Emir,! but! now! it! is! simply! because! the! general! population! associate! those! symbols! with! royalty! or! the! heads! of! the! community! so! it! is! incongruous! for! a! common! man! to! use! them.! Relief! decoration! is! too! expensive! for! the! common!man!and!even!if!he!went!ahead!to!do!it!the!community!as!a!whole!would!make!him!a! laughingOstock!because!it!would!never!match!that!of!the!nobility.!All!the!same,!the!Hausa!desire! to!adorn!his!building!still!remains,!which!is!why!the!common!man!usually!ends!up!having!simple! block! patterns! scratched! into! cement! plaster.! ! Some! motifs! were! used! were! based! on! the! profession! of! the! head! of! the! compound,! for! example,! a! pair! of! scissors! may! be! found! as! a! scratched! motif! on! the! house! of! a! tailor:! similarly! a! clock! can! be! placed! above! the! door! of! someone!who!fixes!watches!(figure!4.4).!!! ! ! ! ! !

45

! ! ! ! ! ! !

Figure!4.4.!Watch!repairer!house!in!Zaria!with!motif!of!clock!on!the!facade!

! Roman!and!Arabic!writings!usually!found!on!the!common!buildings!can!be!classified!into!four! main!types;!firstly!they!could!indicate!the!name!of!the!head!of!the!compound.!Secondly,!they! may!be!used!to!show!the!occupation!of!the!owner!for!example!‘SARKIN(TAILA’!meaning!King!of! the! tailors! or! ‘SARKIN( PAWA’! meaning! Chief! of! butchers! are! found! above! the! houses!

of!

tailors!

and!

butchers!

respectively.!Thirdly,!political!slogans!and! the!symbols!associated!with!them!can!be! scratched!or!painted!on!buildings!facades! to!show!allegiance!to!a!particular!political! party.!In!more!recent!times!people!simply! paint! them! on! so! they! can! be! removed! quickly! if! the! need! arises.! Lastly,! writings! may! be! prayers! for! protection,! Quranic! verses!or!statements!of!praise!to!God.!! !

Figure!4.5.!House!of!Chief!Butcher!with!the!words! SARKIN(PAWA,!written!on!the!façade,!Zaria! 46

In!order!for!someone!to!be!qualified!as!having!a!high!status!in!Hausa!society,!the!person!must! have!expensive,!noticeable!and!admirable!things.!Elaborate!hand!embroidered!gowns,!lavishly! decorated!buildings,!expensive!cars!and!later!houses!made!from!concrete!blocks!attracted!the! envy!of!the!general!population!therefore!they!are!symbols!of!ones!social!status!in!society.!This! led! to! competition! among! members! of! the! higher! and! lower! class! for! the! most! excellently! ornamented!houses!because!beauty!and!decoration!is!synonymous!with!high!status!and!class.!! 4.3O!Islamic!influence!on!decoration! The!main!decorative!motifs!of!the!Hausa!preO!animistic!religion!were!natural!materials!that!are! usually! associated! with! the! totem! of! the! group28.! ! In! most! cases,! every! family! had! a! specific! animal! that! represented! them! therefore! they! modeled! the! form! of! this! animal! in! low! relief! outside!their!houses.!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Figure!4.6.!Animal!representation!in!relief! ! This!notion!changed!with!the!advent!of!Islam.!Islam!itself!is!a!religious!movement!and!not!an! 28

R. T. D. Fitzgerald, "19. The Dakarkari Peoples Of Sokoto Province, Nigeria: Notes On Their Material Culture", Man 42 (1942): 25.

47

creative! belief! system! however! art! forms! associated! with! Islam! like! arabesque,! geometric! designs! or! calligraphy! are! derived! from! great! empires! that! came! in! contact! with! the! religion;! these!empires!include!Iran,!early!Byzantium!and!Rome29.!Islamic!art!and!culture!have!affected! wall! decoration! significantly! but! only! as! far! as! prohibition! of! lifelike! forms,! religious! symbols! and! writing.! Motifs! such! as! the! crescent! moon! (A),! timber! plank! used! in! Quranic! schools! for! writing!(B),!the!form!of!a!mosque!entrance!(C),!minarets!and!kettles!used!for!ablution!before! prayer! (D)! had! symbolic! references! to! Islam! and! they! were! usually! used! on! the! facades! of! important!Islamic!scholar!homes.!! !

!!!!!!A!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!B!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!C!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!D!

! ! !

Figure!4.7.!Islamic!symbols!

! Statements!such!as!‘Allah!is!the!best!of!planners’!and!‘May! Allah! protect! our! people! are! usually! found! above! doorframes!(figure!4.7);!this!serves!as!a!form!of!protection! and!a!declaration!of!the!residents’!loyalty!to!Islam.!! ! ! ! !

Figure!4.8.!Quran!verse!above! doorway!meaning!‘Allah!is!the!best!of! planners’!

! 29

Oleg Grabar, The Formation Of Islamic Art, 1st ed. (Yale University Press, 1987) : 75.

