Development of an informal learning opportunities assay

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Marek, University of Oklahoma, Science Education Center, Norman, ... impact these out-of-school activities may have on student learning in school, a ... within a systematic educational setting (e.g. primary and secondary schools, tech-.
INT. J. SCI. EDUC.,

2001, VOL. 23,

NO.

6, 569- 583

Development of an informal learning opportunities assay

Brian L. Gerber, Valdosta State University, Secondary Education, Curriculum and Instructional Technology Department, Education Center, Valdosta, Georgia 31698, USA, e-mail: [email protected]; Edmund A. Marek, University of Oklahoma, Science Education Center, Norman, Oklahoma 73019, USA, and Ann M. L. Cavallo, University of California, Division of Education, One Shields Avenue, Davis, California 95616, USA Learning that takes place outside the formal classroom, called informal learning, has been a difficult parameter to assess due to the heterogeneous nature of the subjects and everyday learning situations. To date, no instrument has been developed to effectively examine the wide variety of informal experiences a child may encounter. Central to this study was the development and field testing of such an instrument, the Informal Learning Opportunities Assay (ILOA). The ILOA was administered to a total of 2128 middle and high school students and was found to be ethnically neutral, easily scored, and flexible in design to accommodate practitioners and researchers. The instrument was found to provide a reliable assessment of informal learning opportunities.

Introduction Most science education research examines some aspect of the formal classroom environment. Lucas (1991), who completed a review of informal science learning articles published from 1983- 1991, substantiates the lack of educational research on informal learning. He found 163 entries with nearly every article dedicated strictly to museum research. Only a few studies were actually reports on the process of learning science through informal activities other than museum visits. Reports of museum visitation research illustrate one aspect of informal learning that has shown a tremendous increase in the science education literature (Dierking and Falk 1994, Ramey-Gassert et al. 1994). This is presumably due to the large increase in numbers of science museums, ease of observing and testing museum patrons, and continued interest in whether museums are accomplishing desired goals. However, the majority of childrens’ non-school time is spent on informal activities unrelated to museum activities. These informal activities are virtually unaccounted for in science education research due to the difficulty of assessing the impact of such heterogeneous subjects, learning environments, activities, and everyday learning situations. Aside from museum studies, acquiring information on informal learning is not ‘researcher friendly’. Yet, considering the potential impact these out-of-school activities may have on student learning in school, a International Journal of Science Education ISSN 0950- 0693 print/ISSN 1464-5289 online # 2001 Taylor & Francis Ltd http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals

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greater understanding of informal learning may have profound implications for the educational community. This paper describes the development of an instrument that assesses the informal learning experiences of middle school and secondary school students. The development of this instrument is part of a larger study that examines relationships among informal science learning experiences, teaching procedures in the formal science classroom environment, and scientific reasoning ability. We begin with: (1) a definition of informal learning and a discussion of the relationships among informal learning experiences, informal science learning, and the development of scientific knowledge and skills; (2) continue with a presentation of the development, field testing, and evaluation of the Informal Learning Opportunities Assay; and (3) conclude with implications of the Assay’s use for further research. Defining informal learning Most science curricula include only that knowledge to be acquired in the classroom within a systematic educational setting (e.g. primary and secondary schools, technical schools, colleges, universities). With the curricula, educating students takes place in organized, systematic ways. The learner and teacher interact with the prescribed intent of promoting learning. A set agenda is implemented and little, if any, importance is ascribed to childrens’ experiences outside the classroom (Osborne and Wittrock 1983). In this setting, attendance is compulsory, subject matter is structured by a teacher, motivation is primarily extrinsic, and some type of assessment is expected (Tamir 1990). The learning that takes place is termed ‘formal’ due to the highly structured nature of the environment in which it occurs. Learning that takes place in settings outside the classroom is termed ‘informal’ (Maarschalk 1988, Tamir 1990). Informal learning environments are less structured than the formal classroom setting, and management of the learning is shifted from the teachers to the students (Tamir 1990). Informal learning may occur in institutions (e.g. museum, zoo); organizations (e.g. Boy/Girl Scouts, Junior Achievement); or everyday situations (e.g. watching television, taking piano lessons, working on hobbies, shopping for clothes). In essence, the informal learning can be defined as the sum of activities that comprise the time individuals are not in the formal classroom in the presence of a teacher. Informal learning could also include school sponsored extracurricular activities (e.g. sports, band, clubs). Research suggests that students’ life experiences are important in the development of their science knowledge and social skills (Resnick 1987). With children spending 85 per cent of their time, sleep excluded, outside the classroom (Medrich et al. 1982), the types and frequencies of activities in which children are engaged during this time may have profound effects on their achievements in school and their functioning in society. Popular culture has taken particular notice of a child’s exposure to informal activities (Nash 1997). A child’s brain undergoes extensive neural changes throughout development; and a major factor influencing this neural development appears to be the experiential world of the child (Wolfe and Brandt 1998). The extent and variety of experiences a child encounters during the formative years may have implications for learning and memory in later life

