ACT. Anthony Shaddock, Nancy MacDonald, Julie Hook,. Loretta Giorcelli ...... The fundamental challenge is for ACT schools to continue to make the necessary.
Disability, Diversity and Tides that Lift All Boats: Review of Special Education in the ACT
Anthony Shaddock, Nancy MacDonald, Julie Hook, Loretta Giorcelli & Michael Arthur-Kelly
30 October 2009
Disclaimer This report is the work of the authors and does not represent, nor claim to represent, the views of the Australian Capital Territory Department of Education and Training, the Archdiocese of Canberra and Goulburn, the Association of Independent Schools of the ACT, or individual Independent schools in the ACT. The report details options for these sectors and schools to consider only and the options are not intended to represent anything other than a guide. The sectors and schools are advised to seek their own advice, including legal advice, before implementing any option contained in this report.
Contents Disclaimer ..............................................................................................................3 List of Tables .........................................................................................................9 List of Figures......................................................................................................10 Foreword ..............................................................................................................11 Acknowledgements.............................................................................................12 Executive Summary ............................................................................................15 Chapter 1: Background.......................................................................................19 A guide to reading the report ....................................................................................... 19 Understanding of the brief ...........................................................................................20 Framework and methodology ......................................................................................21 Evidence-based theory about what leads to learning .................................................. 22 Appreciation.................................................................................................................24
Chapter 2: Legal and Policy Context .................................................................27 Special education ........................................................................................................31 Disability ...................................................................................................................... 33 Legislative context .......................................................................................................34 ACT Government policy context .................................................................................. 38 Education context ........................................................................................................40 Special education context ............................................................................................41
Chapter 3: Students and Learning Outcomes ..................................................45 Chapter 4: Pedagogy and Learning Outcomes.................................................51 Theory base and empirical support for quality teaching .............................................. 51 Technology ..................................................................................................................53 What makes teaching students with a disability difficult? ............................................ 56 Teacher time ..........................................................................................................57 Wide range of student ability..................................................................................59 Well-being ..............................................................................................................60 Student behaviour.................................................................................................. 62
Chapter 5: Curriculum and Learning Outcomes...............................................65 A differentiated curriculum ...........................................................................................66 Individual plans ............................................................................................................67
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Curriculum and transitions ........................................................................................... 70
Chapter 6: Settings and Learning Outcomes....................................................75 Settings, place and placement issues..........................................................................75 Special Schools ...........................................................................................................76 Units and centres .........................................................................................................82
Chapter 7: Resources and Learning Outcomes ...............................................89 Resource quantum.......................................................................................................91 The ‘Student Centred Appraisal of Need’ .................................................................... 92 Improving disbursing mechanisms...............................................................................96 Use of finances at school level ....................................................................................98
Chapter 8: Partnerships, Personnel and Learning Outcomes.......................101 Parents and carers ....................................................................................................101 Learning Support Assistants (LSAs) ..........................................................................105 Consultancy support for teachers .............................................................................. 107 Multidisciplinary services ...........................................................................................109 Therapy......................................................................................................................110 Mental health .............................................................................................................112 Service integration .....................................................................................................113 Learning support coordinators ................................................................................... 115
Chapter 9: Planning for Change.......................................................................119 Vision 119 Leadership .................................................................................................................119 Planning.....................................................................................................................122 Planning in the Public sector .....................................................................................123 Planning in the Catholic sector .................................................................................. 124 Planning in independent schools ...............................................................................125 Accountability.............................................................................................................126 Learning communities that support change in teaching practices ............................. 129 Principles ...................................................................................................................130
Chapter 10: Options for ACT Public Schools .................................................131 Clarify the vision, goals and scope of ‘special education’ in ACT Public schools ...... 132 Implement policies that support the pivotal role of classroom teachers..................... 132 Clarify policy about special schools, units and centres.............................................. 134 Reorganise multidisciplinary supports for student learning........................................ 134 Reconfigure resource allocation ................................................................................136
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Unify processes to support student learning – the Student Centred Appraisal of Need and the Individual Learning Plan (ILP) ........................................................... 137 Clarify issues associated with Learning Support Assistants (LSAs) .......................... 137 Implement policies and practices that capitalise on the major contributions that parents and carers make to their child’s learning........................................................ 138 Extend partnerships with the tertiary education sector .............................................. 138 Plan services for students with a disability................................................................. 139
Chapter 11 Options for Catholic Schools in the ACT.....................................141 Clarify the vision, goals and scope of services for students with a disability in ACT Catholic schools .............................................................................................141 Develop educational leaders...................................................................................... 142 Support the pivotal role of classroom teachers.......................................................... 143 Reconfigure resource allocation ................................................................................144 Maximise the potential of learning support staff......................................................... 145 Clarify issues associated with Learning Support Assistants (LSAs) .......................... 145 Implement policies and practices that capitalise on the major contributions that parents and carers make to their child’s learning........................................... 146 Extend partnerships with the tertiary education sector .............................................. 146 Implement accountability measures for students with a disability.............................. 147
Chapter 12: Options for ACT Independent Schools .......................................149 Clarify the vision, goals and scope of services for students with a disability in the school.............................................................................................................150 Support the pivotal role of classroom teachers.......................................................... 150 Use resources inclusively ..........................................................................................151 Reduce reliance on Learning Support Assistants (LSAs) .......................................... 151 Implement accountability measures for students with a disability.............................. 152 Demonstrate leadership............................................................................................. 152 Implement resourceful solutions ................................................................................152 Develop collaborative relationships ...........................................................................153
Chapter 13: Postscript ......................................................................................155 References .........................................................................................................157 APPENDICES .....................................................................................................187 Appendix 1: Terms of Reference .....................................................................187 Appendix 2: Review Team ................................................................................189 Appendix 3: Reference Committees ................................................................193 Appendix 4: Dictionary of Terms .....................................................................195 October 2009
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Appendix 5: Methodology.................................................................................201 Appendix 6: Summary of Observations in Schools .......................................203 Appendix 6 (a): Public Schools’ Issues: The Discussion Paper ...................203 Appendix 6 (b): Non Government Schools’ Issues ........................................225 Appendix 7: Student Variables that Affect Learning Outcomes ...................227 Appendix 8: Effective Teaching - Major Theorists & Researchers ...............229 Appendix 9: Principles of Effective Mental Health Services in Schools ......231 Appendix 10: Leading Practice ........................................................................233 Appendix 11: List of Submissions...................................................................235
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List of Tables Table 1: Number of enrolments by level of schooling and sector, 2005 to 2009................ 28 Table 2: Number of enrolments by special needs and sector, 2005 to 2009 ....................... 29 Table 3: Special education support programs in Public schools in 2009 ............................ 30 Table 4: Perspectives that are relevant to the Review of Special Education in the ACT.... 43 Table 5: Major ‘student variables’ described by prominent researchers and theorists. .... 227 Table 6: Elements of effective teaching ............................................................................ 229 Table 7: Evidence-based principles and practices for services for students with mental health issues....................................................................................................................... 231
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List of Figures Figure 1: Causal influences on Student Learning................................................................ 23 Figure 2: Pattern of enrolments of students with a disability in ACT schools.................... 29 Figure 3: Special needs enrolments as % of total enrolments in the ACT .......................... 30 Figure 4: Growth in students accessing Inclusion Support Program, 2003-2009 ............... 87
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Foreword There are several unique features to the Review of Special Education in ACT Schools. The Review involved Public, Catholic and Independent schools. As the work progressed, the Review Team soon realised that a major, potential benefit of reviewing the ACT government and non-government sectors at the same time was the identification of many opportunities for collaborations to improve the educational outcomes of students with a disability. The Review Team brought unique skills and experiences to the task. Ms Nancy MacDonald, Ms Julie Hook, Professor Loretta Giorcelli and Associate Professor Michael Arthur-Kelly have wide experience. All of us are teachers; are actively involved in services for students with a disability; and have experience as senior leaders in special education and disability services. Some of us are researchers. All of us care deeply about improving the educational outcomes of students with a disability. In addition, the requirement to base future options on an analysis of leading practice gave priority to evidence as the basis for policy. We attempted to be as thorough as possible in analysing leading practice. It was a big task that resulted in a big report and we apologise for its length. However, we hope that the synthesis of the relevant literature will be helpful, at least in the immediate future. Furthermore, the Review involved eight months of collaborative work and extensive engagement with the government and non-governments sectors. So, while the views expressed are those of the Review Team, many options and proposals have been tested in conversations with individuals and groups. In conclusion, my Review colleagues and I trust that the report results in ACT students with a disability receiving a quality education; an education that is full of fun and friendships and that prepares them for a satisfying and productive life. Anthony Shaddock Principal Consultant 30 October, 2009
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Acknowledgements We sincerely thank the many people who contributed to this Review. We appreciated the assistance of both Reference Groups. (The names of members of the government and non-government Reference Group members are listed in Appendix 3). Throughout the review, these individuals provided valuable input, sometimes robust, but always collegial and constructive. We very much valued the expert research assistance of Dr Charlotte Liu and Dr Michelle Pearce and the administrative assistance of Ms Summer Field and Ms Nancye Burkevics, The ‘critical readers’ of draft reports were most insightful. These are colleagues with unique expertise, perspective and experience: Ms Rita Cleveland and Ms Dianne Goosem from Brisbane Catholic Education; Ms Fiona Forbes, President of the Australian Special Education Principal’s Association (ASEPA); Dr David Mitchell, Educational Consultant, New Zealand; Ms Michelle Pearce, Educational Consultant, Perth; Ms Ann Shaddock, former teacher and Dean of Students at University of Canberra; Mr Mark Tainsh, Department of Education and Early Childhood Development, Victoria: and Ms Nicole Zimmer, Executive Teacher in the ACT Department of Education. Many individuals provided support in various ways: Ms Denise Bridges, Mr Phillip Brown, Ms Virginia Buchanan, Mr Greg Burgess, Ms Ros Donohue, Ms Joan Harmer, Professor John Hattie, Ms Christine & Mr David Kallir Preece, Mr Rod MacDonald, Ms Jeanette McMullan, Ms Jane Pamenter, Ms Cathy Smith, Ms Estelle Sydney-Smith, and Ms Christina Towns. We thank Marijan and Maryanne Rupcic, whose submission prompted the title of the report - an adaptation of the John F. Kennedy aphorism, “a rising tide that lifts all boats”. We are most grateful for the generous assistance of the ACT Human Rights Commission – Mr Sean Costello, Ms Mary Durkin, Ms Julie Field, Ms Brianna McGill, Ms Elizabeth Cusack, Ms Kezlee Gray, Ms Gabrielle McKinnon, Mr Alisdair Roy, Dr Helen Watchirs and colleagues. Staff in the government and non-government sectors provided outstanding support: Mr Ian Copland and Dr Mark Collis in the ACT Department of Education and Training; Mr Patrick Kelly, Ms Annmarie Thomas, Mr Michael Traynor and Ms Maree Williams from Catholic Education of the Archdiocese of Canberra and Goulburn; and Mr Jeremy Irvine and Ms Meredith Joslin from the Association of Independent Schools of the ACT. Many parents, carers, educators, students, and community members contributed to the Review via written submissions, email, website posting and/or participation in one of the nine ‘community consultations’ or many visits. Their input was most valuable and very much appreciated. We sincerely thank the school communities, organizations, groups and individuals – principals, teachers, therapists, consultants, assistants, office staff and students – who spoke so freely with us.
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The Review website proved to be an excellent support for communication about the process and we are most grateful to Dr James Neill for his skilled contribution as ‘webmaster’. Finally, sincere thanks once again to Ms Thea Moyes who always manages to work wonders with the senior author’s inexpert word-processing. Anthony Shaddock, Nancy MacDonald, Julie Hook, Loretta Giorcelli & Michael ArthurKelly.
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Executive Summary This report outlines options for the provision of education services for students with a disability in ACT schools. Although the report draws attention to deficiencies in services for ACT students with a disability, it also provides examples of good practices in ACT government and non-government schools. The options are based on a) extensive stakeholder consultation; b) examination of leading practice in ACT Public, Catholic and Independent schools; and c) evidence-based theory on what leads to productive learning. In addition, considerable effort was devoted to the analysis of international and national leading practice so as to provide the sectors with a basis for evidence-based planning. Consistent with its Terms of Reference, the report proposes options for the future. The report is not a checklist of recommendations and it would be inadvisable to use it that way. It is designed to provide a basis for the Public and Catholic systems, and each Independent school, to develop a well-founded ‘business plan’ that expresses their vision, priorities, actions, performance indicators and schedule for improving services for students with a disability. Government and education policy in the ACT supports inclusive practice, and in this context, the report urges schools and school systems to work simultaneously towards two related objectives: a) to provide the adjustments that many students with a disability need in order to participate in education on the same basis as other students; and b) to adapt mainstream practices so that adjustments for individual students (whether they have a disability or not) become less necessary. This general strategy has been proposed in other jurisdictions, and, more recently, in Alberta, Canada (e.g. see Alberta Education, 2009). It reinforces the view that students with disabilities are, fundamentally, students first. Therefore, as recommended by leading practice, educational services and policies should be universally designed and inclusive of the needs of students with a disability along with those of all other students. A major conclusion is that ‘special’ and ‘regular’ education should be increasingly integrated in terms of pedagogy, curriculum and resourcing. This ‘universal design’ approach is leading practice and should pervade policy, planning and delivery. The review concludes that the most important contribution that schools can make to improve the educational outcomes of students with a disability in ACT schools is to improve what happens on a daily basis in individual classrooms. Consequently, top priority is given to the development of capacity of teachers to teach all students. Support for classroom teachers should be provided through professional learning, consultative and multidisciplinary support, and carefully targeted policies, including resource allocation strategies that are known to improve teachers’ skills and improve student learning. More direct linking of a) teachers’ current concerns/issues with b) their professional learning, c) consultancy support, d) reflection on, and evaluation of, practice, and e) student learning outcomes is proposed. A key component of improving teacher capacity is to ensure skilled and informed leadership at system and school level.
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Education providers have a legal obligation to ensure that students with a disability access, and participate in, education on the same basis as other students and the review found that schools and teachers already make many individualised adjustments. However, overreliance on ‘individualised adjustments’ is known to be resource intensive and unsustainable, socially marginalising, and less effective educationally than approaches to teaching and learning that take place in, and utilise, the social context of the classroom. The report proposes increased accountability for the learning outcomes of students with a disability and the adoption of evidence-based policy to inform service development. For example, while leading practice suggests that separate programs tend not to be as effective as mainstream settings for students with a disability, the development and continuation of such programs should be based on the extent to which they improve student learning outcomes in ways valued by the students, parents and carers, and teachers. Data and evidence, not conviction and ideology, are the key considerations. While the report addresses many resource and resource allocation issues, it makes clear that the important issue is how resources are used. The report proposes the use of a range of funding mechanisms on the understanding that schools are, or should be, already using their resources to benefit every student; for example, by careful monitoring of student progress, early identification of difficulties in learning, and proactive assistance, particularly in the early years of schooling. With respect to the Student Centred Appraisal of Need, the report proposes a) clarifying that in the case of mainstream schools, this process generates supplementary funding designed to complement the wide range of services that schools should provide for all students – including those with a disability; and b) linking the Student Centred Appraisal of Need process directly to each student’s Individual Plan. One additional advantage of this more deliberate linking of supplementary funding to learning outcomes is that, over time, a more accurate, needs-based estimate can be made of required resources, for example, in regard to therapy, equipment and personnel. The report proposes that the Student Centred Appraisal of Need should be calibrated to the number of students with a disability in the ACT. The report suggests the use of different funding strategies in line with the principles summarised in Chapter 7 in order to promote inclusive teaching and minimise the deleterious effects of single schemes, for example, the ambit claims that were reported in regard to the Student Centred Appraisal of Need. The report proposes ways in which schools can involve students, parents and carers, and community partners to maximize student learning. The report identifies deficiencies in the provision of multidisciplinary services for students with a disability and proposes a range of options including urgent attention to the negotiation of service agreements between and among the relevant organisations to improve therapy and mental health provision for students with disabilities in all sectors. While the task of the review was to propose options for the future based on research and leading practice, the report makes clear that the research base is neither complete nor conclusive on many pressing issues. Therefore the sectors and schools should continue to engage in ‘action evaluation’ to inform and review their initiatives and programs for students with a disability, i.e. function as leaders and knowledge creators, as well as knowledge consumers. For example, the report proposes development and trialing of a) a
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school-based, Learning Support Coordinator (LSC) role designed to improve classroom pedagogy with a particular focus on students functioning in the lowest quartile; b) valid, teacher-friendly ways of collecting data on the achievement of educational outcomes of students with a disability; and c) the alignment of two current processes - Individual Planning and the Student Centred Appraisal of Need. As the government and non-government sectors face similar, but not identical, issues, the options are presented separately in Chapters 10 (Public schools), 11 (Catholic schools) and 12 (Independent schools). In the Public sector, there is a need for a coherent vision and business plan to provide the rationale and strategy for service development. It would be desirable for the significant Public school investment in professional learning for teachers to continue so that teachers are supported to use a wider range of evidence-based pedagogies. The report proposes what may be, for some, a different mindset in regard to students with a disability and emphasises inclusive practice and a ‘diversity mindset’. Therefore, it would be appropriate to provide school leaders with opportunities to participate in appropriate professional learning and appraisal processes. The report proposes more effective and efficient involvement of Learning Support Assistants (LSAs) and the involvement of supervised paraprofessionals in the delivery of school-based therapy. Consideration should be given to the reorganisation of the consultancy services provided to classroom teachers in Public school so as to achieve greater coherence in philosophy and delivery with an emphasis on capacity building. One option is to merge services such as the Inclusive Technology and Inclusion Support Teams and extend their capacity to service all settings. Systematic regional planning and delivery of services for students with a disability in the Public Sector are proposed. New roles for some special (ist) schools, and different models for meeting the needs of students who currently attend special schools, are also proposed so as to a) capitalise on the expertise and resources in these facilities; b) extend the schools’ connections with their communities and surrounding schools; c) reduce travel for students with disabilities; and d) give students the opportunity to receive an appropriate education (including school friendship opportunities) in their own neighbourhood. For Catholic schools, the report invites consideration of the extent to which the Archdiocese’s vision is comprehensive and includes the full range of Catholic students, and the ways in which the vision and strategies can be more widely understood and implemented. This will entail a greater appreciation by school leaders and teachers of their legal obligations under the Disability Standards for Education 2005 and of the wide range of means for providing students with a disability with access to the curriculum. Catholic schools enjoy generally good relationships with parents and carers and, given the strong evidence of the benefits of parent-teacher collaboration for improving student learning, they are encouraged to take these partnerships to the next level to improve students’ educational outcomes. Similarly, extension of the effective work in providing training for Learning Support Assistants and the clarification of their roles should be considered.
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The investment by the Archdiocese in Learning Support Teachers is a resource-intensive one that will need to be supported by professional learning, mentoring and monitoring. The report suggests that the Archdiocese considers trials that involve the extension of the roles of these personnel to ‘learning across the school’ so as to further integrate ‘special’ and ‘regular’ education. Independent schools are diverse. They vary markedly in many ways – religious beliefs, values, size, resources and the sophistication of their support for students with a disability. Independent school enrolments range from fewer than 20 students to over 1000 and each school is unique in terms of identity and challenges. For some Independent schools, a better understanding of legal obligations under the Disability Standards for Education 2005 and the wide range of ways to meet them should be given priority. Those Independent schools with considerable expertise and resources could consider showing leadership by reaching out to other schools. For example, they could take the lead in fostering greater collaboration, mentoring, networking and sharing among Independent schools. In addition, many teachers in the government and non-government sectors expressed interest in greater cross-sector collaboration, for example, in regard to networks of support around the needs of students with particular diagnoses such as dyslexia and autism spectrum disorder. ACT students with a disability would benefit if collaboration among ACT schools were extended comprehensively and creatively across the sectors, for example, through partnerships and/or sharing around professional learning, resources, services and expertise. Some Independent schools are relatively under-resourced and the report suggests ways to build capacity via networking, collaboration and the adoption of pedagogies that improve inclusive practice and reduce expense, for example, through systematic, well-conducted, peer tutoring. To conclude, some options will challenge current assumptions and practices and will need to be discussed at system, school community and staffroom level. Adoption of some options will involve an element of risk as they involve ‘letting go’ of policies and practices that may have been, or seemed to be, adequate until now. Some options will require modelling, trialing and ‘phasing in’ over a period of years, thus highlighting the importance of a clear vision and skilled leadership. The fundamental challenge is for ACT schools to continue to make the necessary adjustments for students with a disability while working systematically and resolutely to reduce the need for those adjustments in the first place. When this strategy is informed by a clear vision and monitored through effective accountability measures, it will achieve the ‘practical inclusion’ that is a goal of the ACT Social Plan. And finally, improvements in educational services for students with a disability in the ACT are most likely to occur in educational contexts that address the interests of all – students (with and without a disability), parents/carers, staff and school communities, i.e. the educational outcomes of students with a disability are more likely to be improved by an ‘educational tide that lifts all boats’.
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Chapter 1: Background This chapter • • • •
Provides a guide to reading the report Explains our understanding of the task Describes how we conducted the review Explains the theoretical perspective that guided the review.
A guide to reading the report It is difficult to write a slim report on a topic as significant as the education of students with a disability. The issues and challenges are complex and interrelated and must be understood before options and solutions are proposed and debated. Therefore, the first nine chapters summarise leading practice and ‘make the case’ for the options that follow, providing throughout the text, examples of leading practice in ACT schools and the views of participants. Before this report was written, a Discussion Paper was released. This document is ‘essential reading’ because it summarises the issues and concerns raised in visits and consultations in Public schools (see Appendix 6). Appendix 6 also summarises the results of subsequent visits, observations and consultations in the non-government sector. Chapter One outlines the review purposes and processes. It also explains the model that provided the rationale, direction and focus for the review. A review of special education requires an understanding of the context in which it is provided. Chapter Two summarises relevant features of the contemporary legal and policy contexts. Chapter Three explains why the focus must always remain on the students themselves; they make a major contribution to their own learning. Chapter Four summarises leading practice on pedagogy – the research on how to teach students with a disability. Chapter Five summarises leading practice on curriculum – the research on what to teach and related topics such as individual planning and transition. Chapter Six deals with where to teach and summarises the research on the impact of setting and placement on the learning outcomes of students with a disability. Chapter Seven explores resource and finance issues and makes the case for reconfiguring resource allocation to improve learning outcomes and to achieve system goals.
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Chapter Eight reviews leading practice on partnership and personnel issues, and, in particular, highlights the impact on student learning of parent-school collaboration. In themselves, reviews such as this one ‘fix’ nothing. However, they can provide the rationale and data for sectors and schools to plan a defensible way forward. Chapter Nine summarises features of service delivery that are known to improve teaching and learning and concludes with a summary of principles on which the service options are based. Options for the future are presented for the Public sector in Chapter 10, and for the nongovernment sector in Chapters 11 and 12. Chapter 13 briefly summarises the conclusions and advice on future options for ACT schools.
Understanding of the brief This Review commenced in March 2009 as a Review of Special Education in ACT Public Schools. After considerable public discussion, the Review was extended to Catholic and Independent Schools in June 2009. The Terms of Reference (Appendix 1) required a review of leading practice in curriculum and pedagogy for students with disabilities, with attention to student outcomes and the identification of future options for services to students with disabilities in ACT schools. Pedagogy is the method and practice of teaching and curriculum refers to the courses or subjects that are taught and learned. Pedagogy and curriculum directly affect the achievement of educational outcomes by students with a disability. (Dictionary of Terms, Appendix 4). There is a range of views about what constitutes appropriate educational outcomes. The Ministerial Council on Education, Employment, Training and Youth Affairs (MCEETYA) (2008a, p. 5 & 6) describes the goals of Australian schooling from a government perspective in terms of “successful learners”, “confident individuals” and “active and informed citizens”. Schools tend to emphasise key competencies required by students such as “thinking, making meaning, managing self, relation to others, and participating and contributing” (Hattie, 2005, p. 14). Parents typically focus on happiness, confidence and their child experiencing success (Martin & Associates, 2006) and students usually mention individual outcomes more directly related to their personal needs and aspirations, for example, practical learning, friendships and relationships (Australian Centre for Equity in Education, 2001). The term, ‘future options’ is understood in the context of rapid, unpredictable, societal changes that include: • •
Exponential growth, uptake and influence of technology; Increasing diversity of society and its schools;
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• •
• •
Increasing costs of special education and broad international acceptance of, and attempts to implement, inclusive education; Appreciation of the contribution that school education makes to social equity, cohesiveness and political stability and of the economic impact of the educational achievements of all students; A consequent focus on measurement, monitoring and benchmarking of student and school performance; and The questioning of the contemporary relevance of educational paradigms, policies and delivery mechanisms of the past, for example, the adequacy and sustainability of the program-based model that involves the assessment and differential funding of the special needs of selected categories of students. “If students in need of support were identified by their failure to achieve expected learning outcomes, rather than by narrowly defined disabilities, all students could potentially benefit from the detailed scrutiny. For example, gifted and talented students, if they were underachieving, would be identified and supported and whole school approaches to remediation would be encouraged.” (School counsellor)
The terms special education and disability do not have precise and/or consistent meanings. Many students experience difficulties in learning for a variety of reasons and may or may not have a diagnosed disability. (See Appendix 4, Dictionary of Terms). Leading practice is an appealing, loosely defined, term for a contestable concept. Leading practice is used as an alternative to ‘best practice’ – another concept about which there is considerable disagreement over meaning, validity and applicability. In this review, leading practice is understood as “a set of educational processes and procedures for which there is credible evidence of effectiveness with a large number of students and which are recognised within the profession as effective ways of teaching’. (See Appendix 4, Dictionary of Terms, and Appendix 10, for further discussion of the term). Finally, inclusivity is ACT government policy and the majority of students with a disability in ACT schools are in mainstream schools. Therefore, in addressing the educational outcomes of students with a disability, the review raises implications for mainstream education as well. What does or does not happen in one part of the education system affects the other.
Framework and methodology The Program Evaluation Standards (Sanders, 1994) guided the design and conduct of the Review. This authoritative text defines ‘best practice’ requirements for “useful, feasible, ethical, and sound evaluation of educational programs, projects and materials” (p. xiv.) The methodology involved a careful approach to: • •
Understanding stakeholders’ expectations, desired outcomes, the context and scope; Using an ‘Appreciative Inquiry’ framework to identify what is currently working well in ACT schools because current good practice provides a good basis for service development;
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• • •
•
• •
Sampling and data collection to gain an appropriate understanding of ACT government and non-government schools; Procedures to ensure systematic, valid and reliable assessment of policy, the research literature and stakeholders’ views; Integrating the findings from four different sources; a) evidence-based theory about the major influences on students’ educational outcomes; b) research on leading practice; c) examples of promising practices in ACT schools; and d) stakeholders’ views about how educational outcomes for students with a disability could be improved; Providing multiple opportunities for stakeholders to comment and contribute via website, email and postal submissions, and through visits, interviews and public consultations; Focus groups with students to get feedback on draft options using methodology outlined by NSW Commission for Children and Young People (2004); and Meta-evaluation, by having draft reports critiqued by ‘critical readers’ with different perspectives, expertise and roles in educational services for students with a disability.
Further details of the methodology and procedures are presented in Appendix 5.
Evidence-based theory about what leads to learning One of the benefits of a defensible theory of ‘what leads to student learning’ is that it provides guidance as to the relevance, validity and usefulness of other sources of data. For example, stakeholder input, although useful, is typically values-based, perceptual and subjective. In addition, as much as we would prefer otherwise, the research literature is not comprehensive, uniform or consistent on every point. Finally, if we were to rely on ‘promising practices’ observed in ACT schools to guide future options we may underidentify practices that should be considered. Consistent with Lewin’s (1951) statement that “There is nothing so practical as a good theory” we have complemented the leading practice literature, the observations in local schools, and stakeholder perceptions with a well-founded, evidence-based theory of learning in schools (Walberg, 1984a). A theory of learning not only explains what leads to learning (and therefore what factors should be considered in a Review of this nature) but it may also predict or suggest strategies that should be given greater emphasis. Walberg (1984a, p.21) defines learning as “An individual affective, behavioural, and cognitive activity that mainly takes place in the social context of the classroom group as well as in the home and peer groups”. In focusing on social contexts, the classroom and home, Walberg does not deny the importance of a range of other factors – such as socioeconomic variables, funding, teacher preparation, school policy, organisation and skills – but shows how the effects of these are less direct, less influential, and mainly mediated through the classroom and home. Walberg’s model (see Figure 1) identifies three main factors associated with learning student, instructional and environmental variables. The first, student aptitude, includes ability, level of development and motivation. While ability is clearly important, its effects are modified by other ‘within person’ variables such as the student’s motivation, interests and strengths.
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The second factor, instruction, includes the quality of instruction (with attention to curriculum and the psychological climate of the classroom) and the quantity of instruction or amount of instructional time. The third, environmental factors, includes the home, the class as a social group, and outside school factors such as peer influence and how students spend their leisure time. Figure 1: Causal influences on Student Learning
“Causal Influences on Student Learning” (p 21) from "Improving the Productivity of America’s Schools", by Walberg, H.J., Educational Leadership, 41(8).