48

Islam! met! an! already! established! tradition! of! decoration! therefore! the! arabesque! or! floral! patterns! Islamic! art! is! known! for! probably! had! little! influence! on! the! design! of! Hausa! motifs,! thus!these!designs!can!definitely!be!classified!as!secular!art.!The!craftsmen!usually!design!based! on! what! they! consider! aesthetically! pleasing! or! what! the! compound! head! requests.! For! example,!one!builder!used!a!gun!as!a!motif!because!the!wealthy!compound!head!expressed!a! fear! of! thieves! while! another! employed! floral! symbols! and! patterns! simply! because! British! people!often!planted!flowers!in!pots!and!placed!them!around!their!homes.30!! Decorations! in! Hausaland! have! evolved! and! over! time! due! to! the! many! secular,! ethnic! and! religious!influences!however!they!will!always!remain!the!ornate!art!of!the!traditional!craftsmen! who!produced!them.! ! 4.4O!Importance!of!craftsmen!in!traditional!Hausa!architecture! Hausa! society! has! always! admired! people! who! have! outstanding! skills! in! different! fields! from! singing!to!embroidery!to!building.!This!inspired!the!craftsmen!to!always!do!their!best!because! the!quality!and!creativity!of!their!work!ultimately!determined!their!reputation!and!position!in! society.!The!title!of!Gwani,!which!means!'expert!in!a!field',!was!bestowed!on!builders!with!the! most!remarkable!skills!in!a!Hausa!community.!Initially,!it!was!given!to!people!who!memorised! the!whole!Qur'anic!scriptures!but!it!was!later!extended!to!craftsmen.!It!is!such!a!highly!honored! title!that!only!six!craftsmen!have!earned!the!right!to!be!called!Gwani!in!the!last!two!hundred! years! and! they! have! all! passed! away31.! Perhaps! the! most! celebrated! and! revered! of! them! is! Babban!Gwani,!who!was!mentioned!earlier.!Thought!to!be!a!genius!and!even!a!minor!psychic,! he!was!the!ultimate!perfectionist!when!it!came!to!building!construction!and!design.!To!this!day,! it!is!unquestioned!that!only!people!who!had!studied!under!him!would!retain!the!Gwani!title!and! 30

Friedrich W Schwerdtfeger, Hausa Urban Art And Its Social Background, 1st ed. (Münster: Lit, 2007): 259 Schwerdtfeger confirmed the religious indifferent nature of these motifs by interviewing different builders in Zaria and a large percentage of them had practical and aesthetic reasons for the motifs used. 31

Hamman Tukur Sa'ad, "Between Myth And Reality: The Aesthetics Of Traditional Architecture In Hausaland" (Ph.D. Thesis, University of Michigan, 1981): 254.

49

therefore!it!passed!on!to!his!children!and!their!descendants.!!! The!distinctive!nature!of!Hausa!traditional!architecture!can!be!attributed!to!the!master!builders! and!their!ability!to!adapt!to!significant!events!and!influences.!Apart!from!the!exceptional!wall! decoration,!the!creation,!construction!and!development!of!the!local!Hausa!vault!was!one!of!the! greatest!accomplishments!of!the!builders.!This!structure!enabled!the!builders!to!span!areas!as! wide! as! 8! metres! using! arches! generated! from! walls! and! they! developed! it! in! a! variety! of! different! ways.! Here,! the! builders! perfected! their! structural! skills,! enhancing! their! understanding! of! the! limitations! and! possibilities! of! the! available! local! materials! thus! making! them!a!force!to!be!reckoned!with!in!Africa.! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 50

! CHAPTER!5P!Modernity!and!Reinvention! 5.1O!Decline!of!traditional!Hausa!architecture!! The! twentieth! century! brought! about! colonization! and! three! main! periods! of! economic! prosperity! in! Nigeria,! these! occurrences! greatly! affected! the! architecture! in! Hausaland.! ! The! 1920’s!saw!the!very!first!period!of!economic!growth!as!a!result!of!an!increase!in!the!groundnut! trade!in!the!northern!region!of!Nigeria.!The!trade!brought!merchants!to!northern!Nigeria!and! cement! was! eventually! introduced! to! Hausaland! in! the! early! 1920’s.! The! traditional! builders! used!mud!as!the!main!construction!material!and!cement!was!only!used!for!floor!finishes!in!the! houses! of! rich! merchants! and! palaces.! Decoration! at! the! time! was! still! very! restrained! and! based! on! the! simple! combination! of! triangles! and! circles.! ! In! the! 1930’s! and! 40’s! the! designs! started! becoming! more! complex,! ornate! and! intricate.! ! Paint! was! often! used! to! highlight! the! exuberance!of!the!interlacing!designs.!!A!good!example!of!this!is!seen!in!the!Kano!royal!palace! ceilings!as!well!as!Alhaji!Ado’s!house!that!was!unfortunately!demolished!(Figure!5.1).! !! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Figure!5.1.!Details!of!roof!in!Kano!palace! 51

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

Figure!5.2.!Alhaji!Ado!Roof!plan!and!section!showing!mud!relief!details!

! The! second! era! of! general! economic! prosperity! was! around! 1955! to! 1966.! The! Second! World! War!had!ended!and!Nigeria!gained!its!independence!in!1960,!this!gave!the!general!population!a! renewed!sense!of!hope!and!the!economy!did!well!over!the!next!six!years.!A!lot!of!craftsmen!see! that!period!as!the!‘golden!age’!or!high!point!of!traditional!Hausa!architecture!as!monumental! structures!with!ornately!adorned!facades!and!ceilings!were!erected!and!valued!by!everyone!in! the!society32.!!In!this!era!the!traditional!builders!and!the!newer!decorators!had!two!different! 32

Friedrich W Schwerdtfeger, Hausa Urban Art And Its Social Background, 1st ed. (Münster: Lit, 2007): 272

52

approaches! to! design.! The! most! prominent! traditional! builder! in! this! period! was! a! direct! descendant!of!Babban!Gwani!called!Mallam!Haruna!but!he!was!given!the!title!of!chief!builder!or! sarkin( magina( instead.! He! was! a! lot! more! expressive! in! his! design! on! both! the! interior! and! exterior!as!seen!in!the!reconstruction!of!the!Zaria!palace!earlier!mentioned,!however,!he!still! retained!the!general!principles!of!Babban!Gwanis!work.!The!new!decorators!or!masu(shafe(style! was!characterized!by!the!use!of!repetitive!geometric!patterns,!which!was!quite!different!to!the! traditional!method.!!They!used!cement!to!coat!existing!mud!walls!so!they!could!last!longer!and! rather! than! have! relief! designs,! they! scratched! the! patterns! directly! on! the! cement! plaster.! Although! these! two! styles! were! different,! they! both! propagated! the! idea! of! beauty! in! ornamentation,!making!the!Hausa!streets!lined!with!colourful!and!beautiful!buildings.! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

Figure!5.3.!Mallam!Haruna!working!to!redecorate!Zaria! Palace,!1968!

