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Dietary Intake and Sources of Potassium and the Relationship to Dietary Sodium in a Sample of Australian Pre-School Children Siobhan A. O’Halloran, Carley A. Grimes, Kathleen E. Lacy, Karen J. Campbell and Caryl A. Nowson * Institute for Physical Activity and Nutrition Research (IPAN), School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Deakin University, Geelong, VIC 3220, Australia; [email protected] (S.A.O.); [email protected] (C.A.G.); [email protected] (K.E.L.); [email protected] (K.J.C.) * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +61-352-479-245 Received: 5 June 2016; Accepted: 9 August 2016; Published: 13 August 2016

Abstract: The aim of this study was to determine the intake and food sources of potassium and the molar sodium:potassium (Na:K) ratio in a sample of Australian pre-school children. Mothers provided dietary recalls of their 3.5 years old children (previous participants of Melbourne Infant Feeding Activity and Nutrition Trial). The average daily potassium intake, the contribution of food groups to daily potassium intake, the Na:K ratio, and daily serves of fruit, dairy, and vegetables, were assessed via three unscheduled 24 h dietary recalls. The sample included 251 Australian children (125 male), mean age 3.5 (0.19) (SD) years. Mean potassium intake was 1618 (267) mg/day, the Na:K ratio was 1.47 (0.5) and 54% of children did not meet the Australian recommended adequate intake (AI) of 2000 mg/day for potassium. Main food sources of potassium were milk (27%), fruit (19%), and vegetable (14%) products/dishes. Food groups with the highest Na:K ratio were processed meats (7.8), white bread/rolls (6.0), and savoury sauces and condiments (5.4). Children had a mean intake of 1.4 (0.75) serves of fruit, 1.4 (0.72) dairy, and 0.52 (0.32) serves of vegetables per day. The majority of children had potassium intakes below the recommended AI. The Na:K ratio exceeded the recommended level of 1 and the average intake of vegetables was 2 serves/day below the recommended 2.5 serves/day and only 20% of recommended intake. An increase in vegetable consumption in pre-school children is recommended to increase dietary potassium and has the potential to decrease the Na:K ratio which is likely to have long-term health benefits. Keywords: dietary potassium; sodium:potassium ratio; children; salt; diet; food sources; Australia; dietary sodium

1. Introduction Hypertension is one of the most preventable causes of stroke and cardiovascular disease (CVD) [1]. Concern exists regarding the prevalence of hypertension in children and adolescents and the prevailing tracking pattern of blood pressure (BP) across the life course [2]. In children, high dietary sodium intake is associated with increased BP [3,4] and lower sodium intake associated with reduced BP [5]. High dietary potassium is also associated with BP: in adults, potassium intake has a protective effect on BP, but evidence of the effect of potassium on BP in children is mixed. For example, in a Greek cross-sectional study of 606 7-to-15-year-olds, systolic blood pressure (SBP) was significantly positively associated with potassium intake [6]. Stronger longitudinal evidence comes from Geleijnse et al. in which six annual 24-h urine samples were collected from Dutch children and showed over a seven years period, mean SBP was lower when potassium intakes were higher [7]. Conversely, no association