The Walberg model is highly relevant to this review because: • •
•
It focuses on productivity in terms of learning outcomes for all students; It is consistent with the educational models of key figures in education including Bloom, Bruner, Carrol, Glasser and with contemporary research on learning and teaching, for example, Mitchell (2008) and Hattie (2009); It is based on a synthesis of thousands of empirical studies on the factors that lead to productive learning in schools;
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•
•
•
The relative importance of, and the relationships between and among, the factors that are influential in learning have been empirically established and replicated in many school settings with many thousands of students; The model highlights the interactive nature of these factors; for example, how low ability may be moderated by high student motivation, excellent teaching and/or good collaboration between school and home to support student learning outcomes; and The model suggests options that may not occur to many stakeholders and/or may not be prominent in contemporary literature about school improvement, for example, better collaborations with parents to improve educational outcomes; greater focus on the psychological climate of classroom; and/or focusing on ways to build on student’s strengths, improve their motivation, and in general, encourage engagement, selfregulation and a disposition towards learning
Appreciation In the Discussion Paper, Shaddock et al. (2009, Appendix 6 a) 1 drew attention to areas where improvement was needed in Public schools. Similar examples were subsequently observed or reported in Catholic and Independent schools and these are briefly summarised in Appendix 6 b). The Review Team also saw examples in the government and non-government sector of good practice, high levels of commitment, and a great desire to improve the quality of education for students with a disability. Examples of good practice in ACT schools are presented throughout the Report. Public schools
The following positive features of services for students with a disability in ACT Public schools are acknowledged: • Instigation of, and support for, this external review; • System-wide, rigorous attention to the Disability Standards for Education 2005 in policy implementation and professional learning for principals and teachers; • Provision of extensive professional learning opportunities including scholarships for advanced studies at various universities and the Canberra Institute of Technology; • Wide range of educational options for students with a disability and increasing flexibility within these options; • Pursuit of more productive partnerships with parents and stakeholder input into policy; • Provision of highly respected and well-utilised support teams – Inclusion Support, Hearing, Vision, Inclusive Technology; • Collaboration with Disability ACT around Post School options for students with a disability; • Provision of a wide range of autism-specific programs in response to the increased prevalence of students on the Autism Spectrum in the ACT community;
1
The Discussion Paper by Shaddock et al. (2009) that was produced as part of this Review is hereafter referred to as ‘the Discussion Paper’.
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•
Ongoing refinement to policies and processes, for example, the development of the Student Centred Appraisal of Need – a process that has improved transparency in the determination of additional funding for students with a disability; production of guidelines for the development and use of Individual Learning Plans (ILPs); review of policy on students with high and complex needs; review of ILPs; development of programs for students with a disability who have severe challenging behaviour; and the development of the Student Support delivery model and service practice standards for Student Support.
Catholic schools
The Review Team noted the following general positive features in Catholic schools: • • • • • • • • • • •
Support for this external review; Good relationships with parents and carers; Inclusive school cultures and a nurturing, pastoral care, ‘whole person’ approach; Utilisation of general school resources to support the education of students with a disability; Focus on improving educational outcomes through improvements to classroom pedagogy; Particular schools establishing effective models of support for students with a disability; Particular schools establishing learning support for any students with additional needs; Creative and resourceful applications of evidence-based practices; Taking on leadership roles in developing appropriate courses for students with a disability; Consistent involvement with external agencies to ensure students have access to a variety of services for people with a disability in the ACT; and Professional learning opportunities for special education staff.
Independent schools
Each Independent school is distinctive in terms of religious beliefs, values and educational philosophy. Independent schools are also diverse in terms of size, resources and capacity. Some of the positive features that were observed in some Independent schools included: • • • •
• •
Support for this external review; Good communication with, and strong support from, parents and carers; Inclusive school cultures that are complemented by very sophisticated counselling and support services in some settings; Flexibility and responsiveness demonstrated in some settings through an ‘open door’ policy for Student Services, modification of courses in the senior years, provision of ‘safe areas’ to which some students retreat as necessary and similar adjustments for individual needs; Attention to the ‘whole person’ - social, emotional, spiritual and physical needs of students; Creative utilisation of resources in some schools to establish systems of support in which students with a disability, students with gifts and talents, those with ESL needs, October 2009
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• •
Indigenous and Torres Strait Islander students, students with emotional and family support needs, students from interstate or from overseas, and students experiencing, or recovering from, medical conditions, receive the support they need; In some settings, ongoing review of programs and delivery to ensure inclusivity; and Creative options and pathways in some secondary settings for students transitioning to the world of paid work.
As options for the future must be devised and interpreted with reference to the current situation in the ACT, the next chapter examines this environment with particular attention to the legal and policy bases for educational practice.
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Chapter 2: Legal and Policy Context This chapter: • • • • • • •
Describes services for students with a disability in ACT schools Discusses the multiple meanings of ‘special education’ and ‘disability’ Summarises the legislative context in which services are provided Analyses relevant ACT Government policies Summarises current educational policy and the implication for students with a disability in ACT schools Outlines major challenges and directions in ‘special education’ and the implications for students with a disability in ACT schools Lists the many perspectives of relevance to the review.
The identification of ‘future options’ implies planning and good planning requires a thorough understanding of context. The services in ACT Public, Catholic and Independent schools are first described. Education of students with a disability in the ACT The 2009 ACT School Census reports that at February 2009 there were 64 380 students attending ACT government and non-government schools (ACT Department of Education and Training, 2009b). Of these, 38 280 students (59.5%) attended the 83 government schools and 26100 students attended non-government schools. There are 23 Catholic systemic schools and 17 Independent schools (including 3 Independent Catholic schools).
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Table 1: Number of enrolments by level of schooling and sector, 2005 to 2009 Public Primary 1,2 High College Special Subtotal public Non-government Independent schools Primary High College Catholic Systemic schools Primary High College Subtotal non-government schools Total
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
22 611 10 237 5 903 340 39 091
22 402 10 095 6 013 322 38 832
22 206 9 998 5 998 338 38 832
22 239 9 816 5 848 327 38 230
22 423 9 654 5 875 328 38 280
3 687 5 603 2 195
3 709 5 666 2 245
3 820 5 775 2 256
4 097 5 874 2 366
4 6993 5 900 2 379
8 067 3 671 1 331 24 554 63 645
8 106 3 676 1 277 24 679 63 511
8 162 3 674 1 263 24 950 63 490
8 168 3 608 1 270 25 383 63 613
8 2163 3 652 1 254 26 1003 64 3803
1
Includes preschool level enrolments. 2
Includes a small number of Indigenous students or special school students that attend more than one primary school. 3
Break in data series. 2009 data cannot be directly compared to previous years data due to the inclusion of preschool level students in non-government schools for the first time in 2009.
The Census reports an overall increase in enrolments in students in ACT schools between 2005 and 2009 – up 1.5%. During this period, Public school enrolments decreased by 2.07%; and non-government school enrolments increased by 6.30%. The majority of ACT students with special needs students attend Public schools. The census reports that, “in 2009, over eight in 10 (81.3%) special needs students were enrolled in a Public school, up 25 students since 2008”. These percentages are similar to the national data reported by the Allen Consulting Group (2005), that is, 82% of students with a disability in government schools, 13% in Catholic schools and 5% in Independent schools. Table two and Figure two illustrate that Public schools have experienced some growth in the identification of special needs students each year since 2005 – from 1667 in 2005 to 1784 in 2009 – an increase of 7%. In the same period, the identification of students with special needs in the non-government sector increased by 38%. The overall growth of enrolments of students with special needs between 2005-2009 was 11.7%.
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Table 2: Number of enrolments by special needs and sector, 2005 to 2009 Public schools Non-government schools 1,2 Total 1 2
2005 1 667 297 1 964
2006 1 698 329 2 027
2007 1 711 418 2 129
2008 1 759 424 2 183
2009 1 784 411 2 195
There were no preschool level students with special needs in non-government schools in receipt of funding in 2009. Includes all students flagged as special needs, including those students not formally assessed at the time of the census.
(ACT Department of Education and Training. (2009b).
Figure 2: Pattern of enrolments of students with a disability in ACT schools
Between 2005 and 2009 students with special needs as a proportion of the total enrolment increased slightly. In government schools, the proportion rose from 4.3% to 4.7%; and in non-government schools, from 1.2% to 1.6%. Between 2005 and 2009, the proportion of students with special needs in ACT schools rose only slightly – from 3.1% to 3.4%. Figure 3 illustrates changes in the proportion of students with special needs in relation to overall school enrolments.
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Figure 3: Special needs enrolments as % of total enrolments in the ACT
Public schools: As described in detail on the ACTDET website 2, Public schools offer a wide range of services for students with a disability and these are centrally administered as part of ‘Student Support’. The services include a range of early intervention options 3; support services in mainstream schools; and special schools. Tables 3 summarises the distribution of this support in terms of program type and grade. Table 3: Special education support programs in Public schools in 20094 Number of schools with special classes Number of students accessing special classes Number of students in special classes per providing school Number of students accessing inclusion support Average number of students accessing inclusion support per school
Primary 36 397 11.03 446 7.31
Secondary 14 218 15.57 128 7.53
College
Catholic schools: The Catholic Education Office provides a range of services for students with a disability. The model of inclusion and the services provided under this inclusive model are documented in the Learning Support Handbook (Archdiocese of Canberra & Goulburn, 2009). The services work to build teacher, school, and system skills and capacity to support students with a disability in mainstream classes.
2
http://www.det.act.gov.au/school_education/special_education The current review focused on services for students with a disability from kindergarten to college. 4 This table does not include special school data. 3
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3 68 22.67 47 5.88
Independent schools: Independent schools are genuinely independent and they differ in many ways. For example, the ACT Independent schools include Anglican, Catholic, Christian, community, Islamic, Montessori, Seventh Day Adventist and Steiner schools. Furthermore, the schools may differ in culture, values, enrolments, school expertise, social capital of the school community, resources, and/or the range and sophistication of supports for students with a disability. In terms of size, Independent schools in the ACT range from 16 to 1185 students. Each Independent school is responsible for the day-to-day management and operation of the school. The Association of Independent Schools of the ACT represents schools’ collegial views within government, media and the wider education sector. All Independent schools in the ACT are members of the Association. Although some Independent schools provide small group tuition for part of the day for some students with special needs, none of the schools offers fulltime, separate placements. In conclusion, the slight increase in identification of students with special needs in the ACT over the last 5 years is somewhat less than that experienced in many other countries where education authorities struggle to contain the growth of special education. For example, since 1980, special education in the USA as a total of overall school enrolment increased from 8% to 12.2% (Mahitivanichcha & Parrish, 2005). Parrish (2001) reports that the increase is mainly due to the increasing receipt of special services by students with less severe disabilities. Recent figures from the United Kingdom indicate that 18% of students in English schools are considered to have special educational needs, up 3% in five years (Shepherd, 2009). Closer to home, Graham and Sweller (2009) report a significant growth in students with a confirmed diagnosis of disability in NSW Public schools – from 4400 students (0.58% of total enrolments) in 1993/4 to approximately 25,000 students (3.5% of total enrolments in 2006/7). In addition to the worldwide increase in students receiving special education services, the different identification rates of special needs in developed countries are noteworthy. Furthermore, the fact that in some jurisdictions there are increasing numbers of students with less severe disabilities being referred to special education raises questions about the extent to which their current mainstream and special education policies may be contributing to this trend. For example, research shows that when the main means of securing resources is through assessment and classification of special need, demand is stimulated (Ferrier et al. 2007; Graham & Sweller, 2009; Victorian Department of Education, 2001). This outcome is clearly inimical to inclusive practice (Ferrier, 2007; Graham & Sweller, 2009), and as discussed in Chapter 6, has other negative effects.
Special education There is a lack of clarity and consensus around the meaning of terms such as ‘special education needs’ and ‘students with a disability’ (Allen Consulting Group, 2005; Ferrier et al. 2007; Department of Education, Employment & Training, Victoria, 2001; & Weishaar and Borsa, 2001). Kavale and Forness (1999, p.3) write, “For a domain that has generated so much debate, special education is not well-defined.” And Kauffman & Hallahan (2005, October 2009
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p.1) agree; “Just what special education is, who gets it or who should get it, and why it is necessary are matters that relatively few teachers, parents, school administrators, or educators of teachers can explain accurately or with much confidence.” Weishaar and Borsa (2001) explain how special education services are constituted differently in different places at different times because of a) terminological differences; b) different philosophical positions; c) the history of organisations/systems; d) local tradition within school districts; e) legal foundations; and f) fiscal policies and constraints. As these influences interact to determine the nature of services, there are wide differences in the structure and function of special education services throughout the world. There are good reasons to question the contemporary relevance of ‘special’ as a descriptor for ACT students with a disability. The term, ‘special education’, is not used in the Disability Standards for Education (2005) or the Australian Capital Territory Education Act (2004). Furthermore, the use of the term ‘special’ to describe particular students is incompatible with the ACT Government policy about inclusion or inclusivity as expressed in Building Our Community: The Canberra Social Plan (2004); and in Students with a Disability: Meeting Their Educational Needs, 2008, (ACT Department of Education & Training, 2008, p.3). Inclusion requires “a focus on all policies and processes within an education system, and indeed, all pupils who may experience exclusionary pressures” (Ainscow, Farrell & Tweddle, 2000, p.228). (See Appendix 4, Dictionary of Terms). Slee (2006)) asks, “Has the reformist agenda for inclusive education been irrevocably undermined or sent up an epistemological cul de sac by a thoughtless dalliance with special educational needs?” (P. 113). Slee (2006, p. 118) suggests that the importance of questions of placement, resources and expertise notwithstanding, the real issues are ‘who’s in and who’s out’ because these issues relate to “questions of power and powerlessness” and the possibility of genuine educational reform”. Slee (2005, p. 158) writes, “For, so long as ‘regular educators’ hold fast to notions of regular students and special needs students, inclusion is reduced to a chimera.” “I wouldn’t call it special needs … I’d call it - ‘needing a little extra help’.” (High school student with a disability) “There is nothing special about our son’s (who has Down syndrome) needs; He’s not an alien!” (Parent)
Ainscow, Booth & Dyson (2006 p. 15), in advocating a broad understanding of inclusion write, “We question the usefulness of an approach to inclusion that, in attempting to increase the participation of students, focuses on the ‘disabled’ or ‘special needs’ part of them and ignores all the other ways in which participation for any student may be impeded or enhanced (italics added).” In conclusion, the philosophical distinction between ‘special’ on the one hand, and presumably, ‘not special’ on the other, is hard to sustain in a society that values diversity and inclusivity, sees itself as more heterogeneous than homogeneous, and prefers to focus on difference rather than deficit. Furthermore, the policy implications that flow from this imprecise and outdated construct, for example, ‘special’ programs, services and funding – may have unfortunate consequences, not the least of which is a focus on students’ limitations.
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Disability An alternative descriptor to ‘special’ needs or ‘special’ education is to refer to ‘students with a disability’ and the term has a basis in law. Many state departments now refer to services using some reference to disability, for example, NSW - Disability Programs; Tasmania - Students with Disabilities; South Australia – Disability Services; and Victoria Students with Disabilities. Although many authorities have attempted to move beyond special education models and nomenclature, their policies often continue to reflect the special education influence. As the paradigm shift occurs slowly and inconsistently leadership needs a clear vision of the ‘shape’ of a desirable system so that it can manoeuvre strategically between paradigms to achieve it. Some states departments use the term ‘Inclusive Education’ to describe their services. Western Australian services are known as ‘Inclusive Education’ and Queensland describes its services as ‘Inclusive Education and Learning and Disability Support’. Although inclusion is clearly in the spirit and intention of the Disability Standards for Education, the term itself is not mentioned. Only the two territory governments, ACT and Northern Territory, currently use ‘Special Education’ as a descriptor of services – ‘Special Education and Wellbeing’ (NT) and ‘Special Education’ (ACT). In Australia, the use of ’special’ to describe services for students with a disability is clearly not the preferred option. Although the Catholic Education Office of the Archdiocese of Canberra and Goulburn is increasingly adopting a ‘Learning Support’ approach, it continues to use special needs nomenclature to describe some policies and services and so do many school-based staff. Many ACT Independent schools use special education nomenclature also. While it seems advisable to locate and define services in an appropriate legal framework, and so adopt ‘disability’ nomenclature in preference to terms such as ‘special’ or ‘inclusive’, there are issues to be resolved around the need for identification, for example, “Labeling – some parents use it and some will do anything to avoid it.” (Learning Support Assistant)
and, which definitions 5 should apply in particular circumstances, for example, for access to services and/or for access to particular funding programs. This is a confused and confusing area for education stakeholders in the ACT. In regard to services, education providers must abide by the relevant legislation. The broad definition of disability contained in the Australian Government’s Disability Discrimination Act (1992), the Disability Standards for Education (2005), and particularly in the ACT Disability Services Act (1991) must be applied. Education providers are obliged to provide students with a disability with access to educational services on the same basis as students without disability.
5
These definitional challenges illustrate that ‘disability’ is socially constructed.
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In regard to particular forms of support, for example, that provided by governments to supplement funding for students with a disability, Australian State and Territory governments adopt their own policies and funding rules for disbursing particular funds and managing access to particular programs. The programs and policy definitions in different states and territories are not the same and the eligibility requirements for particular forms of support (such as supplementary funding) are not necessarily consistent with definitions contained in the relevant legislation. These issues are further discussed in Chapter Seven. These definitional issues mean that it is virtually impossible to undertake national data collection, monitoring and benchmarking of funding, expenditure and performance with respect to Australian students with a disability. Furthermore, some believe that children with ADHD and/or dyslexia are educationally disadvantaged by a local definition of disability that does not allocate supplementary funding for these conditions (through the Student Centred Appraisal of Need). “If dyslexia isn’t even recognised as a disability, how can ‘pedagogy, curriculum and student learning outcomes’ be as effective, when compared to the recognised disabilities?” (Parent) “There is inadequate support for children with learning disabilities, e.g. dyslexia.” (Paediatrician) “We believe the difficulty with recognising dyslexia as a disability is because it is perceived, by some, to be a ‘fake disability’ … something that either ‘doesn’t really exist’ or is used by overly emotional parents as an excuse for why their child is performing poorly.” (Parent) “If ADHD student’s needs were addressed much earlier, then I would suggest that later behavioural issues would not be such a problem. Teaching needs to be addressing their learning needs and also their organisational skills as well as self esteem.” (Parent)
Additional legal issues arising from these definitional complexities in terms of compliance and risk management are discussed below under ‘legislative context’.
Legislative context Connors (2006) in an address on public education in the ACT cites Martin Luther King’s “The law cannot change the heart but it can restrain the heartless” and makes the point that the 2004 Education Act “provides a strong basis for accountability” (p. 9). The Discussion Paper makes a similar point, “Although it may appear somewhat uninspiring to consider future options in education with reference to existing legal obligations, the legal ‘bottom line’ is a good place to start.” Recent events in NSW, for example, the NSW Principals Association threatening legal action because of alleged failures “to provide students with learning disabilities with equality of access to education”, highlight the ‘safety net’ provided by legislation (Carr & Rajendra, 2009, p.5). “The culture that Special Education is a favour rather than a right must be reversed.” (Parents)
Education for students with a disability in the ACT is underpinned by impressive legislation. The most relevant acts are:
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• • • • • •
Children and Young People Act 2008 (ACT) Disability Discrimination Act 1992 (Commonwealth) Disability Standards for Education 2005 (Commonwealth) Discrimination Act 1991 (ACT) Education Act 2004 (ACT) Human Rights Act 2004 (ACT)
•
Human Rights Commission Act 2005 (ACT).
The Discussion Paper raised additional legal issues that are of particular relevance to the Review of Special Education including: •
•
Interpretation of, and accountability for, providing students with a disability with the opportunity “to participate in the learning experiences of the course or program, on the same basis as students without a disability” (Disability Standards for Education, 2005 p. 24). The needs of many students for specialised services, such as therapy and/or mental health support, that are not provided directly by the school system but that are essential components of the curriculum for these students and/or determine the extent to which they are equipped to access the curriculum on the same basis as other students.
As stated, the relevant provisions of the DDA, and the ACT Discrimination Act, including their definitions of disability, bind all education providers. So if or when a Court is considering whether or not a student with a disability has been discriminated against on the ground of disability, effectively the broadest discrimination law definition will apply. If providers have complied with ACT law but not the DDA, they can still be found wanting under the DDA. The same applies if they have complied with DDA but not ACT law – the more likely scenario. While it may be seen as ill-advised (for fiscal reasons) to adopt a broad and inclusive definition of disability for the allocation of supplementary funding, in fact, in the ACT, it may be ill-advised not to adopt such a definition. A broad definition would be consistent with other ACT Government legislative and policy initiatives which promote diversity and inclusion, for example, the adoption of a comparatively broad ACT Discrimination Act; the fact that the ACT was the first Australian jurisdiction to have human rights legislation; and the Government’s recent amendments to require public authorities to act and make decisions in accordance with human rights. A more cautious, but contentious approach, would be to leave unchanged the definition and the list of ‘disability categories’ that currently are eligible for supplementary funding in the ACT and wait until the Ministerial Advisory Committee on Education (MCEEDYA 6) and the Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations (DEEWR) deal with the definitional issues about which much has been written (Allen Consulting, 2005); Ferrier et al., 2007; Shaddock, Smyth King, & Giorcelli, 2007)
6
MCCEDYA was formed in July 2009 following a merger of MCCETYA and MCTEE. See http://www.mceetya.edu.au/mceecdya/about_mceecdya,11318.html
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However, ACT education providers still need to be able to demonstrate that they have provided ‘reasonable adjustments’ to ensure that any student with a disability as defined by the DDA, (1992), including those currently deemed ineligible for supplementary funding such as students with dyslexia and/or ADHD, are catered for. At least one indicator of reasonable adjustment is the provision of specific resources to support that student. If this more cautious approach were adopted, the difficult case for excluding some categories of disability from supplementary funding, rather than the case for including them, would have to be argued. “We receive a disability pension from the Government because of our daughter’s dyslexia diagnosis, so the Government recognises dyslexia.” (Parent)
Relevant to the consideration of these options is the fact that the ACT is one of only two Australian jurisdictions to have a test of discrimination without a comparator. That is, a person only needs to be treated unfavourably because of a disability, rather than less favourably than those without the disability. This test strengthens the argument that a broad definition of disability should guide supplementary funding - the ACT Discrimination Act definition - as a relevant and appropriate indication of compliance with the ACT legislative and policy framework. It would also be important for education providers to keep abreast of developments at the federal level, for example, the recent ratification by the Australian Government of the ‘UN Convention of the Rights of Persons with Disabilities'; the amendment to the DDA on 25 June 2009, making explicit the positive duty already imposed by Courts to make reasonable adjustments to accommodate disability; and policy changes in the way DEEWR provides additional funding to support the education of disadvantaged students. Human Rights legislation has raised the bar for public authorities. From 1 January 2009, the Human Rights Act 2004 (ACT) (HRA) requires ACT public authorities to act and make decisions in accordance with human rights. Individuals who allege that their human rights have been breached by public authorities are now able to apply directly to the ACT Supreme Court to seek redress. In addition to the ‘reasonable adjustment’ requirements under discrimination law, Human Rights legislation in other jurisdictions has required public education providers to not only avoid discrimination by making appropriate adaptations so that individuals can benefit from existing provision, but also adapt existing provisions so that they are “accessible, meaningful and rewarding’ for the individual or group of interest” (MacKay, 2006). So, public education providers must provide individual accommodations and adjustments and implement systemic changes that reduce the need for individual level accommodations and adjustments (Alberta Education, 2009). Currently, in interpreting the ACT Discrimination Act and deciding on whether or not a complaint on the grounds of disability appears to have substance, the Human Rights and Discrimination Commissioner, in complying with section 30 of the HRA, has relied on section 8 'Recognition and equality provision' and section 12 'Privacy and reputation' - to decide that complaints do in fact appear to have substance. Section 30 of the HRA requires that all ACT laws are interpreted so far as possible, in a way that is consistent with human rights. In interpreting human rights, international law may be considered. Therefore, if a question of the extent of the ACT definition of discrimination and/or disability arose, under the HRA, recourse could be had to interpretations of discrimination Page 36
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and/or disability under United Nations Human Rights declarations and standards. In these ways, the ACT Discrimination Act may be used to broaden and enhance disability rights. The ACT has strong legislation. However, enforceability is an issue and it is unlikely that pedagogy, curriculum and learning outcomes for students with a disability will be improved by legislation alone (Tisdall & Riddell, 2006). In Chapter Nine, the issue of accountability is further discussed. To conclude, it would be appropriate, in determining eligibility for supplementary funding, to consider adopting a broad definition of disability that is consistent with discrimination law as this would: • • • • • •
Demonstrate a commitment to the principles of equality and inclusivity. Improve transparency in monitoring and accountability. Be unlikely to increase identification rates of special needs to the levels reported in some other jurisdictions. Assist providers to appreciate the extent of their public authority functions. Improve consistency between legislation, policy and resource allocation mechanisms. Reduce public criticism about ‘unfunded students’ 7 and build trust with parents and carers. “But let’s not get into a competitive bidding game to see who has the most problems or who can portray the worst situation … we are looking at students who have individual needs and these must be met on an individual basis.” (Parent)
In addition to making a complaint of discrimination under the DDA or the ACT Discrimination Act, students and their families also have the right to make a complaint about a ‘disability service’ or a ‘service for children and young people’ under the Human Rights Commission Act 2005 (HRC Act). This includes special education services, and other services provided to students with a disability in the school setting. The Disability & Community Services Commissioner and the Children & Young People Commissioner consider such complaints. Finally, it should be noted that the ACT law, particularly when interpreted through the lens of the HRA, implies that the system of special education provision should be based on principles of transparency, consistency, and accountability. Public education providers should also consider the best interests of the child when making decisions, and listen to, and seriously consider, students’ views. There are many obvious implications not the least of which is to increase the extent, type and prominence of consultation with students.
7
It is argued in Chapter Seven, however, that a reliance on supplementary funding as the sole source of support for students with a disability, is not only inimical to inclusive practice but it may also have a deleterious impact on students’ learning outcomes.
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ACT Government policy context The Discussion Paper (p. 5) referred to the development of ACT Government policy on outcomes and opportunities for all Canberrans who have a disability with attention to strategic priorities based on “key messages from individuals, families, cares and service providers about type of support, contribution to, and engagement with, the community, learning opportunities and the requirements of a quality service system for people with a disability.” The ACT has adopted strong policies to support students with disabilities and their families including: Building Our Community: The Canberra Social Plan (2004); the ACT Children’s Plan 2004-14; Future Directions: A Framework for the ACT 2004-2008; Challenge 2014: A ten year vision for disability in the ACT; National Public Health Strategic Framework for Children 2005-2008; The Best Start in Life: The Importance of Early Childhood Education 2007; and the ACT Policy Framework for Children and Young People with a Disability and Their Families (2009). The recently released ACT Government Policy Framework for Children and Young People with a Disability and Their Families (ACT Health, ACT Department of Disability, Housing & Community Services, and the ACT Department of Education and Training, 2009) is a progressive document that: • • • •
Lists the principles that underpin all services to children and young people with a disability and their families, including those provided as universal services; Clarifies the roles and responsibilities of agencies 8 that provide services for children and young people with a disability and their families; Provides guidance about the ways agencies should undertake a coordinated response to needs; and Establishes the mechanisms that ensure joint planning to meet the future needs of children and young people with a disability.
Clearly, this new Disability Policy Framework has huge implications for students with a disability. As “the collaborative approaches underpinning the Policy are to be codified and operationalised through the negotiation and signing of Service Partnership Agreements between the relevant ACT Government Departments and agencies” (4.1) the Policy Framework should provide the policy leverage to improve: • • • • •
Collaboration in relation to specialised services such as therapy provision; Equity and access to adaptive 9 technology; Data gathering to support planning, for example, personnel preparation; Services such as early intervention, transition, and particularly the provision of postschool education opportunities to assist the transition from school to adult life; Community engagement and creative partnerships, for example, between schools, businesses and employment agencies, to foster careers for people with a disability, including innovative self-employment; and
8
The roles and responsibilities referred to here are for ACT Government Departments and agencies and for providers that have service contracts with the ACT Government. 9 See Appendix 4 for definition.
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•
Opportunities for social inclusion that involve support for friendships and social networks and programs to reduce bullying.
The Post School Options Expo has become an integral part of the ACT calendar for students and their families who are looking at options for school leavers. All year 9-12 students with a disability and their families from government and non-government schools are invited, and in 2009, over 500 people attended. The Expo offers sessions for school groups and for students and families. The attendees are able to visit a large number of stalls, become involved in interactive demonstrations and ‘Try a Trade’ such as Beauty and Make Up, Hairdressing, and Building. The expo is an initiative of the ACT Interagency Transition Committee that is made up of representatives of both government and nongovernment agencies and services providers.
Another relevant policy initiative in the ACT is the Sharing Responsibility Framework for Service Collaboration for the Care, Protection and Well-Being of Children and Young People in the ACT (Vardon & Murray Steering Committee, 2005). The policy focuses on “quality care and protection services for vulnerable children, young people and their families in the ACT” (p. 2) and outlines the respective responsibilities of the ACT Department of Disability, Housing and Community Services; the ACT Department of Education and Training; ACT Health; ACT Department of Justice and Community Safety; ACT Chief Minister’s Department; and ACT Department of Treasury. This policy, while primarily emphasising ‘care and protection’ needs of young people, lists guiding principles and outcomes that are, in principle, equally applicable to students with a disability. In the same vein, the Multi-Agency Response for Clients with Complex Needs outlines a cross-government policy agreement that is, in principle, applicable to students with a disability (Department of Disability, Housing and Community Services, ACT Health, Chief Minister’s Department and Department of Justice and Community Safety, 2004). The point is that both these progressive, collaborative, child and family-centred, policies have the potential to be more inclusive, and, in particular, be applied to students with a disability, many of whom could be considered to have complex needs and/or require coordinated support from multiple departments and/or agencies. The Discussion Paper referred to key policies in the ACT Department of Education and Training such as Students with a Disability: Meeting Their Educational Needs (2008) and the Inclusivity Challenge: Within Reach of Us All Discussion Paper (2002). The former reiterates the requirement to provide education services that are compliant with the Disability Standards for Education (2005) and endorses the provision by the Department of “special schools and support units/classes, where parents/carers and professionals agree such placements are in the best interests of the students” (p.2). The latter raises issues for school communities to consider about inclusive practice, but not just in regard to students with a disability. For example, “inclusive schools focus on making education better for those at the margins of schooling so that all students are able to meaningfully engage with the curriculum and life of the school” (p.10). This document suggests that inclusivity requires education to be effective for all students.
