Developing a marine conservation program in ...

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Developing a marine conservation program in temperate Australia: determining priorities for action ab

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James A. Fitzsimons , Lynne Hale , Boze Hancock & Michael W. Beck

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The Nature Conservancy, Suite 2-01, 60 Leicester Street, Carlton, VIC 3053, Australia b

School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University, 221 Burwood Highway, Burwood, VIC 3125, Australia

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The Nature Conservancy, Graduate School of Oceanography, University of Rhode Island, South Ferry Road, Narragansett, RI 02882-1197, USA d

The Nature Conservancy, Center for Ocean Health, Long Marine Laboratory, 100 Shaffer Road, Santa Cruz, CA 95060, USA Published online: 06 May 2015.

To cite this article: James A. Fitzsimons, Lynne Hale, Boze Hancock & Michael W. Beck (2015) Developing a marine conservation program in temperate Australia: determining priorities for action, Australian Journal of Maritime & Ocean Affairs, 7:1, 85-93, DOI: 10.1080/18366503.2015.1014020 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/18366503.2015.1014020

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Australian Journal of Maritime and Ocean Affairs, 2015 Vol. 7, No. 1, 85–93, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/18366503.2015.1014020

Developing a marine conservation program in temperate Australia: determining priorities for action James A. Fitzsimonsa,b*, Lynne Halec, Boze Hancockc and Michael W. Beckd


a

The Nature Conservancy, Suite 2-01, 60 Leicester Street, Carlton, VIC 3053, Australia; bSchool of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University, 221 Burwood Highway, Burwood, VIC 3125, Australia; cThe Nature Conservancy, Graduate School of Oceanography, University of Rhode Island, South Ferry Road, Narragansett, RI 02882-1197, USA; dThe Nature Conservancy, Center for Ocean Health, Long Marine Laboratory, 100 Shaffer Road, Santa Cruz, CA 95060, USA The temperate seascapes of southern Australia have, until recently, received less conservation attention than the country’s tropical waters. Here, we describe the results of an expert elicitation aimed at identifying gaps and opportunities in marine conservation for temperate waters. The process highlighted the need for focusing conservation attention on temperate bays, estuaries and inlets. The subsequent development of the Great Southern Seascapes program by The Nature Conservancy is aimed at beginning to address this need. The program focuses on the following actions for temperate Australian bays, estuaries and inlets: (a) increased protection, (b) ‘in the water’ restoration, (c) initiatives to address sea-level rise, (d) improved management and increased stakeholder involvement, (e) science and monitoring, and (f) community, government, and corporate engagement and funding. Actions taken to date, including commencing Australia’s first ever oyster reef restoration project, and future directions, are outlined.

Introduction Australia is truly a maritime nation. Its marine estate of 10.2 million km2 is one and a half times as large as its terrestrial land mass and more than 95% of the population lives along the coast – primarily in cities. Compared with the marine waters of other nations, Australia’s oceans are considered to be in good condition.1 From a global perspective, Australia plays an outsized leadership role in marine conservation. Some of the world’s most advanced marine conservation science and exemplary action has arisen in tropical Australia, with the establishment in 1975 of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (GBRMP) being perhaps the most prominent example.2 For almost four decades, the GBRMP has inspired marine practitioners throughout the world, providing a robust example of how to extensively involve stakeholders to develop and adaptively manage a large, fully zoned marine area to achieve multiple objectives with conservation at its heart. Australia is also the world leader in measuring, monitoring and predicting global trajectories of coral reefs3 and is arguably the single most influential source for marine spatial planning.4 Australia is also a leader in temperate marine science, with many excellent temperate marine labs and institutions across the nation. Globally, Australian temperate marine science is widely