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between children’s potassium intake and BP was found in a meta-analysis of three intervention trials and one cohort study [8]. Beyond the individual effects of either dietary sodium or potassium on BP, cross-sectional and longitudinal evidence in adults has shown that the molar sodium-to-potassium (Na:K) ratio is positively associated with BP [9,10] and is a predictor of cardiovascular risk [11]. For example, in 783 adults aged 50–75 years, a one unit decrease in the Na:K ratio was associated with a reduction in SBP of 1.8 mm Hg [10]. In addition, Cook et al. reported a 24% increase in CVD risk per Na:K unit in 2275 adults aged 30–54 years [11]. Few data describing the effects of the Na:K ratio on BP in children exist. One longitudinal Dutch study reported in 255 children aged 5–17 years, a greater yearly rise in SBP over seven years in those with a higher Na:K ratio [7]. A study from the United States conducted in 2185 girls aged 9–17 years, reported that, over a 10 years period, those with a K:Na ratio ≥0.8 had SBP levels lower than those with K:Na ratios below 0.6 [12]. The World Health Organisation (WHO) recommends a potassium intake which results in an optimal Na:K ratio of close to one [13]. In Australia, utilising one day of 24-h recalled dietary data, the 2011–2013 Australian Health Survey (AHS) reported an average dietary potassium intake of 2042 mg in children aged 2–3 years [14], which is close to the recommended adequate intake (AI). The adequate intake is used when a recommended dietary intake cannot be determined. The upper level of intake is the highest average daily nutrient intake level likely to pose no adverse health effects to almost all individuals in the general population 15 of 2000 mg/day. In contrast, the average intake of dietary sodium is reported as 1484 mg/day [14], which exceeds the recommended daily Upper Level of Intake (UL) of 1000 mg/day [15] for dietary sodium by ~50%. Accordingly, it is likely that Australian children’s Na:K ratios will be higher than the optimal ratio of 1. Regarding the Na:K ratio for food sources, only one cross-sectional study has examined the Na:K ratio of children’s primary food sources and showed in French children aged 2–14 years, processed foods such as, breads, cheeses, breakfast cereals and seasonings had higher average Na:K ratios, ranging from 5.6 to 16.4, compared to the Na:K ratios ranging from 0.1 to 0.3 for fruits, vegetables and dairy [16]. To our knowledge, this is the first Australian study to assess the molar Na:K ratio in children and of food sources. The aims of the present study were to assess, utilising three days of 24-h dietary intake, in a sample of Australian pre-school children: (a) dietary intake and food sources of potassium; and (b) the molar Na:K ratio of both food consumed and key food groups. 2. Materials and Methods The Melbourne Infant Feeding Activity and Nutrition Trial (InFANT) program, conducted during 2008–2010 within the major metropolitan city of Melbourne, Australia, was a cluster-randomised controlled trial involving first-time parents attending parents’ groups when their children were 3–20 months of age [17]. Individual parents were eligible to participate if they gave informed written consent, were able to communicate in English and were first-time parents. Each parent-child dyad represented one parent and their first-born. Anticipatory guidance on diet, infant feeding, and physical activity was delivered to the intervention group, whereas the control group received information only on child health and development. A detailed description of the program can be found elsewhere [17]. Eighty-six percent of eligible parents consented to participate (n = 542) [18]. Data from this study are drawn from the post-intervention follow-up when children were aged approximately 3.5 years. Data were excluded for participants lost to follow-up (n = 181) and those with no dietary recall (n = 100). Children with fewer than three complete dietary recalls at 3.5 years were excluded (n = 6). Outliers for total energy intakes were identified and excluded according to the criterion of mean ± 3 SDs (n = 4). This resulted in a sample size of 251 children. In addition, in a previous study utilising the same dataset, we assessed sodium intake and dietary sources of sodium. [19]. Findings from that study were used to assess the Na:K ratio for the sample and key food groups. The InFANT program was approved by the Deakin University Human Ethics Research Ethics Committee (ID number:

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EC 175-20078) and the Victorian Government Department of Human Services, Office for Children, Research Coordinating Committee. 2.1. 24-h Dietary Recall and Food Sources Dietary intake was assessed by trained nutritionists by telephone-administered five pass 24-h recall with the child’s parent when children were approximately 3.5 years of age. All food and beverages consumed midnight to midnight on the day before the interview were reported [20]. To help parents estimate their child’s food consumption, study-specific food measurement books were provided [21] and, where possible, call days were unscheduled (96% of calls) [18]. Three days of dietary intake were assessed (recalls were non-consecutive and included one weekend day) and the mean number of days between the first and last recall was 15.5 days (SD 18.3 days) [18]. Potassium intake was calculated using the 2007 Australian nutrient composition database (AUSNUT 2007), where foods are classified using a hierarchical numeric system. Individual food and beverage items are assigned an eight-digit food ID where two-, three-, and five-digit food groups describe major, sub-major, and minor foods, respectively. The last three digits of the eight-digit food ID are sequentially assigned to foods once they have been grouped within the five-digit group [22]. A detailed list of the food group classification system can be found in AUSNUT 2007 http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/science/monitoringnutrients/ausnut/Pages/ausnut2007.aspx. [23]. 2.2. Potassium and Sodium Intake Recommendations Children’s potassium intake was compared to the Australian National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) adequate intake (AI) for potassium of 2000 mg/day for children aged 1–3 years. The AI is the average daily nutrient level assumed to be adequate for a healthy population. An upper level (UL) of intake or a recommended dietary intake for potassium as not been set for children [15]. Children’s sodium intake was compared with the NHMRC UL of intake for sodium of 1000 mg/day (salt equivalent 2.5 g/day) for children aged 1–3 years and was presented in our previous paper [19]. The UL is defined as the highest average daily intake which is likely to pose no adverse effects [15]. The World Health Organisation (WHO) recommendation for a Na:K ratio of ≤1 was used when assessing the average molar Na:K [13]. 2.3. Other Measures Demographic and socioeconomic data was collected at baseline when children were three months of age, via self-administered paper-based questionnaires. Maternal education was dichotomised as low (secondary school or trade qualifications or less) or high (college or university or more) [21]. 2.4. Data Analysis and Statistical Analyses Descriptive statistics were used to describe food group contributions to total potassium and energy intakes and the Na:K ratio for the sample. Mean contributions and standard deviations (SD) for the sample, and the percentage of the sample consuming each food group were calculated. To calculate the average daily contribution of each food group to the participants’ average daily potassium intake and participants’ average daily energy intake over three days, the mean ratio method at the individual level was used [24]. Sodium and potassium density were calculated as mg/1000 kJ to correct for differences in children’s energy intake. The mean and SD for the molar sodium:potassium (Na:K) ratio were calculated using the average daily potassium intake and the average daily sodium intake from our previous study [19]. To calculate the average molar Na:K ratio, sodium and potassium in micrograms (mg) were converted to milli-moles (mmol) using the following conversion [15]:

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23 mg sodium = 1 mmol sodium

(1)

39 mg potassium = 1 mmol potassium

(2)