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Clearly these ACT policies are progressive, and, just as with legislation, the critical issue is the extent to which they are implemented.
Education context Key goals and features of the national educational agenda and the ACT Government’s educational agenda were outlined in the Discussion Paper (Appendix 6 a). In moving quickly to implement its ‘education revolution’ the Australian Government is changing the context in which the education of all students occurs. Increasingly Australian education will be shaped towards: • • • • • • •
Stronger partnerships between schools, parents, the community and business; Stronger early childhood education and care; Support for effective transitions in education; Improving the quality of teaching and school leadership; Developing world-class curriculum and assessment; Improving educational outcomes for disadvantaged young Australians; and Increasing accountability and transparency.
McGaw (2008) indicates that necessary improvements in Australian school education require attention to: • • • • •
Equity as well as quality; Secondary school completion rates; The quality of teachers through higher salaries and status; The structure and composition of the school workforce; and The use of evidence-based practices in schools.
Therefore in addition to the specific options proposed in chapters 10-12 about the education of students with a disability, education sectors and schools in the ACT should give priority to the following practices that have been identified in the general ‘school reform’ literature: • • • •
• • •
Leadership that is results-focused, that builds capacity, and that is engaged; Determined focus on teaching, learning and student achievement; Specific attention to barriers to learning; Early intervention, the long term effects of which include a reduction in the need for special education and repeating grades, and increased school completion rates (Donovan & Cross, 2002; Weiss & Stephen, 2009); Priority for numeracy, literacy and student well-being and closing the gap between high and low performing students and those at risk of marginalisation; Aspirational, negotiated targets for student achievement with students having high levels of ownership of their learning; Measurable goals and benchmarks – the use of data and evidence by students, teachers and schools;
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•
Professional development, networking, and sharing of effective, evidence-based practices, reduction of class sizes and investment in the ‘core technology of schools’ – quality teaching; • Increased investment in education through targeted funding that promotes capacity and sustainability; • Parental engagement and involvement; and • Providing support for educational reform through promoting ‘buy-in’ and support of all stakeholders for educational reform; building on what is working well now; recognising that success comes from individuals working together; ‘changing by doing rather than by elaborate planning’; and engaging external expertise to support schools where necessary. (Synthesised from Connors, 2006; Darling-Hammond et al., 2006; Fullan, 2003; Fullan, 2007; Fullan, Hill & Crevola, 2006; Parsons, 2005; Smyth & McInerney, 2007; Society for the Advancement of Excellence in Education, 2004; Ysseldyke, Algozzine & Thurlow, 2000). Many schools reorganise classes to allow greater focus on students’ development of basic skills. For example, a high school we visited provides smaller classes for English, Mathematics and Science for Years 7 through to 10 with modified work and assessment tasks to enable students to work to their potential and encourage the development of literacy and numeracy skills.
Special education context The education of students with a disability is part of education more generally, and across the world there is an increased emphasis on anti-discrimination and human rights legislation, policies supportive of inclusive education, and acknowledgement of the diversity of contemporary schools. Research continues to identify strategies that are effective with a wide range of students including those with a disability, (e.g. as described by Mitchell, 2008; Shaddock, Smyth King & Giorcelli, 2007). At the policy level however, there is major disagreement about many of the most important issues in the education of students with a disability. For example, Ysseldyke et al. (2000, p. 28) write, “Because it is not available to everyone, special education is a controversial practice. The controversy takes up issues of access, availability and accountability. Concerns about access ask who should receive special education. Concerns about availability centre on where special education should be provided and what should be provided. Concerns about accountability address the extent to which special education makes a difference.” The ongoing debate about these issues illustrates the recurring dilemmas identified by Norwich (2008) and described in the Discussion Paper. Similarly, Bateman (1994) refers to the perpetual issues of “who, how and where” of special education. Lined up on both sides of these passionate debates are esteemed researchers, thinkers, advocates, parents, students and ex-students, and a wide variety of stakeholders who, if
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they refer to evidence at all, sometimes base their opposing views on almost the same body of evidence 10. This lack of consensus illustrates that the evidence-base is not as incontrovertible as some would believe; that evidence needs to be interpreted; and that interpretations invariably reflect values, assumptions and personal experience. Very often in special education, proponents adopt a simplistic ‘either-or’ position, denying the possibility that different perspectives are necessary. As Ysseldyke et al (2000) conclude, “When more and more students are considered at risk, the concept of specialised instruction to meet individual learning needs becomes moot. As more students are identified with special learning needs, multiple, even competing perspectives all begin to make sense” (p. 27-28, italics added). Table 4 lists perspectives that are relevant to this review.
10
See, for example, Byrnes, (2005 & 2008).
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Table 4: Perspectives that are relevant to the Review of Special Education in the ACT Perspective
Comment
a) A ‘DDA compliance’ perspective
There has been considerable priority given, particularly in Public and Catholic schools, to the obligations of education providers under the DDA (1992) and particularly under the Disability Standards for Education 2005.
b) A ‘Human Rights compliance’ perspective
Strong emphasis in the ACT. Legislation is necessary but not sufficient.
c) A ‘policy compliance’ perspective
ACT already has some excellent, child-centred and disabilityfriendly policies but there are issues around how compliance can be guaranteed.
d) A ‘diversity’ perspective
Reflects ACT society and schools. However, if specific disabilityrelated needs are seen only as an aspect of diversity, they may become less visible and less likely to be met.
e) An ‘inclusivity’ perspective
Reflects ACT society and schools. However, many students are at the margins for many reasons – social, cultural, family, personal, and/or behavioural - and so need additional assistance.
f)
All students have individual needs that reflect a wide range of factors that may include disability. It is difficult to personalise support to an appropriate degree in a class of 30 students.
An ‘individual needs’ perspective
g) A ‘disability’ perspective
Some students require adjustments to teaching and curriculum because of disability. However, a perspective that overemphasises difference may be inimical to inclusive practice.
h) An ‘excellence’ perspective
The ACT Government has expressed a goal to be a national leader in education.
i)
A ‘systems’ perspective
What happens, or does not happen, in one part of the education system, e.g. in special education, will affect what happens in the other.
j)
A ‘feasibility’ perspective
Ultimately, the ‘buy-in’ of all stakeholders to the ACT vision for services for students with a disability will determine what actually happens.
k) A ‘resourcefulness’ perspective
The ACT must engage in clever thinking, synergies and demonstrate a hard-nosed focus on the bottom line – the educational outcomes of students with a disability in ACT schools.
l)
Evidence and experience, and not current educational orthodoxies, should guide the selection of future options for students with a disability.
A ‘pragmatic’ perspective
k) A ‘strategic planning’ perspective
Reviews cannot provide immediate or permanent solutions. However, they can provide the rationale for a revised vision and indicate what skills, resources, incentives and planning are needed to implement the vision.
l) A ‘learning organisation’ perspective
As many educational issues are unique to the ACT and/or have not be satisfactorily resolved by research or leading practice elsewhere, the ACT should show leadership by addressing these issues in an evidence-based way.
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In conclusion, this chapter has focused on the legislative and policy bases for services for students with a disability in the ACT, on associated definitional issues, and the appropriateness of current nomenclature and frameworks. In the next six chapters the Review summarises leading practice on a range of interrelated issues and makes the case for options to improve the educational outcomes of students with a disability in ACT schools. Appropriately, we start with a summary of research on the students themselves because, as identified in the research-based Walberg model, student variables are the major contributor to their learning.
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Chapter 3: Students and Learning Outcomes This chapter: • •
•
Describes how students have the greatest effect on their own learning. Overviews the implications for schools and teachers in terms of a) how to teach and b) how to build relationships that maximise student learning. Reinforces the value, from a ‘learning outcomes’ perspective, of what most teachers strive to achieve – the establishment and maintenance of strong personal relationships with their students.
Teaching and learning are different sides of the same coin – teachers teach the curriculum and students learn it. While both are important, the fundamental priority is that students learn. This simple fact is acknowledged in the National Declaration on Educational Goals for Young Australians (MCEETYA draft, 2008a, p. 4) in the commitment of all Australian Governments to “new levels of engagement with parents, communities, businesses and, most importantly, students (Italics added). As described in Chapter Two, Walberg’s (1984a) functional theory of ‘what leads to learning’ undergirds this Review and identifies three major determinants of learning – student, instructional and environmental variables. Many researchers and theorists agree. For example, Hattie (2003) shows that student attributes account for about 50% of the variance in school achievement; teachers account for about 30%; and that other school and home factors account for the remaining 20%. While some student variables are less amenable to change, for example, developmental level, ability or intelligence, all are malleable to some extent, and all interact to promote or hold back student achievement. For example, high motivation and/or high self-concept and/or high levels of engagement can mitigate the effects of low ability and lead to satisfactory learning. Student factors moderate the effectiveness of the teacher’s efforts. For example, a teacher may proficiently strive to use an evidence-based practice such as direct instruction or reciprocal teaching with a student who is bored, inattentive and/or disengaged and both may end up dissatisfied and little learning will have occurred. The prominence of student variables in accounting for learning is supported by thousands of empirical studies and by prominent theorists (See Appendix 8)
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It follows therefore, that while improving the technical skills of teachers is important, for example, through the provision of professional learning about evidence-based pedagogy, it is also important that schools organise, and teachers teach, in ways that more systematically ‘enlist’ student in their own learning. Ferguson (2008a, p. 114) in arguing for a switch in emphasis ‘from teaching to learning’, advocates “making curriculum more engaging and meaningful, ‘personalising’ learning for each and every student, and creating communities of learners who support and share in each other’s learning.” While many teachers do this automatically and naturally, Csikszentmihalyi, (1990, p. 115) is correct in concluding, “If educators invested a fraction of the energy they now spend on trying to transmit information in trying to stimulate the students’ enjoyment of learning, we could achieve much better results”. Educators from different theoretical persuasions agree that student engagement in learning is essential, and for example, referring specifically to behavioural approaches in special education, Apps and Carter (2006) recall Fuchs’ and Fuchs’ emphasis on “the value of anchoring learning activities within highly motivating, authentic situations that require transfer and generalisation of skills instruction” (1996, p.183). Similarly Holt, (1970, p. 3) cited in Smyth & McInerney, (2007, p. 73) concludes, “True learning – learning that is permanent and useful, that leads to intelligent action and further learning – can only arise out of the experiences, interest and concerns of the learner.” Fullan (2007, p.186) concludes that children “are vastly underutilised resources”. Citing the research of Black et al. (2003) Fullan quotes a teacher who had understood this message: It became obvious that one way to make significant, sustainable change was to get the students doing more of the thinking. I then began to search for ways to make the learning process more transparent to the students. Indeed, I now spend my time looking for ways to get students to take responsibility for their learning at the same time making the learning more collaborative. (Emphasis added by Fullan).
Research has found that one way to encourage students to take responsibility for their learning is to consult them about their learning (Ainscow & Kaplan, 2005; Farrell, 2008: Rudduck & McIntyre, 2007). Student consultation is highlighted in policy (e.g. Disability Standards for Education, 2005) and it provides many benefits. Rudduck and McIntyre (2007, p. 152) found that when students are consulted about their learning the students’ commitment for learning is enhanced through strengthened self-esteem, enhanced attitudes to learning, promotion of a sense of belonging and the development of new skills for learning. For teachers, consulting students has been found to improve teaching through greater awareness of students’ capacity, gaining new perspectives about teaching and transforming pedagogic practices. Rudduck & McIntyre conclude that consultation transforms teacher-student relationships from passive and oppositional to more active and collaborative – with a consequent benefit to student learning outcomes. Shah (2007) describes how young people with a disability, when given the opportunity, provide valuable insights into issues that affect their education such as academic opportunities, support and facilities, and friendships.
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One ACT school … Clearly believes in the ‘Nothing about us without us’ philosophy because students with disabilities as young as seven years of age were invited to meet with the Reviewer and give their point of view about school. It was evident from the way they participated that they were used to being consulted and that they were not afraid to express their views in the presence of the principal, teachers and parents, who all listened with considerable interest (and just a hint of trepidation!)
Consulting with students can be undertaken irrespective of ‘level’ or ‘type’ of disability and it requires teachers to give priority to the establishment of effective, two-way communication with each student 11. Farrell, (2008) outlines practical ways for teachers in mainstream and special schools to consult with students and understand their ‘insider perspectives’. Referring specifically to students with an autism spectrum disorder, Clark (2009) reiterates the National Research Council advice for teachers to understand and utilise students’ strengths and interests to promote their engagement and learning. Two issues emerge from this analysis. First, if they are not already doing so, teachers should give the utmost priority to teaching in ways that involve and engage students (c.f., Dempsey & Arthur-Kelly, 2007). “Managing this environment (the social context of the classroom) so that it produces a positive influence on pupil’s thinking, feeling and learning is the key skill of the teachers” (Cowne, 2008, p.33). The literature identifies approaches such as: •
• • • • •
•
11
Promoting independence and self-determination, for example, if the student has an individual plan, involving the student in determining the content, goals, time frame and personnel involved (Broomhead, 2003; Villa, et al. 2005); Teaching students ways of ‘self-regulated learning’ (Mitchell, 2008); Having regular, individual or small group consultations with students about their learning (Rudduck & McIntyre, 2007); Negotiating the curriculum and teaching students how to set and assess their own goals (Broomhead, 2003; Smyth & McInerney, 2007); Reporting to students not just to parents and other professionals (Shaddock, 1983); Making the pedagogy explicit so that students do not have to guess what the teacher is trying to do (Bulgren & Schumaker, 2001; Freebody, Ludwig & Gunn, 1995; Freebody, Martin & Maton, 2008); and Focusing on student well-being because of its proven effects on behaviour, cooperation, social skills and learning (Tsang & Leung, 2005).
Details on the ways in which students participated in this review are provided in Appendix 5
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In one school a student with Asperger Syndrome became an increasingly valued and accepted member of the school community after lots of specific awareness raising for all of the people he connected with. Sharing these successes within and across schools and systems is vital in regenerating practices and morale. Furthermore, the relational aspects of teaching - the contribution that good relationships, a healthy class and school climate, and student well-being make to learning outcomes should be given greater prominence in classroom practice (Australian Centre for Equity through Education, 2001; Borman & Rachuba, 2001; Hattie, 2009; Jackson & Davis, 2000 (p 122); Mitchell, 2008; Rudduck & McIntyre, 2007; Smyth & McInerney, 2007; Strategic Partners: Centre for Youth Affairs and Development, 2001; Te Riele, 2006. The following practices have been recommended: •
• • • • •
Putting greater emphasis on making improvements to school climate by recognising student success, developing a sense of community, enhancing safety, and implementing proactive conflict resolution, peer mediation, anti-bullying programs and similar (Center for School Mental Health Analysis and Action, 2005); Establishing good student-teacher relationships (Cornelius-White, 2007 reported in Hattie, 2009); Creating a positive, motivating, classroom environment (Cowne, 2008; Mitchell, 2008); Creating an atmosphere of respect and challenge for all learners (Mitchell, 2008); Teaching the ‘positive psychology’ skills that promote student well-being (Tsang & Leung, 2005); and Fostering social relationships among students with and without disabilities, for example, by providing ‘just enough’ support for meaningful relationships to be established (Carter, Sweeden, & Kurkowski, 2008).
When adults, famous personages, current and ex students with and without disabilities are asked about what is/was most important to them at school rarely will they talk about the particular strategies or techniques used by teachers. Rather they emphasise the significance of personalities and the impact of relationships with particular teachers on their learning. Maxine McKew, Parliamentary Secretary for Early Childhood Education and Child Care, quotes a teacher who ‘got it’ about relationships and teaching: I’ve come to a frightening conclusion that I am the decisive element in the classroom. It’s my personal approach that creates the climate. It’s my daily mood that makes the weather. As a teacher I have a tremendous power to make a child’s life miserable or joyous. I can be a tool of torture or an instrument of inspiration. I can humiliate or humour, hurt or heal. In all situations it is my response that decides whether a crisis will be escalated or de-escalated and a child humanised or de-humanised (Ginott, 1992 quoted by McKew, 2008, p. 35.)
In conclusion, student factors are those that influence learning the most – almost double the effects associated with teachers. As research and leading practice highlight the major contribution that students make to their own learning it is critical that teachers, parents and carers a) maximise student involvement, engagement and motivation; b) capitalise on Page 48
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student interests and strengths; and c) as far as possible, align student and teacher priorities and strategies for learning. Fundamental to these processes is the establishment of effective two-way communication between each student and their teachers, and for some, this will require far greater use of augmentative and alternative communication (Light & Drager, 2007). As the Walberg model highlights the pivotal role of teachers, the next chapter explores leading practice on the ways in which pedagogy – how teachers teach - improves the learning outcomes of students with a disability and the implications for the options proposed in this review.
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Chapter 4: Pedagogy and Learning Outcomes This chapter: • • • •
Explains how teaching students with a disability can be seen as not fundamentally different from teaching any student Summarises commonly agreed, evidence-based, teaching principles and practices Overviews the contribution that technology can make to student learning outcomes Examines the realities of classroom practice and the impact on teachers and students.
The Walberg model illustrates how the psychological climate of the classroom, the techniques used by teachers, and the amount of time devoted to instruction have a major impact on learning (Figure 1, Chapter 1. There is a vast literature on how to teach students with a disability and in this chapter we explore its implications and for ACT schools. Contributors to the review raised the following issues about teaching in ACT schools: • • • •
Are teachers using techniques that have an adequate theory base and evidence of effectiveness? Is appropriate pedagogy available for students throughout their school careers? Are there more students with disabilities in ACT schools who pose particular educational challenges, for example, students with an autism spectrum disorder? Are students with a disability the only students who need additional support for learning?
Theory base and empirical support for quality teaching Over the last five years government and non-government schools in the ACT have implemented Quality Teaching (Braden, 2004; Shaddock, 2008; Stephenson et al., 2007). The Quality Teaching Framework is an Australian extension of research on the factors that differentiate successful US schools from less successful schools. Locally this framework is referred to as the ‘Quality Teaching Model’. While the effectiveness of the approach for students from different ethnic, gender and socioeconomic groups has been demonstrated there is some debate about its appropriateness for students with more complex disabilities (Apps & Carter, 2006; Brown, 2008; Braden, 2004; & Stephenson et al. 2007).
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However, Skrtic et al. (2005, p. 262) suggest that the constructivist approach of Quality Teaching and the behavioural approaches so often used with students with complex disabilities are not incompatible, arguing that “if intensive-explicit learning takes place within the authentic, holistic learning experiences proposed by constructivist instruction, students will be more likely to generalise and internalise their learning.” The bottom line is that the Quality Teaching Model reflects the findings of educational research over many years and it provides a sound, general guide to teaching practice for all students. (See Appendix 8 for a summary of evidence-based teaching principles and practices). There is an argument ‘that anybody who can teach, can teach anybody’, that is, the general principles of good pedagogy are essentially the same, and the strategies that are effective for students with a disability are also effective for all students (Giangreco, 1996; Kavale & Forness, 1999; Mitchell, 2009; Mitchell, 2008; Shaddock, Smyth King & Giorcelli, 2007). Kauffman and Hallahan (2005) make the point that special education has its most significant effects when the education of students is the foremost concern rather than the special. Stating that “special education is not different from general education in its basic operations”, Kauffman and Hallahan (2005. p. 48) describe the operational differences between special and regular education in terms of pacing/rate; intensity; relentlessness; structure; reinforcement; pupil teacher ratio; curriculum; and monitoring and assessment. Mitchell, (2008, p.8) agrees: “What is required is the systematic, explicit and intensive application of a wide range of effective teaching strategies – day-by-day, minute-byminute – in classrooms”. However, a key issue is whether the necessary conditions and supports that facilitate “systematic, explicit and intensive application” can be made available, particularly in mainstream settings. This issue is further addressed under ‘Teacher Time’ below and in discussion of ‘placement’ issues in Chapter 5. “Some teachers … they think like … we are just like normal kids. And we’re not! (High school student)
Many of the adjustments that are made for students with a disability are effective with all students. For example, a teacher may value having a Learning Support Assistant in the classroom to assist with a student with an autism spectrum disorder who frequently becomes confused and has ‘blowouts’ that are hard to manage. However, ultimately, if the teacher is given the time and support to set up a peer support, buddy and/or mentoring system, learns to anticipate and respond proactively to signs of distress, and uses quiet, diffusion routines, the need for that LSA support (the adjustment) may be reduced and there will be better social and academic outcomes for the student with autism and for others as well. All students benefit from this type of instruction, whether they have a disability or not, and students with a disability do not need to be taught in ways that are essentially different. Keen and Arthur-Kelly (2009, p. 141) observe that, “The majority of students in today’s classrooms benefit from core instruction; however, for a small percentage of students with a disability, learning requires more intensive instruction.” These authors cite the ‘threeway instructional split’ proposed by Salvia, Ysseldyke and Bolt (2007) to be class-wide instruction, targeted group instruction and intensive (possibly one-to-one) instruction.
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Some students require specialized instruction because they make lack, or fail to achieve, the skills that are typically assumed to be essential ‘building blocks’ of subsequent development. For example, in describing meaningful literacy learning by young students with significant developmental disabilities, Kliewer (2008) showed that when these students were involved in “meaningfully motivating, communicatively based interactive activities and opportunities” their literacy was developed without the need to acquire some skills that a) many believe are essential (e.g. phonics); and b) would have been impossible for them (e.g. because of their severe communication disorder). The Discussion Paper concluded the section on teaching with a research synthesis by Alton-Lee (2003) that summarises what core instruction looks like. Quality teaching for effective learning: •
Focuses on student achievement (including social outcomes) and facilitates high standards of student outcomes for all students including those with special learning needs or vulnerabilities; • Enables classes and other learning groupings to work as caring, inclusive, and cohesive learning communities; • Enables effective links to be created between school and other cultural contexts in which students are socialised, to facilitate learning; • Is responsive to student learning processes; • Ensures that opportunities to learn are effective and sufficient; • Allows students to engage in and complete learning processes so that what is learned is remembered; • Ensures that curriculum goals, resources including ICT usage, task design, teaching and school practices are effectively aligned; • Scaffolds and provides appropriate feedback on students' task engagement; • Promotes learning strength, self-knowledge, student self-regulation, meta-cognitive strategies and thoughtful student discourse; • Enables teachers and students to engage constructively in goal-oriented assessment. The above list is consistent with the Quality Teaching Model and all that we know about effective pedagogy for all students (See Appendix 8).
Technology The use of technology presents as a most significant, and potentially pervasive and student-friendly, teaching adaptation to support student learning. In Westwood’s (2003) ‘CARPET PATCH’ mnemonic (that reminds teachers what aspects of pedagogy they might need to adapt), technology could contribute to every element –adaptations to Curriculum content, Activities, Resource materials, Products, Environment, Teaching strategies, Pace, Amount of assistance, Testing and grading, Classroom grouping and Homework assignments. The Discussion Paper noted the increasing use of technology in ACT Public schools and the high regard that ACT Public school teachers had for the assistance they receive from the Inclusive Technology Team. However, participants from the government and non-
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government sector frequently referred to the need to improve technology support for students with a disability. “How can I learn to use the technologies and help my students to use them if there is no time or expertise to support me?” (Teacher) “Create a shared special education equipment library to provide a pool of inclusive technology which educators can readily access to find the best fit for individual students. There is currently an unacceptably long wait to trial equipment which is vital for educational purposes.” (Advocacy group)
Writing about alternative futures for special education, Gallagher (2006, p. 286) suggests that, “The most likely wild card in evidence today is that of educational technology.” Applications of technology in schools range from low-technology supports such as simple switches and head pointers through to various forms of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs).
The Inclusive Technology Team has created multi-level, multiformatted resources to assist teachers to meet the diverse needs of students. The team has created resource kits that show teachers how technologies can be used to meet the range of learning needs of their students. The kits include electronic and hardcopy formats that have been created using a variety of software such as Clicker 5, Kidspiration, Inspiration, IWB softwares, Publisher, Microsoft Word, Powerpoint, and PDF.
A principal approached a teacher consultant from the Inclusive Technologies Team (ITT) to support her in using technology inclusively in the classroom in which she was relief teaching. The team worked with her to select several picture books and develop a basic term overview; develop her ICT skills; and introduce new software Clicker 5. The principal shared her digital activities with the students who were engaged and very excited to have her using the technology with them.
Gallagher draws a distinction between assistive 12 and instructional technology. Whereas assistive technology supports children so they are ready to learn, for example, through hearing amplification, mobility devices or communication aids, instructional technology assists children to learn. Conway (2005) and MCEETYA, (2005) list a range of instructional uses such as E-books, handheld computers that allow students to self-monitor, and SmartBoards.
12
See Appendix 4 for definition.
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There is considerable evidence that carefully planned and well-integrated, computer assisted instruction is effective for students with disabilities (Elliott & Shaddock, 2008; Lewis, 2000; MCEETYA, 2005). The latter explain how Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) help build learning communities, facilitate students’ engagement in learning, promote conceptual development, and assist teachers by providing learning activities, tools and resources, and support for planning, assessing and reporting. The Review of ACT Government Secondary Colleges (Atelier, 2005, p. 73) noted the importance of colleges “strongly embracing on-line learning as a core component of flexible learning arrangements” and concluded that the “Myclasses initiative represents a significant instance where the system has taken advantage of opportunity to integrate elearning into students’ programs.”
One ACT secondary school … uses Moodle to communicate in student-friendly ways about class tasks and the content of courses. Other users are parents who access this information to find out what their children are studying. This school has also set up a data base that provides timely information for teachers about students for whom there is a ‘Learning Alert’. Teachers can access the database on the shared drive to read relevant information. Precautions are taken to ensure privacy and confidentiality.
In “What Makes a Good School NOW” Brighouse and Woods (2008, p.143-144) give examples of the many common technological supports “for which we had no vocabulary ten years ago.” Discussing e-learning, these authors outline functions such as students accessing homework, lesson summaries, videoed explanations, school reports, timetables and individual advice; and parents having access to their children’s attendance, grades, reports and homework. Clearly ICT promises many advantages that research and theory of ‘what leads to learning outcomes’ has identified, and, in particular, opportunities for student engagement and ownership, more focused and direct instruction, and greater parent-teacher collaboration to support students’ learning. A key issue in the application of ICTs is how well the particular technology matches and supports the teacher’s pedagogy. This implies of course that teachers have the competence and support they need to incorporate technology appropriately into their teaching repertoires. Equity issues are also important. Teachers in ACT Public schools drew attention to the issues such as having to wait for equipment or support to use it; having unrepaired equipment in school storerooms; inappropriate purchasing of equipment; and inadequate maintenance. These sorts of problems can be highly detrimental to the learning of students with a disability. Parents drew attention to their child having to wait for a long time to take their turn on equipment and schools having to fund raise for equipment that was essential support for their child’s learning.
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The future challenges with respect to technology have been identified by many researchers (Gallagher, 2006; MCEETYA, 2005; Elliott & Shaddock, 2008). First, there are definite cost issues – not only with the purchase of the equipment but maintenance, repair and replacement. However “the greatest barrier is not the cost of new technology, it is in educating teachers and students to rethink what it means to learn and use existing technologies in useful and meaningful ways (Hasselbring, 1997, cited in Gallagher, 2006, p. 203). In addition, technology raises challenging pedagogical issues, particularly in mainstream classrooms. In addition to the capacity of teachers to make use of technology, rarely will technology alone allow a student to ‘keep up’ with a lesson. A key question is the extent to which teachers integrate technology effectively with other classroom supports. Finally, technology requires space and with some teachers in some ACT government and non-government schools teaching in converted storerooms and similar spaces, they have little opportunity to use technology effectively, especially when several students are working together at the same console.
The Inclusive Technologies team provides assistive technology assessments for students for whom technology is essential to their successful achievement of the learning outcomes identified on their ILP. Teacher consultants provide technology trials and follow-up support to school staff (teachers and LSAs) to ensure effective use of the technology. Part of this process includes providing information to schools regarding funding for assistive technology.
In summary, technology promises significant benefits. However, there are major issues in Public, Catholic and some Independent schools about its availability and the ability of teachers to incorporate ICT into their teaching. The professional learning and support issues for ACT schools are substantial.
What makes teaching students with a disability difficult? As teachers are the “key to student success” (ACTDET 2004), it is appropriate to examine research on teachers’ experience in teaching students with a disability. Teaching is sometimes rewarding and always demanding and the large sample of teachers surveyed by Shaddock et al (2007) reported that the ‘top five’ factors that make teaching students with a disability in Australian schools difficult are: • • • • •
Demands on instructional time; Lack of time for preparation and planning; Wide range of student ability; High stress level of teaching; and Behaviour problems of students.
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The following sub sections summarise leading practice on ‘teacher time’; ‘student diversity’; ‘teacher well-being’; and ‘behaviour and teaching’ with reference to pedagogy and students’ learning outcomes. Teacher time Contemporary classrooms are diverse and the prevalence of some disabilities is clearly increasing (e.g. Dempsey, 2007; Graham & Sweller, 2009; & Shepherd, 2009). Teachers need a greater depth and breadth of knowledge to fulfil their expanded role that involves personalising learning to nurture the academic, social, emotional and moral development of each student implementing system policies; and realising the ACT vision of an inclusive society and national leadership in education. Inclusive education increases demands on teachers and one major resource is time for collaboration and planning time. “The importance of such preparation time cannot be overstated” (The Alberta Teachers’ Association, 2009, p. 5) The NSW Inquiry into Public Education (2002, p. xxiii) concluded that “the majority of teachers are in full support of inclusion and integration for many students, but only if it is, in their words, ‘adequately resourced’”. Teachers do not see resources simply in monetary terms, and, for example, Shaddock, Hook, Hoffman-Raap et al. (2007, p. 140) found that: Although many teachers mentioned resource issues, these were not seen as the greatest barrier to the provision of a relevant curriculum for students with disabilities in the mainstream. The lack of time for preparation, planning and engaging in the necessary consultation was by far the greatest perceived barrier.
