Guthrie's Contiguity View 25. The Impact of Reward 26. The Impact of
Punishment 27. The Importance of Practice 27. Breaking a Habit 28. An
Evaluation of ...
Detailed Contents Preface xiii
Organization xiii Pedagogical Features xv Supplements xvi Acknowledgments xvi
1 An Introduction to Learning
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The Gift of Knowledge 1 A Definition of Learning 2 Functionalism 2 Behaviorism 3 Associationism 3 Thorndike 4 Pavlov 8 Watson 10 The Ethics of Conducting Research 13 Conducting Research With Human Subjects 13 The Use of Nonhuman Animals in Research 14 Critical Thinking Questions 15 Key Terms 15
2 Traditional Learning Theories The Oldies But Goodies 17 Traditional Learning Theories 18 Hull’s Drive Theory 18 Unconditioned Sources of Drive 20 Acquired Drives 20 The Reinforcing Function of Drive Reduction 20 The Elimination of Unsuccessful Behavior 21 Incentive Motivation 21 An Evaluation of Drive Theory 22 Spence’s Acquired Motive Approach 23 The Anticipation of Reward 23 Avoidance of Frustrating Events 24 Nature of Anticipatory Behavior 24
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Guthrie’s Contiguity View 25 The Impact of Reward 26 The Impact of Punishment 27 The Importance of Practice 27 Breaking a Habit 28 An Evaluation of Contiguity Theory 28 Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism 30 Flexibility of Behavior 31 Motivation Processes 31 Is Reward Necessary for Learning? 32 An Evaluation of Purposive Behaviorism 32 Skinner’s Behavioristic Methodology 32 The Importance of the Environment 32 The Role of Theory? 34 Critical Thinking Questions 35 Key Terms 35
3 The Modification of Instinctive Behavior
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Do You Have a Light? 37 The Instinctive Basis of Behavior 38 The Interaction of Energy and Environment 38 The Importance of Experience 42 Evaluation of Lorenz-Tinbergen Model 43 Habituation and Sensitization 45 Characteristics of Habituation and Sensitization 47 The Nature of Habituation and Sensitization 48 Learning in the Aplysia Californica 50 Dishabituation 52 Opponent-Process Theory 55 The Initial Reaction 55 The Intensification of the Opponent B State 56 The Addictive Process 58 The Search for Pleasure 59 Critical Thinking Questions 60 Key Terms 60
4 Principles and Applications of Classical Conditioning A Lingering Fear 61 Principles of Classical Conditioning 62 The Conditioning Process 62 Conditioning Techniques 66 Temporal Relationship Between the CS and the UCS 69 Conditions Affecting the Acquisition of a Conditioned Response 71 Extinction of the Conditioned Response 78 Other Inhibitory Processes 82 A CR Without CS-UCS Pairings 85
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Applications of Classical Conditioning 89 Systematic Desensitization 89 Explorations for the Future 94 Critical Thinking Questions 95 Key Terms 96
5 Theories of Classical Conditioning
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He Never Saw It Coming 97 The Nature of the Conditioned Response 98 Stimulus-Substitution Theory 98 The Conditioning of an Opponent Response 99 Sometimes-Opponent-Process (SOP) Theory 102 Affective Extension of SOP, or AESOP 105 The Nature of the Classical Conditioning Process 107 Rescorla-Wagner Associative Model 107 An Evaluation of the Rescorla-Wagner Model 110 A Comparator Theory of Classical Conditioning 116 Mackintosh’s Attentional View 117 The Retrospective Processing View 119 Critical Thinking Questions 121 Key Terms 121
6 Principles and Applications of Appetitive Conditioning
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A Loss of Control 123 Principles of Appetitive Conditioning 124 Skinner’s Contribution 124 The Distinction Between Instrumental and Operant Conditioning 124 Types of Reinforcers 126 Shaping 128 Schedules of Reinforcement 130 How Readily Is an Instrumental or an Operant Response Learned? 137 Extinction of an Appetitive Response 143 Application of Appetitive Conditioning 151 Contingency Management 151 Critical Thinking Questions 160 Key Terms 160
7 Principles and Applications of Aversive Conditioning A Good Whipping 161 Principles of Aversive Conditioning 162 Escape Conditioning 162 The Avoidance of Aversive Events 168 Punishment 173
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Applications of Aversive Conditioning 185 Response Prevention or Flooding 185 Punishment 187 Critical Thinking Questions 194 Key Terms 194
8 Theories of Appetitive and Aversive Conditioning