*Corresponding author. Email: jfi[email protected] © 2015 Taylor & Francis


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known for its expertise in rocky intertidal, rocky subtidal, kelp and seagrass systems, as well as the design, assessment and analysis of benthic ecological experiments.5 Since it is often difficult to match rigorous experimental design (which is typically done at scales of metres to hundreds of metres) with large, seascape-scale initiatives (kilometres to hundreds of square kilometres), conservation action from this science has been less direct. Perhaps this is one reason why the temperate seascapes of southern Australia, including vitally important coastal and estuarine ecosystems, have, until recently, received less conservation attention. Starting a decade ago, there has been a significant increase in interest and planning for marine and coastal resources in temperate Australia. This includes the Commonwealth Government’s Marine Bioregional Planning process and marine protected area proposals,6 as well as marine planning exercises in multiple states’ waters.7 Here, we describe the results of an expert elicitation, convened by The Nature Conservancy (TNC), with support from The Thomas Foundation, aimed at identifying where there may be gaps and opportunities in marine conservation in Australia, particularly in temperate marine conservation, as well as actions taken to date or needed to address those gaps. TNC is a non-government organisation that has been involved with marine conservation and restoration projects for more than 20 years and works on marine projects in more than 20 countries.8 It has been active in Australia since 2002, with most of its work concentrated on terrestrial systems.9 The significance and condition of Australia’s temperate coasts and seascapes Southern Australia’s temperate marine ecosystems are unique and contain high levels of endemism.10 The area’s once extensive, and now nearly extirpated, native shellfish reefs are important from a global conservation standpoint, as well as providing an important nexus with water quality and fisheries habitat.11 Other important temperate habitats along the southern coast, from Perth to just south of Sydney, include soft corals, seagrass beds with depths extending dozens of metres in some coastal areas, and saltmarshes that provide essential feeding habitat for fish and for iconic species such as the critically endangered Orange-bellied Parrot.12 The value of these systems is enormous. For example, a recent meta-analysis of juvenile fish abundance at seagrass and control sites across southern Australia derived a quantitative estimate of the enhancement of juvenile fish by these seagrass habitats. The research showed that just one square metre of seagrass on average adds an extra kilogram of commercially important fish to an estuary every year13 – an extra 10 tonnes of fish per year per hectare. This translates to a calculated value of over $AUD23,000 every year. Most Australians – an estimated 65% of the population – live adjacent to the nation’s temperate coasts, bays and estuaries and the amenities these systems provide make a major contribution to the Australian way of life. Commercial activity in temperate waters has been going on since Europeans first came to Australia – from ports and shipping, to commercial fishing, to offshore energy extraction. Over the last decade, the use of temperate waters for aquaculture has expanded dramatically, especially for salmon, oysters, mussels, barramundi and tuna ranching.14 Increasing international demand for Australia’s natural resources is also causing increased demand for access through the nation’s temperate ports. The recreational amenities of many regional cities and coastal towns are dominated by marine attractions and recreational fishing. Recreational fishing is considered to be one of the nation’s largest participatory recreational activities.15 For example, a 2007 study of recreational fishing in South Australia’s waters found that approximately 16% of the population participated in recreational fishing during the survey year.16 According to the 2011 Australian State of the Environment report, many of the ecosystems of the coasts and waters in temperate Australia are in poorer condition than those in the tropics, with substantial degradation in the east, south-east and south-west.17 Bays and estuaries in these