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(Bruer 1998). Working on hobbies, reading, performing domestic chores, and participating in sports, coupled with social interactions involving peers and adults, are a few of the myriad of activities that may contribute to individuals learning through informal experiences. The methods used to assess informal learning vary widely. Little progress has been made toward completing a comprehensive and reliable instrument to quantify students’ participation in informal learning activities. Yet, informal learning and its influence on cognitive and affective aspects of students of all ages are frequently cited in the science education literature. Prior studies examined limited numbers of specific science-related activities or factors yet, conclusions were often made concerning the influence on science achievement. Schibeci and Riley (1986) examined the impact of the informal learning environment within the home on science achievement in 673 seventh-graders. The researchers used responses from a four-item questionnaire as a measure of students’ home environment. Following is a sample item from the questionnaire. ‘Is there an encyclopedia in your home?’ Data from this assessment were used to conclude that the home environment had a substantial influence on science achievement. In a similar study, Zuzovsky and Tamir (1989) examined the amount of variance in science achievement that could be explained by home environment variables of 2599 elementary students. This study used socioeconomic status (SES) of the students as a measure of home variables (an aspect of the informal learning environment). The SES of each student was measured by obtaining data on four variables: years of formal education of the mother, years of formal education of the father, number of siblings in the family, and number of books at home. The contribution of home variables to science achievement was found to increase when achievement was measured on topics not related to the school curriculum. While these studies produced useful results, they lacked data on the critical element of actual student experience. Direct experience is central to the constructivist view of intellectual development. Later studies on informal learning began to take student experiences into account but remained focused on assessing a limited number of activities that were primarily science-related. In a study that examined behaviours rather than home variables, Tamir (1990) studied a total of 544 tenth-grade students in Israel and South Africa. Data were collected through questionnaires that were mailed to the schools and distributed to the students. The behaviours identified as important indicators of informal science learning included: after-school conversations about information learned in school, watching television, listening to the radio, reading, and performing other sciencerelated activities. These behaviours were found to be positively correlated to each of the following: relationship of school science to everyday life, attitudes toward science, parental occupations, school environment, intentions for continuing science study, and career ambitions. Evans et al. (1995) developed an instrument to assess out-of-school experiences of fourth-graders. A total of 517 students were included in the study, 195 from the USA and 322 from Germany. Their instrument consisted of several specific questions for each of five domains: mechanical/technical, household, nature, creative, and musical. Examples of the types of questions used in the study included: ‘Do you use an electric drill or saw?’, and ‘Do you use sewing scissors or measuring tape?’ This information, along with data from self-efficacy, motivation, and science achievement measures,

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was used to show that if school assessment measures included the household experiences of students, then those with high involvement in household activities would, in general, have higher control beliefs and higher science achievement. In an effort to expand from written data collection, Korpan et al. (1997) used structured interviews with 35 elementary age students. Data from these interviews were used to determine the variety and frequency of children’s participation in science-related activities outside of school. The richness of their findings was admittedly diminished due to the limitations associated with structured interviews. Specifically, useful data would have also included information on activities not traditionally considered science-related. Our research describes the development of an instrument unlike those used in past studies. The Informal Learning Opportunities Assay (ILOA) documents the types and frequencies of activities in which children may be engaged outside the formal classroom. The instrument records a wide range of informal activities that may contribute to the intellectual development of middle school and high school students. The ILOA developed for this study is grounded in the idea that intellectual development (and specific to the larger aspect of this research study—scientific reasoning ability) is facilitated through the diverse array of student activities rather than only those that occur in the home or are sciencerelated. The ILOA was constructed based on learning theories that indicate experiences, cognitive conflict, and social interaction are key components to intellectual development (Piaget 1964, Vygotsky 1978, 1986, Rogoff 1990). These experiences, cognitive conflicts, and social interactions are not restricted to the child’s home environment or science-specific activities. The ILOA is reflective of the view that intellectual development may be facilitated through any activity that includes at least one of these components. This could involve a wide range of activities, including the participation in organized sports or family vacations, playing with friends or making decisions on their own, and being active in after-school clubs or community groups. The co-mingling of experiences, cognitive conflicts and social interactions provide the foundation for the development of scientific reasoning ability and not simply static aspects of the home environment or participation in a narrow range of science activities. The purpose of this study was to develop an instrument to reliably quantify middle school and high school students’ informal learning experiences. To be a useful tool to teachers and researchers, the instrument should be easy to administer and score, functional with ethnically diverse student populations, and applicable across disciplines.