Funding of special needs has increased dramatically yet much of it has been used for employing teaching assistants, for example, in NSW, up to 95% (NSW Inquiry into Public Education, 2002). While having a teaching assistant may enable teachers to give students more individual attention (Pearce, 2008), it actually requires more time for collaborative planning (Giangreco, 2003). Student-centred learning depends on collaboration, discussion, networking, observing colleagues, visiting other schools, mentoring, peer coaching, co-teaching with colleagues or special education teachers and working with other professionals, consultants, parents and community members (Buysee, Sparkman, & Wesley, 2003). Teachers want to work, teach and learn collaboratively (McRae et al., 2001; Shaddock, Hoffman-Raap, Smith, et al., 2007). Effective collaboration leads to lasting and positive improvements in school reform, quality teaching, inclusion, and teacher morale, student and teacher learning (Fullan, 2003; Hargreaves, 1990; McRae et al., 2001; Salend, 2008; Stainback & Stainback, 1990). There is also agreement that collaboration can only occur if teachers are allocated time (Friend & Cook, 1992; Sarason, 1990). While it does not automatically follow that additional time, in itself, will guarantee successful reforms or improved teacher skills (Hargreaves, 1990), it is a fact that review after review, and study after study, report that teachers fail to learn or work collaboratively due to lack of time (Commonwealth of Australia, 2002; Meyer, 2001; NSW Inquiry into Public Education, 2002).
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In one school a principal told us how she provides time for various forms of collaboration among classroom personnel. This works best when she a) specifies the purpose of the meeting/discussion and its link to student educational outcomes; and b) when there is accountability around purpose and intended outcomes, e.g. teachers and assistants must provide a brief report of the results of their meeting on classroom pedagogy for a student or students.
The applicability of the following strategies raised in the literature on ‘teacher time’ should be explored, with reference to local needs, existing policy, and legal/industrial considerations: 1) Free-up time, for example, through peer tutoring, collaborative learning (Friend & Cook, 1992; Gartner & Lipsky, 1990; involving volunteers, ‘prac’ teachers, community members (Walther-Thomas, 1997); and executive staff teaching while teachers plan (Friend & Cook, 1992); 2) Reschedule or restructure time, for example, through combining classes to release one teacher (Walther-Thomas, 1997); shortening the school day (Walther-Thomas, 1997); and timetabling creatively to support school priorities (Lacey, 2003; Tewel, 1991); 3) Program for common time, for example, through timetabling to allow for collaboration at specific times (Bauwens & Hourcade, 1995; Friend & Cook, 1992; Lacey, 2003; Tewel, 1991; Worrell, 2008); 4) Use time more efficiently, for example, through ensuring that the school is utilising every available resource (Chadbourne, 1997; Falvey, Coots, & Bishop, 1990); forming professional teams or networks that can negotiate additional teacher time – interdisciplinary 13 or subject based (Friend & Cook, 1992; Giangreco, 2003; Shaddock, Giorcelli & Smith, 2007; Stainback & Stainback, 1990); providing professional learning on communication and interpersonal skills to ensure limited time is used effectively (Salend, 2005); 5) Reorganise teaching time, for example, teachers work a notional 9am-5pm day right through the year; have evenings and weekends off like most other workers; and have holidays similar to the rest of the workforce (Lacey, 2003); and 6) Purchase time, for example, by adjusting teacher’s workload (Chadbourne, 1997) and using funding for additional staff such as relief teachers to facilitate collaboration (Chadbourne, 1997; Friend & Cook, 1992; Lacey, 2003; & Walther-Thomas, 1997). In summary, as ‘lack of time’ is the biggest issue for most teachers it is counterproductive to load them up with new demands and expectations, for example, urging them to adopt a broader range of evidence-based practices, without systematically and decisively addressing the time issue.
13
See Appendix 4 (multidisciplinary) for a definition.
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Wide range of student ability Teachers’ roles have expanded dramatically as classrooms have become more diverse (Graham & Sweller, 2009). Traditionally, in mainstream schools, primary teachers taught basic skills; secondary teachers taught subject knowledge to the academic students and vocational skills to the remainder; and special education teachers taught students with disabilities in special classes or schools (Mock & Kauffman, 2002; Thousand, Rosenberg, Bishop, & Villa, 1997). Student failure in any setting was attributed to student, family or socio-economic variables (Berlach, 2004); school retention policies such as the current ‘learn or earn’ were unheard of; and students left school relatively early if they were not benefitting. Leading practice is moving away from a focus on integrating ‘special’ students to one which involves systemic change in schools so that ultimately there is reduced need for a plethora of individual level accommodations (Alberta Education, 2009, p. 6). Two related concepts are pertinent here – ‘differentiation’ and ‘Universal Design for Learning’ (UDL). Citing Cole, (2001) and Tomlinson, (2001), Villa et al. (2005, p.34 and 35) write, “differentiation in curriculum development, instructional delivery, and assessment must occur to facilitate meaningful and effective instruction not only for students perceived as disabled, at risk, or gifted, but also ‘allegedly average’ students”. While initial proponents of differentiation saw it as a way of thinking about the classroom rather than as a set of strategies or techniques, and interestingly, mainly for students who were gifted and talented (Tomlinson 2000; Tomlinson 2001), it has now evolved conceptually and coalesced with the universal design principles (UD) from business and industry where the focus is on maximising applicability, relevance and usage at no extra cost. Villa et al (2005, p. 35) state that UDL “refers to the creation of differentiated learning experiences that minimise the need for modifications for particular circumstances or individuals”. The previously mentioned, mnemonic - CARPET PATCH (Westwood, 2003) - provides a useful prompt to what can be adjusted or adapted in the classroom to meet diverse needs. While not conceptually difficult, differentiation is demanding and resource intensive (Discussion Paper, 2009; Graham & Sweller, 2009; Westwood, 2002). However, generally, Australian teachers in all sectors believe they have the skills to differentiate their teaching (Shaddock, Smyth King, & Giorcelli, 2007) but what they lack is the time and resources to do so. Indeed the Discussion Paper (pp. 7 & 8) raised particular issues about differentiation following visits of the Review team to ACT Public schools. Teachers in Catholic and Independent schools subsequently reported similar issues. Although teachers teach students, not disabilities, they must take into account particular features of disability, for example, when arranging physical adaptations to the classroom to accommodate a student who uses a walking frame; organising the regular supply and delivery of large print reading material for a student with a vision impairment; setting up a detailed visual and tactile timetable so that a student with autism has the security of knowing what’s happening next; liaising with itinerant support staff about classroom adaptations for a student with a hearing impairment; and/or incorporating into the class program the specific adaptations recommended by a speech pathologist, occupational therapist and/or physiotherapist. Irrespective of qualifications, skills and experience, all this takes considerable time, every time for every student requiring adjustments. “We are being overwhelmed by the challenge of having to set up everything.” (Teacher)
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Zera and Seitsinger (2000, p. 17) observe that students’ success in inclusive “settings is dependent on fundamental changes in the way schools treat children”. While we tend to agree, there is evidence that schools are experiencing an influx of students who require major adaptations to teaching. Teachers in some ACT schools report what they believe to be an increase in the prevalence of students with complex needs. “One third of the students with a disability at our school have formally diagnosed co morbid conditions, ADHD in every case, and some with, depression, anxiety or psychotic symptoms”. (Teacher)
The issue of ‘increased diversity’ is not restricted to mainstream education, for example, Simmons and Bayliss (2007, p. 197) report how a special school “struggled significantly to provide appropriate learning experiences for pupils with profound or multiple learning difficulties”. The critical issue is that proposals for improving service delivery for students with a disability have to be realistic and feasible, and acknowledge the diverse and challenging nature of contemporary classrooms and schools. Well-being Just as with others in the Australian workforce, the roles of teachers and principals are continually changing and increasingly demanding. They must respond to government, system and school initiatives; manage their implementation at school and classroom level; and work with increasingly diverse school communities and students (National College for School Leadership, 2007). In addition to teaching, ACT teachers must a) incorporate curriculum initiatives and prepare for more (Every Chance to Learn, the National Curriculum, Australian History Teaching Initiative and the major directions of the Melbourne Declaration on Educational Goals for Young Australians (MCEETYA, 2008b)); b) undertake study for registration and/or for upgrading their qualifications; c) give priority to their school’s performance in NAPLAN; d) engage in more systematic and frequent reporting of student learning – to parents and to government; e) implement whole school programs such as Healthy Bodies, Get a Move On, Safe Schools, KidsMatter, MindMatters, Positive Behaviour Support; f) implement National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Education Policy; g) comply with Child Protection and other relevant legislation; h) observe national days – Missing Children’s Day, Bilby Day, Bubble Day. Somewhere in all these initiatives and policies are the Disability Standards for Education and the obligation to provide equality of access to the curriculum for students with a disability. Very often teachers find themselves ‘in the middle’ because they have to mediate the effects of policy on students, particularly those who struggle with learning (Smith & McInerney, 2007). Policies about inclusivity, personalised learning, A-E reporting, school retention and public reporting of school results and so on do not always cohere particularly well and teachers need to devise ways of ensuring that some students are not disadvantaged by the (sometimes) competing policy demands. For example, how do teachers implement mandatory A-E reporting so as not to damage the fragile motivation of students who are marked ‘E’ – despite their best efforts? How does a school/college demonstrate high standards when a disproportionate number of struggling learners decide
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to continue their education at that school/college? How can a primary school explain its performance when, because of parent networking and excellent reputation for its support for struggling learners, the school attracts a disproportionate number of students who do not excel on NAPLAN? Many teachers endeavour to meet an increasing workload by working double shifts – at school by day, then at home by night, and on weekends and holidays as well (Pocock et al., 2001). In recent Australian research, Pearce (2008) found that some teachers, overwhelmed by their workloads, were forced to choose between self-preservation and self sacrifice. The ‘self preservers’ protected their personal lives by refusing to attend professional development in their own time, making minimal adjustments to their teaching to cater for students with disabilities, and vigorously seeking the assistance of teaching assistants or special education teachers. The ‘self sacrificers’ - teachers who devoted a great deal of their time at home to planning and differentiation - did so at the expense of their time with their families and personal interests. These teachers were driven by dedication and/or ambition, but were left feeling guilty that they had chosen their work over their families and were susceptible to resignation, stress-related illnesses and burnout. The burnout literature points out the deleterious effects on clients of stress in human service workers in general (Maslach 1996) and in special education (Hastings & Brown, 2002; NSW Independent Education Union, 2002; The Alberta Teachers’ Association, 2009). The general workforce literature reports an established relationship between the psychological wellbeing of workers and business benefits such as increased productivity (e.g. Burke & Cooper, 2007; Tinline, 2004) and this finding is replicated in education. For example, Briner and Dewberry (2007) found in a study of over 24,000 UK school staff, that average levels of teacher well-being are associated with increased student performance on standardised academic tests and on measures such a student happiness, motivation and confidence 14. Many students with a disability require high levels of consistency from skilled teachers, and arguably, attention to teacher well-being may be even more significant in the education of students with a disability because of the relationship between teacher well-being and improved attraction, retention and reduction in absenteeism. There is ACT evidence that some aspects of special education are stressful. “There’s a growing number of children with mental health problems but the only way we can get help is to put them in the ‘behaviour box’ (Principal) 15 We are … “working a new paradigm under an old paradigm model.” (Teacher) “Inclusive practice is wonderful but from our point of view, impossible to service.” (Therapist)
Dinham and Scott (2000) urge systems to take responsibility for stress and dissatisfaction amongst the teaching profession and reconceptualise teaching into a more manageable role. For example, in the USA, the 2004 Individuals with Disabilities Education
14
The study did not examine cause-effect and so it may be that improved student performance increases teacher well-being. 15 The ‘behaviour box’ is a funding category not a place!
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Improvement Act (IDEIA) reduced the amount of paperwork required for IEPs (Gartin & Murdick, 2005). Similarly, NSWDET limited its outcome statements to reduce the time required by teachers in interpreting and assessing student outcomes (Eltis, 2003). Collinson and Cook (2001, p. 276) advise policy makers and administrators to investigate the feasibility new initiatives (such as Quality Teaching, Literacy & Numeracy initiatives), taking teacher time into consideration, and where necessary, adjusting roles and responsibilities. The implication of this analysis is that as student performance and teacher well-being are interrelated, the options proposed to improve the educational outcomes of students with a disability should consider the impact on teachers’ roles, professional learning needs and well-being. Student behaviour It is by no means true that children with a disability will necessarily have difficult behaviour. However, some do, and their behaviour not only affects their learning and that of their peers, but also can be physically harmful and emotionally upsetting for teachers (Murik et al. (2005). Hastings and Brown (2002) report that teacher well-being is affected by the challenging behaviour of students and that teachers who do not have satisfactory behaviour management strategies have the highest levels of emotional exhaustion - a key burn-out factor. Furthermore, sometimes a student’s behaviour is misinterpreted as misbehaviour because teachers may have an undeveloped understanding of the characteristics of a particular disability. For example when a student with autism follows a teacher’s direction to “Hop back to your desk! Step on it!’ – and obeys each part of the request – literally – this behaviour might be punished because it disrupted the class. In this connection, AWARES, (2009, p.3) reports that, “27% of autistic children have been excluded at some point and that most of those – 23% - have been excluded more than once”. There is impressive evidence for the positive benefits of whole-school approaches to teaching, learning and the management of student behaviour. Keen and Arthur-Kelly (2009, p. 154) conclude, “When effective school-wide interventions are implemented, the number of students needing more intensive levels of intervention is reduced.” When whole-school approaches are applied to all students, comments like the following should be less frequent. “Kids with really obvious disabilities think they can get away with things or get their own way- teachers treat them differently. They might say ‘I can’t do this’ or ‘I don’t want to do this’ so the teacher let’s them not do it. I can’t say that. I’d be in trouble for being a smart a….” (Student, secondary) “Boys with disabilities get away with doing stuff other kids get into trouble for.” (Student, secondary)
Students with autism experience 400% more bullying than other students and Bottroff (2009) reports that when schools’ anti-bullying policy ensures that these students have a positive relationships with their teacher, one or two friends, and a buddy who supports them, that they experience significantly less bullying.
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Stressing the link between behaviour and learning Scott and Barrett (2004, (reported in Mitchell, 2008) found that following the implementation of Positive Behaviour Support SW-PBS “as a result of decreased student behaviour problems, instructional time across the school increased by 72.7 learner-days in the first year and 86.2 learner-days over baseline in the second year.” One interpretation of the changing nature of enrolments in specialised placements, for example, as described by Graham and Sweller (2009) with respect to NSWDET, is to interpret the increase in special placements for some students as reflecting the negative impact of student behaviour on school communities. For example, enrolments in NSWDET primary support classes have significantly decreased for students with mild intellectual disabilities and significantly increased for students with behaviour disorders, emotional disturbance and autism. Similarly, Graham and Sweller report a 254% increase of enrolments between 1997-2004 in special schools of students diagnosed with behaviour disorder, i.e. those whose behaviour is a challenge for teachers. While there is no doubt that some students are extraordinarily difficult to manage (and some of them may have a disability), there is little evidence that locating them all in one place has long-term benefits for them. The implication of the above analysis is that schools need good policies about behaviour, and teachers need effective behaviour management skills and timely support from those who can help them manage extremely challenging behaviour. This chapter has summarised the research on key features of teacher pedagogy and collaborations and support that improve student learning. One clear conclusion from the leading practice literature is that what happens in individual classrooms – how individual teachers teach – has a major impact on student learning. Therefore, strategies that build the capacity of individual teachers should be given high priority. The next chapter focuses on curriculum, with particular reference to a) the ways in which Every Chance to Learn can support the learning of students with disabilities; b) improvements to individual planning processes; and c) curriculum issues associated with the transitions that students make throughout their school careers.
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Chapter 5: Curriculum and Learning Outcomes This chapter discusses: • • •
Issues associated with of Every Chance to Learn and the extent to which it provides an adequate curriculum for all students The centrality given to individual planning processes and how these can be made more effective, cost effective and feasible Improving transitions for students with a disability.
Curriculum is “all learning planned, guided and implemented by the school” (ACT Department of Education and Training, 2007, p.7). Conceptually and practically ‘curriculum’ and ‘pedagogy’ are inextricably linked and many issues discussed under ‘pedagogy’ are clearly relevant to curriculum. Decisions about curriculum reflect assumptions, values and the needs of diverse stakeholders who ultimately have to make “hard choices where options all have some unfavourable consequences.” Norwich (2007, p. 7 & 8) Consequently, “issues in the domain of curriculum are invariably complex and are invariably highly contested” (Atelier, 2005, p.80). The National Declaration on Educational Goals for Young Australians (MCEETYA draft, 2008a) states that a major task for Australian Governments in collaboration with school sectors is to “address inequities and promote expectations of excellence for all children and young people” (p. 6, italics added). During visits and consultations, ACT stakeholders raised the following issues about curriculum in ACT schools: •
•
•
The applicability and usefulness of Every Chance to Learn (the curriculum framework for students preschool to year 10 in ACT schools) and of College Courses for all students and, more generally, the impact of school-based curriculum policy on students and teachers; The value of individual planning, (called Individual Learning Plans or ILPs in Public schools and Individualised Education Plans or IEPs in Catholic and Independent schools); and Transition issues – from pre-school to school transition through to school to adult life transition.
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A differentiated curriculum Differentiation of teaching was discussed in the previous chapter and the discussion is continued here with particular attention to the ways in which curriculum content may need to be adapted for some students 16. Norwich (2008, p. 24) describes “the common curriculum dilemma – whether children with disabilities and difficulties would have the same learning content as other children or some different content”. In a general sense, differentiation is what teachers do “to respond to variance among learners in the classroom” (Tomlinson, 2000a, p. 1). “It is not a recipe for teaching. It is not instructional strategy. It is not what a teacher does when he or she has time. It is a way of thinking about teaching and learning. It is a philosophy” (Tomlinson, 2000b). Fuchs and Fuchs (2001) propose three levels of access to the curriculum – a) primary prevention focusing on ‘universal design’; b) secondary prevention focusing on adaptations; and c) tertiary prevention focusing on intensive and explicit attention to specific skills. The latter two options require considerable differentiation of the curriculum. Every Chance to Learn is not highly differentiated. It is a framework and not a syllabus – “Schools are responsible for deciding how they will organise their curriculum to maximise opportunities for student achievement” (ACT Department of Education & Training, 2007, p. 19). ACT schools and teachers are generally not provided with curriculum guides and support materials that are available to teachers in some other states 17. Consequently, throughout the ACT, teachers and school-based resource personnel engage in the task of differentiating school-based curricula. This work may be rewarding but it is also demanding; it tends to ‘reinvent wheels’ (not all of which are round); there are no systematic ways of ensuring quality; and ‘best local practice’ is not consistently shared within schools, across schools, and/or among the sectors. International special education authority, James Gallagher (2006, p. 81) commented on the ‘curriculum development’ expectations placed on teachers in the following way: “An audience admires the concert pianist who plays the compositions of others with style and grace. Listeners do not expect him or her to compose the music. The same should be true for teachers.” Gallagher’s point aside, teachers strive to use the Every Chance to Learn framework as a guide to curriculum planning for students with a disability. However, the point was made in several submissions to the Review that what a student with a disability learns when participating in a lesson or course may not be what they actually need to learn. This reported lack of curriculum relevance and focus is evident in some situations, for example, when the gap between students’ performance and that of their peers is too great; when students lack the necessary skills to keep pace with the class; and when the focus of the teacher is more on getting through the course than the mastery of essential content by all students. “I am really concerned about the relevance of the secondary Learning Support Centre in preparing students for life after school.” (Counsellor)
16
It should not be assumed that every student with a disability will require adaptations to the curriculum. Because the Archdiocese of Canberra and Goulburn spans ACT and NSW, many ACT Catholic schools make use of curriculum supports that are available in NSW. 17
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“ A blind spot in our system is the watered down mainstream curriculum for students in the secondary LSC.” (Counsellor)
A lack of curriculum relevance often becomes most apparent prior to major transitions, for example, from primary to secondary school or from secondary school to adult life. It is at these crucial times that parents and teachers become aware that the curriculum may not have rigorously addressed the skills students need to succeed in the next environment. This issue relates to several topics discussed below – individual plans, settings, transition and the Student Centred Appraisal of Need. “We support them until the end of year 10 but there’s not a clear picture of what we are preparing them for --- and they don’t get the personal skills to cope with college.” (Counsellor)
Special schools in the ACT tend to develop specific curricula that are developmental and/or functionally based. While these efforts are applauded, they also highlight the sometimes stark difference in curriculum between special and mainstream schools and the difficulty, particularly in the mainstream, of providing students with curriculum that is most relevant for their needs. Many students with a disability require some form of therapy, and for some students, therapy goals may be ‘essential curriculum’. Issues around therapy provision are discussed in Chapter 8, but from a curriculum perspective, it is essential that when therapy is part of the school program that the therapy goals are integrated with the educational program and are expressed in the student’s individual plan in terms of educational outcomes. In summary, differentiation of the curriculum is complex and time-consuming and places heavy demands on ACT teachers, many of whom may have several students with a disability in their class. As the National Curriculum will be released in 2010 – and there is some indication that it may be more prescriptive than Every Chance to Learn – it would be appropriate for ACT educators to join with other states and territories to advocate for the needs of students with a disability so that they are considered now. It is essential that the Australian Government demonstrates leading practice in inclusivity and universal design in developing the national curriculum. In the meantime, opportunities for the sharing of curriculum materials, program and lesson plans - across the education sectors where possible - should be pursued to ensure a relevant curriculum for each ACT student with a disability.
Individual plans Some form of individualised planning – (IP, ILP, IEP) - has been special education orthodoxy for many years throughout the western world (Fish, 2008; Garten & Murdick, 2008; Killu, 2008; Pawley & Tennant, 2008). In Australia, although individual plans are not required by the Disability Standards for Education (2005) they have been required by state, territory, system and school policy and they are closely tied to supplementary funding processes (Forlin, 2006; Jenkins, 2002; & NSW Inquiry into Public Education, 2002). ACTDET Guidelines explain that the intent of the individual planning process is to enable stakeholders to share knowledge and information, assist teachers in meeting their
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responsibility to teach all students, and help schools and the Department identify and provide the necessary materials and personnel. Although the logic and purposes of individual plans appear sound there has been very little research on their effectiveness for improving student learning outcomes. So, while many parents and educators regard the individual planning process as pivotal strategy for achieving good educational outcomes, some question if these plans, in themselves, have succeeded in improving the teaching or learning of students with disabilities (Frankl, 2005). “ILPs … a complete and utter waste of time. The year depends on how good the teachers are, not on how good the ILP.” (Parent) “ There’s enough good in ILPs to keep them.” (Parent) “ILPs are the mainstay of special schools – need to continue to be an important and valued document.” (Teacher) “Many teachers put significant effort into developing an achievable ILP which then never gets used. The school year goes past and it never comes off the shelf until review time and it is obvious that the individual goals haven’t been met.” (Parent) “Smaller goals on a term by term basis are sometimes more achievable for some students: I learnt early on that no matter how good the ILP it is rarely referred back to once the class starts progressing. “ (Parent) ”The ILP is all we’ve got. It structures our child’s day. Without it, it takes too long to get things done.”(Parent)
Because individual plans are so resource intensive, it is important to derive maximum benefit from them and research has identified some of the problems in doing so. The reasons include the following: •
•
•
• •
•
Many classroom teachers lack the training and knowledge to develop or implement plans (Martin, Huber Marshall, & Sale, 2004; Rosas et al., 2009; The Alberta Teachers’ Association, 2009). Students may not be invited to meetings or may not be assisted to participate actively and thus a powerful opportunity to enlist students in their own learning is lost (Allen et al., 2001; Martin et al., 2004; Mason, Field, & Sawilowsky, 2004; Pawley & Tennant, 2008); Insufficient support for parents, especially those with low socio-economic status or English as a second language, results in inadequate home-school collaboration to improve students’ learning (Kalyanpur, Harry, & Skritic, 2000); Some teachers present IEPs to parents as a finished product (Garriott, Wandry, & Snyder, 2000); Individual planning involves considerable work that often consumes the time of resource personnel such as therapists who could be better utilised (Pawley & Tennant, 2008; Pearson, 2000); and Many plans are incomplete and/or poorly implemented (Rosas et al., 2009; Shaddock and Bramston, 1991).
One of the major conceptual and practical difficulties with individual plans is that such a high degree of focus on individualised programs for a few individuals appears
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incompatible with the way teaching and learning occurs in schools – to groups of students working on a class program that is adapted where necessary. Tisdall and Riddell (2006, p. 375) write, “While the centrality of the individual child’s needs has become the major legitimising discourse within inclusive education (see, e.g. Mittler, 2000), there is a danger with the individualised approach in that it tends to ignore the social pressures which structure individual choices and leads to some needs and not others being identified.” These difficulties surrounding the use of individual planning for some students in group situations illustrates the tension between perspectives and paradigms referred to in Chapter One. Individual plans tend to serve multiple roles and this could be part of their problem. For example, the same planning document is expected to serve educational, legal, planning, accountability and resource allocation purposes. The President’s Commission (2002, p. 16) commented on the “strikingly high number of parents, teachers and administrators who described how IEPs are not actually designed or used for individualised education”. Instead, IEPs are written for legal and administrative compliance. Rather than serving as an “educational roadmap”, they have become “artefacts” for many teachers and schools (Rosas et al., 2009, p. 47). Similarly, OFSTED inspectors in the UK noted that there was a surge in the number of IEPs written just before they arrived at schools (Pawley & Tennant, 2008). Submissions to the current Review provided similar examples of these practices in all sectors. So, for some, individual plans are seen as ‘compulsory busy work’, written to satisfy departmental guidelines and to gain funding for students with disabilities (Pearce, 2008). As a consequence, some schools employ tactics to simplify them and save time, but in doing so, undermine not only the collaborative process but also the rationale for having individual plans in the first place. For example, Pearce (2008) found that in some Western Australian schools Year Co-ordinators or Learning Support Co-ordinators discuss the student with a couple of teachers and possibly the parents, write the IEP, and distribute it to the teachers. Teachers from a NSW school reported that their school hired a casual teacher to write IEPs and Behaviour Management Plans (Pearce, 2008). The lack of ‘treatment fidelity’ has led one researcher to conclude that the ‘I’ in IEP actually means ‘interchangeable’ because many plans are mass-produced and lack genuine individualisation (Brigham et al. 2004 reprinted in Byrne, 2008). “There’s such a work load in setting it up (the individual plan); then the teacher folds it away somewhere and it is never used!” (Special education teacher)
Despite their ‘problems in practice’, individual plans can be valuable – but they first must be seen as a process that actually helps. Jenkins (2002, p. 68) refers to the desirability of outcome statements becoming “dog-eared, rolled up, coffee-ringed sheets that are taken on picnics, consulted by the students and checked with messy notes as student progress is observed in the field”.
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In one secondary school, students with a disability are involved in setting their own learning goals and the strategies they will use to achieve them. These more personal goals are not usually directly linked to a curriculum area because teachers are encouraged to identify these adjustments within their class program. Each student’s goals reflect the student’s specific priorities such as organizational, study and social skills, and aspects of self-regulation. Parents are involved in this process, usually in providing feedback on progress.
The critical issues about individual planning are: • •
• •
• • •
The circumstances requiring a student to have an individual plan; The need to refine individual plans, for example, by putting primary emphasis on the plan; then identifying ways that the plan can be implemented with other students; and only after that, determining what individualisation must occur; The need for ‘the student’s next transition’ to be the primary guide to goal-setting and longer term planning; The need for a closer alignment of individual plans and resource allocation processes, for example, the supplementary funding delivered through the Student Centred Appraisal of Need; The implementation of processes that more systematically involve students in the development and delivery of their individual plan; Reporting and accountability issues; and Action evaluation of different approaches to planning that are potentially more efficient, feasible and equally effective for students with a disability.
Curriculum and transitions Transitions, in any form, are challenging and stressful, especially when families may well be dealing with unique situations, for example, negotiating with an education provider about options for their child. Cowne (2008) refers to three ‘critical action’ times – entry to school; transition between phases or schools; and leaving school for adult life. For many parents, relating to large bureaucracies, school systems and/or schools may be very confronting, regardless of the point of transition. “High school is like falling into a black hole. Compared to primary school it is hard to access teachers and to know what is going on.” (Parent) “Trying to set up some connection with a college is like starting from the beginning again.” (Parent)
The Discussion Paper summarised the issues in Public schools as: •
Transitions are often highly stressful for the student and parents, particularly the transition from school to adult life;
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• • •
The success of transitions is related to pedagogical, organisational, structural and resourcing issues; Continuity of support across settings is essential; many students require intensive and ongoing support, despite the known benefits of early intervention; and While there are many excellent transition practices in the ACT, these are often unresourced and highly dependent on informal and personal relationships among particular schools, colleges and teachers.
Transition raises particular resource issues. For example, Ferrier et al. (2007, p. xiv), in a survey of over 2400 Australian parents about funding issues, found that: • • • •
30% of parents have concerns about their child’s transition from primary to secondary schools; 25% were concerned about movements between mainstream and special schools; 22% were concerned about movements between sectors; and Movement between states and territories was a lesser concern 18.
Leading practice in transition emphasises the importance of: • •
• •
•
•
Information about the options available; A systematic and well organised planning system that starts early and is tailored to the needs of the individual student and family and that involves all parties, and especially the student, the family, teachers and other support personnel; Clear lines of communication in the provision of information about transitions and the planning process, especially for families; A range of real choices for families with respect to settings, supports and curriculum priorities. Site visits for families and open discussion about the relative merits and constraints of the various options available to families, especially in light of the particular needs of the student; Collection, co-ordination and appropriate sharing (consistent with the Privacy Act) of assessment and progress information that allows the transition support team, including the family, to make informed decisions about all elements of educational and support programs relevant to the child; and Provision of specific information to the host staff in schools (consistent with the Privacy Act) on individual needs, including appropriate background and medical data and the particular issues that may arise for the child.