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regions are in poor to very poor condition. Much of the impact first occurred in the mid-nineteenth to the mid-twentieth centuries from unregulated human activities in river catchments; and certain types of temperate marine systems, particularly large embayments which are good for ports, have been deeply impacted.18 At the same time, there remain marine places throughout Australia’s temperate south that are near pristine, iconic and still deliver a full range of ecosystem services. Selecting priorities for conservation in temperate Australia In 2012, The Thomas Foundation (a philanthropic organisation) asked TNC to convene a group of experts to identify potential conservation priorities and opportunities in temperate Australian marine waters. To do this, TNC invited Australian experts in science, policy and implementation to participate in a two-day elicitation workshop to discuss current approaches and major gaps in conservation and restoration in coastal and marine environments of southern Australia. Added to this group were a small number of US-based TNC marine scientists who had experience working in both Australia and the USA in order to bring international experience to the discussion (see Acknowledgements for workshop participants and their affiliations at the time). At the core of the 2012 workshop and subsequent discussions were two questions: (1) What are the temperate marine areas that are in greatest need of protection and/or restoration? (The study area was broken up into (a) nearshore and coastal; (b) bays, estuaries and inlets; and (c) offshore areas, to enable participants to consider their answers for each zone.) (2) Through what type of engagement could TNC best add value to ongoing efforts across Australia’s temperate marine seascape? For each marine area, key threats, opportunities, issues and potential priority sites were brainstormed and discussed. The issue of integrated management came up strongly for all three zones. Results For each of the major zones, participants identified a number of key and common themes. It was suggested that a new initiative by a non-government organisation would add best value by: Bays, estuaries and inlets . Establishing a national bays and estuaries program; although a National Estuaries Network currently exists, it was suggested that this network could be expanded and strengthened. . Supporting existing groups and specific projects; and making connections among projects to leverage promising results. . Focusing on the opportunity to engage recreational fishers in restoration – they are one of the key users of the marine environment and an active and influential group. . Exploring how Landcare could be used as a model. The SeaNet program operated through OceanWatch Australia was also highlighted (this program sought to advance the sustainability of Australian fisheries and introduce conservation behaviours and new technologies to the industry). . Undertaking an institutional analysis and providing recommendations on how sectors might better work together to tackle complex issues/problems and increase capacity to deliver significant environmental outcomes. . Helping to build the capacity of local groups in specific catchments or coastal regions.

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Coasts .

. . .

Documenting and learning from the positive experience on coastal management throughout Australia: Rottnest Island and Derwent River were noted as possible good examples to learn from and replicate. Developing an evidence-based approach to management and making this information widely available. Focusing on mitigating against the impact of sea-level rise on coastal ecosystems. Identifying areas with levee banks and developing innovative mechanisms to remove levees to allow for habitat migration (for example, biodiversity offsets).


Offshore . .

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Carrying out baseline habitat mapping in the south-east offshore region – a region considered a hotspot for biodiversity and the impacts of climate change. Exploring whether integration of the management of the south-east region (especially in relation to fisheries, marine protected areas and oil and gas) can improve biodiversity conservation. Identifying mechanisms for integration in this region; assessing how effective existing management is; and identifying potential improvements to be fed into future policy-making. Exploring what can actually be done in offshore environments to make a significant conservation impact.

After looking at each zone individually, the following five key opportunities to improve marine conservation in temperate Australia were identified by workshop participants: (1) Implement a national audit of estuaries and from it develop recommendations for improved management and protection of estuaries, bays and coastal systems. (2) Improve planning and action that allows for coastal habitat migration in the face of sealevel rise. (3) Re-establish a national network of marine and coastal scientists, practitioners and policymakers. (4) Actively engage recreational and commercial fishers to improve conservation outcomes. (5) Undertake baseline mapping of biodiversity of the waters offshore of south-eastern Australia, a biodiversity and climate change hotspot and assess opportunities for integrated management.

Protecting and restoring the temperate bays, estuaries and inlets of Australia: the Great Southern Seascapes Program The workshop and subsequent meetings confirmed the importance of and need for focusing on bays, estuaries and inlets, and the value that a strategic, strongly leveraged investment could make to this component of Australia’s marine environment. Enhancing their protection and restoration is a critical conservation priority as many bays and estuaries are under enormous pressure from human activities, with impacts ranging from shoreline armouring, to coastal development, to nitrification to invasive species.19 In Australia, as in many parts of the world, estuaries ‘fall between the cracks’ in terms of management responsibility because they cut across the terrestrial, freshwater and marine jurisdictions of management agencies. There are, however, multiple examples of successful estuary programs both in Australia and around the world, providing