2.4.1. Na:K Ratio Key Food Groups To calculate the mean Na:K ratio for food groups, the average amount of sodium and potassium across the three days of intake from each food group was calculated and converted to mmol using the above conversion. 2.4.2. Serving Sizes To assess the serves per day (as recommended by the Australian Dietary Guidelines [25]) of key food groups, the sample was divided into two groups: (i) mean potassium intake below the AI (n = 135); and (ii) mean potassium intake above AI (n = 116). The average intake across three days of intake for vegetable and fruit were calculated at the two-digit food group level. To account for the variation in the recommended serving sizes within the milk products/dishes food group, the average intake across three days of intake for these foods was calculated at the three-digit food group level (i.e., cheese, milk, yoghurt). To calculate the serves/day, the total intake in grams was divided by the recommended serving size (g) for each food group [25]. Differences in the serves/day of key food groups between the group below and above the AI for potassium were assessed using the standard error of the mean (±SEM) and the independent samples t test. A p value of < 0.05 was considered significant. Analyses were conducted using StataSE 12 software (Release; StataCorpLP, College Station, TX, USA). 3. Results 3.1. Participants Lost to Follow-up Demographically, those participants (mothers) lost to follow-up were less likely to be on maternity leave (e.g., when baseline data was collected), less educated, more likely married, born in Australia, and to speak English at home, and the children had a higher body mass index (BMI) z-score, compared to those retained. One father (within the lost to follow-up group) with incomplete dietary data was excluded from this study. 3.2. InFANT Follow-up Participants Demographic characteristics of the sample are shown in Table 1. Two-hundred fifty-one children, who were approximately 3.5 years of age with an equal gender distribution, were included. The intervention and the control groups were combined for analysis as there was no difference in dietary potassium intake between the groups; 2024 (SD 514) mg/day potassium (52 (13.1) mmol/day), and 1943 (483) mg/day potassium (50 (12.3) mmol/day), respectively (p = 0.20). The average molar Na:K ratio for the group was 1.3 (0.45), with 77% of children above the WHO-recommended Na:K of one [14] (Table 1). The average molar Na:K ratio for boys and girls were similar; 1.32 and 1.35, respectively (p = 0.6). The average daily potassium intake in boys 2061 (±SEM 45) mg/day (53 (1) mmol) was ~8% higher than girls; 1907 (43) mg/day (49 (1) mmol), (p = 0.01). However, there was no difference between the average daily sodium intake for boys; 1565 (50) mg/day (68 (2) mmol/day) and girls; 1452 (32) mg/day (63 (2) mmol/day) (p = 0. 07). Fifty-four percent (n = 135) of children did not achieve the recommended AI for potassium of 2000 mg/day for children aged 1–3 years (Table 2). The Na:K ratio for the group above the AI was 1.18, compared to 1.47 for the group below the AI (p ≤ 0.001). Compared with children of high social economic position (SEP) (as defined by parental education status), children of low SEP had a significantly higher Na:K ratio but not a significantly higher average daily sodium or potassium intake (data not shown).

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Table 1. Characteristics for children and mothers who participated in follow-up data collection when the children were 3.5 years old. Child Characteristics Sex Boys Girls Demographics Age (years) Weight (kg) Height (cm) Body Mass Index z-score 1

n 125 126 Mean 3.6 16.6 100.7 0.6

% 50 50 SD 0.41 2.0 4.0 0.8

Mothers’ Characteristics

n

%

178 3 19 8 2 36 5

71 1 8 3 1 14 2

158 93

63 37

249 1 1

99 0.5 0.5

208 43

83 17

240 11

96 4

Sodium (Na) and Potassium (K)

Mean

SD

Daily K intake (mg/day) Daily K intake (mmol/day) Daily K density (mg/1000 kJ) Daily Na intake (mg/day) 3 Daily Na intake (mmol/day) 3 Daily Na density (mg/day) 3 Daily molar Na:K ratio

1983 51 383 1508 65 290 1.3

499 21 65 495 13 70 0.45

2

Employment status On maternity leave Employed full time Employed part time Unemployed Student Home duties Other Highest level of education Bachelor degree or higher Trade or high school Marital status Partner Separated Single parent Country of birth Australia Other Main language at home English Other

1

Body mass index z-scores were calculated by using World Health Organization gender-specific BMI-for-age growth charts [26]; 2 Data collected at baseline when children were three months old; 3 Average daily sodium intakes from our previous study [19].

Table 2. Descriptive characteristics for sodium (Na), potassium (K), and energy intakes for the two groups of children above and below the recommended adequate intake (AI) of 2000 mg/day for potassium for children aged 1–3 years [15] (mean (SD)).

Daily K intake (mg/day) Daily K intake (mmol/day) Daily Na intake (mg/day) Daily salt equivalent (g/day) Daily Na intake (mmol/day) Na:K ratio Energy intake (kJ/day) 1

Above AI (n = 116)

Below AI (n = 135)

p Value 1

2409 (345) 62 (9) 1663 (507) 4.15 (1.2) 72 (22) 1.18 (0.3) 5912 (870)

1618 (267) 41 (7) 1379 (450) 3.4 (1.1) 60 (19) 1.47 (0.5) 4571 (775)