Developing the ILOA The ILOA consists of 41 items. Nineteen items are multiple-choice and require students to indicate the extent of their involvement in various informal activities. Nineteen items require yes/no responses. Three items require students to fill-inthe-blanks. See the Appendix for the complete ILOA instrument. Items on the ILOA are separated into seven distinctive subscales. These subscales include: (1) social activities with family and/or friends; (2) activities done alone; (3) school-related activities; (4) lessons, classes or group activities not school-related; (5) work and domestic chores; (6) travel; and (7) general.

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Subscale 1: social activities with family and/or friends Fifteen ILOA items assess students’ involvement in social activities with family and/or friends (items 7, 8, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 19, 25, 31, 33, 34, 35 and 36). Ten multiple-choice items investigate patronage of restaurants, public libraries, movie theaters, and community parks; visits to attractions such as sporting events, natural areas, museums, and amusement parks; frequency of bicycle riding, skateboarding, or roller blading; and with whom students go shopping for clothes and groceries. Four questions require yes/no responses. These items investigate receiving help with homework, running family errands, participating in sports, and the presence of siblings. One fill-in item requires students to list the four most common things they do with friends.

Subscale 2: activities done alone Six items on the ILOA assess students’ involvement in activities done alone (items 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 11). Three items are multiple-choice and investigate the time students spend reading books and magazines, watching television, and listening to the radio. Two fill-in items require students to list favourite television programmes and the four most common things they do alone. One yes/no item examines hobbies.

Subscale 3: school-related activities One multiple-choice item (item 17) assesses students’ involvement in schoolrelated activities. Students indicate past or present involvement in school-related activities by circling the appropriate choices from a list of eight provided. Space is provided for students to record activities not mentioned in the list.

Subscale 4: lessons, classes, or group activities not school-related Four items on the ILOA assess students’ involvement in lessons, classes, or group activities that are not school-related (items 18, 22, 23 and 24). Three yes/no response items assess involvement in scouting, Future Farmers of America or 4-H, and church youth groups. One item is similar to the school-related activities item, except that twelve, non-school-related activities are listed.

Subscale 5: work and domestic chores Three items assess students’ involvement with work and domestic chores (items 26, 27 and 29). Two yes/no response items investigate student involvement with paying jobs outside the home and volunteer work. One question requires students to circle all domestic chores, from a list of 15 provided, they regularly perform. Space is provided for students to record chores not mentioned in the list.

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Subscale 6: travel Six items assess students’ travel experiences (items 9, 37, 38, 39, 40 and 41). All items require yes/no responses and survey their histories of domestic and international travel/living. Subscale 7: general Six items on the ILOA are unrelated, general questions (items 6, 20, 21, 28, 30 and 32). Three yes/no response items investigate receiving an allowance, and possessing a personal home computer and a library card. Three multiple-choice items assess the time students spend using a computer and shopping for clothes and groceries. Content validity Initial construction of the ILOA began by designing items to assess students’ involvement in a wide variety of informal activities (e.g. hobbies, sports, clubs, travel, television). To improve content-related validity, a panel consisting of two science education researchers, two experienced (master teacher) middle school science teachers reviewed the ILOA, and an educational psychologist experienced in assessment techniques. All panel members were parents and were actively engaged in a variety of leadership roles associated with community-related informal learning activities for children. Members of the panel suggested, (1) the addition of items assessing students’ involvement in church youth groups and volunteer work, and (2) identifying the number of siblings in a family. Following these changes, the panel agreed that the ILOA was appropriately formatted for middle school and high school students, and comprehensively assessed their informal learning experiences. Field testing This instrument was pilot tested using a total of 49 seventh-, eighth-, and ninthgrade students. Group interviews with all students and individual interviews with two students from each grade level were conducted regarding their interpretation and understanding of ILOA items. Suggested modifications were incorporated into the final form of the instrument. These modifications included response ‘d’ being added to item 12, responses ‘g’ and ‘h’ being added to item 17, and responses ‘k’ and ‘l’ being added to item 18. The ILOA was administered in September/October of the academic school year to 2128 students enrolled in sixth-, seventh-, eighth-, ninth-, and tenth-grade science classes. Students were from nine middle schools and two high schools in a Midwestern state. Schools were located in rural, suburban, and urban settings and ranged in size from approximately 50 students per grade level, to approximately 325 students per grade level. Students of 18 female teachers and 13 male teachers participated in the study. Teaching experience among these thirty-one teachers ranged from 2-26 years and averaged 10.6 years. The student sample consisted of the following percentages by grade: 15.9 per cent, sixth-grade; 19.1 per cent, seventh-grade; 28.3 per cent, eighth-grade;