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evidence that they can be managed effectively.20 Harvesting the lessons learned from these programs, expanding upon them, and applying them more broadly, in combination with new and innovative solutions is considered key to protecting and restoring these systems. In March 2014, TNC, with support from The Thomas Foundation, launched the ‘Great Southern Seascapes’ Program. The program, which took on many of the recommendations of the workshop, was designed to fill a key gap in conserving Australia’s marine resources and have a lasting impact on temperate coastal environments, with a particular focus on temperate bays, estuaries and inlets. The Program also looked to capitalise on TNC’s deep experience of habitat restoration in the USA, where over the past fifteen years, TNC has worked with a wide range of partners to implement more than 140 estuarine restoration projects.21 The Great Southern Seascapes Program is built around a ‘two-track’ approach: an in-depth focus on ‘in-the-water; in-the-community’ work in two to three focus bays or estuaries, complemented by work at the state and national scale to leverage results and building a network that enables this work to be scaled across temperate Australia. Key outcomes targeted by the program over the next five years include: Increased protection: Expanded protection of temperate bays, estuaries and coasts through integrated approaches to management that protect, and where necessary, restore, critical habitats and ecosystem services while accommodating the multiple activities and uses that these systems provide. ‘In the water’ restoration: Significant improvement in critical habitat extent – such as shellfish reefs, saltmarsh and mangroves – in two to three demonstration estuaries. This effort will work to mobilise existing and new community volunteer networks to initiate conservation actions and restoration projects. Initiatives to address sea-level rise: Australia has a thin green line of saltmarshes and mangroves. Predictions of sea-level rise suggest that these critical estuarine systems will be ‘squeezed out’ and may become functionally extinct unless we plan now to make room for these habitats to ‘migrate’ onto adjoining land as sea level rises. Mechanisms to secure this space could include covenanting, planning schemes, financial incentives and voluntary land acquisition, as well as innovative approaches such as carbon credits for landowners who facilitate saltmarsh establishment on their properties. Combining sea-level rise modelling with known habitat preferences for these ecosystems will be an important component of this planning. Improved management and increased stakeholder involvement: Estuarine management is currently characterised by a multitude of planning instruments and agencies, which often operate with little coordination and no ‘lead’ agency. Public understanding and appreciation of these systems is also low. To improve this dynamic, the Great Southern Seascapes program will work with existing groups already engaged in such efforts to increase community engagement in, and support for, bay and estuary conservation and restoration. Strong science and monitoring: Ecological and social science will be a central plank of this program, allowing for the establishment of a robust baseline and an ongoing monitoring and reporting framework that informs and motivates action. Community, government and corporate engagement and funding: The ability of communities to participate in estuary conservation and restoration has been limited, despite the proximity of human population centres to estuaries. In addition to working with these communities, engaging the corporate sector will be important, not only for funding opportunities but also for promoting a stewardship ethic.

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Progress to date and future directions


Selection of focal bays/estuaries: The criteria considered in selecting initial bays and estuaries for early focus included biological significance, existing governance arrangements, suitability for active restoration, opportunities for protection, local champions and likely community involvement, likelihood of success, visibility of the project, good leverage opportunities with potential government, corporate and civic society partners, and relevance of TNC expertise and experience. Engagement in three bays is now underway. Shellfish restoration in Port Phillip Bay: Most work to date has focused on shellfish (Southern Mud Oysters Ostrea angasi and mussels) reef restoration in Port Phillip Bay, Victoria. Prior to the launch of the Great Southern Seascapes program, a research project had been initiated by Fisheries Victoria and the Albert Park Yachting and Angling Club, which, starting in the early 1980s, noticed the loss of healthy reefs. The Bay’s shellfish reefs had been lost due to overharvesting of oysters in the nineteenth century, and in the twentieth century, dredge fishing for scallops and mussels from the 1960s to 1990s.22 A partnership between TNC, Fisheries Victoria and the Albert Park Yachting and Angling Club was established to use oysters bred at the Victorian Shellfish Hatchery at Queenscliff to restore oyster habitat in the Bay. Oyster and mussel larvae will be set on shells at the hatchery, before being placed in the water on top of prepared shell or limestone substrate. Reefs will be restored at three locations, informed by baseline habitat mapping. The project will start near Geelong/Point Wilson and then extend to two other sites in northern and eastern Port Philip Bay, in about 8–12 metres of water. As an Australian first, the project has attracted significant media attention and interest from estuary groups in other states.23 The project builds on TNC’s experience in North America where more than 60 shellfish reef restoration projects have been undertaken, mostly in partnership with the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, with each project including many stakeholders, including quite importantly the aquaculture industry.24 Planning for sea-level rise in Western Port: In Western Port, the Great Southern Seascapes program will build on past studies to model likely habitat migration paths (with and without active intervention such as removal of levees) in the face of projected sea-level rise.25 Potential protection mechanisms for the Bay’s coastal fringe will also be scoped. The Trust for Nature (Victoria), as part of their ‘Bays and Islands’ project,26 in conjunction with the Port Phillip and Western Port Catchment Management Authority, is using TNC’s Conservation Action Planning process27 for Western Port to identify key values, threats and management actions. Restoring the Adelaide Saltfields: In 2013, the South Australian Government announced that it would create an internationally important conservation area in the saltfields to the north of Adelaide to safeguard migratory bird habitat, improve the health of Gulf St Vincent and support sustainable urban development.28 Closure of the saltfield presents a unique opportunity to conserve and restore the region’s ecological values. The Great Southern Seascapes program is currently exploring strategic opportunities to support and build on this unique large-scale coastal restoration and conservation effort that can have profound, positive impacts on the adjacent marine habitat.