! !

53

! ! ! ! ! Figure!5.4.!Relief!decoration!on!building!facade!by! ! Mallam!Haruna,!Zaria! .!!

Figure!5.5.!Relief!and!geometric!decoration!on! building!facade,!Zaria! !

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

Figure!5.6.!Geometric!decoration!on!building!facade,! Zaria! !

Oil! was! discovered! in! Nigeria! in! 1956! and! as! a! result,! the! country! experienced! the! third! economic!boom!around!the!1970s!and!1980s.!While!this!development!increased!the!wealth!of! the! country! significantly,! it! also! led! to! the! quick! decline! of! the! traditional! building! practices.!! There!was!a!new!demand!in!society!for!what!people!now!considered!progressive!and!modern,! thus!the!new!status!symbols!became!cement,!aluminium,!glass!and!corrugated!roofing!sheets.! Mud!buildings!were!now!considered!old!fashioned!and!outOdated.!The!traditional!builders!tried!

54

to!ignore!this!development!at!first!but!they!were!losing!so!many!jobs!that!they!had!to!learn!the! new!methods!of!construction!and!stopped!passing!on!the!skills!to!their!children.!The!1980’s!and! 1990’s! saw! a! period! of! increased! urbanization,! there! was! little! consideration! of! the! already! existing! traditional! elements,! people! designed! houses! and! buildings! according! to! European! styles!in!both!plan!and!elevations!order!to!keep!up!with!the!changing!times.!!This!set!the!pace! for!the!style!of!building!in!the!21st!century!as!many!‘modern’!hausa!buildings!do!not!resemble! the!traditional!buildings!at!all!(figure!5.7,!5.8!and!5.9)! ! ! ! ! ! ! Figure!5.7.!The!Bala!Shehu!residence,!Kano! !

Figure!5.8.!!Prince!Hotel,!Kano.!!

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! st 5.2O!Reinvention!in!the!21Figure!5.9.!!Residential!Estate,!Kano! !century!

55

! As! Lawrence! and! Low! rightly! pointed! out,! ‘modern! architectural! solutions’! have! generally! caused! dissatisfaction! in! recent! times! and! this! has! inspired! some! contemporary! architects! to! search! for! traditionally! sound! principles! they! can! use! to! create! architecture! that! is! both! meaningful! and! relevant! to! its! people33.! While! mud! buildings! are! generally! still! regarded! as! archaic,! several! postmodern! architects! as! well! as! governments! in! recent! times! realise! the! importance!of!culture!and!have!tried!to!revive!some!aspects!of!traditional!building.!! According!to!Jencks,!architecture!is!evolutionary!and!not!a!radical!departure!from!the!norm34,! and!this!is!true!in!the!spatial!configuration!of!the!postmodern!residential!plans!(fig!5.10).!They! exhibit! the! inherited! Islamic! features! of! traditional! Hausa! spaces! but! they! also! have! modern! characteristics,!principally!the!connections!between!the!semiOprivate!and!private!areas.! The!traditional!courtyard!is!featured!here!but!at!a!smaller!scale,!it!helps!to!provide!privacy!by! separating!the!private!family!area!from!the!male!visitors!area.!It!also!provides!pleasant!spaces! for! domestic! activities! and! encourages! cross! ventilation,! thus! solving! the! issue! of! local! hot! climate.!The!courtyard!is!accessible!directly!from!the!women’s!area!that!is!the!kitchens!and!it! also!makes!the!main!staircase!easily!reachable.! The! plans! also! feature! a! traditional! reception! room! (zaure),! which! in! modern! times! would! be! referred! to! as! a! foyer;! the! zoning! of! spaces! based! on! gender! is! also! primarily! vertical! as! the! buildings!features!more!than!one!level.!There!is!provision!of!distinct!staircases!and!entrances! for! immediate! family! and! male! visitors! respectively.! The! male! visitors! and! family! members! occupy!the!spaces!on!the!ground!floor!while!the!females!occupy!the!higher!flus!thus!satisfying! the!cultural!and!traditional!need!for!privacy.!! ! ! ! ! 33

Denise L. Lawrence and Setha M. Low, "The Built Environment And Spatial Form", Annual Review of Anthropology 19, no. 1 (1990): 453-505. 34

Charles Jencks, The Language Of Post-Modern Architecture, 2nd ed. (New York: Rizzoli, 1977): 87.

56

! ! ! ! ! !

!

Figure!5.10.!Post!modern!residential!Hausa!plans! 57

In!certain!cases,!the!elevation!or!façade!of!the!building!is!designed!with!features!that!evoke!the! notion!of!traditional!architecture!of!Hausaland.!The!placement!of!the!dome!over!the!foyer/! zaure!space,!the!projection!of!the!zanko!from!corners!of!the!buildings,!and!the!use!of! decorative!motifs!on!the!façade!of!some!modern!buildings!show!a!conscious!attempt!of! postmodern!architects!to!reinvent!traditional!motifs!in!the!modern!era.!!! !