If families feel empowered in navigating the transition process for their child, there will be an improved likelihood of follow-through and collaboration around educational goals and outcomes across home, school and other environments.
18
While this may be generally true, many ACT parents are in occupations of high mobility such as the Australian Government Public Service or the Defence Forces.
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One former special school principal described how the school started ‘Drop In Days’ as a way of providing families with information about a range of disability services. “This initiative was in addition to the more formal, information sessions held in the evening for the school community. The Drop In Days also provided parents and carers with the opportunity to network over coffee and lunch prepared by the students. As students came to the school from suburbs throughout Canberra, it was often difficult for families to establish links with other families in similar circumstances.” “The ‘Drop In Day’s were held once a semester. Government and nongovernment agencies and service providers set up booths in the school library. The organisations included Centrelink, Public Trustees Office, Therapy ACT, a range of Post School Option providers, Disability ACT, Woden & Belconnen Youth Centres and sporting and recreation groups such as TenFit and YMCA. These agencies met with individuals and small groups of parents and carers to discuss options, provide advice, and offer information on a range of topics. Surveys completed at the end of each day by the families and participating organisations indicated considerable success, as did the fact that we had difficulty in getting families to leave at the end of the afternoon!” The stakes are particularly high for parents and students at the end of schooling. Transition at this stage may involve postsecondary education, employment, or incomegenerating work, for example, through innovative businesses or ‘self-employment’. “X’s school life prepared him for a life as a passive service-user, not one as a worker, businessman or contributor” (Parent) “You’ve got to come out of your comfort zone and give it a go.” (Student talking about her experience of work) “I am talking about individualised, person-centred, supported work experience which is linked to the skills and strengths of a student and which will be useful in deciding what kind of employment is possible, enjoyable, sustainable and productive for a particular student.” (Parent) College/transition: “These years are critical for preparation for, it’s hoped, work as an adult, surviving in the community and sustaining some form of social network. To drop the ball in the final two years of secondary school is to risk losing the investment that has been put into the kids.” (Parent)
We visited one ACT school that supports transition for Year 10 students with special needs / 'at risk' behaviours who are leaving school through a modified work education program that includes paid work one day a week.
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Leading practice indicates that the critical ingredients of planning for the school to adult life transition include: • •
• • • • •
Active involvement of the student and families; As suggested earlier, a planned curriculum that has prepared, over a period of several years, the student for this ‘next environment’, for example, through identifying and teaching the work and social skills the student needs for employment; Adoption of person-centred planning and active support for self-determination; Flexible scheduling, staffing and funding and a variety of funding sources; Experience of work (as opposed to work experience) prior to leaving school, for example, through business alliances with schools; Interagency collaboration, connections, partnerships and involvement with the job network; and Development of individual mentoring, social supports and friendship networks. (Synthesised from Certo et al., 2008; Davies & Beamish, 2009; Horne & Hubbard, 1995; Noonan et al. 2009; Patton, 2004; Powers et al., 2001; Horne et al, 1995; Stodden, Galloway & Stodden, 2003; Wehman, 2001).
In one ACT secondary college, some students with a disability in Years 11 and 12 are successfully undertaking Australian School Based Apprenticeships (ASBAs). Students are supported in the workplace on either a short-term basis by college Learning Support staff, or in the longer term, by Disability Employment Networks (DENs). Ongoing communication between the workplace, the employment agency and the college is critical to the success of these placements. Students usually gain permanent employment at the end of Year 12.
One ACT teacher took the initiative to develop a very comprehensive, web-based resource to assist young people with an intellectual disability to transition to adult life. The resource contains elements such as: a poster about roles, rights and responsibilities; a student introduction to transition planning; a guide to getting the best out of school; worksheets about major life domains such as independent travel, social networks and self determination; and information for parents and teachers. See bibliography, Ziesing-Clark, (2009).
In conclusion, this chapter has examined issues associated with Every Chance To Learn and the ways that efficiencies can be introduced into curriculum development for students with a disability. A case was made for changes to individual planning, with significant emphasis being placed on ‘the next transition’ as the focus of all individual plans. The notion of linking individual planning more directly to resource allocation was
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foreshadowed and this issue is addressed further in Chapter 7. Leading practice in transition to adult life was also summarised. The next chapter summarises leading practice on how educational settings affect the educational outcomes of students with a disability.
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Chapter 6: Settings and Learning Outcomes This chapter: • • •
Discusses the impact of different types of settings on the educational outcomes of students with a disability Examines the role and potential of special schools Reviews the evidence for specialised placements such as units and centres.
The Discussion Paper drew attention to the impact of educational settings on student learning outcomes in Public schools such as: • • • • • • • •
The appropriateness of the ‘Learning Centre’ model for many students and its possible marginalising effects; Inadequate data about the effectiveness of the various program delivery approaches in units and centres; The potential for a degree of isolation among those who teach students with disabilities in special schools and in mainstream settings; Difficulties in attracting and retaining skilled and experienced teachers and Learning Support Assistants; Health and safety issues in some settings; for example, around the physical nature of the work and the challenging behaviour of some students; Issues in infrastructure, space and equipment for meeting students’ highly specialised needs; Evidence of insufficient influence on system policy, for example, around the development of Every Chance to Learn; and Issues with the availability, suitability and location of appropriate educational settings to which students can transition and related concerns about continuity in terms of curriculum and pedagogy.
Settings, place and placement issues Although ‘placement’ is commonly used in education to describe where students receive their education, the word has a level of passivity, as in ‘being placed’, that does not reflect the considerable freedom that ACT parents have to choose the most appropriate setting for their child. Debates about what constitutes an appropriate setting for students with a disability have had a long and turbulent history (Dunn 1968). These debates illustrate what Norwich
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(2008) referred to as the ‘where to learn’ dilemma. The value of various placements, from segregation to total inclusion has been interrogated on ideological (e.g. Danforth & Rhodes, 1997), philosophical (e.g. Taylor, 1988) and empirical grounds (e.g. Canadian Council on Learning, 2009). For example, strong supporters of special education, Kauffman and Hallahan (2005, p.63) make the following case: Since its inception, special education has been conceptualised as special instruction. But those who invented special education recognised that special instruction sometimes requires a special place, simply because no teacher is capable of offering all kinds of instruction in the same place and at the same time and that some students need to be taught things that others don’t need. So, as has been recognised all along, the specialised places in which special education sometimes occurs are necessary for special instruction, especially if it is to be done well. There is no magic in any place, either the regular classroom or a special class. Place, by itself, does not represent good special education. Special education is neither good nor bad because of where it is offered. The instruction is what matters and what makes special education special.
Special Schools Special schools are part of the ‘continuum of services’ offered by ACTDET. In general, special schools are well supported by parents and the community and several ACT special schools have received national awards and/or recognition for their initiatives. The nongovernment sector does not provide special schools in the ACT. The last few decades of legislative and policy change and the prominence given to inclusive practice, have placed special schools in an uncertain and uncomfortable position (Warnock, 2005; Commonwealth of Australia, 2002). Segregated schooling has been attacked on ideological grounds by advocates such Bailey & Dowrick, (2001), Lipsky and Gartner, (1987) and Stainback & Stainback, (1992). What has sometimes happened is that the known deficiencies and unintended deleterious effects of segregated practice have been compared unfavourably with the promise of inclusive practice and it is little wonder that many teachers in special schools feel marginalised and/or relics of a bygone era (Farrell, 2008). Reviews into the education of children with disabilities in Australia show that parents and teachers strongly support the continuum of services (McRae, 1996; NSW Public Education Inquiry, 2002; Commonwealth of Australia, 2002; Nitschke & McColl, 2001). Parents want the option to move their child to a special education setting if the regular class proves to be problematic, and the inclusion of some students has certainly proved to be problematic for some sectors (Department of Education and Training Western Australia, 2001). Parents and teachers have reported bullying, peer rejection, inappropriate curricula, failure/inability to differentiate, lack of teacher time, inadequate teacher training, limited funding and resources, students with disabilities being taught by assistants - especially in secondary schools (Commonwealth of Australia, 2002). As Warnock (2005) pointed out, students with disabilities may be excluded socially and academically in a regular school and so special schools may be the salvation for many students. However, research and leading practice also confirm that educators throughout the world are getting better at including more students with special educational needs in mainstream schools and classrooms and many parents favour inclusion (Dawson & Kierney, 1988;
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Elkins, van Kraayenoord & Jobling, 2003; Ferguson, 2008a). Italy has virtually no special schools, and countries such as Finland, Iceland, Luxembourg, Norway and Portugal and many more, educate less than 1% of their students in special schools (European Agency for Development in Special Needs Education, 2008). In the ACT, special school enrolments are similar - accounting for 0.9% of students in Public schools or 0.5% of the total government and non-government enrolment (ACT Department of Education and Training, 2009b). When given the choice, many students with a disability express a preference for mainstream education – despite its challenges (Shaddock & Nye, 1991). It is important therefore to examine the contemporary relevance of the continuum of services model, the ‘Least Restrictive Environment’ principle that underpins it, and the way special schools and placements cohere with ACT inclusivity policy. In this regard, the following views of students about special schools are interesting: "My little brother has got Down syndrome and he goes to a special school. A white bus picks him up in the morning. My brother is in preschool and I want him to come here." (Primary school student). "At a school like this they wouldn't feel like they are different, they would feel like they are just normal and they can make lots of friends." (Primary school student). "People with disabilities could learn from people without disabilities.” (Primary school student) “You learn to work with other people- the same way it’s going to be when we join the work force” (Secondary school student) “It’s good to have those kids learn how to socialise with us. If they went to special schools it would make it harder for them when they grow up because they’d only have socialised with other people with disabilities.” (Secondary school student)
The principle of ‘Least Restrictive Environment’ (LRE) provides the conceptual basis for the educational continuum that extends from mainstream to special schooling. However, Taylor (1988) has identified potentially deleterious consequences of separate placements, including that services based on the LRE principle may • • • • • •
Imply that the separate setting should have a permanent place in the structure and organisation; Confuse segregation with intensity of services, i.e. assume that the student will automatically achieve better outcomes in the special setting; Imply that students do not ‘belong’ in the mainstream setting until they have acquired the necessary skills; Involve time-consuming and costly assessment and verification processes that underutilise skilled personnel; Limit expectations and opportunities; Imply that as individuals develop, they must move to new settings and away from their friends and social networks; and
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•
Direct attention to place and setting rather than to the services and supports that are needed.
Research has confirmed many of Taylor’s concerns. In the literature 19, some special schools have been criticised for having narrow, over-functionalised curricula; depriving children of opportunities to learn social skills from peers; being over protective; creating dependency and stigma; having low expectations and for the limited subject knowledge of their teachers (Shah, 2007). “We segregate people for years and years and then spend time, money, energy on how to build inclusive lives.” (Parent)
These concerns are serious, and yet, it seems so sensible and commonsense to consolidate expertise and resources. Can we ever envision a time when every ACT school will have a hydrotherapy pool, therapists and skilled teachers on site? The obvious potential of special schools suggests the need for them to find how their specialised contribution can support inclusive practice (Baker & Bovair, 1989) particularly as research has not established that regular schools have clear academic and social benefits over special schools for all students all of the time (Lindsay, 2007). An OfSTED assessment of outcomes for children with special needs showed that special and regular schools were effective if they had specialist teachers, ongoing training, flexibility, catered for individual needs and an inclusive ethos (Farrell, 2008). Leading practice makes clear that ‘what happens in the place is more important than the place itself’, as further discussed below and some ACT special schools are extremely successful in community engagement. “In special schools there should be a strong focus on linking students to the community and encouraging, fostering and sustaining relationships between students with disabilities and people without disabilities, who live, work and play in the broader community.” (Parent)
In the UK, Warnock (2005) encouraged special schools to become “specialist schools” offering services to a broader section of the school population. New models of service provision and definitions of “inclusion” which included special schools have been developed (Baker & Bovair, 1989; Gibb et al., 2007; Norwich, 2008). In Australia, Recommendation 4 of the Senate Inquiry into the Education of Students with Disabilities (2002) was that “MCEETYA investigate the development of teacher exchange programs for staff of ‘lighthouse’ special schools and mainstream schools”. The NSW Public Education Inquiry (2002) and Meyer Report (2001) encouraged special schools to form linkages with regular schools. The Inquiry suggested that teachers in special schools could accept roles as co-ordinators to assist regular schools with inclusion, sharing resources and their expertise with teachers and assistants and providing outreach services. Consequently, many special schools are re-examining their practices, adapting to curriculum changes, developing links with regular schools, improving their connections with parents, school communities and business, creating positive images of their schools, striving to prevent student dependency and fostering self determination (Allan & Brown, 2001). These directions are consistent with the ACT Government vision, as expressed in
19
These are general criticisms and they are not directed at ACT special schools.
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the Social Plan (2004) to use school sites as a base from which to develop community services that link with local communities.
Cranleigh School provides a good example of the ways in which ACT special schools are already engaging with families and the community to enhance the quality of education for the students and to promote an understanding of individual differences in the wider community. “We meet both formally and informally with parents and communicate with them in a variety of ways which now includes more electronic communication and the use of our website. We have support from local businesses. In particular, they support our annual Art Show. Sponsorship and services donated by businesses have increased considerably this year. The community is also generously supporting our ‘Garden to Plate’ project with a new vegetable garden and water tanks.”
Innovative practices documented by Farrell (2008) and by Gibb (2007) involve special schools in providing outreach services. Exemplary special schools share best practice in teaching multi-age and diverse classes through professional development, mentoring and working collaboratively with regular schools. They train teachers and assistants how to differentiate work; teach specific skills to students individually and in groups; to develop individual learning and behavioural programs; promote social skill development; teach living and functional skills; evaluate learning; use appropriate manual handling; cater for medical needs; and assist students with severe physical disabilities to access the physical education curriculum. Some special schools offer training in particular approaches such as Applied Behaviour Analysis, psychodynamic behaviour methods, phonics, Picture Exchange Communication System, sensory learning, TEACCH, augmentative communication, Makaton, Compic, Braille and sign language (Farrell, 2008). Working together has enabled regular and special school teachers to exchange ideas, develop new skills and increase their knowledge of how to teach in different settings. The Quality Teaching Model provides teachers across all settings with a common language to discuss and share these ideas and strategies to improve student learning outcomes. Farrell (2008) describes other ways in which special schools provide outreach services to support the integration, transition or the enrolment of students with disabilities through information on the student or the impact of the disability on the student’s capacity to learn. Teachers from special schools develop and share resources for students with sensory and physical disabilities attending other schools. Multi-disciplinary teams from special schools offer services such as developing individual programs for students, assessing students for assistive technology, screening the speech and language of students and establishing new special units in regular schools. Teachers from special schools organise parent information sessions, IEP meetings and visits from professionals to support their mainstream colleagues. One school has created a helpline to give teachers advice over the phone. For regular schools to seek and pay for services, special schools continually upgrade the skills of their staff (Farrell, 2008). Some have negotiated partnerships with universities to
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train their teachers throughout the year. Accreditation encourages teachers and assistants to pursue further training. Although less common, Farrell (2008) provides examples of programs that require students from regular schools or the community to attend special schools to access particular services or facilities. "If you're helping them it makes you feel good, and if they help you it makes them feel even better." (Student, primary school, where there are many students with a disability)
Students may be withdrawn from regular classes, for example, to attend particular programs or prepare for full time enrolment in the special school. Special schools offer early intervention programs in preparation for inclusion, day nurseries and after-hour child care facilities. Specialist colleges offer vocational courses on car repairs, hospitality, building, sport and gardening to school-age students and adults after school hours. Some schools offer short-term placements to students to develop an effective behaviour management program, with ongoing support when the student returns to the regular school. The literature on lighthouse special schools shows that they needed systemic support to become innovative. The expansion of the curricula in England to 16 levels has given students with severe and profound disabilities access to the curriculum (Humphreys, 2008) and highlights the need for the new national curriculum in Australia to be genuinely inclusive. The expanded curricula in England provides teachers in special schools with the knowledge and materials they need to teach subjects appropriately, and provides teachers in regular schools with ideas for differentiating the curriculum and evaluating student outcomes (Humphreys, 2008; Shah, 2007). Allan and Brown (2001, p. 201) claim that “as well as raising the expectations and achievements of the pupils, the curriculum initiatives represented a door into mainstream for special school staff, giving them a common language with which to communicate with mainstream colleagues and allowing them to consolidate existing good practice.” In England, a schools’ building program scheduled for 2016-2021 will enable secondary schools to have specialist facilities and schools contained within or adjacent to them, which will facilitate relationships between special and regular schools (Farrell, 2008). Educational authorities have established a specialist schools program involving more than 50 special schools (Farrell, 2008). Each school specialises in one area: cognition and learning; communication and interaction; physical and sensory; or behavioural, emotional and social difficulties and has been allocated the necessary time, funding and resources to share their expertise and resources with other schools, agencies, services and the community (Farrell, 2008). In conclusion, special schools in the ACT already make a valuable contribution and, with appropriate vision and planning at system and school level, this contribution to the ACT community, schools and students could be extended. Clearly this will involve greater integration and coordination with the network of schools and possibly cross-sector collaborations as well. In relation to pedagogy, the special schools’ involvement in applications of the Quality Teaching Model should improve linkages with mainstream pedagogy. It is important that school plans in special settings deal decisively with the possible unintended, negative impacts of separate settings and work towards higher levels of integration with mainstream education.
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In the ACT there are examples of special schooling where considerable integration is being achieved and these should be supported and extended in future developments. Two schools provide somewhat different models - Turner and Harrison schools - and they too may provide a guide to future developments. In different ways, both models have the potential to provide the specialised services that some students need in contexts that are less likely to experience the negative effects identified by Taylor (1988).
At Turner Primary approximately 25% of the students have a disability. The preschool to year 6 school provides students with an inclusive learning environment in which the whole range of program options is available on one site. Students with disabilities may be fully included in a regular class, be part of a small class, or undertake much of their learning in an intensive program. As well as learning options, the school provides a variety of safe playground options and a hydrotherapy pool. The inclusive ethos of the school is evident in the way all students are valued and included in school activities such as assemblies, camps and sports days. Further evidence of the school's approach is in the way that the teachers come together to plan the learning program for all students. Regular and special education teachers work together, co-teaching and collaborating as necessary.
Harrison School offers an innovative model of inclusive schooling in which the teachers use evidence-based practices to implement learning programs that cater for all students. Harrison has an enrolment of 540. Approximately 10% of students have a disability and English is the second language for 30%. Approximately 35 % of students are from DFAT families and so the school population is somewhat fluid. Teaching and learning are underpinned by a strong school ethos and values base and supported by learning statements. Students are enrolled in a multi-age class group within a ‘learning teams’ community and staff share the responsibility for the learning of all students. Students with disabilities have an Individual Learning Plan (ILP) that identifies areas for individual or group work with an inclusion support teacher, Learning Support Assistant (LSA) or class teacher. The school is developing personalised learning plans for all students.
In the ACT education community, there are strongly held, opposing views about the need for more special schools and what form they might take. The literature suggests that most parents would favour inclusion over special placement if they could be sure that the expertise and resources were available in the mainstream (Elkins, 2003). One implication is that parents and carers must be involved in discussion and planning of future specialised services.
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Units and centres The Public school sector in the ACT currently provides Learning Support Units (LSU); Learning Support Units that are autism specific (LSUA); and Learning Support Centres (LSC) (See Appendix 4). Although these programs are resource intensive there is little system-wide evaluation data about their effectiveness. Catholic and Independent schools do not make use of centres and units and all students are taught in the mainstream. There has been extensive investigation over many years of the efficacy of programs that withdraw students and/or teach them in separate programs (Kavale & Forness, 1980; Wang & Baker, 1985/86; Canadian Council on Learning, 2009). This research has found that, by and large, the ‘average’ student with a disability would be marginally better off (in terms of a range of learning and social outcomes) if educated in the mainstream. For example, Hattie (2005, 2009) reports an effect size 20 in favour of mainstreaming of 0.21. As long ago as 1987 Epps and Tindall concluded from a reanalysis of the extensive meta analyses that had been conducted on differential placements that ‘mainstreaming’ was associated with an effect size of 0.33. Epps and Tindall (p. 226) concluded, “This gross summary statistic suggested that, overall, mainstreaming appeared to have had somewhat higher positive performance, attitudinal, and process effects for handicapped students when compared with non mainstreaming approaches for handicapped students with similar classifications.” “These children will have to operate in the mainstream later – unless we already accept that they’ll be clients of the justice and/or mental health systems. Why jeopardise their chance by segregating them as children?” (Parent) “Units in mainstream schools can be isolated from the school population and have a low priority in the whole of school functioning.” (Educator) “It is inappropriate to appoint newly graduated teachers into these positions.” (Counsellor)
Some people argue for special units and classes for students with particular disabilities, for example, students with learning disabilities, those on the autism spectrum and students with profound sensory impairment. Swanson and Hoskyn (1998) and Swanson, Hoskyn and Lee (1999) reported on 180 interventions with students with learning disabilities, and found a slight benefit for some students in ‘pull-out programs’. However, the researchers explained the benefits in terms of the quality of the instruction rather than where it was provided 21. It has also been argued that regular classrooms may not be set up to assist students with autism spectrum disorder (Mesibov & Shea, 1996). Sainsbury (2000) reports challenges faced by even the most able individuals with an ASD, indicating a need for specialised’ curricula and teaching approaches at some point during their education. However, recent research on autism suggests that even quite specific programs for students with autism (e.g. TEACCH) can be delivered successfully in the mainstream (Panerai, et al. 2009).
20
See Glossary for a definition and interpretation of ‘effect size’. The elements of effective instruction for these students involved systematic implementation of strategies that are known to work for all students. 21
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Several researchers have identified critical features for successful education of students with an ASD. These include: •
An understanding teacher who is knowledgeable of the student’s specific social, communication, learning and behavioural needs; • Shared responsibility between general and special educators; • School community ownership of the students with autism; • Specific strategies to accommodate the learning needs of students; • Access to collaborative problem-solving relationships, multidisciplinary 22 teams; • Availability of appropriately trained support personnel; • Low staff-student ratios; • Effective home-school collaboration; • Development of the student’s social skills in inclusive settings; • Availability of specialist training for all staff; • Adequate teacher planning time; and • Recurrent evaluation of inclusion practice. (Synthesised from Clark, 2009; Jones, 2002; Mesibov & Shea, 1996; Robertson, et al., 2001; Sainsbury, 2000; Simpson et al., 2003. In relation to students with other specific needs, for example, those with profound deafness, while there is considerable debate about inclusive versus specialist educational placements there are few comparative studies (Handleman et al., 2005). A recent study by the Canadian Council on Learning (2009) summarised the available research on the role of educational setting for particular students. The pertinent findings were: •
• •
•
For students with learning disabilities, inclusive settings appear to be the preferred setting, i.e. students with learning disabilities generally achieve better outcomes in the mainstream; For students with intellectual disabilities, the small number of studies tend to favour inclusive settings; For students with language impairment (those characterised by a failure to develop normal language but not having a major neurological, physical or global impairment), the evidence generally supports inclusive settings; and For students with mixed disabilities, most studies favour inclusion over separate placement. “My daughter’s classmates are still one of the best things about school.” (Parent)
Important caveats to these muted conclusions are that the available body of research is patchy; that effects in favour of inclusive practice are small; and that the results are not uniform. Therefore, a conservative interpretation is that “inclusive settings appear not to
22
See Appendix 4 for a definition.
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academically disadvantage most students with special educational needs. In most cases they appear to offer an advantage over separate settings” (Canadian Council on Learning, 2009 p.5). These students aside, the general conclusion from the research on ‘place’ is that “treating setting as the independent variable has provided little insight into what constitutes effective education.” (Epps & Tindall, 1987 in Wang, Reynolds & Walberg), Hehir (2002, p. 31) concludes that we need to “move away from the current obsession with placement toward an obsession with results”. Researchers have taken some time to realise that in seeking answers to questions about placement and setting, they may have been asking the wrong questions. Despite the lack of evidence for the beneficial effect of placement on learning many parents tend to want more special units in primary and secondary schools, not fewer (Nitschke & McColl, 2001). Another group of stakeholders with a heavy investment in this issue is the students themselves. Shaddock & Nye (1991) for example, in studying students’ views of the move from Woden school to the then Phillip College found them to be unanimously in favour of the move despite some clearly ‘inhospitable’ treatment that they sometimes received from fellow students. On the other hand, Swanson (2000) found that some students prefer withdrawal to inclusion. During school visits associated with this Review, several college age students with disabilities explained that they like being in a mainstream class but they are more confident and get more involved when the classes are small. “I think it’s good we’re in with normal kids – but in a smaller class!” “In a small class I might have a go to answer some of the teacher’s questions.” “I think it’s better to have smaller classes; I can cope better in a small class.”
The views of these students are reinforced by the research on reductions in class size more generally. For example, Mitchell (2008, p. 81) reports that, “achievement, attitude, teacher morale and student satisfaction gains are greater in small classes, i.e., classes with 10-15 learners.” Furthermore, the ‘Tennessee Class Size Experiment’ found that three to four years of small class size in the primary years has benefits that increase from year to year “and beyond when the resources are removed” (Finn & Achilles, 1999, p. 106). Finn, Gerber et al., 2001, p. 145) conclude that “starting early and continuing in small classes for at least three years are necessary to assure long-term carryover effects”. Specialised, separate settings however, should not be confused with small classes. The fact that specialised settings are more costly and do not generally produce significantly better results than mainstream settings, raises question about how they might be improved and their ongoing availability in their present forms. In addition to the fact that some parents prefer separate units, another rationale for their continued existence may be, as suggested by Sorrells et al., (2004, p 66) that separate classes for ‘difficult to teach’ children may function as a safety valve for schools rather than as a preferred place of learning for students. These authors further suggest that specialised programs may simply be part of the repertoire that public schools have to deal
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with problems. “Placement decisions are thus pragmatic problem-solving decisions whose broader consequences are largely unintended.” (P. 67) This conclusion resonates with the points made earlier about the impact on classroom teachers of student diversity, student behaviours, and teachers’ perennial lack of time. “I am sure it’s much easier for the school to put all the hard cases in a corner, but it is not to the children’s best interests. It’s disheartening to see how children who used to be with my son (in special class) and not so different from him, are now far behind and excluded.”(Parent) “Teachers and STAs (LSAs) in centres and units tend to be isolated from the rest of the school.” (Counsellor) “A lot of what units are about is providing a safe and caring environment, and then, learning might take place.” (Principal)
Studies of ‘ability grouping’, ‘tracking’ or ‘streaming’ have not found benefits for students with a disability either (Hattie, 2009; Marzano, Pickering & Pollock, 2001; Mitchell, 2008; Sapon-Shevin, 1994; Villa (2005). Mitchell (2008, p. 46) summarises the research in the following way: Ability grouping is detrimental to low achieving students because • • • • •
Being assigned to low-ability groups communicates low expectations to learners which might be self-fulfilling; Ability groups often parallel social class and ethnic groupings that may increase divisions along class and ethnic lines; Between-class ability grouping reduces learners’ opportunities to move between groups; Low-achieving learners tend to receive less instruction when placed in ability groups than when placed in mixed-ability groups; and Ability groups composed of low-achieving learners do not provide a stimulating learning environment and lack positive role models.
The fact that students might be lumped together on a broad range of loose criteria is another concern. If, for example, students are carefully diagnosed and found to have a similar disorder, then perhaps placing them in the same setting where their educational needs may be carefully met presents as a commonsense strategy (but one with not much empirical support!) However, loosely categorising students as having ‘learning problems’ is problematic, and typically, students are not placed on the basis of precise, differential diagnoses. As Gallagher (2006, p. 262) observes, if students are not grouped on a defensible pedagogical basis, it is analogous to physicians identifying a category of “children with high fevers” – and that is just about useless as a guide to pedagogy! “Just because you have 8 students, for example, in a primary school LSUA that have autism this doesn’t mean that they all learn the same way or have the same level of skill – especially given that the age ranges can be quite significant.” (Parent)
One approach that shows promise for more careful diagnosis and treatment of learning disabilities is ‘‘Response to Intervention’’ (RTI) (Fuchs, 2003; Fuchs et al., 2003; Marston et al., 2003; Speece, Case & Molloy, 2003; & Vaughn & Fuchs, 2003). RTI involves a)
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tracking the rate of growth in core subjects for all students in the class; b) identifying students whose level and rate of performance are significantly below their peers; and c) systematically assessing the impact of evidence –based teaching adaptations. A key component is of RTI is Curriculum-Based Measurement (Deno, 1985), a very efficient student tracking system that involves ‘Testing what you teach and teaching what you test’ (which is not the same as teaching NAPLAN!) Madelaine and Wheldall (2009, p 4) summed up the literature on RTI as follows: “There is an enormous amount of support for RTI in the literature but, while it makes very good conceptual sense, there is relatively little scientific evidence about its effectiveness as yet in comparison to other models of identification and remediation.” These authors concluded, “RTI may provide a more reliable and equitable means of identifying students with learning problems, and for providing timely support in academic areas. Note that the success of RTI depends on the presence of effective, research-based, Tier 1 instruction.” Identification issues aside, the intervention strategies of RTI, particularly with respect to the efficient tracking of the performance of individual students, makes a lot of sense. These simple ways of assessing student progress provide school leaders with the sources of evidence for decisions about establishing or continuing separate services for some students. The inconsequential impact of separate settings on the educational outcomes of most students and the negative effects of streaming have refocused researchers’ attention on the variables that do make a difference and many of these have already been summarised in Chapter Four. Once again, the research refocuses attention on one critical variable – how teachers teach in their own classrooms. “I hate it when the teacher has notes on the board and they talk about it at the same time. I can’t do two things at once!” (High school student)
These general findings are supported by a 2009 research synthesis by the Best Evidence Encyclopaedia (BEE) of approaches for helping struggling readers. Classroom instructional approaches were found to produce effect sizes of over 0.5, while one-to-one tutoring by teachers, paraprofessionals and by volunteers produced effect sizes of 0.38, 0.24 and 0.16 respectively. This finding seems counter intuitive; surely individual instruction should be better! Hattie (2009, p. 198) concludes, “ The evidence supporting individualised instruction, however, is not so supportive.” Obviously the social context of the classroom is an important contributor to learning and the need for resource-intensive one to one instruction should be reconsidered. In ACTDET, students who meet the ACT Student Disability Criteria for intellectual disability, physical disability, language disorder, ASD, mental health disorders or chronic medical conditions are eligible for the Inclusion Support Program (ISP). This service is not unit-based and it provides consultancy support to classroom teachers. “The expansion of the Inclusion Support Program has been a particular success in my opinion.” (Teacher)
As figure 4 illustrates, this service has experienced considerable growth and is highly valued by parents and teachers.