National level At the national level, the following activities have begun: .

Research into ‘what’s working’ in estuarine management in southern Australia coupled with an expert workshop held at the 2014 Coast to Coast Conference which together have formed the basis of a publication.29


Support for the Fish Habitat Network30 to engage recreational fishers in habitat restoration through workshops about the link between healthy habitat and healthy fish populations to be held in Victoria, Western Australia and South Australia. Following the workshop’s recommendation to re-establish a national network of marine and coastal scientists, practitioners and policy-makers, support is initially being provided for the National Estuaries Network, Coast to Coast 2014 conference and Australian Mangrove and Saltmarsh Network conferences to strengthen networks and linkages among the relatively dispersed community of coastal/estuarine scientists, practitioners and policymakers. International (and national) review of policy and practical responses to the impacts of sealevel rise on estuarine and coastal habitats, with a particular emphasis on habitat migration.

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Conclusions Australia has contributed a considerable amount of high-quality research and is recognised as a world leader in tropical marine conservation. The focus on temperate marine science and restoration has been increasing in recent years, but remains less developed. An expert elicitation process was used to identify gaps in our current understanding and approach towards temperate marine conservation, and the most productive areas of engagement. The strong consensus was that Australia’s globally significant temperate bays, estuaries and inlets are a high priority for enhanced conservation and restoration. In response, TNC, working with multiple partners and a wide range of stakeholders, launched the Great Southern Seascapes program. While still in the early stages of implementation, we are encouraged by the broad interest in estuary conservation and restoration that the project is engendering. The challenge moving forward will be to harness this early enthusiasm into measureable increases in critical habitat extent and improvements in estuary condition.

Acknowledgements At the workshop, facilitator Geoff Brown and the following participants contributed their expert knowledge to the process and they are thanked (although all opinions and errors are ours): Tim Allen (Australian Government Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities), Max Bourke (The Thomas Foundation), Anthony Boxshall (The Marine Group Australia), Craig Copeland (Department of Primary Industries – Fisheries NSW), Eddie Game (TNC), Bronwyn Gillanders (University of Adelaide), Rowland Hill (The Thomas Foundation), Sue Hill (The Thomas Foundation), Claire Howlett (Australian Government Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities), Sabine Jensen (University of Adelaide), Michael Looker (TNC), Gerald Miles (TNC), Lara Musgrave (Australian Government Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities), Melissa Nursey-Bray (University of Adelaide), Joan Phillips (Victorian Environmental Assessment Council), Mark Rodrigue (Parks Victoria), Keith Sainsbury (University of Tasmania), Greg Skilleter (University of Queensland), Joanna Vince (University of Tasmania) and Geoff Wescott (Deakin University). An anonymous reviewer helped to improve this manuscript.

Funding We thank The Thomas Foundation for funding the workshop that formed the basis of this prioritisation process and subsequent funding of the Great Southern Seascapes program.

Notes 1.

SEC (State of the Environment 2011 Committee), Australia State of the Environment 2011, Independent report to the Australian Government Minister for Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities, Canberra, 2011.

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6. 7. 8. 9.

10. 11.

12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.