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11.7 per cent, ninth-grade; and 25.0 per cent, tenth-grade. The sample included African Americans (6.5 per cent), Asian Americans (3.8 per cent), Caucasians (79.1 per cent), Hispanics (2.5 per cent), Native Americans (5.8 per cent), and students classifying themselves as ethnically mixed (2.2 per cent). Female students made up 51.5 per cent of the sample, and males made up 48.5 per cent. Students’ self-reported grades in science for the previous year were 42.5 per cent ‘A,’ 35.8 per cent ‘B’, 15.7 per cent ‘C’, 4.6 per cent ‘D’, and 1.4 per cent ‘F’. Throughout field testing, the ILOA was administered by the researcher or by the classroom teacher in the presence of the researcher. All teachers agreed that the information provided by the ILOA would be useful to them; in other words, the more the teachers know about their students the more effectively they think they can teach. Most teachers stated that understanding students’ experiential background helps them to, (1) know the types of examples and demonstrations to provide in class so students would better understand science topics, (2) stay ‘in touch’ with current student culture such as popular television shows, reading interests, and hobbies, and (3) equitably separate students into cooperative groups. For some teachers, this meant grouping students with similar experiential backgrounds; and for other teachers, it meant grouping students with different experiential backgrounds. Scoring Scores on the ILOA could range from a low of zero to a high of 46, from the subjects of this study. The upper limit is variable since some items on the ILOA allow students to receive additional points by indicating their involvement in activities not listed. Responses to most items on the ILOA were scored so that either a ‘one’ or a ‘zero’ was added to a student’s total score. On all yes/no items a ‘yes’ response received one point and a ‘no’ response received a zero. Multiple-choice items consisted of four types: (1) amount of time spent on an activity; (2) with whom time is spent; (3) where time is spent; and (4) identifying activities which may occupy free time. Responses indicating a minimal amount of time spent on an activity were scored a zero. Responses indicating more frequent time spent on an activity received one point. For example (item 2), a response of ‘between 0 to 1 hour’ received a zero, while a response of ‘between 1 to 3 hours’, ‘between 3 to 6 hours’, or ‘more than 6 hours’, received one point. On item 14, a response of ‘a few times a year or less’ received a zero, while a response of ‘a few times a month’ or ‘once a week or more’ received one point. The review panel decided to analyse the responses in this way for consistency in scoring all items. However, the range of response choices was included to make the instrument useful for qualitative research, while maintaining its usefulness for quantitative analyses. Multiple-choice items assessing with whom time is spent were of two types. One type included responses indicating a lack of social interaction (item 8). A response of ‘by myself’ received a zero. Responses indicating time spent with ‘friends’ or ‘brothers and sisters’ received one point. Conversely, scoring of the second type of item (item 31) reflected the high degree of decision-making involved in shopping alone. A response of ‘with adults’ received a zero while a response of ‘alone’ received one point, since the evaluation of various elements associated with a purchase rested solely with the student.