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Figure 4: Growth in students accessing Inclusion Support Program, 20032009
Similarly, in Catholic schools and some Independent schools, increasing use is being made of consultancy and within-class support for students with disabilities.
One ACT school showed us how they are moving from a withdrawal model of support to one in which classroom teachers are supported in the classroom (beginning with secondary teachers). Teachers are supported to introduce curriculum adjustments so that students remain in the classroom and work on same topics as their peers. The focus of support is shifting from direct support for the student to collaborative work with classroom teachers to develop their ability to cater for the diverse learning needs in their classrooms.
In conclusion, inclusivity is system policy and, by and large, inclusive practice produces better results for students with a disability. There is also a growing body of evidence that integrated service models for students with a disability enhance educational outcomes for all students (Sailor & Burrello, 2009). Leading practice does not strongly support the further development of separate placements for students with a disability. As the logic supporting separate provision – preparing students to take their place in society by educating them separately - is somewhat elusive, and as separate placements are not strongly supported by empirical research, the case for such placements should always be the one to be argued.
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This said, the point must also be made that, in contrast to real estate, location is not the prime consideration. This analysis of leading practice refocuses attention once again on the pivotal role of classroom teachers; it is what happens in each classroom that makes the real difference. Our observations in ACT government and non-government schools suggested that not all teachers are using the range of evidence-based practices available to them. If this impression is correct, it suggests the need for continued focus on professional learning; good leadership that provides encouragement, incentive and support for teachers to develop their teaching expertise; and sufficient opportunities for teachers to plan, implement and share leading practice approaches. The next chapter focuses on resources and their impact on students’ learning outcomes.
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Chapter 7: Resources and Learning Outcomes This chapter: • • • • • •
Summarises the research on the association between resources and learning outcomes Overviews stakeholder perceptions about the adequacy of funding Shows how what the resources are spent on is the prime consideration Suggests improvements to the Student Centred Appraisal of Need. Overviews leading practice on principles of funding associated with inclusive practice Summarises strategies that improve the efficiency and effectiveness of resources at school level.
Stakeholders raised a wide range of ‘organisational issues’ including resources, staffing, accountability and planning. In the next two chapters these issues are discussed with reference to Knoster’s ‘business planning framework’. This model has been applied widely in education and identifies the essential components of change as vision, skills, incentives, resources and planning (Ambrose, 1987; Knoster, 1995; Salisbury & McGregor, 2005; Villa & Thousand, 1995). Given that many stakeholders gave high priority to one of these variables - resource issues - this chapter is devoted to this topic 23. Resources are an essential component of service delivery and the level of resources for students with a disability is vigorously debated in the ACT community. Resources are a major concern for all schools. Stakeholders from the non-government sector, in particular, frequently referred to resource and resource allocation issues. “The funding differential is diabolical” (Parent) “We urge you to, at least, retain the current level of special education expertise and options – families like us have made very major lifestyle decisions to remain in this community as a result.” (Parent) “Do not make the student and their families responsible for add-ons and adaptations that would suit many more than one student.” (Advocacy group)
The Discussion Paper defined resources to include supports such as: •
Finances;
23
Parts of this discussion have been adapted, with permission of Brisbane Catholic Education, from the first author’s consultancy report on ‘Resourcing Strategies for Responding to Student Diversity’ (Shaddock, 2008).
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• • •
Organisation - stakeholder involvement, planning, timetable, school organisation; Personal and personnel support such as leadership, the skills of school-based personnel, school climate & culture, and support from the wider school community; and Technical supports for curriculum, instruction, assessment and technology.
The point first needs to be made that there is not a strong body of research to show that finance in itself has a direct and major effect on student learning outcomes. For example, Hattie (2005) reported an effect size on student learning of only 0.14 for ‘finances’ and in more recent meta-analyses, an effect size of 0.23 (Hattie, 2009). Hattie suggests that the lack of association is probably due to factors such as the source of the data (from well-resourced countries only); that most school finances are fixed; and that disbursements within schools involve whole school expenditure (and, as previous chapters have shown, the big effects on student learning are attributable to individual teacher differences). Furthermore most teachers strive to do their best whatever the circumstances. The stark reality is, however, that available research does not demonstrate a strong, direct causal relationship between finances and educational outcomes. Research has found, however, that particular types of expenditure do have a positive impact on student learning. For example, increased per student expenditure on professional learning for teachers and paying salaries to attract high quality and experienced teachers, have modest effects on student outcomes (Hattie, 2009). These findings indicate the pivotal role of principals and bursars and the value of particular forms of professional learning. Examining the issue from a ‘rich schools’ vs. ‘poor schools’ perspective, Itkonen’s and Jahnukainen’s (2007, p. 19) qualitative study (from which causal conclusions should not be drawn) drew the obvious conclusion that ‘rich is better’ - that resource allocation is linked to achievement. There is evidence that the quality of the learning space affects learning. “Spaces shape and change practice. Engaging, adaptable spaces energise students, teachers and the community. Well-designed learning spaces inspire creative, productive and efficient learning" (MCEETYA, 2009b). After reviewing more than 30 studies, Mitchell (2008, p. 92) concluded, “Learners who spend time in well-designed, well-maintained classrooms that are comfortable, well-lit, reasonably quiet and properly ventilated with healthy air learn more efficiently and enjoy their educational experiences”. All aspects of the environment are important but for some students with a disability, the visual and acoustic environments are crucial. In noting that, “studies either have been silent about funding or have failed to find any systematic relationship between effectiveness and funding” Grubb (2009, p. 9) sums up the situation as follows: Some authors have noted that some minimum spending level might be necessary: as John Gray concludes in the language of NBNS, similar to my own conclusion: “Adequate levels of resources seem to be a necessary but not sufficient condition for a school to be effective …. In twenty years of reading research on the characteristics of effective schools I have only once come across a record of an ‘excellent school’ where the physical environment left something to be desired” (1990, 213).
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The above analysis suggests that some minimum level of resourcing is necessary, and after that, the key consideration in regard to finances and educational outcomes is how well the finances are spent.
Resource quantum Many ACT stakeholders are concerned about the resource quantum, arguing that the available funds are insufficient. “The appropriate level of assistance provided to children in mainstream settings still needs more resources and really a review itself.” (Parent)
Recent nation-wide, government-commissioned research on ‘portable funding’ for students with a disability by Ferrier et al. (2007) concluded that reform is needed and it should: • • •
• • • •
Increase overall levels of funding; Secure national agreement of definitions of disabilities associated with funding; Provide parity of funding across sectors. (Interestingly, Ferrier et al. (2007, p. xv) found that “portability of funding has lower priority than many other issues of special education funding” and that despite its promised benefits, a voucher-based system for individual students was not strongly supported in consultations; Empower parents to have a greater say in educational decisions; Reduce the stigmatisation and segregation of students with a disability and give them increased access to the curriculum; Provide certainty about levels of support; and Provide funds to build school systems, resources and programs that provide benefits to all students with special needs.
Ferrier et al.’s (2007) research reported a disparity in funding levels between government and non-government schools. This view was frequently echoed during the current review. “Students with a disability require additional support because of the nature of their disability, not because of the school they attend.” (Independent Schools Council of Australia, 2008, p.1) Those who hold this view tend to give ‘in principle’ support to ‘portable funding’ for students with a disability. “Often students would receive greater services at the local government school, but parents see the environment and underpinning philosophy as more important for their child. Whilst this is their choice, it hardly seems fair that education and real opportunity to access education should be different depending on where you choose to go to school.” (Principal)
Funding for schools is extraordinarily complex. Resources are delivered from the Commonwealth through a range of programs and disbursed by state and territory governments to sectors. The complicated array of Australian Government financial assistance to the States and Territories to improve the educational outcomes of students with disabilities in the school sector is largely comprised of: •
The general Recurrent Grants Programme, which is the principal source of Commonwealth funding to schools (an estimated $27.9 billion over 2005-2008);
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•
•
The Literacy, Numeracy and Special Learning Needs (LNSLN) Programme, (an estimated $2.1 billion 2005-2008), which provides additional targeted funding for students with disabilities through a range of grants including Schools Grants ($1.87 billion); Non-government Centre Support ($146 million over 2005-2008); National Projects element ($32 million over 2005-2008); and Other targeted funding, for example, ‘English as a Second Language’, may also be used to assist students with disabilities. (Department of Education, Employment & Workplace Relations, 2008).
In our six months of consulting with ACT stakeholder about the education of students with a disability in ACT schools not one person, from the government or non-government sector, suggested that there were enough resources. However, the point should be made that “perceptions of adequacy are rarely linked unequivocally to data” (Alberta Education, 2009, p.27). Questions about the adequacy of the quantum should be answered with reference to objectives. More specifically, the answer to the question of ‘How much?’ depends on the answer to ‘For what purposes?’ “A lot of people making decisions about funding do so without having to live with the consequences.” (Teacher)
At school and/or system level, the Disability Standards for Education 2005 require education providers to make reasonable adjustments so that the student with a disability is treated on the same basis as a student without the disability. Education providers must ensure compliance with the Standards and the allocation of resources may be one way to achieve that. At the government level, policy always involves consideration of competing equities. Ultimately, ‘what should be’ with respect to funding for students with a disability in nongovernment sector comes down to the way relevant legislation is implemented and policy objectives are achieved. In this regard the goals expressed in Building Our Community: The Canberra Social Plan (2004)), to “lead Australia in education, training and life-long learning” and to “improve learning outcomes for students with a disability” are pertinent.
The ‘Student Centred Appraisal of Need’ In consultations and visits, stakeholders focused almost exclusively on the financial resources delivered by the Student Centred Appraisal of Need (SCAN), the purpose of which is to provide “a consistent approach to determining the educational needs of individual students so that additional resources to support students with a disability can be allocated to schools on an equitable basis (ACTDET, 2008, p.2). In ACT Public schools, this process is undertaken at the end of preschool, kindergarten and in years 3, 6, 7 and 10; in Catholic schools, the process occurs on enrolment and at other times if circumstances change 24; and in Independent schools, students’ needs are reviewed as required and at significant transitions, (e.g. when transferring between schools, on commencement in kindergarten, and when commencing Years 6 and 10). 24
It may be advisable for the appraisal in Catholic schools to occur more frequently, e.g. at years 6/7 and 10/11.
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In ACTDET, “every student who is supported with additional resources through the Special Education Section requires an ILP” (p.2) (Individual Learning Plan) and the intention is that the Student Centred Appraisal of Need should be “closely linked to educational planning” (p.2). “As a parent, I found no value in it (SCAN). Some of the teachers really were there just to get the resources.” (Parent) “Those who came to the table wanting to discuss the needs of the child got more out of it.” (Consultant) ”The focus should switch from ‘this much money to spend’ to ’this level of need requires this much dollars’.” (Parent) ”I only take part (in the Student Centred Appraisal of Need meeting) for the benefit of the school.” (Parent)
Current debates about financial resources, for example, about portability, tend to focus on the funding allocation to support individual students with identified needs, and, in contrast, give less emphasis to the organisational, personnel and technical resources that are intended for all students. Generally, the resources available for individual students from processes such as the Student Centred Appraisal of Need are significantly less than school budgets to support all students. Dissatisfaction with the outcomes from the Student Centred Appraisal of Need is fuelled by what appears to be a widespread misunderstanding that the process is designed to deliver all of the resources to support the learning of a student with a disability in mainstream schools 25. That is, the notion that the resources delivered by the Student Centred Appraisal of Need are for supplementing educational resources that are made available for all students appears to be neither consistently acknowledged nor accepted (Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations, 2008). Although some stakeholders appreciate the increased transparency in the allocation of resources by the Student Centred Appraisal of Need, there is also concern about the overall level of resources provided. The Student Centred Appraisal of Need focuses on inputs and presents as demand-driven, an issue that is discussed below. There are some well-known, unintended effects of reliance on input models and these include: • • •
They offer a ‘perverse incentive’ to over-identify and/or ‘play the system’; ‘Playing the system’ results in a reduction in funds for each student; and The strong focus on disability, difference and deficit is upsetting for parents and has deleterious effects on inclusive culture and practice. “I am finding myself increasingly confronted by the clinical situation in which a family comes to me stating that the school has requested they seek a psychologist's assessment for autism/Asperger's for their child's learning/behavioural difficulties. The concerning cases are those in which the child may have already been assessed once with a negative response, that is, he/she was found not to fulfil criteria for a diagnosis of autism/Asperger's. The
25
The Student Centred Appraisal of Need generates all of the funding for special schools.
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families are invariably told they "will get extra support if their child has an ASD diagnosis". What they are not told is that this is often a small amount of funding for a shared STA (LSA) who is neither a teacher nor a special educator. The long-term implications of a lifelong disability diagnosis for the child are either not considered or dismissed as something that can be "removed" at a later stage. Surely there is a conflict of interests when a school initiates ASD diagnostic assessments specifically to seek additional educational funding. This financial incentive seriously needs to be re-thought.” (Paediatrician) “My wife and I cried for 3 days after our last SCAN meeting!” “Parents need to be prepared by the school for the emotional toll of these meetings.” (Disability association) “Labeling children who don’t need it often leads people to focus on the wrong issues.” (Paediatrician) “You come out of SCAN and feel like jumping off a cliff.” (Parent) “The labels are very useful for accessing a bucket of money but not for much else.” (Principal)
While noting that many believe that the Student Centred Appraisal of Need is a definite improvement on previous ascertainment processes, the Discussion Paper drew attention to another issue - the validity of the rationale for the Student Centred Appraisal of Need. For example, the process focuses on one variable that is of major importance to student learning – the characteristics of the student – and ignores the rest – particularly the teacher and contextual variables that are known to have a major impact on learning outcomes. Furthermore, although the Student Centred Appraisal of Need was designed to support educational planning (and so answer the key question of ‘funding for what purposes?) it is not always used that way. “It is essential that finance provisions not be specified in a vacuum or separate from the overall objectives that they are intended to support” (Alberta Education, 2009). “There appears to currently be an absence of a reasonable link between curriculum outcomes and allocation of supports in inclusive school environments. Currently SCAN funding is allocated at a point where learning goals are unclear.” (Educator)
Research shows that demand-led funding that allocates an individual budget for individual students - is far from perfect (Beek, 2002; Fletcher-Campbell et al., 2003; Pijl & Dyson, 2008). After undertaking a 17 nation study on the distribution of resources to support inclusion Beek (2002) found that individual budgets reduce inclusive practice. Beek concluded that demand-led funding “may not be sustainable in the long term and could draw resources away from other school and pupil expenditure” (p. 9). This point suggests that reliance on a single funding model is an inadequate way to achieve policy outcomes such as greater inclusivity and improvement in the learning outcomes of students with a disability. Recent Australian research supports this view and highlights additional deleterious effects of demand-driven funding approaches. Graham and Sweller (2009) report that between 1997 and 2009 the percentage of students in NSW Public schools assessed (and funded) as having a disability has doubled. “Special education services now represent 12.8% of total
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recurrent payments for NSW government schools – up from 7.2% in 1997 (NSW Government 2008)”. Consistent with the international research reported above, Graham and Sweller (2009, p.16) point out that ‘needs-based’ and ‘input-driven models’ “produce incentives to formulate needs”. “Unfortunately some principals and executive teachers believe that the worst picture you paint of a student the more funding that comes to the school. I know of parents who also believe this.” (Parent)
The capping of funding in NSW for additional support (see Sydney Morning Herald, 15 August 2009) has not reduced identification of students with disabilities. Graham and Sweller (2009, p.16) write, “Each additional student simply reduced the funds available to all, leaving the NSW Department of Education open to claims of under-funding.” Ferrier et al. (2007, p. viii) also note that the targeting of funds based on assessed individual need creates an incentive to game the system (‘category creep’) and that it actually stigmatises students with a disability and reduces their access to mainstream curricula. “Parents/carers and teachers find the process extremely difficult and manipulate it to achieve local resources.” (Parent) “SCAN is a conversation about the student’s additional needs.” (Educational administrator)
What appears to be happening in some sectors is that stakeholders ‘medicalise’ diversity in order to attract additional funds. Graham and Sweller (2009, p. 19) suggest that at least four incentives combine to drive this trend including: 1. The extra funding attached to a diagnosis of disability; 2. Opportunities to provide an authoritative medical explanation for learning failure; 3. The lure of segregated placement leading to a reduction in expectations allround; and 4. The professional interests held by the satellite industry surrounding the students who fall by the wayside. Notwithstanding the analysis above, it could be argued that although the nomenclature is about response to needs, the Student Centred Appraisal of Need is fundamentally a supply, rather than a demand, driven one. That is, while the process helps ensure that different levels of need are differentially and transparently resourced, there does not seem to be any direct and ‘necessary’ connection between the totality of individual needs of a particular student and the totality of funding allocation for that student. (In this sense, the process could be considered “cruel but fair!”). It is perhaps for this reason that there is considerable discontent with the level of funding currently delivered by the Student Centred Appraisal of Need to individual students. As a supply-driven model, the Student Centred Appraisal of Need permits control over levels and patterns of expenditure. Pijl and Dyson (1998, p. 275) note that the downside of supply-driven models is that “individual cases have to be fitted into a centrally determined pattern, sometimes with unfortunate consequences” and, in the ACT, examples of this downside are that some disabilities such as Attention Deficit Disorder and Dyslexia are deemed ineligible for supplementary funding. Attention has already been drawn to the potential equity and legal issues.
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“Need to provide a cost/benefit analysis for the SCAN process across the system.” (Advocacy group)
The above analysis suggests that reliance on the Student Centred Appraisal of Need as the sole or major funding mechanism, and investing resources to ‘fine tune” it, may simply result in a more-finely tuned, inadequate, model. An analogy between the Student Centred Appraisal of Need and the training wheels used by novice cyclists may not be too far off the mark – initially indispensable; temporarily useful; eventually unnecessary; and ultimately obstructive.
Improving disbursing mechanisms Currently the Australian Government provides supplementary resourcing for students with a disability based on definitional criteria that are narrower than the definition contained in the Australian Government’s Disability Discrimination Act (1992). That is, while education providers are required by the DDA (1992) to provide students with a disability with access to the curriculum ‘on the same basis’ as students without a disability, the additional funding to support this obligation is not extended to all students who may be considered to have a disability under Commonwealth legislation. Many stakeholders refer to these students as ‘unfunded students’. However, it would be more accurate to consider these students to be ‘unfunded’ only with respect to the supplementary component of funding for which defined categories of students with a disability are currently eligible. Throughout the review our attention was drawn to the needs of students who a) have a disability but not one of the disabilities deemed eligible for supplementary funding (e.g. ADHD); b) had, but no longer have, a disability, but who still need additional assistance (e.g. a child recovering from cancer treatment); c) almost certainly have an eligible diagnosis but have not been assessed (e.g. because parents refuse; or the waiting list for therapist or specialist is too long); and/or d) are as much in need as students with a disability but who are ineligible for supplementary funding because the factors that affect their learning do not constitute a disability (e.g. behavioural difficulties, disrupted home life, extreme sexualised behaviour, motivational and attitudinal problems). The fact that in addition to students with a disability, many students have individual needs that are extremely resource-intensive clearly illustrates the inadequacy of dichotomous ways of thinking about school diversity (special vs. not special; disabled – non disabled), especially when used as a guide to school organisation, teaching practice and as the sole basis for resource distribution. Research on the impact of different funding suggests that: • •
• •
There is no single, ‘best’ funding model; Different funding systems (e.g. input or student-based, throughput or service-based, percentage-reimbursement-based and/or fixed dollar, census-based etc) produce different effects that may affect particular students differentially; Every funding model has strengths and weaknesses, and positive and negative outcomes, so a combination of funding models seems desirable; As long as appropriate accountability measures are in place local or school-based control of allocation is more effective, more cost effective, and it produces less ‘playing the system’; and
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•
From an economic efficiency viewpoint, it is best to allocate resources where they will do the most good, for example, in early identification and intensive education for students who struggle with learning, and in ways that support system or school policy, for example, improvements of students functioning in the lowest quartile. (Synthesised from Ferrier, et al. 2007; Gallagher, 2006; Graham & Sweller, 2009; Itkonen & Jahnukainen, 2007; Harr et al. 2008; Meijer et al., 1999; Weishaar and Borsa, 2001) Meijer et al. (1999) raise the potential benefits of ‘output funding’ and Fletcher-Campbell (2002, p. 20) refers to this model as a ‘theoretical possibility’ in which “schools are ‘rewarded’ for effectiveness and excellence and are funded for tasks completed, retrospectively, rather than ‘tasks to be done’, as is the case in most cases at the moment.” While Fletcher-Campbell notes the problem of what could be called ‘perverse disincentives’ (e.g. a school may be so successful that it no longer qualifies for additional funding) - the approach deserves further attention as part of the funding mix, because in focusing on quality outcomes, it aligns special education with the mainstream accountability agenda. Farrell (2005) argues that ‘student progress’ is a useful funding criterion because compared with criteria such as ‘evidence of need’ and ‘provision required to address barriers to learning’, ‘student progress’ can at least be defined – and presumably measured. However, the benefits of output funding for students with a disability would depend on the way in which such a policy were implemented. Beek (2002, p. 10) argued that resource distribution models should: • • • • •
• • • • • • •
Demonstrably support the inclusion of children with additional educational needs within mainstream schools wherever possible; Adhere to the principles of whole school funding; Demonstrably support early identification and intervention strategies; Be flexible enough to meet the needs of children who experience complex particular disabilities; Distribute resources to meet the additional needs of children and young people in mainstream settings irrespective of whether or not a statement of special educational needs is held (i.e. whether they have an identified or confirmed disability); Support children with additional educational needs and not just those who experience special educational needs; Enable the requirements of statements to be met; Be developed in partnerships with schools and other relevant stakeholders; Avoid undue perverse incentives; Include arrangements to ensure accountability, including the monitoring of the use of resources and outcomes for children; Clearly outline the relative roles, duties and expectations of schools and LEAs (Local Education Authorities); and Be transparent and equitable, with individual schools clear about the resources available to them and able to see how this relates to the allocation of resources to others.
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Use of finances at school level Schools and school systems that have a clear vision and action plan for meeting the needs of all of their students are well placed to manage and deploy available finances to implement their vision. The leading practice literature suggests the following strategies to maximise the use of resources: 1) Program consolidation. This has been defined by McLaughlin (1999, p. 23) as a strategy for merging or blurring, where permissible, “distinctions among personnel, services or funding streams that were targeted … for specific populations of students.” McLaughlin lists the following advantages: greater autonomy; more innovative programs; increased options for students; reduced costs; greater flexibility; and fewer divisions and barriers among students and staff. 2) Reorganisation of services and roles. When schools have a clear vision about what they want to look like, they can begin to reorganise their services to achieve that vision. For example, Deppeler, Loreman and Sharma (2005, p. 117) and Jenkins (2002) suggest that services that are funded for particular students might be extended, where funding rules permit, to other students. Not only does the same funding ‘go further’, it also provides incidental benefits such as the participation of a broader range of students in evidence-based practices, for example, peer tutoring. Similarly, the roles of particular staff, for example, a teacher and/or Learning Support Assistant, might be adapted, consistent with Enterprise Bargaining Agreements and school/system policy to assist teachers in the introduction of an extensive, school wide, peer-tutoring program. 3) Strategic use of resources by the executive. Shaddock et al. (2007, p 162) described the role of a principal in demonstrating “effective change management to support inclusion by (a) providing extra time and resources for teachers who were including students with disabilities; (b) using various incentives to change teacher behaviour; and (c) not ‘forcing’ students with disabilities onto unwilling teachers.” The strategies listed above are based on an assumption that resources are available for rearrangement. In our visits to small schools, and in particular, to small Independent schools, we found this not to be the case, illustrating once again that the totality of resources that are needed to teach a student with a disability must take into consideration teacher and contextual variables in addition to student variables. Some ACT non-government schools have been able to access sufficient resources to develop on-line programs for some subject areas which have been popular with many of the special needs students as they are able to work at their own pace. However, many of the smaller schools do not have access to sufficient resources to make this sort of initiative possible. (School submission)
Connors (2006, p. 11) comments about public education in the ACT may also be applied to other sectors: It will never be possible to share the total workload of education evenly among schools serving all corners of the ACT community. Therefore, for this system (public education) to live up to its charter, it will need a system for allocating resources among schools that reflects as closely as possible the share of the real workload of educating our children and young people that different schools
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accept … and this includes consideration of relative complexity of the workload in different schools. And then good school leaders have to be capable of making the best possible use of the resources they have for the students they serve.
Earlier in this report the point was made that what does or does not happen in mainstream education affects what does or does not happen in special education Harr et al. (2008, p. 586) express the financial implications of this issue in the following way: Adequate funding for special education cannot be considered in a vacuum. Special education students come from the general education student population, and most special education students continue to be highly reliant on a mix of general and special education services. As described by Mittnacht (2005), “Ultimately, it makes sense in our efforts to resolve funding issues that we not start with how to fund special education, but rather with how to fund general education.
Parrish’s (2001, p. 8) advice to policy-makers about the allocation of resources is worthy of further consideration. We need to support programs that attempt to assist students prior to their referral to more costly special education interventions – especially in light of ever increasing student standards and high stakes accountability. We also need to target supplementary special education aid to districts serving students with extraordinarily high cost special needs. At the same time it is essential to begin bridging the gap between general and special education programs and providers to more fully address the educational needs of all children.
In conclusion, most teachers do not conceptualise their classrooms as comprised of ‘funded’ and ‘unfunded’ students and they strive to improve the learning outcomes of all. So, it makes sense to allocate resources in ways that are coherent with, and promote, system policy, for example, towards greater inclusivity, lifting the performance of all students and particularly those functioning in the bottom quartile 26, and improving equity. There are sound pedagogical and financial rationales for using resources to further integrate special and regular education. Funding should be allocated in ways that give schools the flexibility, within appropriate accountability frameworks, to implement practices that work for them and assist teachers to meet the learning needs of students with a disability in the context of accountability for a quality education for every student. Achievement of these objectives will involve repackaging and redirecting resources and using different funding models (e.g. input, throughput, output and outcome), thus taking the focus off the Student Centred Appraisal of Need as the sole or major resource for students with a disability. There are good financial and pedagogical reasons for schools to reduce the reliance on a funding mechanism that is somewhat deficit-oriented and focused on individual need. To sum up: •
26
The funding of education and special education is extraordinarily complex.
It should not be assumed that all students with a disability function in the bottom quartile.
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•
It is difficult to be prescriptive about what constitutes enough resources because quantity and use are interrelated.
•
Resources should be directed to approaches for which there is evidence of effectiveness in improving students’ learning outcomes.
•
ACT funding policy should be consistent with ACT educational policy, for example, about inclusivity. All students should be included in staffing and funding processes first, and after that, consideration should be given to the adjustments that particular students may need to achieve agreed learning outcomes.
The next chapter continues the exploration of resources with particular attention to the more important human resources – partnerships and personnel - and their impact on student learning outcomes.
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Chapter 8: Partnerships, Personnel and Learning Outcomes This chapter reviews leading practice on: • • • • •
Parent-teacher partnerships to promote student learning Provision of various forms of consultancy support for classroom teachers Learning Support Assistants (LSAs) and their impact on learning outcomes. Therapy and mental health services for students with particular attention to service integration School-based ‘Learning Support Coordination’.
Parents and carers International, national and ACT education policy highlight partnerships with parents 27 and many ACT parents of students with a disability are extremely involved in, and influential advocates for, their children’s education. The Walberg model gives high priority to parentteacher collaboration because of the extensive body of research demonstrating the benefits for students’ learning. With children in their care most of the time, it is hardly surprising that research shows that parents have a major influence on their children’s intellectual, social, emotional and behavioural development, especially ability, motivation and responsiveness to instruction (Walberg, 1984b; Howland et al., 2008). Parenting is a greater predictor of cognitive and socio-emotional outcomes than the quality of early childcare or education (Weiss & Stephen, 2009). Often parents (and students) are a great source of information about appropriate goals, strategies, learning experiences and assessment methods (Dettmer, Dyck, & Thurston, 1999). “Where teachers have worked with parents utilising the vast knowledge they have of their child’s abilities, there is usually a more successful outcome.” (Parent) “We have been educating teachers throughout our son’s career!” (Parents)
Collaboration between parents and teachers enables the exchange of knowledge and skills; fosters social inclusion; improves teaching, learning and behavioural outcomes; and
27
Family-School Partnerships Framework, in Australia; (Australian Government, 2006); No Child Left Behind, in the USA (US Department of Education, 2004); and Every Parent Matters, in the UK (Department for Education and Skills, 2004).
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increases school attendance (Compton-Lilly, 2009; Dettmer, Dyck, & Thurston; Killu, 2008; Menna & Matthews, 2003; Sailor & Skrtic, 1996; Sanders, 2008; Stainback & Stainback, 1997; Turnbull & Turnbull, 2001; Villa & Thousand, 2000; Weiss & Stephen, 2009; Wenger, 1998).
One school has developed a junior "sensory room" with the assistance of a qualified parent who has donated one day per week to set it up. Several students have been known to spend time in the sensory room at the beginning of the day to reduce anxiety before moving into their classroom.