!

Figure!5.11.!Post!modern!residential!Hausa!buildings!with!traditional!Hausa!building!features!

Figure!5.12.!Post!modern!residential!Hausa!buildings!with!traditional!Hausa!building!features! ! 58

! ! ! ! ! ! !

Figure!5.13.!Post!modern!buildings!with!hausa!motifs!on!the!facade!

Recently,!the!government!in!Kano,!the!most!populated!Hausa!state,!carried!out!an!on!going! urban!project.!They!decided!to!construct!an!underpass!that!would!reduce!traffic!at!the!busy! Panshekara,!Madobi,!Sheik!Jafar!and!Sharada!Junction.!Former!Governor!Rabiu!Kwankwaso!is! reported!to!have!said!that!‘the!ancient!city!of!Kano!is!wearing!a!modern!outlook’!therefore!the! underpass!is!meant!to!retain!the!culture!while!helping!to!transform!Kano!into!a!mega!city.35!! The!shape!of!the!underpass!is!an!arabesque!Hausa!pattern!and!each!section!will!feature!the! northern!knot!(dagi)(and!other!symbolic!elements!of!Hausa!culture.! ! !

!

Figure!5.14.!Plans!for!Panshekara!to!Madobi!underpass!featuring!Hausa!symbols!

35

"Kano Government To Construct Underpass In Kano City |", Leadership.Ng, last modified 2013, accessed January 9, 2017, http://leadership.ng/news/314806/kano-government-construct-underpass-kano-city.

59

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

Figure!5.15.!Panshekara!to!Madobi!at!80!percent!completion!in!2016!

! While!northern!Nigerian!architects!in!recent!times!have!attempted!to!recreate!traditional! symbols,!the!negative!perception!behind!building!with!earth!prevent!them!from!exploring!mud! construction!like!the!traditional!builders!did.!!Most!mud!buildings!in!Northern!Nigeria!are!found! in!the!old!cityOstates!and!they!are!constantly!being!demolished!and!replaced!with!concrete! buildings.!The!local!mud!used!in!traditional!buildings!is!lightweight,!has!a!low!thermal!capacity,! and!cool!easily!at!night,!in!contrast!aluminium!roofing!and!concrete!cement!are!conductors!of! heat!and!do!not!cool!easily.!Using!local!materials!can!be!financially,!culturally!and! environmentally!sustainable,!therefore!there!should!be!continuous!study!of!the!old!buildings!in! order!to!develop!new!methods!of!mud!construction.! !

!

60

! CHAPTER!6P!SUMMARY!AND!CONCLUSION! Northern!Nigeria!is!a!region!that!expresses!the!triple!heritage!concept!architecturally!and!this! provides!for!an!interesting!field!of!investigation.!This!study!has!analysed!to!a!certain!extent!the! influence! of! culture,! religion! and! colonization! on! the! symbolic! expression! of! space! and! decoration!in!Hausaland.! Hausa!people!originally!had!a!preOanimistic!expressive!African!culture!and!this!is!shown!both!in! the!articulation!of!the!spaces!and!the!symbols!used!for!decoration.!The!organization!of!Hausa! compounds! was! initially! based! on! the! general! African! pattern! of! having! a! primary! wall,! a! courtyard! and! rooms! within! the! courtyard.! With! the! advent! of! Islam,! the! traditional! builders! were! able! to! merge! this! African! concept! with! the! Islamic! need! for! privacy,! and! this! they! did! successfully.!The!different!case!studies!analysed!show!how!the!builders!retained!the!indigenous! pattern!and!building!material!in!a!domestic!building,!a!state!building!and!a!religious!building.!! Different! spaces! took! on! different! symbolic! meaning! based! on! their! functions,! however! the! general!format!and!use!of!mud!still!remained.!! The!synthesis!of!culture!and!religion!was!not!restricted!to!the!spatial!schema,!it!also!applied!to! decoration.!Art!is!very!important!in!the!Hausa!culture;!this!is!evident!in!all!aspects!of!their!lives! including! architecture.! The! inherent! Hausa! need! to! adorn! and! decorate! existed! long! before! Islam!and!after!it!became!the!dominating!religion,!the!traditional!builders!sought!to!satisfy!that! custom!without!going!against!the!religion.!!The!custom!of!modelling!animal!or!human!forms!in! relief! on! building! facades! was! abolished! and! more! geometric! and! arabesque! patterns! were! used.! PreOanimistic! traditions! were! also! modified! and! reinterpreted! in! a! way! that! would! not! clash!with!Islamic!principles.! When!Nigeria!became!a!British!colony!at!the!start!of!the!20th!century,!it!began!to!change!the! type!of!materials!used!for!building!as!well!as!the!perception!of!decoration!in!society.!!The!new! materials! like! cement! and! corrugated! iron! sheets! were! used! and! a! new! style! of! decoration! emerged.! While! the! traditional! builders! modelled! their! designs! in! relief! using! mud,! the! new! 61