J.A. Fitzsimons et al. JC Day, ‘Zoning – Lessons from the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park’, Ocean & Coastal Management, vol. 45, nos. 2–3, 2002, pp. 139–56. O Hoegh-Guldberg, PJ Mumby, AJ Hooten, RS Steneck, P Greenfield, E Gomez, CD Harvell, PF Sale, AJ Edwards, K Caldeira, N Knowlton, CM Eakin, R Iglesias-Prieto, N Muthiga, RH Bradbury, A Dubi & ME Hatziolos, ‘Coral Reefs under Rapid Climate Change and Ocean Acidification’, Science, vol. 318, no. 5857, 2007, pp. 1737–42; JM Pandolfi, SR Connolly, DJ Marshall & AL Cohen, ‘Projecting Coral Reef Futures under Global Warming and Ocean Acidification’, Science, vol. 333, no. 6041, 2011, pp. 418–22. H Possingham, I Ball & S Andelman, ‘Mathematical Methods for Identifying Representative Reserve Networks’ in S Ferson & M Burgman (eds), Quantitative Methods for Conservation Biology, SpringerVerlag, New York, 2000, pp. 291–306. MJ Anderson, ‘A New Method for Non-parametric Multivariate Analysis of Variance’, Austral Ecology, vol. 26, no. 1, 2001, pp. 32–46; SD Connell & GP Jones, ‘The Influence of Habitat Complexity on Postrecruitment Processes in a Temperate Reef Fish Population’, Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, vol. 151, no. 2, 1991, pp. 271–94; GP Quinn & MJ Keough, Experimental Design and Data Analysis for Biologists, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2002; GJ Edgar & NS Barrett, ‘Effects of the Declaration of Marine Reserves on Tasmanian Reef Fishes, Invertebrates and Plants’, Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, vol. 242, no. 1, 1999, pp. 107–44. G Wescott & J Fitzsimons, ‘Stakeholder Involvement and Interplay in Coastal Zone Management and Marine Protected Area Planning’ in W Gullett, C Schofield & J Vince (eds), Marine Resources Management, LexisNexis Butterworths, Sydney, 2011, pp. 225–38. For example, G Wescott, ‘The Long and Winding Road: The Development of a Comprehensive, Adequate and Representative System of Highly Protected Marine Protected Areas in Victoria, Australia’, Ocean and Coastal Management, vol. 49, no. 12, 2006, pp. 905–22. For more information, see (3 January 2015). For example, see J Fitzsimons, S Legge, B Traill & J Woinarski, Into Oblivion? The Disappearing Native Mammals of Northern Australia, The Nature Conservancy, Melbourne, 2010; J Fitzsimons & M Looker, ‘Innovative Approaches to Land Acquisition and Conservation Management: The Case of Fish River Station, Northern Territory’ in P Figgis, J Fitzsimons & J Irving (eds), Innovation for 21st Century Conservation, Australian Committee for IUCN, Sydney, pp. 78–85; J Fitzsimons, J Russell-Smith, G James, T Vigilante, G Lipsett-Moore, J Morrison & M Looker, ‘Insights into the Biodiversity and Social Benchmarking Components of the Northern Australian Fire Management and Carbon Abatement Programmes’, Ecological Management & Restoration, vol. 13, no. 1, 2012, pp. 51–7; K Bradby, ‘Gondwana Link – 1000 Kilometres of Hope’ in J Fitzsimons, I Pulsford & G Wescott (eds), Linking Australia’s Landscapes: Lessons and Opportunities from Large-Scale Conservation Networks, CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne, pp. 25–35; J Fitzsimons, M Heiner, B McKenney, K Sochi & J Kiesecker, ‘Development by Design in Western Australia: Overcoming Offset Obstacles’, Land, vol. 3, no. 1, 2014, pp. 167–87. C Smyth, Protecting Western Australia’s Big Blue Backyard, Save Our Marine Life Collaboration, Perth, 2009, (3 January 2015). MW Beck, RD Brumbaugh, L Airoldi, A Carranza, LD Coen, C Crawford, O Defeo, GJ Edgar, B Hancock, M Kay, H Lenihan, MW Luckenbach, CL Toropova & G Zhang, Shellfish Reefs at Risk: A Global Analysis of Problems and Solutions, The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, VA, 2009; MW Beck, R Brumbaugh, L Airoldi, L Coen, C Crawford, O Defeo, G Edgar, B Hancock, M Kay, H Lenihan, M Luckenbach, C Toropova, G Zhang & X Guo, ‘Oyster Reefs at Risk Globally and Recommendations for Ecosystem Revitalization’, BioScience, vol. 61, no. 2, 2011, pp. 107–16. Orange-bellied Parrot Recovery Team, National Recovery Plan for the Orange-Bellied Parrot (Neophema chrysogaster), Department of Primary Industries and Water, Hobart, 2006. A Blandon & PSE zu Ermgassen, ‘Quantitative Estimate of Commercial Fish Enhancement by Seagrass Habitat in Southern Australia’, Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, vol. 141, 2014, pp. 1–8. FAOUN, ‘National Aquaculture Sector Overview: Australia’, UN Food and Agriculture Organization, 2009. SEC, Australia State of the Environment 2011. K Jones, South Australian Recreational Fishing Survey 2007/08, South Australian Fisheries Management Series Paper No. 54. Primary Industries and Resources SA, Adelaide, 2009. SEC, Australia State of the Environment 2011.