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A Lack of Control 195 Theories of Appetitive Conditioning 196 The Nature of Reinforcement 196 Principles of Behavioral Economics 199 The Pain of Failure 206 Theories of Aversive Learning 207 The Nature of Avoidance Learning 207 The Nature of Punishment 213 Critical Thinking Questions 215 Key Terms 216
9 Biological Influences on Learning A Nauseating Experience 217 Generality of the Laws of Learning 218 A Behavior Systems Approach 218 Animal Misbehavior 221 Schedule-Induced Behavior 225 Schedule-Induced Polydipsia 225 Other Schedule-Induced Behaviors 226 The Nature of Schedule-Induced Behavior 226 Does Schedule-Induced Behavior Occur in Humans? 229 Flavor Aversion Learning 230 The Selectivity of Flavor Aversion Learning 230 Nature of Flavor Aversion Learning 231 Flavor Aversion Learning in Humans 233 Imprinting 234 Infant Love 234 Sexual Preference 236 Nature of Imprinting 236 The Avoidance of Aversive Events 239 Species-Specific Defense Reactions 239 Predispositions and Avoidance Learning 241 The Biology of Reinforcement 242 Electrical Stimulation of the Brain 242 The Influence of the Medial Forebrain Bundle 242 Mesolimbic Reinforcement System 245 Critical Thinking Questions 250 Key Terms 251
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10 Stimulus Control of Behavior
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A Case of Mistaken Identity 253 The Stimulus Generalization Process 254 Generalization Gradients 255 The Nature of the Stimulus Generalization Process 260 Discrimination Learning 264 Discrimination Paradigms 265 Behavioral Contrast 267 Occasion Setting 269 The Nature of Discrimination Learning 273 Continuity Versus Discontinuity 281 Critical Thinking Questions 283 Key Terms 284
11 Cognitive Control of Behavior
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The Insurmountable Barrier 285 Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism 286 Learning Principles 286 Place-Learning Studies 287 Is Reward Necessary for Learning? 289 The Drive Response 291 The Concept of an Expectation 291 A Mental Representation of Events 291 Types of Mental Representations 292 The Importance of Habits 297 Habit or Expectation? 297 A Cognitive View of Depression 299 Learned Helplessness Theory 299 An Attributional Theory of Helplessness 303 Hopelessness Theory of Depression 305 Biological Influences on Learned Helplessness 307 A Cognitive View of Phobic Behavior 309 Phobias and Expectations 309 Self-Efficacy and Phobic Behavior 310 The Importance of Our Experiences 310 Application: A Modeling Treatment for Phobias 312 An Alternative View 313 Critical Thinking Questions 314 Key Terms 314
12 Complex Learning Tasks A Day at the Beach 315 Concept Learning 316 The Structure of a Concept 316 Studying Concept Learning in Humans 319
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Studying Concept Learning in Animals 320 Theories of Concept Learning 323 Problem Solving 327 The Missionaries-and-Cannibals Problem 327 The Nature of the Problem 327 A Strategy for Solving Problems 330 The Problem Solved 332 The Consequences of Past Experience 333 The Nature of Expertise 334 Language 336 The Structure of Language 336 Syntax: The Rules of Language 337 Semantics: The Meaning of Language 338 Acquisition of Language 341 Application: Teaching Primates Language 343 Critical Thinking Questions 347 Key Terms 347
13 The Storage of Our Experiences A Fleeting Experience 349 Measures of Memory 350 A Three-Stage View of Memory Storage 350 Sensory Register 351 Iconic Memory 352 Echoic Memory 354 The Nature of a Sensory Memory 355 Short-Term Store 356 The Span of Short-Term Memory 356 Disrupting Short-Term Memory 357 Limited Storage Capacity 358 The Organization of Our Experiences 358 The Rehearsal Function of the Short-Term Store 368 A Rehearsal Systems Approach 369 Phonological Loop 370 Visuospatial Sketchpad 370 The Central Executive 370 Episodic Buffer 371 Is There a Short-Term Memory? 372 Long-Term Store 373 Episodic Versus Semantic Memories 373 Procedural Versus Declarative Memories 375 Cellular Modification Theory 376 Anatomical Basis of Memory Storage 378 Medial Temporal Lobe 378 Mediodorsal Thalamus 382 Critical Thinking Questions 384 Key Terms 385
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14 Memory Retrieval and Forgetting
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A Look Into the Past 387 Memory Retrieval 387 Attributes of Memory 388 Temporal Attribute 388 Context Attribute 388 Affective Attribute 391 Forgetting 394 How Quickly We Forget 394 Decay of a Memory 396 Interference 397 Reconstruction of the Past 400 Motivated Forgetting 405 Anatomical Basis of Memory Retrieval 407 Application: Mnemonics 409 Method of Loci 410 Remembering Names 411 Do Mnemonics Work? 412 Critical Thinking Questions 413 Key Terms 414