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One multiple-choice item assessed the location students and their friends spend time together (item 12). A response of ‘in your own house or yard’ received a zero while a response of ‘in friends houses or yards’, ‘in a park’, or ‘in a shopping mall’ received one point, since activities at these locations might encourage social interaction to a greater degree than if they took place in their own house or yard. Two multiple-choice items were designed to distinguish the types of activities that could occupy students’ time. Item 17 is an example. Participation in schoolrelated activities (e.g. band, school newspaper, Student Council) and activities not necessarily school-related (e.g. martial arts, acting, sports clinics) likely encourage social interaction since these activities are led by adults and involve cooperative groups. One point was added to a student’s ILOA score for each item circled or written in the space provided at the bottom of these two items. Conversely, activities such as domestic chores (e.g. doing laundry, feeding pets, washing dishes) and visiting attractions (e.g. sporting events, amusement parks) are not as likely to expose students to cognitive challenges or extensive social interaction since participation in these activities is not continuously orchestrated by other individuals or does not involve cooperative groups. The multiplechoice item assessing involvement in domestic chores required at least four chores to be circled to receive one point. Responses with fewer than four chores circled received a zero. The multiple-choice item assessing involvement in visiting attractions required at least three attractions to be circled to receive a point. Responses with fewer than three attractions circled received a zero. Multiple responses were required for a point to be awarded on these questions since the activities mentioned are short-term events and therefore cognitive challenges and social interactions are limited. However, numerous exposures to these informal events likely introduce students to some positive cognitive and social interactions. As a result of the scoring procedure, a high score on the ILOA indicated enriched informal learning opportunities with frequent exposure to experiences that provide cognitive challenges and social interactions. Conversely, a low score on the ILOA indicated impoverished informal learning opportunities with infrequent exposure to experiences that provide cognitive challenges and social interactions. Scoring of each ILOA was completed by the researcher and required about one minute per data sheet. Scores for each question were keyed into a computer and were analysed using the SYSTAT/Mac (Wilkinson et al. 1992) statistical package. Validity and reliability Scores on the ILOA for the 2128 students ranged from 0-46. The distribution of scores approximated a normal curve with a mean of 22.57 and a standard deviation of 5.07. Table 1 shows the corresponding values for each grade and totals. The coefficient of stability was measured with a test-retest technique using Pearson correlation. Using a representative sample of 115 ninth-grade students over a period of 75 days, a reliability coefficient of 0.86 was found. Two students from each of five different categories of ethnic origin (i.e. African American, Asian American, Caucasian, Hispanic, Native American) were interviewed following completion of ILOAs. As a result of these interviews it was confirmed that all ten students had the same understanding of each item on

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Table 1. Summary statistics for the ILOA separated by grade level of students. Grade

N

M

Range

SD

6 7 8 9 10 Total

338 407 602 250 531 2128

22.51 21.75 23.24 23.00 22.29 22.57

9- 39 0- 37 6- 46 11-40 6- 37 0- 46

5.02 4.93 5.16 5.25 4.90 5.07

Notes: Grade ˆgrade level of student participating in study; N ˆ number of students in sample; M ˆmean ILOA score; Range ˆlowest and highest score on ILOA within each sample; SD ˆstandard deviation

the instrument. As with the findings of the panel of experts, results of these student interviews established the ILOA to be, (1) useful with ethnically diverse student populations, and (2) an inclusive assessment of students’ informal learning experiences.

Discussion and implications The existence and significance of students’ informal learning experiences are being acknowledged in the education research literature. However, a reliable instrument that extensively assesses students’ informal learning opportunities has yet to be introduced. This study has produced an instrument, the ILOA, which is a major step in that direction. Information provided by the ILOA was useful and varied. For example, mean ILOA scores for students in each grade were within a range of 21.8-23.2. This finding indicates student informal activity remained similar from middle school through tenth-grade. The highest score from this sample was 46, indicating that a majority of students could at least double their involvement in informal learning activities. This discrepancy between the extent to which students are actually involved in activities and their potential involvement is important in light of what researchers are discovering about the relationships among informal activities, brain development, and intellectual abilities. In fact, a recently completed study using the ILOA indicated significantly higher reasoning abilities for those students scoring in the top 25 per cent on the instrument compared to those students scoring in the bottom 25 per cent of the ILOA (Gerber, Cavallo and Marek accepted for publication). Scoring of the ILOA could be completed in a variety of ways. This is one aspect of the flexibility of the instrument. Perhaps, for example, it is perceived that watching more than three hours of television per day is detrimental to intellectual development. In this case responses indicating such activity could be scored as zero or awarded negative points. In our case, we agreed that excessive television watching is not desirable, but assumed that spending this much time on one activity would be reflected in a lack of involvement in numerous other activities assessed by the ILOA and thus would result in a lower final score.