decorators!scratched!their!designs!on!cement.!For!a!time,!the!two!different!styles!of!decoration! were! able! to! coexist! in! society! however,! after! a! major! economic! boom,! modern! materials! became!the!norm.!One!may!conclude!that!mud!buildings!and!decoration!were!relegated!to!the! background!because!the!society!wanted!to!appear!more!modern!and!progressive! This! loss! of! architectural! style! and! identity! is! almost! inevitable! in! several! lessOdeveloped! countries!and!the!case!is!true!for!Nigeria!in!particular.!Urbanization,!colonization!and!economic! developments!have!led!to!a!decline!in!traditional!architecture!and!the!place!of!the!builder!in! Hausa!society.!The!old!buildings!are!either!being!demolished!or!renovated!in!a!more!‘modern! style!as!seen!in!the!Zaria!palace!(figure!6.1,!figure!6.2).!The!combination!of!Islamic!and!Hausa! culture!in!such!a!successful!and!rational!manner!made!the!traditional!builders!highly!honoured! and!respected!members!of!society.!They!did!not!sacrifice!one!custom!for!another;!rather!they! merged! them! in! a! way! that! was! mutually! beautiful! and! acceptable.! Consequently,! these! traditional! builders! applied! the! rather! postmodern! culture! of! ‘double! coding’! because! their! buildings!showed!the!cultural!significance!while!conforming!to!the!changing!times.!This!is!what! Hausa!society!is!struggling!to!do!in!this!present!day!and!time.!! ! ! ! ! !

Figure!6.1.!Zaria!Friday!mosque!in!1836!

Figure!6.2.!Zaria!Friday!mosque!in!1980!

! Attempts!have!been!made!in!the!21st!century!to!revive!the!traditional!styles!both!spatially!and! ornamentally.! The! use! of! Hausa! related! symbols! on! building! facades! is! gradually! becoming! popular!again!however,!there!is!a!stigma!still!attached!to!mud!buildings.!!Architects!in!Northern! Nigeria!should!understand!that!cement!and!corrugated!iron!sheets!that!have!taken!precedence!

62

over!mud!are!actually!less!suitable!for!the!regions!climatic!conditions.!Comparative!studies!of! the! methods! and! thought! processes! behind! traditional! buildings! may! create! a! deeper! understanding!of!how!to!adapt!and!retain!cultural!heritage.!Such!research!will!be!able!to!inspire! this!present!generation!to!make!use!of!contemporary!methods!to!create!an!architecture!that!is! both!culturally!sustainable!and!progressive.!! The! rich! and! eventful! history! of! Northern! Nigeria! has! definitely! shaped! its! architecture! and! present!society.!Today,!the!cultural!symbolism!in!the!Hausa!built!environment!is!articulated!as! a!combination!of!external!influences!in!organization!of!space,!decoration!and!use!of!materials.! A!conscious!effort!needs!to!be!made!in!Hausaland!to!uphold!its!cultural!symbolism!expressed!in! its!architecture.!It!is!important!to!integrate!the!characteristics!of!existing!traditional!elements! into! the! new! buildings! so! it! can! influence! the! cultural! identity! of! the! place! positively.! While! Hausa!culture!struggles!to!find!architectural!identity!in!modern!times,!the!achievements!of!the! traditional! builders! can! set! a! precedent! for! the! modern! architects! to! incorporate! both! traditional!and!modern!concepts!moving!forward.!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 63

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Figure! 3.1.! ! Three! key! features! in! traditional! African! and! Hausa! compoundsO! ! Authors! own!



Figure! 3.2.! Traditional! plan! of! an! African! CompoundO! Moughtin,! Cliff.! Hausa( Architecture.!1st!ed.!London:!Ethnographica,!1985,!p!56.!



Figure!3.3.!Traditional!plan!of!a!Hausa!compoundO!Kehera,!Akel!I.!"The!Architecture!Of! The! West! African! Mosque:! An! Exegesis! Of! The! Hausa! And! Fulani! Models".! MSc.! Diss,! Massachusetts!Institute!of!technology,!1987,!p!64.!!



Figure! 3.4.! Mallawa! family! tree,! 1982O! Moughtin,! Cliff.! Hausa( Architecture.! 1st! ed.! London:!Ethnographica,!1985,!p!64.!

69



Figure!3.5.!Mallawa!family!home,!Zaria!in!1962O!Moughtin,!Cliff.!Hausa(Architecture.!1st! ed.!London:!Ethnographica,!1985,!p!62.!



Figure!3.6.!Mallawa!family!home,!Zaria!in!1982O!Moughtin,!Cliff.!Hausa(Architecture.!1st! ed.!London:!Ethnographica,!1985!p!65.!



Figure! 3.7.! ! Mallawa! home! 1962! (Turaki! Mohamed’s! Section)O! Moughtin,! Cliff.! Hausa( Architecture.!1st!ed.!London:!Ethnographica,!1985,!p!66.!



Figure!3.8.!Types!of!Hausa!roof!pinnacles!(Zankwaye)O!Kehera,!Akel!I.!"The!Architecture! Of!The!West!African!Mosque:!An!Exegesis!Of!The!Hausa!And!Fulani!Models".!MSc.!Diss,! Massachusetts!Institute!of!technology,!1987,!p!62.!



Figure!3.9.!!House!forms!and!hut!shrines!in!pre!dynastic!Egypt,!p!26.!!



Figure! 3.10.! ! Portrait! of! the! Emir! of! Kano,! Muhammadu! Sanusi! II! with! his! turban! featuring! protruding! ZankwayeO! The! Herald.! Meet( Emir( Of( Kano( With( A( Tint( Of( Swag,( Sanusi(

Lamido(

Sanusi.!

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Figure!3.12.!Plan!and!section!of!reception!rooms,!Zaria!!(1977)O!Moughtin,!Cliff.!Hausa( Architecture.!1st!ed.!London:!Ethnographica,!1985,!p!75O76.!



Figure!3.13O!(A)!Talhatana!charms!!!!!!(B)!Geometric!shapes!derived!from!charms.! Moughtin,!Cliff.!Hausa(Architecture.!1st!ed.!London:!Ethnographica,!1985,!p!73.!