Much of the research on parent-teacher partnerships describes programs that individual schools have developed for, or in conjunction with, parents, and identifies the key factors and barriers to success. Tayler (2006) reviewed three parent-teacher collaborations around literacy and found that the key success factors were strong leadership from principals; belief in, and commitment to, the program; respect and equality among the partners; and attention to beliefs and values of teachers and parents. “Parents are crucial – a good partnership might take time in the beginning but pays off in the long run for everyone!!!” (Executive teacher) “Can you stress how much teachers and schools have to learn from parents a bit more? If you accept that teachers need to know their students in order to match pedagogy to need, then parents have a vital role as educators of teachers.” (Critical reader)
Sanders (2008) concluded that successful parent-teacher partnerships are based on mutual respect; cultural sensitivity; a focus on strengths rather than deficits; and attention to the needs of families as perceived by families rather than by schools. Allen (2008) found that rewarding partnerships depended on reciprocity and mutual trust and the opportunity to have extended conversations in which the perspectives of families could be better understood. Research on teacher/parent partnerships reviewed by Rock (2000) identified that teachers in inclusive schools engaged in the following practices: • • • • • • •
Nurtured partnerships with parents by providing positive feedback on their children; Encouraged parents to contribute to the individual planning agenda and genuinely to participate in meetings; Organised translators and child care when necessary; Utilised professionals, students, community members, retirees, grandparents or ESL teachers to facilitate communication with families; Encouraged parents/carers to bring an advocate if support was needed at school meetings; Avoided the use of educational jargon; Continually considered ways to increase parental contributions and comfort;
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• • • •
Were flexible with individual planning meeting times; Organised teleconferencing, and taped meetings for parents; Welcomed parents into school on a daily basis and facilitated their involvement in school activities; and Communicated frequently with parents and carers about their child’s progress.
A recent UK survey found that 72% of parents want more involvement in their children’s schooling (Department for Education & Skills, 2007). However, cultural, economic, educational, generational and power relationship differences between parents and teachers often inhibit genuine collaboration on curriculum development, school engagement and reform (Arndt, & McGuire-Schwartz, 2008; Rock, 2000). Parents with unhappy memories of their own schooling (Howland et al., 2006) and families from different cultural and low socio-economic backgrounds (Kalyanpur, Harry, & Skrtic, 2000) are less likely to work collaboratively with schools, a finding attributed to parents’ lack of understanding of the educational process, inflexible or unpredictable work hours, depression and stress, lack of access to child care and/or communication difficulties. “From a parent’s perspective, a lot of the interaction with education is negative.” (Parent)
Risko and Walker-Dalhouse (2009) summarised research on methods for addressing the power imbalance that sometimes exists between parents and teachers. They found that teachers strengthened partnerships by communicating with families frequently; focusing on student success; linking health and social services to families; establishing parent networks; providing a parent meeting room; developing parent programs in leadership, language and literacy with the parents; and involving parents in the creation and evaluation of school programs. These teachers also visited families and attended community events to learn about their students, families and community, then worked on joint literacy projects with parents, such as dialogue journaling, newsletters, anthologies of poetry, stories and plays. While most parents and teachers are ‘time poor’, time is not the only barrier to effective collaboration. Some parents regard teachers as the experts and choose to defer educational decisions to the school (Risko & Walker-Dalhouse, 2009; Weissbourd, 2009). Some teachers consider themselves to be the experts and are not willing to share power or value the contribution of parents (Weissbourd, 2009). Teachers may require more training to develop more positive attitudes and work collaboratively with parents (Dettmer, Dyck, & Thurston, 1999; Flanigan, 2007; Menna & Matthews, 2003; NSW Public Inquiry, 2002). Advocating, even legally requiring, schools and parents to work collaboratively, however, does not make it happen. According to Weiss and Stephen (2009), setting high student and teacher standards with financial incentives and penalties and giving parents the right to choose schools has not made a substantial difference to student outcomes. What has been learned is that it is more adaptive for schools to work with parents as partners to improve the learning outcomes of students with a disability. “This year I set my class, which includes two students with intellectual disabilities, a research assignment on endangered species. I set a series of detailed questions under specific headings. Most of the research was to be completed at school although I did send a copy of the project home with a list of the questions. The mother of one of the students was able to give her child
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additional support. The poster the girl produced was outstanding and she had been practised so well that she spoke for over five minutes and then answered questions from the rest of the class. I could see the girl standing straighter and beaming the more she talked. The other students all learnt something from the presentation and applauded at the end.” (Primary school teacher)
With government investment in partnerships, growing numbers of schools employing parent coordinators to work with disadvantaged families. In some US districts ‘liaisons’ act as “cultural mediators” or “brokers (Howland et al., 2006, p. 52). Liaisons are professionals with experience as teachers or social workers, well-educated role models with the same cultural background and language as the families. They work with families with low incomes whose children are under performing, have disabilities or high rates of absenteeism. Liaisons have four key responsibilities: conflict resolution (mediating issues between home and school), referral (to agencies, support groups, accessing medical care, food, goods), direct support (teaching parents skills, providing information), cultural brokering (supporting families through the school system) (Howland et al., 2006). Evaluations show that liaisons have increased family and student participation in schools and improved the advocacy skills of families (Sanders, 2008). In the United Kingdom, over 2000 Parent Support Advisers (PSAs) have been employed to work across over 8000 schools (Training & Development Agency for Schools (TDA), 2009). The advisors have five responsibilities: developing partnerships with parents; helping parents engage with their children’s learning; developing parenting skills; linking parents to services, and developing their own competence (TDA, 2009). In summary, given the “outstanding record of success” and the “dramatic improvements” in student learning outcomes brought about by school/parent partnerships that focus on student learning (Walberg, 1984b, p. 400) it would be advisable for ACT educators to a) elevate the priority given to collaborating with parents and carers to support students’ learning; and b) take responsibility for initiating and fostering this type of collaboration (Dettmer, Dyck, & Thurston, 1999). Hattie (2005) reports that ‘home encouragement of learning’ produces an effect size on learning of 0.69, a major influence on learning outcomes. Given that a) many (but not all) parents, want greater involvement in their child’s education; and b) the modest costs of supporting them to do so, teacher-parent collaboration should be given high priority. That said, the complexities must also be acknowledged. One teacher commented, “Parents are a fantastic support. They’re great …but (they are) demanding for teachers.”
Similarly, Ferguson (2008b, p.57) in his analysis of a hundred years of parent/professional relationships, draws attention to the complexities of these relationships, It is often a troubled and troubling relationship, characterized by suspicion on both sides. Then, as now, many parents were both appreciative and resistant (of professionals), thankful and angry. Perhaps it is an inevitable and awkward dance between partners, each doubting the other’s capacity to lead but tied together in an unavoidable push and pull across the floor.
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Learning Support Assistants (LSAs) In classrooms where there are students who are complex and/or challenging the Learning Support Assistant (LSA) is much appreciated (Broadbent & Burgess, 2003; Chadbourne, 1997; Shaddock, Nielsen, et al. 2007). Many teachers say that they would not survive in their class without LSA support. “Without an aide, it would have been dreadful! (Teacher)
However, despite the generally strong support from teachers and parents for LSAs, there are concerns about the role. The Discussion Paper made the following points: • • •
There is insufficient role clarity, training and professional development opportunities for Learning Support Assistants; System policy around the skills LSAs need to assist teachers with curriculum and pedagogy are unclear; and There are issues around the current and future availability of appropriately qualified and experienced LSAs.
Visits by the review team to non-government and government schools revealed extensive involvement of LSAs in some schools and wide variation in their deployment and skills. In some schools, LSAs had been given advanced training and were highly skilled in working with students with disabilities and students with learning difficulties.
At one school, the LSA has been working with a consultant to engage students in the literacy process - reading , writing and research through using various inclusive technologies (Clicker 5, Inspiration , Powerpoint and Word). A report on the work has been submitted for presentation at a national conference.
“Learning Support Assistants (LSAs) are undervalued. Since being in High School, my son has had numerous Assistants that have left because they are not able to gain permanent employment or the flexibility of part time work to meet their Uni commitments. The LSAs in my son’s life have been invaluable.” (Parent) “In practice, some (LSAs) are more highly skilled in basic literacy and numeracy teaching than some of the teachers they are working with.” (Learning Support Coordinator)
However, despite these LSAs having specific expertise, for example, in remedial reading, being very much appreciated by parents and teachers, and working in an inclusive model, issues were raised about their remuneration, status and working conditions. Research has identified the following problems, particularly in situations in which LSAs are the major strategy for supporting students:
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• • • • • • • •
LSAs perform a wide range of roles for which not all may have adequate training; The involvement of LSAs can have unintended, negative effects on student engagement, learning, independence and/or social acceptance; In some situations, LSAs are exploited personally, professionally and/or in terms of salary and conditions; The presence of LSAs has been associated with teachers devolving responsibility to them for students with a disability; Some teachers do not have the skills to direct and supervise LSAs; Working effectively with another adult in the classroom requires planning and appropriate time allocation; Role confusion, blurring and overlap are frequently reported; and There has been a world wide escalation in the deployment of LSAs in schools (Shaddock, Nielsen et al. 2007, p. 213).
More pertinent to this review, there is little research that shows the benefits in terms of student learning outcomes of LSAs (Finn & Achilles, 1999; Giangreco, Broer & Edelman, 2001; Giangreco, Edelman et al. 1997; Giangreco & Broer, 2005). The lack of research support for the positive impact of LSAs on student learning outcomes has prompted the search for alternatives to LSAs and/or to more carefully define their roles. For example, Giangreco, Halvorsen, Doyle and Broer (2004) have proposed the following: •
•
• • •
Using the resources currently devoted to LSAs to employ more teachers, improve teacher professional learning and networking, reduce class sizes and/or purchase therapy, equipment, consultancy and other supports for inclusive practice; Establishing a mobile pool of LSAs who are available for time-limited involvement and whose support is systematically phased out and replaced with mainstream supports; Clarifying the LSA role to be indirect support for the teacher; Implementing peer-support strategies that replace some roles currently performed by LSAs; and Consulting students about the way they would prefer to receive support.
The additional funds to support the education of students with a disability is provided to schools in ‘LSA hours’ and creates the impression that the most appropriate way to support students with a disability is through the appointment of an LSA – entirely the wrong pedagogical message. The current funding method implicitly endorses the ‘pedagogical status quo’ and stifles the adoption of alternative strategies that are known to be effective. “Many teachers rely too heavily on LSAs.” (Parent)
Although the analysis so far has implied that the deployment of LSAs should be reconsidered, there are other options. For example, the negative research findings about the impact of untrained staff on student learning outcomes suggest an obvious solution - to provide training, as occurs in other disciplines such as for paraprofessionals in nursing and the therapies. The suggestion to provide training for these valued staff raises a key policy question - “training for what roles?”
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“Surprisingly few studies have suggested that the solution to having untrained staff, is to train them.” (Educator) LSAs: “… need training and a base line so they can do more than just the day to day cleaning and hygiene.” (School staff)
McGaw (2008) has proposed another option - employing more, not fewer, paraprofessionals. Writing about education in general, and acknowledging the fact that “teachers are the key to high-quality education”, McGaw (2008, p.71) suggests differentiating “… the labour force in schools, employing teachers for only those aspects of the work for which professional teaching skills are required and remitting other tasks to a range of other workers. England provides a good example of this development”. McGaw’s proposal is worth further consideration and trialing, for example, in special schools it may be efficient and effective to involve trained and supervised LSAs in more extensively in labour intensive activities such as implementing therapy. This option would require significant change in the roles of some personnel with consequent pre-service, professional learning and industrial implications. However, the idea is not new and even ten years ago French (1999, p 70) proposed a similar shift in teacher responsibility to that of “delegator, planner, director, monitor, coach and program manager”. “The role of the LSA needs to be clearly defined in terms of: what they do; how they do their work; who they are answerable to and what supervision structures do they need; what structures need to be in place to ensure quality work; and what qualifications and training structures are most desirable.” (Educator)
Over the last few years some LSAs in Catholic schools have had access to training and, anecdotally, this has made a positive difference to classroom practice. Clearly there is a need for evidence-based policy development in regard to LSAs in the government and nongovernment sectors and this should occur before further extensive deployment and training are undertaken. The clarification of the role of LSAs raises training, career and industrial issues for them and consequent considerations for teachers and others in regard to their roles, pre-service preparation, professional development and employment conditions.
Consultancy support for teachers The type and extent of consultancy services for teachers in government and nongovernment sectors is varied and there is wide variation in access to these services among Independent schools. Within ACTDET, these services include school counsellors (mainly, psychologists, most of whom have teaching qualifications), itinerant teachers for hearing and vision impairment, inclusion support and technology consultation. Catholic schools provide counsellors (mainly social workers) and limited psychoeducational assessment services but nearly all assessments are outsourced. A Learning Support Teacher coordinates services in each Catholic school, sometimes assisted by a School Special Needs Learning Support Committee. In Independent schools, support services range from sophisticated models involving integrated psychological, educational and social support for students and families, to virtually no access to additional services unless they are purchased by the parents of the student with a disability.
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Needless to say, classrooms teachers generally value the expertise and support provided by all of these consultants. “The support provided by the Itinerant Hearing Support Teachers (IHST) is invaluable.” (Disability organisation)
The support services that are particularly valued by teachers include: • • • •
Assessment, consultation or support focused on individual students, for example, those with a sensory impairment requiring very specific knowledge and expertise; Writing, refining or individualising curriculum and teaching materials; Data collection, for example, assisting schools to monitor ‘at-risk behaviour’ such as suspensions, absences and relationship difficulties with teachers or peers; and Provision of professional learning for school staff, particularly ‘just in time’ learning about issues or students of current concern.
The Discussion Paper noted positive features of the support provided to classroom teachers in ACTDET and then listed several concerns - lack of role clarity; too few consultants to meet demand; and a degree of compartmentalisation and fragmentation illustrated by inadequate coordination of support and /or role confusion, at the classroom. The latter problems were not mentioned in the non-government sector, either because the services were well integrated and coordinated in the schools that had them, or, because some schools had hardly any consultancy services to coordinate. The leading practice literature suggests that consultants should try to engage in more ‘upstream’ activity, for example, in cultural, policy, organisational and systemic change that focuses on whole school and proactive change. Such activities include: •
Developing and implementing systems to screen, monitor and detect problems in learning; • Liaising with the school community, for example, with parents and/or establishing partnerships with business; and • Supporting systemic change, for example, as described by Bryer and Beamish (2005) with reference to supporting students with problem behaviours. (Synthesised from Australian Psychological Society, 2009; Bernard et al. 2007; Power, 2003; Green, Grant, A., & Rynsaardt, J. 2007; Rowling, 2003; Strategic Partners and Centre for Youth Affairs and Development, 2001.) A significant trend in the roles of school counsellors, in particular, is to assist with the coordination of services from external agencies, for example, those with which most teachers would have limited experience, such as mental health services. The multiple roles of school counsellors, and the significant demands placed on them for assessing students with disabilities for funding eligibility purposes, suggests the need for a more strategic use of these valuable, generic, resources for schools. The research also suggests that consultancy services are more effective when they are coordinated with, and oriented towards, the class program (Bellini et al., 2007; McGinty and Justice, 2006).
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Some specialist services in ACT schools provide a service delivery function in classrooms and assist in coordinating services through liaising with families and specialist agencies. While the highly specific needs of some students, for example, those with vision and hearing impairment, may sometimes require direct support from itinerant teachers, the primary goal of consultancy support should be strategic and systematic capacity-building at classroom level. “The Vision Support Teachers will refer to us and consult with us. Consistently ACT students with a vision impairment appear to be less frustrated than students with a vision impairment from outside the ACT Public system.” (External organisation)
An important goal for the highly regarded services for vision and hearing impaired students would be to continue to give priority to building the skills of classroom teachers.
Operation of a whole school consultancy in public schools: Possible model • • •
•
Senior executive of school identifies needs and approaches senior executive of Student Support. In consultation with the school, Student Support develops a package designed to change culture and practice at a whole school level. Targeted consultants (Inclusion Support consultants, school counsellors, Student Management consultants, Support Teachers Hearing and/or Vision) work at all levels within the school (dependent on needs) to embed change, e.g. play ground approaches to support social skills programs; assistance for teachers with curriculum and pedagogy; team teaching and modeling of relevant technology or strategies; and/or professional learning workshops. Senior executive in school monitor implementation, support teachers in action evaluation and reflective practice, and provide regular feedback to embed change.
Multidisciplinary services This section overviews leading practice and models for the provision of multi-agency and multidisciplinary services for students with particular attention to the provision of therapy services, (e.g. physiotherapy, occupational therapy and/or speech pathology), and mental health services. For many students, these types of services are essential if they are to access the curriculum. The Disability Standards for Education (2005, p.14) note that, “Many students with a disability require multidisciplinary assistance in order to achieve learning outcomes, participate in courses and programs and to develop independence”.
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Therapy Therapy services may include direct service, consultation, monitoring and/or a collaborative or transdisciplinary 28 approach (Los Angeles Unified School District, 2004). There is not much evidence on the differential effectiveness of these various clinical approaches to therapy provision (McWilliam, 1996) and there is little research about the relative merits of various models for providing therapy in schools, for example, whether Education Departments should employ therapists or whether there should be contracts with other Departments or agencies to supply these services. The Discussion Paper documented problems in regard to therapy for students in Public schools. These included: referral and waiting time, coordination and communication; particular issues for students with a disability in mainstream schools; and the absence of a service agreement between the relevant departments. The issues were similar in the government and non-government sectors. “We (parents) are not educators. This is not right. In the last two years I have spent around $5000.00 on O.T. (private). Psychologist testing, $600.00 (private), Speech test $450.00 (private), Tutor $2200.00 (private), resources – have no figure, way too much, computer program, $600.00.” (Parent) “My issue is the lack of therapy support. Some children need lots of physical support. A huge gap is the provision of therapy.” (Teacher) “I have brought in Speech Pathologists and Psychologists into the school on many occasions to assist the teacher to deal with behaviours and issues affecting my son’s ability to participate in the classroom. This assistance has not always been welcome but where it has, the results were astounding.” (Parent) “The biggest special education issue/problem for me is our therapy program sitting separate to education and requiring time away from school.” (Parent) ”Huge differences in therapy provision from preschool to primary school – preschool therapy is home-based, and often not seen at the school level.” (School submission)
Despite the problems, therapy services are valued. “The Therapy ACT OT and physios have been particularly good in coordinating visits with the school.” (Parent) “Therapy ACT has been providing some valuable professional development to teachers in special education and mainstream schools.” (Teacher organisation)
Current policies and practices within Therapy ACT are consistent with many leading practice principles for therapy provision for young people. The literature on effective practice indicates the importance of: • •
28
Accessibility and equity in provision; Student-centred and family-centred practice based on need and with specified outcomes;
See Appendix 4 (multidisciplinary) for a definition.
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• •
Early and, if necessary, ongoing therapy; Case management, transdisciplinary teamwork and collaborative approaches with teachers with time allocated to support that collaboration; • The integration of therapy goals with the school curriculum and/or ILP and student involvement in decisions about therapy; • Indirect and consultative services; • Therapy, delivered in natural settings (such as school) and targeting goals that are functional for the student; • Provision, training and maintenance of necessary equipment; • Whole of government and interagency collaboration; and • Service quality monitoring. (Synthesised from Bundy et al. (2008); Cameron et al., 2001; Farrell, 2005; Lacey, 2003; New Zealand Ministry of Education, 2007; Western Australian Department of Education and Training, 2004). Access to therapy services remains difficult for a variety of reasons, not the least of which is the supply of therapists in the ACT, an issue that perhaps suggests the need for more creative attraction and retention strategies. Not unexpectedly, ‘demand management’ is a frequent topic in the therapy literature, for example, WestWood Spice (2004); Bundy et al (2008). “Services like those provided by Therapy ACT … are invaluable. However, these services can be described as ad hoc and insufficient to fully meet the sometimes complex health needs of students in special schools. The few therapists available are ‘spread too thinly’ between their community, family and school caseloads and most students miss out on receiving adequate support.” (Teacher organisation)
Consideration is needed about ways to use the available resources more efficiently. For example, Bundy et al (2008) outline the role of therapy assistants – skilled technical workers who work under the supervision of therapists and in accordance with the policies of the relevant professional organisations – an idea that is consistent with the McGaw suggestion to increase the number and role of paraprofessionals in schools. “There is growing recognition that indirect therapy is a viable and effective adjunct or alternative to direct therapies” (Dreiling & Bundy, 2003). Another strategy that requires further examination is ‘group therapy’. Bundy et al. (2008) conclude that the advantages to this approach include time efficiency, caseload management and incidental benefits of group dynamics. While group therapy is possible in settings with larger numbers of students with a disability it is less feasible in mainstream schools. Making better use of existing resources is a more efficient response than establishing mechanisms for controlling demand. Bundy et al. (2008) report research that shows that various forms of gate-keeping are ineffective. Such tactics create a ‘battle mentality that is inimical to effective working relationships between service providers and parents. “You get tired of fighting with services – respite care, therapy, the Education Department …” (Parent)
The current provision of therapy services in schools is not family, school, teacher or student-friendly. There is clearly a need for more effective ways of delivering therapy to
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school aged children at school and a greater supply of therapists to do so. Currently there is little chance of implementing the following recommendations that were made in submissions to the Review: “Co-locate therapy services in schools – therapists 4 days in schools; one day meetings, professional support etc. Model is currently being used in mainstream high schools by Mental Health nurses.” (Disability Association) “Therapists must be school-based, and able to service a cluster placed at the school for as many days as is appropriate for demand. This is similar to the way in which school counsellors operate. Removal of children from school to access a therapist is disruptive to the child and the school. It also requires parents to be present.” “There is a need to fund a wraparound approach incorporating employment of in-school professionals such as therapists and music specialists, similar to what is happening in the new Early Childhood schools.” (School board)
Thirteen years ago a Review of Special Education in the ACT similar to this one (Andrews, 1996) reported fragmentation, poor coordination, problems with referrals and waiting time and insufficient alignment of therapy and education goals for students with a disability in ACT Public schools. Despite a greater focus on early intervention, the adoption of consultation models, provision of ‘resource packs’ for schools, increased allocation of therapist hours to schools and the satisfaction expressed by clients who do receive therapy, therapy provision for students with a disability in the ACT is far from ideal.
Mental health Nationally and internationally there is a growing number of students experiencing emotional problems (American Academy of Pediatrics, 2004; Australian Institute of Health & Welfare, 2003; Campbell, 2004; Frydenberg et al 2006; Graham & Sweller, 2009; Green et al. 2007; McGraw et al. 2008; School Mental Health Project, 2007). In a recent review of special education “the dearth of services for children and youth with emotional or mental health problems” was the most frequently cited unmet need (Alberta Education, 2009, p.8). In Australia, 14% of children between 4 and 17 are considered to have mental health problems (Sawyer et al. 2001; Zubrick et al. 2000). Among the adolescent group, the prevalence may approximate 25% (Zubrick et al. 2000). The summaries of school visits and observations in ACT schools confirm the growing concern of teachers and counsellors about mental health issues in the government and non-government sectors. Schools are very unfriendly places for people with mental health issues. They can be overwhelming and frightening and students with these issues are battling on a number of fronts. The assistance they require is often to be at school, or get to school, (but) thinking about learning outcomes is often way outside their range of ability. There is pressure on these students to keep up with their school work and whilst some assistance is available to help with this, it is not nearly sufficient to enable them to collect, retain and utilise the curriculum information sufficiently whilst trying to deal with their mental health issues. (School submission)
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ACT schools make use of national, evidence-based, health promotion initiatives such as Kidsmatter, MindMatters and Headspace. These programs stress the links between good mental health and good educational outcomes, and, consistent with leading practice, seek to assist individuals in the social context of the school (Patton et al. 2003; Principals Australia (n.d.). Although the ACT Government has increased funds for promotion, prevention and early intervention by 16% over the past 4 years, and despite national priority for adequate school-based mental health services, there are many concerns about the adequacy of assistance for students with mental health problems in ACT schools. “The mental health service has very tight eligibility and concentrates on adolescents with anxiety and depression.” (Paediatrician) “There is inadequate support for behaviourally disturbed children with ADHD.” (Paediatrician) “Unless the student is suicidal there is virtually no support.” (Counsellor) “The mental health burden of children and adolescents is not responded to – it’s not for ADHD and Aspergers.” (Paediatrician)
One school has set up in the senior school a study centre which provides small classes and individual work to support students with special needs in the curriculum areas. A teacher also provides a program of relaxation and managing behaviours within the centre. An LSA with qualifications in mental health is also available.
Recent ACT reports confirm the perceptions of parents, teachers and doctors of gaps in coordination; support for specific client groups; professional learning for school staff; backup for school social workers and counsellors; services for the full range of mental health problems experienced by students; and setting priorities for access to services (ACT Health, 2009; Sprague & Brann, 2008). See Appendix 10 for a summary of evidence-based principles and practices for services for students with mental health issues.
Service integration A feature of leading practice throughout the world is a move towards ‘integrated support’, ‘service integration’ or ‘wraparound’ – the delivery of specialised services in a more coordinated and integrated manner (Bruns et al. 2004; Evans, 1996; Department for Education & Skills; Kolbe et al. 1999; Peterson, 2009). Given the growing complexity of the issues faced by schools and the diversity of their students, service integration presents as a necessity (Evans, 1996). The literature on service integration highlights:
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•
The active involvement of the child and support for parents as the primarily responsible party; • Conceptualisation of schools as the predominant living and learning environment for youth and as a community resource; • Co-location of services where possible; • Alignment of client assessments and case management; and • Clear and realistic objectives of service integration; leadership support; time allocation for joint planning; and clarity around administrative arrangements, funding and resources. (Synthesised from Commonwealth of Australia, 2001; Dryfoos, 2008; Fine et al., 2005 Government of Quebec, 2003; Tett, 2005; UK Department for Education and Skills, 2007; Weiss & Stephen, 2009). However, interagency work is not without complications, for example, “There are legal issues associated with the interagency delivery of services, e.g. privacy of records and information.” (Parent)
One of the gaps in children’s services in the ACT is that there is no comprehensive, multidepartment, multidisciplinary diagnostic service for children with developmental difficulties. “Getting a diagnosis is an awful journey for parents.” (Paediatrician) “Parents might go to a variety of places and take the best part of a year.” (Paediatrician)
A collaborative, interagency ‘assessment clinic’ may be an appropriate, feasible and cost efficient way to fill this need. “If somewhere the size of Canberra can’t do this (establish such a centre), it would be absurd.” (Paediatrician) ”The only way there can be satisfactory progress (on the development of such a centre) is by working together.” (Paediatrician)
In conclusion, the level and type of therapy and mental health services provided to students with a disability do not meet demand. Improvement of therapy, mental health and related services – assessment and treatment - for students with a disability in ACT schools requires service contracts between the relevant agencies and agreement of an operational model for a cost effective, evidence-based approach to delivery. The non-government school sector has expressed interest in collaborating with the public sector in pursuing these objectives. The proposed service agreement/s would involve therapy and mental health services viewing education sectors and/or schools, as well as children and/or families, as clients.
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For assessment services, consideration should be given to models that have been implemented elsewhere for cost-efficient, multi-agency collaboration”29. For therapy provision, consideration should be given to the multiple advantages of making greater use of the resources and equipment of special schools, systematically deploying supervised paraprofessionals – perhaps in a regionally-based way, and involving supervised university students in Education, Psychology and the Therapies as part of their course work.
Learning support coordinators Some school systems are beginning to employ Learning Support Coordinators (LSCs) school-based educators who have special education knowledge and experience and who have school-wide responsibilities for raising the quality of teaching and learning, with particular focus on students who struggle with the curriculum. Recent Australian research is supportive of this role, for example, Shaddock, Smyth King, & Giorcelli, (2007) found that schools in which an experienced special educator managed learning support across the school achieved good outcomes for students with a disability. The appointment of LSCs has been adopted, with various adaptations, by some major educational authorities, for example, the English SENCo model (Special Education Needs Coordinator), the Western Australian Department of Education and Training and the NSW Department of Education and Training. Learning Support Coordinators (LSCs) are not currently widespread in ACT government and non-government sectors, but some schools have organised their services and appointed staff who fulfil similar roles to LSCs. The SENCo in England is a school-based expert who has a total or significant reduction in face-to-face teaching hours, in order to: • • • • • • •
Oversee day-to-day operation of special education needs (SEN) policy; Coordinate provision of services for students with SEN; Liaise with and advise teachers; Manage Learning Support Assistants; Oversee the records of students with special education needs; Contribute to in-service training; and Liaise with external agencies including health and social services and voluntary bodies (Cowne, 2008 p. 12).
In DETWA the LSC: • • •
Facilitates the work of Learning Support teams; Consults and collaborates with teachers with regard to meeting the educational needs of students with disabilities and learning difficulties; Supports classroom teachers to develop, implement and monitor learning plans for individual and groups of students with disabilities or learning difficulties; and
29
The model of the New England Educational Diagnostic Centre in Armidale NSW provides an example of relatively low cost collaboration between government departments, government and non-government school systems, universities and the community to provide such a service.
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•
Models effective teaching and supports classroom teachers who have students requiring significant teaching and learning adjustments.
The proposed NSW Learning Support Coordinator involves web-based training, networking and support of LSCs. For example, the 140 Learning Support Coordinators undertake training that is a) delivered on-line; b) based on UK experience and training; and c) accredited with the NSW Institute. In each Region selected ‘student services’ personnel mentor the LSCs and they too undertake training. The NSW model is new and no publicly available evaluation data are available 30. The Western Australian Learning Support Coordinators are appointed from existing staff in schools and receive ongoing training and participate as part of the Building Inclusive Classrooms Professional Learning Program. This involves an initial 12 days of fully funded professional learning in their first two years. The above initiatives are ‘disability, and learning difficulties-specific’, but they need not be. One implication of the ACT’s broader understanding of inclusivity is that if the LSC approach were to be adopted in the government or non-government sector, a major aim would be to build pedagogical capacity at the school and classroom level. That is, the LSC would support classroom teachers to meet the individual learning needs of any students, for example, students with a disability or learning difficulty; those experiencing temporary difficulties with learning because of personal or family circumstances; and, if necessary, students with gifts and talents who were not performing to potential.