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Therefore, we elected to score responses indicating high amounts of television viewing with one point. The results of the ILOA must be used with caution since neither the level of student engagement nor the quality of each activity is measured. For example, some Girl Scout Troops are extremely active with frequent field trips and programmes that engage participants socially and cognitively while other Troops are relative inactive. Girls from each Troop would indicate similar involvement on the ILOA and be scored the same points but their individual experiences might be vastly different. For this reason the ILOA contains 41 items, rather than only a few as with other similar instruments, and provides a clearer indication of the overall involvement of a student in informal activities. When the results of all ILOA items are examined collectively, rather than scrutinized individually, they may provide teachers and science education researchers insight into how some students seem predisposed to learn science or more capable of using science process skills. The instrument could also be modified to yield more specific information concerning particular activities if space were provided for students to indicate how often they visited particular informal learning sites. This would allow researchers to obtain data on frequency of visits, which may be critical in answering questions about specific informal learning sites. Modifications to the ILOA may also be warranted depending upon the student sample to which it is administered. The sample used in our study included students attending a range of schools from small rural to large urban. Research focusing strictly on an inner city population of students would more appropriately use a modified version of the ILOA that removed the question concerning involvement in Future Farmers of America, for example, and added a question concerning involvement in Boys/Girls Club. Additionally, rather than general questions concerning visits to informal learning sites, the questions could be made specific by identifying particular, regional informal learning sites available to the population being studied. Since our study involved a wide region and diverse group of students, it was appropriate to construct the questions with a general focus. An additional caveat to be made here is that any study with a focus on a particular set of students, such as highly urban of low SES, would need to analyse the instrument for validity and reliability specific to the population being tested. Since our study involved a diverse student population, 10 students representing a variety of ethnic backgrounds were used to provide feedback on the instrument. An appropriate number of subjects representative of the population being studied would be required to provide input on a modified version of the ILOA being used. While the ILOA may be useful to classroom teachers, it was constructed primarily as a flexible tool for research in science education. This instrument could serve as a vehicle to initiate research in science education topics where it is difficult to obtain reliable quantitative data of the nature generated by the ILOA. The ILOA provides a useful means of answering questions such as: what are the relationships among gender, age, and types of informal learning experiences? What are the experiential differences between males and females among urban, suburban, and rural settings? How does the structure and use of science knowledge differ among students from contrasting informal learning environments? How are attitudes toward science related to students’ informal science experiences? How do socio-cultural differences among students affect informal learning experiences? What is the relationship between cognitive development and informal learning

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environment? These questions provide examples of the applicability of the ILOA to various problem statements or hypotheses in science education research. Informal learning experiences have been identified in a wide variety of science education research as potentially influential. The great amounts of time students are engaged in experiences outside the formal classroom presents a tremendous learning potential. However, students’ informal learning environments are understudied. The ILOA could provide science education researchers a means of furthering our understandings of knowledge formation, cognitive development, and the affective influences of childrens’ everyday activities.

References Bruer, J. T. (1998) Brain science, brain fiction. Educational Leadership, 56, 14-18. Dierking, L. D. and Falk, J. H. (1994) Family behavior and learning in informal science settings: a review of the research. Science Education, 78, 57-72. Evans, R. H., Baumert, J. and Geiser, H. (1995) Gender, structure of out-of-school experiences, motivation and science learning in school. Paper presented at the meeting of the National Association of Research in Science Teaching (San Francisco, CA). Gerber, B. L., Cavallo, A. M. L. and Marek, E. A., (in press) Relationships among informal learning environments, teaching procedures and scientific reasoning ability. International Journal of Science Education. Korpan, C. A., Bisanz, G. L., Bisanz, J., Boehme, C. and Lynch, M. A. (1997) What did you learn outside school today? Using structured interviews to document home and community activities related to science and technology. Science Education, 81, 651662. Lucas, A. M. (1991) ‘Info-tainment’ and informal sources for learning science. International Journal of Science Education, 13, 495- 504. Maarschalk, J. (1988) Scientific literacy and informal science teaching. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 25, 135- 146. Medrich, E. A., Roizen, J., Rubin, V. and Buckley, S. (1982) The Serious Business of Growing Up (Berkeley: University of California Press). Nash, J. M. (1997) How a child’s brain develops. Time, 3 February, 48-56. Osborne, R. J. and Wittrock, M. C. (1983) Learning science: A generative process. Science Education, 43, 489- 508. Piaget, J. (1964) Development and learning. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 2, 176-186. Ramey-Gassert, L., Walberg III, H. J. and Walberg, H. J. (1994) Reexamining connections: museums as science learning environments. Science Education, 78, 345-363. Resnick, L. B. (1987) Learning in school and out. Educational Researcher, 16, 13-20. Rogoff, B. (1990) Apprenticeship in Thinking: Cognitive Development in Social Context (New York: Oxford University Press). Schibeci, R. A. and Riley, J. P. (1986) Influence of students’ background and perceptions on science attitudes and achievement. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 23, 177-187. Tamir, P. (1990) Factors associated with the relationship between formal, informal, and nonformal science learning. Journal of Environmental Education, 22, 34-42. Vygotsky, L. (1978) Mind in Society; The Development of Higher Psychological Processes (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press). Vygotsky, L. (1986) Thought and Language (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press). Wilkinson, L., Hill, M. A. and Vang, E. (1992) SYSTAT: Statistics, Version 5.2 Edition (Evanston, IL: SYSTAT, Inc). Wolfe, P. and Brandt, R. (1998) What do we know from brain research? Educational Leadership, 56, 8-13. Zuzovsky, R. and Tamir, P. (1989) Home and school contributions to science achievement in elementary schools in Israel. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 26, 703-71.