Figure!3.14.!Decoration!above!door!openings!(1980)O!!Dmochowski,!Z.!R.!An(Introduction( To(Nigerian(Traditional(Architecture(Volume(One:(Northern(Nigeria.!1st!ed.!London:! Ethnographica!in!association!with!the!National!Commission!for!Museums!and! Monuments,!1990,!p!5.37O5.42.!



Figure!3.15.!Roof!arches!with!decorative!lines!(2015)!O!Flikr,.!Zazzau(Emir's(Palace(;( Interior.(Zaria,(Nigeria..!Image,!2015.!Accessed!January!13,!2017.!

70

http://irenebecker.photoshelter.com/galleryOimage/TheORoyalOPalaceOofOtheOEmirOofO Zaria/G0000LYT3oLw.vN0/I0000AAIJaYOUQE0.! •

Figure!3.16.!Relief!decorator!at!workO!West/Central(Africa(Architecture(And(Art.!Image,! 2013.!Accessed!November!16,!2016.! http://www.forumbiodiversity.com/showthread.php/40708OWestOCentralOAfrica.!



Figure!3.17.!Zaria!palace!in!1963O!!Delcampe,.!Afrique(>(NIGERIA(Batiment(D´Entrée(Du( Palais( De( L´Emir( De( ZARIA( (( Etat( De( Kaduna)( Motifs( Décoratifs( Hausa.! Image,! 2014.! Accessed!

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3,!

2017.!

https://www.delcampe.net/en_GB/collectables/postcards/nigeria/afriqueOnigeriaO batimentOdOentreeOduOpalaisOdeOlOemirOdeOzariaOetatOdeOkadunaOmotifsOdecoratifsO hausaO231528560.html.! •

Figure!3.18.!Zaria!palace!in!1980O!Schwerdtfeger,!Friedrich!W.!Hausa(Urban(Art(And(Its( Social(Background."1st"ed."Münster:"Lit,"2007,"p"237.!



Figure!3.19.!Zaria!palace!in!2015!!O!Wikiwand,.!Gate(To(The(Palace(Of(The(Emir(Of( Zazzau.!Image,!2015.!Accessed!November!16,!2016.! http://www.wikiwand.com/en/Zaria#/overview.!



Figure! 3.20.! Decorative! motifs! on! the! Zaria! palace! gateO! Schwerdtfeger,! Friedrich! W.! Hausa(Urban(Art(And(Its(Social(Background."1st"ed."Münster:"Lit,"2007,"p"237O238.!



Figure!3.21.!The!Prophets!Mosque!at!Madinah!622CE!O!Kehera,!Akel!I.!"The!Architecture! Of!The!West!African!Mosque:!An!Exegesis!Of!The!Hausa!And!Fulani!Models".!MSc.!Diss,! Massachusetts!Institute!of!technology,!1987,!p!8.!



Figure! 3.22.! Zaria! Friday! mosque! planO! ! Moughtin,! Cliff.! Hausa( Architecture.! 1st! ed.! London:!Ethnographica,!1985,!p!91.!



Figure! 3.23.! Zaria! Friday! mosque! sections! and! elevationO! Moughtin,! Cliff.! Hausa( Architecture.!1st!ed.!London:!Ethnographica,!1985,!p!92O93.!



Figure!3.24.!Section!Through!arch!O!Moughtin,!Cliff.!Hausa(Architecture.!1st!ed.!London:! Ethnographica,!1985,!p!107.!



! 71



Figure! 3.25.! Hausa! vault! under! constructionO! Prussin,! Labelle.! "An! Introduction! To! Indigenous! African! Architecture".! Journal( of( the( Society( of( Architectural( Historians! 33,! no.!3!(1974):!204.!



Figure!3.26.!Zaria!Friday!Mosque!roof!planO!Moughtin,!Cliff.!Hausa(Architecture.!1st!ed.! London:!Ethnographica,!1985,!p!109.!



Figure!3.27.!Zaria!Friday!Mosque!axonometric!viewO!Moughtin,!Cliff.!Hausa(Architecture.! 1st!ed.!London:!Ethnographica,!1985,!p!95!



Figure!3.28.!Zaria!Friday!Mosque,!North!Aisle!interior!view,!1920O!Dmochowski,!Z.!R.!An( Introduction(To(Nigerian(Traditional(Architecture(Volume(One:(Northern(Nigeria.!1st!ed.! London:!Ethnographica!in!association!with!the!National!Commission!for!Museums!and! Monuments,!1990,!p!2.24.!!



Figure!3.29.!Zaria!Friday!Mosque,!Central!Bay!Interior!view,!1920O!Dmochowski,!Z.!R.!An( Introduction(To(Nigerian(Traditional(Architecture(Volume(One:(Northern(Nigeria.!1st!ed.! London:!Ethnographica!in!association!with!the!National!Commission!for!Museums!and! Monuments,!1990,!p!2.23.!



Figure! 3.30.! Zaria! Friday! Mosque,! colums! showing! circular! and! triangular! talhatana( derived!motifsO!!Schwerdtfeger,!Friedrich!W.!Hausa(Urban(Art(And(Its(Social(Background." 1st$ed.$Münster:$Lit,$2007,$p$290O291.!!



Figure!3.31.!Zaria!Friday!Mosque,!Central!eastOwest!aisle!1980.!Archnet,.!View(Through( The( Mosque( Through( A( North;South( Axis( Of( Bays..! Image,! 1980.! Accessed! October! 4,! 2016.!http://archnet.org/sites/4180/media_contents/9369.!