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23.

24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30.

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GJ Edgar, NS Barrett, DJ Graddon & PR Last, ‘The Conservation Significance of Estuaries: A Classification of Tasmanian Estuaries Using Ecological, Physical and Demographic Attributes as a Case Study’, Biological Conservation, vol. 92, no. 3, 2000, pp. 383–97. Edgar et al, ‘Conservation Significance of Estuaries’. R Koss, G Wescott, J Fitzsimons & L Hale, ‘“Bright Spots” for Estuary Management in Temperate Southern Australia’, Australian Journal of Maritime and Ocean Affairs, 2015, doi:10.1080/ 18366503.2015.1014014. E Schrack, M Beck, R Brumbaugh, K Crisley & B Hancock, Restoration Works: Highlights from a Decade of Partnership Between The Nature Conservancy and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s Restoration Center, The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, VA, 2012. P Hamer, B Pearce & R Winstanley, Towards Reconstruction of the Lost Shellfish Reefs of Port Phillip Bay, Recreational Fishing Grants Program Research Report, Department of Environment and Primary Industries, Melbourne, 2013. D Gray, ‘Shellfish Reefs to Be Restored in Port Phillip Bay’, The Age, 1 August 2014, (3 January 2015); C Best, ‘Pilot Project Aims to Save Port Phillip Bay’s Shellfish Reefs’, ABC News, 28 September 2014, (3 January 2015). See Schrack et al, Restoration Works: Highlights from a Decade of Partnership Between The Nature Conservancy and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s Restoration Center. PI Boon, M White & S Sinclair, ‘Climate Change Impacts on Victoria’s Coastal Vegetation (Mangroves and Saltmarsh): Western Port Case Study’ in Climate Change 2010: Practical Responses to Climate Change, Engineers Australia, Canberra, 2010. Trust for Nature, ‘More Than Just Bays and Islands’, Conservation Bulletin, vol. 60, 2014, pp. 10–11. (27 February 2015). Government of South Australia, Saltfields: Creating the Adelaide International Bird Sanctuary, Department of Environment, Water and Natural Resources, Adelaide, 2013. Koss et al, ‘“Bright Spots” for Estuary Management in Temperate Southern Australia’. (3 January 2015).

Notes on contributors James A. Fitzsimons is Director of Conservation with TNC’s Australia Program where he oversees the conservation planning, science, implementation and policy. He is also an Adjunct Associate Professor at the School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University. Lynne Hale is Managing Director for Oceans for TNC where she oversees the organisation’s marine programs across the globe. Boze Hancock is the Marine Restoration Scientist for the Global Marine Team of TNC and is Adjunct Professor at the College of Environment and Life Sciences, University of Rhode Island. Michael W. Beck is Lead Marine Scientist with the Global Marine Team of TNC and a research associate at the University of California Santa Cruz.