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APPENDIX Informal Learning Opportunities Assay Name________________________ ________Dat e of Birth___________Grade________ _ Male or Female (circle one) School You Attend________________________Scienc e Teacher_______________________ _ Ethnic Origin (circle one) a. African American d. Hispanic

b. Asian American e. Native American

c. White (non-Hispanic)

What was your average grade in science over the past school year? (circle one) a. A b. B c. C d. D e. F How many years have you been a student in this school district?_______________________ _ ************************************************************************************** Please circle and/or fill in the appropriate response in the spaces provided. Circle only one response for each question. All responses are completely confidential. 1. How many hours a day do you listen to the radio or stereo? a. more than 6 hours

b. between 3 to 6 hours

c. between 1 to 3 hours d. between 0 to 1 hour

2. How many hours a day do you watch TV? a. more than 6 hours

b. between 3 to 6 hours

c. between 1 to 3 hours d. between 0 to 1 hour

3. If you watch any TV, what programmes do you like best? a. ________________________ _________

b. _________________________ _______ _

4. Do you have any hobbies, like collecting or making things? a. yes

b. no

* If yes, what are your hobbies? a. ________________________ _________

b. _________________________ _______ _

5. How many hours a day do you spend reading books or magazines - not for school but just for fun? a. more than 2 hours

b. between 1 to 2 hours

c. less than 1 hour

d. 0 hours

* Describe what you read most often. ________________________ _______________________ ______________________ _________ 6. Do you have a public library card?

a. yes

b. no

7. Do you have any brothers or sisters?

a. yes

b. no

* If yes, how many brothers?_____

How many sisters?_____

Where are you in the birth order of your brothers and/or sisters (for example, oldest, second oldest)? __________ 8. In the afternoon and on weekends, do you usually spend time with brothers and sisters, friends, or by yourself? a. brothers and sisters

b. friends

c. by myself

9. In the past year, have you visited friends of yours who live too far away for you to get there by walking or by bicycling? a. yes b. no 10. List four things you most frequently do when you are with your friends. a. ________________________ _________

b. _________________________ _______ _

c. ________________________ _________

d. _________________________ _______ _

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11. List four things you most frequently do when you are by yourself. a. _______________________ _________ _

b. _________________________ ________

c. _______________________ _________ _

d. _________________________ ________

12. Where do you and your friends usually spend time together? a. in your own house or yard

b. in friends’ houses or yards

c. in a park

d in a shopping mall

Other____________________________ ____ 13. How often do you usually go to a restaurant (other than fast food)? a. once a week or more

b. a few times a month

c. a few times a year or less

14. How often do you usually go to the movie theatre? a. once a week or more

b. a few times a month

c. a few times a year or less

15. How often do you usually go to a park? a. once a week or more

b. a few times a month

c. a few times a year or less

16. How often do you usually go to a public library? a. once a week or more

b. a few times a month

17. Are you involved in any school related activities?

c. a few times a year or less a. yes

b. no

* If yes, circle all of the school activities in which you have been actively involved? a. Student Council or Government

b. Student Helpers in School Office or for a Teacher

c. School Band or Orchestra

d. School Sports Teams That Play Other Schools

e. School Drill Team or Cheerleaders

f. Science/Engineering Fair

g. School Newspaper

h. Academic Contests

i. School Sponsored Clubs (such as Photography or Drama Club) ________________________ _____ j. Any school activities not listed _______________________ ______________________ ___________ _ 18. During the past year, have you attended any lessons or classes that are not school related? a. yes * If yes, what type of lessons or classes have you attended?