Figure! 3.32.! Zaria! Friday! Mosque,! piers,! vaults! and! columns! with! geometric! patterns,! 1980O!!Archnet,.!Friday(Mosque(At(Zaria(Zaria,(Nigeria.!Image,!1980.!Accessed!October! 4,!2016.!http://archnet.org/sites/4180/media_contents/9366.!

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Figure! 4.1.! Star! of! david! on! traders! house! in! ZariaO! Schwerdtfeger,! Friedrich! W.! Hausa( Urban(Art(And(Its(Social(Background."1st"ed."Münster:"Lit,"2007,"p"91.!



Figure! 4.2.! Bicycle! motif! on! building! façade! in! ZariaO! Encyclopaedia! Britannica,.! Hausa( Building( With( Molded( Low;Relief( Decoration,( Zaria,( Nigeria..! Image,! 2017.! Accessed! October! 4,! 2016.! https://www.britannica.com/art/AfricanOarchitecture/InfluencesOofO IslamOandOChristianity.!



Figure! 4.3.! Star! of! david! on! oneOpenny! colonial! coinO! Nairaland,.! Minted( Nigerian( Coin( With(

The(

Star(

Of(

David.!

Image,!

2015.!

Accessed!

October!

4,!

2016.!

http://www.nairaland.com/2529552/igbosOhebrewsOmintedOnigerianOcoin.! •

Figure! 4.4.! Watch! repairer! house! in! Zaria! with! motif! of! clock! on! the! façadeO! Schwerdtfeger,! Friedrich! W.! Hausa( Urban( Art( And( Its( Social( Background." 1st" ed." Münster:)Lit,)2007,)p)92.!



Figure!4.5.!House!of!Chief!Butcher!with!the!words!SARKIN(PAWA,!written!on!the!façade,! ZariaO!Schwerdtfeger,!Friedrich!W.!Hausa(Urban(Art(And(Its(Social(Background."1st"ed." Münster:)Lit,)2007,)p)92.!



Figure!4.6.!Animal!representation!in!reliefO!Moughtin,!Cliff.!Hausa(Architecture.!1st!ed.! London:!Ethnographica,!1985,!p!131.!



Figure!4.7.!Islamic!symbols!O!!Schwerdtfeger,!Friedrich!W.!Hausa(Urban(Art(And(Its(Social( Background."1st"ed."Münster:"Lit,"2007,"p"88.!



Figure! 4.8.! Quran! verse! above! doorway! meaning! ‘Allah! is! the! best! of! planners’O! Schwerdtfeger,! Friedrich! W.! Hausa( Urban( Art( And( Its( Social( Background." 1st" ed." Münster:!Lit,!2007,!p!73.!



Figure!5.1.!Details!of!roof!in!Kano!palaceO!Osodi,!George.! THE(SORON(INGILA,(DETAILS( OF( ROOF( EMIR's( PALACE( KANO.! Image,! 2012.! Accessed! September! 14,! 2016.! http://georgeosodi.photoshelter.com/image/I0000Syjgv1D9FG8.!



Figure!5.2.!Alhaji!Ado!Roof!plan!and!section!showing!mud!relief!detailsO!Moughtin,!Cliff.! Hausa(Architecture.!1st!ed.!London:!Ethnographica,!1985,!p!140.!

73



Figure! 5.3.! Mallam! Haruna! working! to! redecorate! Zaria! Palace,! 1968O! Schwerdtfeger,! Friedrich! W.! Hausa( Urban( Art( And( Its( Social( Background." 1st" ed." Münster:" Lit," 2007," p" 211.!



Figure!5.4.!Relief!decoration!on!building!facade!by!Mallam!Haruna,!Zaria!Hausa(Facade.! Image,!

n.d.!

Accessed!

February!

5,2017.https://sOmediaOcacheO

ak0.pinimg.com/originals/51/0b/44/510b44ff265806f80ede0ae0904a2fbb.jpg.! •

Figure! 5.5.! Relief! and! geometric! decoration! on! building! facade,! ZariaO! ! Encyclopaedia! Britannica,.! Contemporary( Vernacular( Architecture( In( Zaria,( Nigeria:( Clay( Houses( Decorated(

With(

Low.!

Image,!

2009.!

Accessed!

February!

4,!

2017.!

https://www.britannica.com/place/ZariaONigeria.! •

Figure!5.6.!Geometric!decoration!on!building!facade,!ZariaO!Schwerdtfeger,!Friedrich!W.! Hausa(Urban(Art(And(Its(Social(Background."1st"ed."Münster:"Lit,"2007,"p"187.!



Figure!5.7.!The!Bala!Shehu!residence,!Kano.!Details!of!roof!in!Kano!palaceO!Authors!own!



Figure!5.8.!!Prince!Hotel,!Kano!–!Authors!own!



Figure!5.9.!Residential!Estate,!Kano!–!Authors!own!



Figure! 5.10.! Post! modern! residential! Hausa! plansO! Aliyu,! Mohammed.! Postmodern( residential( plan( showing( zoning( approach( of( Hausa( culture( with( respect( to( gender.! Image,!

2015.!

Accessed!

December!

29,!

2016.!

http://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/html/10.11648.j.ijaaa.20150102.11.html.! •

Figure! 5.11.! Post! modern! residential! Hausa! buildings! with! traditional! Hausa! building! featuresO!Aliyu,!Mohammed.!Pictorial(views(of(postmodern(buildings(showing(dome(on( the( entrance( porch( as( culturally( thought.( Image,! 2015.! Accessed! December! 29,! 2016.! http://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/html/10.11648.j.ijaaa.20150102.11.html.(



Figure! 5.12.! Post! modern! residential! Hausa! buildings! with! traditional! Hausa! building! features!–!Authors!own!