b. no

a. Music Lessons

b. Dance Lessons

c. Dramatics or Acting Lessons

d. Religious Instruction

e. Art Lessons

f. Crafts

g. Nature Study or Science

h. Cooking or Sewing

i. Swimming Lessons

j. Tennis Lessons

k. Martial Arts

l. Sports Clinics

m. Any activities not listed_________________________ ________________________ _____________ _ 19. In the course of a week, about how many hours a day do you ride a bicycle, skateboard or roller blade? a. more than 3 hours d. less than 1 hour

b. between 2 to 3 hours e. 0 hours

20. Do you have a personal computer at home?

a. yes

c. between 1 to 2 hours b. no

21. In the course of a week, about how many hours a day do you use a computer either at home or at school? a. more than 3 hours d. less than 1 hour

b. between 2 to 3 hours e. 0 hours

c. between 1 to 2 hours

22. Have you ever belonged to the Girl/Boy Scouts or Campfire Boys and Girls?

a. yes

b. no

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GERBER ET AL.

23. Have you ever belonged to the FFA or 4-H?

a. yes

b. no

24. Have you ever been a member of a church youth group (such as Young Life)?

a. yes

b. no

25. Have you ever been a member of a sports team, such as baseball or soccer, that was coached by an adult? a. yes b. no * If yes, name the sport(s) and how long you were a member ___________________ _ 26. Do you have any chores around the house that you are regularly responsible for performing? a. yes b. no * If yes, circle the chores for which you are responsible. a. Making my bed

b. Cleaning my room

c. Cleaning the rest of the house

d. Setting the table

e. Clearing the table

f. Washing dishes

g. Doing laundry

h. Working in the yard

i. Empty trash/take out the garbage

j. Working in the garden

k. Feeding the pets

l. Helping cook the meals

m. Taking care of younger brothers or sisters

n. Taking care of older grandparents or relatives

o. Using tools to fix or repair items that have broken Other _______________________ _______________________ ______________________ __________ _ 27. Have you ever done volunteer work for any group (such as Red Cross, United Way or Nature Conservancy)? a. yes

b. no

* If yes, with what group(s) did you volunteer?____________________________ _________________ _ Describe what you did as a volunteer___________________________ ______________________ _____ 28. Do you receive an allowance?

a. yes

b. no

* If yes, on what do you usually spend the money?_________________________ _________________ _ 29. Do you work outside the home to earn any money?

a. yes

b. no

* If yes, what do you do?______________ _ On what do you usually spend the money?____________ _ 30. How often do you usually go clothes shopping? a. once a week or more

b. a few times a month

c. a few times a year or less

31. Do you usually go clothes shopping alone or an adult (such as a parent or guardian)? a. alone b. with adult 32. How often do you usually go grocery shopping? a. once a week or more

b. a few times a month

c. a few times a year or less

33. Do you usually go grocery shopping alone or an adult (such as a parent or guardian)? a. alone b. with adult 34. Do you usually run family errands, such as going to the bank, post office, cleaners or hardware store? a. yes b. no 35. Does an adult (such as a parent or guardian) regularly help you with school work?

a. yes

b. no

36. Circle all of the attractions that you have ever visited or attended. a. Semi-professional sporting event d. State or county fair g. Zoo or aquarium

b. Professional sporting event e. University athletic game h. Art museum

c. Amusement park f. National or state park i. Natural history museum

Other _______________________ _______________________ ______________________ __________ _

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INFORMAL LEARNING OPPORTUNITIES

37. Have you ever flown in an airplane? a. yes 38. Have you ever lived outside of the USA?

b. no a. yes

b. no

* If yes, list where you lived and how long you lived there___________________________ ________ _ 39. Have you ever travelled outside of the USA?

a. yes

b. no

* If yes, list where you travelled and how long you stayed there_________________________ _______ 40. Have you ever lived outside of the state in which you currently reside?

a. yes

b. no

* If yes, list where you lived and how long you lived there___________________________ ________ _ ________________________ ______________________ _______________________ ______________ _ 41. Have you ever travelled outside of the state in which you currently reside?

a. yes

b. no

* If yes, list where you travelled and how long you stayed there_________________________ _______ ________________________ ______________________ _______________________ ______________ _ ************************************************************************************** By signing below, I certify that I have answered the above questions honestly and to the best of my knowledge.

_______________________ ______________________ ____________________ _ Your Signature

Date