Figure!5.13.!Post!modern!buildings!with!hausa!motifs!on!the!façadeO!Aliyu,!Mohammed.! Pictorial(views(of(postmodern(residential(designs(displaying(northern(cultural(symbol(

74

popularly( known( as(( Arewa( symbol.( Image,! 2015.! Accessed! December! 29,! 2016.! http://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/html/10.11648.j.ijaaa.20150102.11.html.! •

Figure! 5.14.! Plans! for! Panshekara! to! Madobi! underpass! featuring! Hausa! symbolsO! Panshekara! And! Madobi! Underpass.! Image,! 2017.! Accessed! September! 29,! 2016.! https://twitter.com/dawisu/status/803179560531529728.!



Figure!5.15.!Panshekara!to!Madobi!at!80!percent!completion!in!2016O!!Nairaland!Forum,.! Panshekara( Madobi( Underpass.! Image,! 2016.! Accessed! January! 5,! 2017.! http://www.nairaland.com/3484194/.!



Figure!6.1.!Zaria!Friday!mosque!in!1836O!Atelier!Masomi,.!Friday(Mosque,(Zaria,(Nigeria.( 1836.!

Image,!

2016.!

Accessed!

January!

31,!

2017.!

http://www.ateliermasomi.com/blog/post_idO2.! •

Figure! 6.2.! Zaria! Friday! mosque! in! 1980O! ! Archnet,.! Northeast( Façade( Of( The( 1970S( Exterior.(Shari'a(Court(Would(Have(Stood(At(The(Far(Left.!Image,!1980.!Accessed!January! 30,!2017.!http://archnet.org/sites/4180/media_contents/9375.! !

! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

75

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!

76

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!

77

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!

78

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!

79

!! ! ! Figure! 5.4.! Relief! decoration! on! building! facade! by! Mallam! Haruna,! Zaria! Hausa( Facade.! Image,!

n.d.!

Accessed!

February!

5,2017.https://sOmediaOcacheO

ak0.pinimg.com/originals/51/0b/44/510b44ff265806f80ede0ae0904a2fbb.jpg.! Figure! 5.5.! Relief! and! geometric! decoration! on! building! facade,! ZariaO! ! Encyclopaedia! Britannica,.! Contemporary( Vernacular(Architecture( In( Zaria,(Nigeria:( Clay( Houses( Decorated( With(

Low.!

Image,!

2009.!

Accessed!

February!

4,!

2017.!

https://www.britannica.com/place/ZariaONigeria.! Figure! 5.6.! Geometric! decoration! on! building! facade,! ZariaO! Schwerdtfeger,! Friedrich! W.! Hausa(Urban(Art(And(Its(Social(Background."1st"ed."Münster:"Lit,"2007,"p"187.! ! Figure!5.7.!The!Bala!Shehu!residence,!Kano.!Details!of!roof!in!Kano!palaceO!Authors!own! Figure!5.8.!!Prince!Hotel,!Kano!–!Authors!own! Figure!5.9.!Residential!Estate,!Kano!–!Authors!own! Figure! 5.10.! Post! modern! residential! Hausa! plansO! Aliyu,! Mohammed.! Postmodern( residential(plan(showing(zoning(approach(of(Hausa(culture(with(respect(to(gender.!Image,! 2015.!

Accessed!

December!

29,!

2016.!

http://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/html/10.11648.j.ijaaa.20150102.11.html.! Figure!5.11.!Post!modern!residential!Hausa!buildings!with!traditional!Hausa!building!featuresO! Aliyu,!Mohammed.!Pictorial(views(of(postmodern(buildings(showing(dome(on(the(entrance( porch( as( culturally( thought.( Image,! 2015.! Accessed! December! 29,! 2016.! http://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/html/10.11648.j.ijaaa.20150102.11.html.( Figure!5.12.!Post!modern!residential!Hausa!buildings!with!traditional!Hausa!building!features! –!Authors!own! ! ! ! 80

! ! Figure! 5.13.! Post! modern! buildings! with! hausa! motifs! on! the! façadeO! Aliyu,! Mohammed.! Pictorial( views( of( postmodern( residential( designs( displaying( northern( cultural( symbol( popularly( known( as(( Arewa( symbol.( Image,! 2015.! Accessed! December! 29,! 2016.! http://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/html/10.11648.j.ijaaa.20150102.11.html.! Figure!5.14.!Plans!for!Panshekara!to!Madobi!underpass!featuring!Hausa!symbolsO!Panshekara! And!

Madobi!

Underpass.!

Image,!

2017.!

Accessed!

September!

29,!

2016.!

https://twitter.com/dawisu/status/803179560531529728.! ! Figure! 5.15.! Panshekara! to! Madobi! at! 80! percent! completion! in! 2016O! ! Nairaland! Forum,.! Panshekara(

Madobi(

Underpass.!

Image,!

2016.!

Accessed!

January!

5,!

2017.!

http://www.nairaland.com/3484194/.! ! Figure! 6.1.! Zaria! Friday! mosque! in! 1836O! Atelier! Masomi,.! Friday( Mosque,( Zaria,( Nigeria.( 1836.!

Image,!

2016.!

Accessed!

January!

31,!

2017.!

http://www.ateliermasomi.com/blog/post_idO2.! ! Figure!6.2.!Zaria!Friday!mosque!in!1980O!!Archnet,.!Northeast(Façade(Of(The(1970S(Exterior.( Shari'a( Court( Would( Have( Stood( At( The( Far( Left.! Image,! 1980.! Accessed! January! 30,! 2017.! http://archnet.org/sites/4180/media_contents/9375.! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

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