One ACT college provides an exemplary local example of the model. The LSC is qualified, skilled and experienced. She works directly to the Assistant Principal (Curriculum) to assist curriculum development, implementation, monitoring and evaluation across years 7-12; assist staff with teaching and management strategies; ensure appropriate integration of technology; promote whole school literacy initiatives; and ensure that strategies are in place for gifted students, students from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students.
Further refinements of the LSC approach in the ACT could involve: • • •
Greater focus of the LSC on school-based professional learning for teachers; Support for organisational changes so that teachers adopt and share a wider range of evidence-based teaching practices; and Orchestration of learning support across the school, for example, through assisting classroom-based personnel to implement initiatives to improve literacy and numeracy; integrating the additional support for students with disabilities and students functioning
30
At the time of writing, the NSWDET roll-out had been halted because of a range of professional and industrial issues.
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in the lowest quartile; and assisting external personnel such as therapists to integrate therapy goals and strategies with the classroom program. The effectiveness of the LSC role depends on how well the following issues are managed: a) recruitment and selection processes; b) training - content and delivery; c) adequacy of support, networking and mentoring; d) the integration and/or relationships of the LSC with others providing support for classroom; and, e) the sheer availability of personnel with the qualifications and skills in learning support, mentoring and system change. The role may prove to be an effective one, but at this stage, full-scale implementation is not proposed. In conclusion, this chapter has reviewed partnership and personnel issues that impact on the learning outcomes of students with a disability. It is critical that schools give high priority to partnerships with parents and carers. Major policy directions were proposed with respect to Learning Support Assistants, the roles of consultants, relationships with therapy and mental health services, and whether a school-based Learning Support Coordinator is likely to be effective, particularly in consolidating services for any students who struggle with learning. The next chapter examines planning and accountability issues.
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Chapter 9: Planning for Change This chapter explores leading practice about the impact on students with a disability of: • • • • •
Vision Leadership Planning Accountability Learning communities that support change in teaching practices.
Vision The Australian education and special education policy environments are complex and fluid. Paradigms compete, policy initiatives align poorly, and old regulations and guidelines complicate progress. School leaders need to be clear about the features of a desirable school environment for each of their students because the realisation of that vision depends on the many decisions they make each day. Addressing his comments to decision-makers, Gallagher (2006, p. 289) writes, “Their first need is to think about what they want the future special education enterprise to become and then to work toward it”. This course may have to be adjusted on a daily basis and the outcome may be uncertain because “changing schooling is like trying to design a 747 in mid air. You don’t know what it’s going to turn into and you can’t let it fall down while you’re trying to find out” (Thomson, 1992, p. 25 quoted in Smyth & McInerney (2007, p.182). “There is little point in focusing on improvements to curriculum and pedagogy unless it is matched by a major strategic repositioning in the way special education services are understood and managed.” (School Board)
Without a carefully conceived and clearly expressed vision, ongoing debates and tensions will undermine efforts to achieve quality outcomes for students with a disability, and at the classroom level, teachers will be faced with the frustrating task of synthesising competing perspectives as they teach. The Knoster model overviewed in Chapter 7 provides an example of the type of planning that is necessary and Havelock and Hamilton (2004) detail ways of bringing about change at school level.
Leadership Hattie’s (2009) distinction between transformational and instructional leadership helps to cut through the somewhat confusing body of literature on educational leadership. Hattie makes clear that transformational leadership (somewhat inspirational) is less effective than
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instructional leadership (somewhat perspirational!!) in affecting measurable improvements in students’ learning outcomes. Research on the role of leadership in school reform and student improvement has identified what needs to happen at the state, territory, jurisdiction level to improve student learning outcomes. Key elements include: • • •
• • • •
A vision that focuses directly on student outcomes and that is understood throughout the system; Recognition that the principal is the instructional leader in schools; The need to support principals so that they are more informed about evidence-based pedagogy and more competent in goal-setting, monitoring outcomes and building capacity within their team; Engagement with community partners including agencies, associations, groups and individuals who can help support student learning; The use of data to inform teaching and learning; The use of data to measure student and school performance and to benchmark that performance; and Support (through professional learning and other resources) for teachers to implement evidence-based practices in a collaborative, ‘whole school’ ethos that encourages them to evaluate and improve their teaching through professional learning that is embedded in classroom practice. (Synthesised from Chrispeels & Gonzalez, 2006; Chrispeels & Harris, 2006; Hattie, 2009; Maguire, 2003; Society for the Advancement of Excellence in Education, 2004)
At school level, principals influence student learning outcomes through the policies, structures, and practices that they can put in place, and where, and how, they deploy resources. Schools that are performing well usually have competent principals. “Good schools pay attention – because of leadership, teacher selection and staff development, consistency between students and teachers (and parents), support services, the internal organisation of schools – to a large number of practices. Dismal schools seem to be able to pay attention to few such practices” Grubb (2009, p.74). “I found the principal’s ignorance on inclusion and disability to be astonishing. She told my husband and I at a meeting that there were two types of children with Down syndrome, those who could learn and those who couldn’t and went on to ask which sort our daughter was.” (Parent)
Grubb’s (2009, p. 90) quantitative research confirms how “appropriate leadership, vision, capacity building, internal accountability, teacher support and improvement” contribute to effective schools. Principals with a clear vision have some capacity to move resources around in a targeted way. Teigland (2009, p. 12), a superintendant of schools, writes Leadership must start at the top – the Superintendent and Board of Education must support the vision for inclusion. When done correctly, inclusion takes fiscal and human resources, comprehensive professional development, and strategic planning. These things cannot occur unless system leadership provides full and unwavering support.
Research by Ainscow et al. (2006, p. 25) shows that successful inclusive practice relies on “the restructuring of cultures, policies and practices in schools so that they respond to the Page 120
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diversity of needs in their locality”. Australian research on “Improving the Learning Outcomes of Students with Disabilities in the Early, Middle and Post Compulsory Years of Schooling” also confirms the key role of principals in fostering inclusive practice (Shaddock, Smyth King & Giorcelli, 2007; Shaddock, Hook et al, 2007; Shaddock, Hook, Hoffman-Raap et al., 2007; Shaddock, Nielsen et al. 2007). This analysis implies that all principals need to a) be aware of their legal obligations under the DDA (1992); b) know what to focus on to make their school more effective; and c) lead the implementation of evidence-based pedagogies to improve the learning outcomes of all students in their school. They also need, as Lashley (2007, p. 182) observes, “to develop the dispositions necessary to embrace the needs and enhance the performance of all children (italics added) as central to their leadership.” “The real change (that needs to occur) is in people’s heads.” (Educational leader)
Teacher unions have an important leadership role in improving the learning outcomes of students with a disability also. Chrispeels and Harris (2006) list ways in which teacher unions have improved the work conditions of teachers and made it possible for them to teach better, for example, by securing time for teachers to collaborate. Locally, education unions have advocated for appropriate resourcing to support the needs of students with disability (staffing, funding, facilities, professional development) and for students with a disability to have equitable access to education. It would be desirable for ACT Teacher unions to continue to demonstrate leading practice by pursuing policies that, while focusing on teachers, explicitly address the interests of students with a disability. Future enterprise agreements in ACT Public schools, for example, should ensure that ‘Teacher Transfer’ clauses (aka Mobility) benefit all students including those with a disability. Students with a disability should continue to benefit from the training, experience and expertise of personnel with specialist knowledge about particular disabilities and pedagogies. “We already have anecdotal evidence that the mobility clause has degraded teacher morale and has probably made transferring to the ACT less attractive for trained teachers of the deaf, and in the longer term, it will likely discourage younger teachers from choosing a specialised vocation … Exempt teachers of the deaf (and teachers of other disability groups, such as teachers of the blind) from the mobility clause”. (Submission) “You can’t pick up Braille in two weeks.” (Consultant) “You can’t leave deaf education for ten years and come back.” (Consultant)
Many ACT schools are well connected with their community, and they strategically build ‘social capital’. Caldwell (2004, p. 2) summarised research in several countries that demonstrates the ways in which successful schools pursue formal and informal partnerships with “individuals, agencies, organisations and institutions that have the potential to support and be supported by the school.” These strategies start with school leaders articulating a strategy for engaging parents and the community actively and extensively.
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Planning Across ACT educational sectors there is a level of school independence that is generally regarded as a strength and a level of competition that many believe to be a weakness. Furthermore there is evidence of within-sector competition among schools. ACT schools have a relatively high degree of autonomy in delivering education services. While school-based management (ACTDET), subsidiarity (Catholic education) and autonomy (Independent schools) are generally considered strengths of ACT education, they can have unfortunate consequences for students with a disability. For example, the level of discretion afforded to schools in curriculum development results in considerable variation in school curricula and the Discussion Paper noted that particular pedagogies and supports for primary school students with a disability are not always available in their local high school. “Something I did not bring up on the day was my concern regarding secondary school. The (High school) does not follow the Primary’s philosophy of inclusion as they segregate the student with learning difficulties/disabilities. Is it up to parents to lobby the Department or the school itself? Is it up to the Principal as to how the school is set up in regard to segregating students? I don’t have a solution other than insisting on inclusive practice.” (Parent)
The literature suggests that a perspective that promotes a ‘collaborative network’ or ‘community of schools’ orientation facilitates service planning and delivery. Indeed, in a situation of growing demand for high cost services and strong legislative obligations, increased ACT-wide, collaborative planning seems sensible. Planning involves listening to stakeholders’ voices, and, in the education of students with a disability, many voices need to be heard. Two groups who perhaps could be more prominent in current consultative processes are parents and students. With respect to the latter, Shah (2007, p. 440) describes how young people with a disability can “take an active part in the education process”. During this Review, young people frequently reminded us that the quality of their education directly impacts on their futures. This issue suggests that priority be given to the adequacy of consultative mechanisms implemented by ACT education systems and schools and the need for tangible support for students with a disability, parents and carers to participate. This Report has stressed the importance of ‘universal design’, i.e. planning and delivery with the needs of all service users in mind. ‘Universal design’ applies to all developments from curriculum to construction. Education sectors and schools should consider the needs of students with a disability in all phases of planning. “Special Education Services is a small process and small crowd – a variation and distraction in the delivery of mainstream education services.” (School Board) “The acoustic environment in many ACT schools, especially those that feature open planning, is problematic for hearing impaired people.” (Disability organisation)
This report has noted opportunities for collaboration so as to achieve greater effectiveness and efficiency, for example, with respect to sharing of good practice in curriculum differentiation. Good examples of collaboration, including cross-sector collaboration, exist
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in the ACT and in the literature, for example, Ainscow et al. (2006, p. 74-76) describe collaboration between a Catholic and a state school in order to raise educational standards and reduce racial tension. Locally, excellent, cross-sector collaboration to establish support networking among teachers with a particular interest in students with autism has been fostered by the DEEWR-funded Positive Partnerships autism initiative. “If schools are serious about young people with disabilities getting the best education and life they can and being prepared for life after school, I think there needs to be positive partnerships between all the people and agencies that might assist. There is no time or room for turf protecting, professional jealousy or defensiveness. This is not about the school, the teachers, or me – this is about each individual life at that school and how we, as professionals, teachers, community members and businesses, can prepare that person for the best life they can have.” (Parent)
There are many more opportunities for Public, Catholic and Independent schools to collaborate, for example, in professional learning, securing and delivering multidisciplinary services, curriculum development and sharing of practices that improve the learning of students with a disability.
Planning in the Public sector Special Education within Public schools is described by program types and by operational and funding guidelines, but the area is not formally defined. While the ACTDET vision for services for students with a disability can be inferred from the range of policies, service planning and delivery could be more proactive if the vision and business plan were more clearly articulated. “Long term planning must provide for the ‘growth’ of teachers of the deaf in the ACT to replace the current IHST when they retire.” (Disability organisation)
A particular issue for ACTDET is to integrate centrally the array of professional learning and consultative services that it provides so that it is not left to teachers to synthesise good initiatives at classroom level, for example, around Quality Teaching, Literacy and Numeracy, and Inclusion Support. The Discussion Paper (p.22) noted that while Public schools have considerable autonomy over curriculum, pedagogy and school policy “these features are somewhat at odds with national developments (e.g. towards a national curriculum) and they complicate Special Education planning, the delivery of specialised services and programs in the required locations, and accountability for outcomes.” Connors (2006, p.9) notes that “there is also the problem with overly devolved systems that there can be a loss of capacity and flexibility for systemic action; a risk of fragmentation and unnecessary duplication of effort; or of gaps in provision.” The recommendations of the Review of School-Based Management are not known at this stage and they may be pertinent to the following conclusion. However, the Review of Special Education concludes that the current level of devolution has a negative impact on system-wide planning for students with a disability and that a more appropriate balance between central administration and school autonomy would be desirable.
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“Kids with ASD have received support in primary school and high school (whether totally adequate is another story). However, if they go to college the support framework is withdrawn. There is at best STA support available, but not a qualified teacher with the skills and experience and with the specific role of managing the kids through college.” (Parent)
Leading practice suggests the need for increased inter-school collaboration to support diversity. For example, MacBeath et al. (2006) argue that the planning and sharing of resources at the cluster or network level may make it easier for districts to provide appropriate services for all students. There is greater scope for regionalisation within ACTDET services for students with a disability. Each region could systematically plan and develop regional capacity to provide the type and range of services required by legislation. Increased emphasis on regional ‘self-sufficiency’ of services for students with a disability would foster more extensive and systematic collaboration, improve transitions by providing more continuity in pedagogy and curriculum, and allow students to attend a school in their neighbourhood, thereby reducing the costly, educationally deleterious, socially isolating, extensive travel for many. “Review the current special needs transport scheme, including a review of the facilities on school buses, the length of time students are on the bus both morning and afternoon, and professional development for drivers and carers including an understanding of the basic characteristics of students with a disability. Parents often have other children to consider arrangements for. Review why transport is currently not available to children with disabilities who access mainstream schools. Transport is not a privilege, but a necessity for all student’s education.” (Advocacy group)
More thorough and systematic regionalisation in ACTDET would also stimulate innovative developments in services currently provided by special schools. “There needs to be better college level units as a half way between special school and mainstream college.” (School board)
Existing special schools are not spread evenly across the ACT and depending on which options with respect to special schools are pursued in any regionalised model, different ways of providing similar services could be developed and evaluated in different regions. These should incorporate the ‘best practice’ features outlined in this report and not duplicate existing facilities.
Planning in the Catholic sector The vision for services for students with a disability in Catholic schools is well understood at ‘office level’. Current policies illustrate a transition from a special education model to a ‘learning support’ model; reforming structures and adopting pedagogies so that all students benefit; and improving the skills of principals and teachers to implement these initiatives. Catholic schools, by and large, have good relationships with parents and carers but the sector has aspirations to take this to the next level – to move from asking “How do we involve parents?” to “How do we partner parents to support their child’s learning?” A major challenge for the Catholic sector is finding the capacity to articulate, develop, write, transmit and share these policies and implement them in the schools.
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Another key issue for the Catholic sector is leadership development and professional learning for educational leaders about the implications of the learning support model. Similarly, professional learning for teachers, and particularly those in support roles, is a major need. A particular issue for the Catholic sector is the extent to which it will offer comprehensive services in the future. Some Catholic students currently attend government schools because their parents believe that their local Catholic school cannot provide the type or intensity of resources and needed services. “Some parents would prefer their children to attend non-government schools but find that their HI (hearing impaired) children would not be supported by the IHST (Itinerant hearing support teacher) in those schools. This forces parents to make a very difficult choice between itinerant hearing support and a preferred educational setting. These parents believe that children with special needs should have access to the same public funding and services regardless of the school.” (Disability organisation) “We would love to be able to send our child to a Catholic school but his needs are too great for a Catholic school.” (Parent)
It may be appropriate to investigate the feasibility of an option reported by a ‘critical reader’ who wrote that in one state, the government “funds students with severe intellectual disabilities who are eligible for special schools to attend Catholic and Independent schools by giving them the same level of funding they would give them if they attended a special school”. (‘Critical reader’)
In addition, the sector has limited access to assistive technology and multidisciplinary services to support students with a disability, and clearly, there are considerable resource implications. Many in the Catholic sector believe that increased cross sector collaboration may assist in addressing at least some of these issues.
Planning in independent schools Independent schools in the ACT, although associated, are truly independent and so policy and planning are primarily issues for each school. The findings of Jenkins (2002) with Western Australian Independent schools are relevant to some Independent schools in the ACT. Jenkins’ research suggests that services for students with a disability in Independent schools would be improved by the development of school-wide policy and effective leadership; informed, equitable enrolment policies and practices; workforce capacitybuilding; improvements to educational programs and implementation; increased teamwork at school level; and more extensive networking and collaboration, particularly by, and among, the smaller schools. Stakeholders from the Independent schools also expressed an interest in increased collaboration among the sectors.
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Accountability Many participants in this review called for more effective accountability for the learning outcomes of students with a disability, emphasising legislative and policy compliance, equity issues, and the cost benefit of specialised services. It would be hard to argue with the need for service audits. The Public and Catholic sectors, and a number of Independent schools, already engage in periodic internal reviews of their policies and services for students with a disability.
In one school a commissioned review suggested a reconsideration of the in-class support vs. withdrawal balance of support. The school then adjusted its model of support to pleasing effect for staff and students.
It would be appropriate for these reviews to focus on benchmarking processes and outcomes against recognised leading practice. For example they could assess and report on a) methods for managing and deploying resources to support all students; and b) the manner in which the system/school implements leading practice such as early intervention, student performance monitoring, and partnerships with parents.
One ACT primary school shared its strategy for tracking the learning of all students but with particular attention to students from Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander culture. Student assessments, including selfassessments, teacher observations and reflection fed into a cycle of continuous improvement. Their structure for the program evaluation is Plan-Act-Observe-Reflect-Recommend-Celebrate-Plan etc.
There was strong support from some individuals and groups for external auditing, for example, of compliance with the Disability Discrimination Acts, the Education Act 2004 and the Human Rights Act 2004. There is precedent for these types of reviews, for example, the NSW Auditor General’s Report (2006), and, as they have the potential to improve services, increase transparency and build public confidence, they are most appropriate. Accountability for compliance with the relevant legislation should not depend solely on individual complainants. “I would suggest that accountability as noted in ‘continuing the conversation’ for this section of the Discussion Paper is more than desirable, but is in fact an obligation under the Disability Standards for Education and the Disability Services Act 1991.” (Educator) “There should be a complete independent audit of Disability ACT and other bodies such as Community Health and the Department of Education, and how they measure against the Human rights Act. This should occur regularly, for example, every three years.” (Advocacy group)
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The rising costs of services for students with a disability make a powerful case for increased accountability for student outcomes. For example, such data should drive decisions about the appropriateness of particular services and models of delivery such as special schools and programs (Simmons & Bayliss, 2007). “No systematic monitoring currently happens. Children come in and go out of our programs, but there is no tracking of these children as they progress through the education system.” (Educator)
Referring to education more generally Hattie (2005, p 12) writes, “If we, as educationalists in classrooms and schools do not provide evidence that increased resources make a difference to student learning outcomes, then we will soon be on the back foot, arguing why there should not be decreases in resources.” This agreed, there are some vexed questions about how to measure the educational performance of students with a disability. The first challenge is to establish the principles that should underpin accountability for the learning outcomes of students with a disability, for example, along the lines of those articulated by the National Center on Educational Outcomes (Thurlow et al. 2008). A second consideration is the need for the “intelligent accountability” suggested by Crooks (2003). Generally, teachers are not opposed to accountability as long as the mechanism “is student-centred, includes teachers’ own assessments and provides teachers with feedback that helps them to improve their practice.” (The Alberta Teachers’ Association, 2009, p. 6). Crooks (2003, pp 2-5) argues for accountability processes that • • • • • •
Preserve and enhance trust among the key participants in the accountability process; Involve participants in the process, offering them a strong sense of professional responsibility and initiative; Encourage deep, worthwhile responses rather than surface window dressing; Recognise the severe limitations of our ability to capture educational quality in performance indicators; Provide well-founded and effective feedback that promotes insight into performance and supports good decision-making; and Ensure that as a consequence of the accountability process, the majority of the participants are more enthusiastic and motivated in their work. “So that limited resources are not chewed up in complex processes of measurement and reporting, it would be helpful if the accountability mechanisms were as simple as possible, preferably in a standard format developed centrally with teacher input” (Parent)
A third issue relates to those students with a disability who do not participate in NAPLAN. Difficult questions about what to measure, how to measure, the accuracy of measurement, and the meaning/significance of the results obtained by measurement must be answered (Kauffman & Hallahan, 2005 p.12 & 13). Disability is not a unitary variable and hence it is difficult to develop a meaningful, common metric. It is not surprising that there is a lack of comprehensive information about the outcomes of students with a disability in Australian schools and that there is no national benchmarking of their performance against national standards (Wu & Komesaroff, 2007).
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Because accountability for the outcomes of students with a disability is so important, ACT educators should take the lead in finding ways to do it - despite the difficulties. For example, could NAPLAN data be separately analysed and reported for students for whom test adjustments are provided and/or who derive support from the Student Centred Appraisal of Need? For students who do not participate in NAPLAN, some of the following approaches may be worth exploring, as, collectively, they may provide useful data on educational outcomes and/or the factors that are likely to affect educational outcomes: 1. Data on results such as program and level of schooling achieved; timeliness of additional support; participation and suspension rates; graduation rates; students’ postsecondary outcomes; students’ time in segregated/integrated settings; parent/carer satisfaction; students’ satisfaction; parents’/carers’ and students’ participation in individual planning; and 2. Outcomes of Individual Learning Plans and Individualised Education Plans. (Synthesised from Alberta Education, 2009; Auditor General, 2006; Alberta Teachers’ Association, 2009; Department of Education & Training, Victoria, 2001). Until more is known about the new National Curriculum and the extent to which it is universally designed and useful for all students, it is appropriate in the ACT to continue to give prominence to the individual plan. Although each plan sets individual objectives, there are valid and reliable ways of measuring student progress against individualised learning goals, for example, through Curriculum-Based Assessment (Allinder, Fuchs et al. 2004) and the Target Monitoring and Evaluation System (TME) of Dunsmuir et al. (2009). With respect to TME, the data that it generates about each goal - Decline in Performance, No Progress, Some Progress, Expected Progress, or, Better than Expected Progress - can easily be aggregated and reported. If nothing else, the adoption of a common metric for measuring goal attainment in individual plans will make such plans more realistic and achievable. “Accountability – very important point. What needs to be established is a philosophy and understanding that all students can learn and have the right to achieve their individual potential. The ILP, LA and ESL reports are an integral part of the report structure. Are all ILP goals achieved?” (Executive teacher)
The critical conclusion is that no student should be left out of accountability policies. A combination of external and internal mechanisms is desirable. Accountability mechanisms should be efficient and teacher friendly. As the task of measuring and reporting on the educational outcomes of students with a disability has so far proved too difficult, the government, non-government and tertiary education sectors in the ACT should consider working collaboratively to develop, trial and evaluate defensible approaches that are applicable in the ACT.
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Learning communities that support change in teaching practices The Public and Catholic sectors and some Independent schools have invested heavily in teacher professional learning and the leading practice literature supports this priority. “Creating schools for the 21st century and for 21st century learners is no simple task; it demands an intellectual investment in schooling and a courageous investment in our teaching profession (Whitby, 2009, p.9). Leading practice in professional learning is characterised by: •
Replacement of a ‘topics du jour’ approach with one that focuses on current teaching challenges and needs of classroom teachers; • Structuring professional learning so that teachers are actively involved and take responsibility for mastering targeted knowledge and practices; • Linking professional learning with classroom applications and trialing of evidencebased practices, for example, through collaborative inquiry and action evaluation and research with external support where necessary; • Establishment of, and support for, ongoing ‘knowledge networks’ involving face-toface and web-based interactions to promote and sustain teacher reflection and discussion about teaching and learning; • Joint participation in professional learning of teachers and the learning support assistants who work with them; and • ‘Just in time’ learning provided by consultants about particular classroom challenges, for example, to support the enrolment of a student with a vision impairment. (Synthesised from Dunst et al. 2009; Havelock & Ellis, 2004; Jackson, 2006; Maguire, 2003; National College for School Leadership, 2003; Shaddock, Hoffman-Raap et al. 2007; & Teddlie & Stringfield, 2006). Contemporary professional learning is increasingly making use of technology to provide information and networking opportunities. “Consider the use of Web 2.0 technology to bring larger groups together, including better use of email or blogs or wikis in schools to coordinate the ILP.” (Professional association)
In a very detailed ‘best evidence synthesis’ on the impact of teachers’ professional learning on student outcomes, Timperley et al. (2007, p. xxvi) identified the following seven important elements: • • • • • • •
Sufficient time for extended opportunities to learn and using that time effectively; Engagement of external expertise; Focus on engaging teachers in the learning process rather than being concerned whether they volunteered or not; Challenging teachers’ problematic discourses; Opportunities to interact in a community of professionals; Professional learning content being consistent with wider trends; School leaders’ active leadership of professional learning opportunities at school level.
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What is needed is an integrated approach to professional learning that emphasises ‘research to practice’, action learning, collaborative inquiry and capacity-building at classroom and school level to achieve immediate and ongoing improvements in teaching and learning. In addition, some of the very practical barriers to professional learning need to be addressed, for example, “It’s not professional learning days that’s the issue, it’s getting relief (staff).” (Principal)
Principles Implicit in the preceding chapters are the principles on which advice on future options should be based. ACT services for students with a disability should: • • • •
• •
•
• • • • •
•
Comply with general, and disability-specific, legislation; Comply with, and be supportive of, ACT Government policies; Be conceived as part of mainstream educational administration that considers the needs of all students in planning and delivery (universal design); Be evidence–based in regard to both policy and practice, for example, implement practices that are known to improve the educational outcomes of all students – those with, and without, a disability; Improve the educational outcomes for students with a disability in the context of improving the learning outcomes of all students; Adopt different and complementary funding and resource allocation mechanisms that achieve system goals, build school and teacher capacity, are cost effective, and that provide flexibility for schools; Implement accountability procedures for the learning outcomes and adequacy of services for students with a disability in ways that are time efficient and that support teaching and learning; Give priority to ways of capitalising on the contribution that students can make to their own learning; Build the capacity of classroom teachers and school leadership.; Support teachers to trial, evaluate, reflect, share and network about pedagogy in ways that promote continual learning; Demonstrate high levels of collaboration between parents and teachers in support of student learning; Adopt policies that avoid perverse incentives, the marginalisation of students with a disability, over-identification of disability, and unnecessary exclusion of students with a disability from mainstream learning experiences, social relationships and opportunities; and Be characterised by cross-sector partnerships that make more efficient use of resources and expertise.
In the next three chapters specific options for consideration by Public (Chapter 10), Catholic (Chapter 11) and Independent (Chapter 12) schools are proposed.
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Chapter 10: Options for ACT Public Schools31 This chapter proposes options for ACT Public School Sector related to: • • • • • • • • • •
Vision and scope Support for teachers and capacity-building at classroom level Policy about special schools, units and centres Multidisciplinary services Resources and resource allocation Individual Learning Plans Learning Support Assistants Collaboration with parents and carers Partnerships with the tertiary sector Planning and accountability.
The task of the review was to review leading practice and propose options for the future with a focus on improving the learning outcomes of students with a disability. The extensive range of services for students with a disability in ACT Public schools and their overall quality are first acknowledged. Although deficiencies in some aspects of services were observed, it is heartening that many of the criticisms came from within the sector - from teachers and educational leaders who want to improve services. The options proposed in this chapter are not intended to be a checklist of recommendations to be implemented in a linear way. The options are framed to provide a basis for sector planning. Furthermore, while some options could be implemented immediately or in the short term (and we believe some should be), others may require further development, modelling and trialing before full-scale adoption. Some options will require high level, interdepartmental and/or interagency collaboration. For example, the significant challenges around the provision of therapy and mental health services are unlikely to be resolved by ACTDET alone. Some options will be challenging because they involve reducing reliance on previous supports – a situation similar to that experienced by the child with a disability who eventually takes the risk of walking unassisted. There will be some falls. It is essential therefore that planning involves serious consideration of risks, incentives and interim
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Although Public schools in the ACT experience distinct issues, there is some overlap with issues raised in Chapter 11 (Catholic schools) and Chapter 12 (Independent schools).
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arrangements so that all stakeholders – educators, parents and carers, students and the community – are confident and comfortable enough to support any new directions.
Clarify the vision, goals and scope of ‘special education’ in ACT Public schools Special education in ACTDET is currently defined operationally by programs, and procedurally by funding guidelines, but the area is not formally defined and it does not have a business plan 32. This situation complicates both planning and delivery and acts as an impediment to proactive leadership and the implementation of leading practice. Achieving coherence among the many services and options provided by the Department presents as a major priority. It is proposed that ACTDET, in collaboration with key stakeholders considers: 1. Clarifying the vision, goals and scope of services for students with a disability within ACTDET; 2. Adopting disability-related nomenclature, for example, ‘Students with Disability’ or ‘Disability Services’ and discontinues using ‘special’, for example, special needs, special education, special schools; and 3. How the definition of disability contained in the ACT Disability Discrimination Act (1991) might guide eligibility for additional funding support for students with a disability in ACT Public schools.
Implement policies that support the pivotal role of classroom teachers While systems, schools, parents and students contribute to student learning in essential ways, what classroom teachers actually do – how and what they teach – has a singular effect on student learning. Consequently, it would be appropriate to give absolute priority to improving the knowledge, skills, attitudes and commitment of classroom teachers in all settings. Teachers in contemporary classrooms need the skills to provide the adjustments required by students with a disability while simultaneously using teaching strategies that are effective for all students so that fewer adjustments are required. The following options all focus on capacity-building at classroom level. It is proposed that ACTDET considers the following: 1. Integrating and extending the capacity of support services for students with a disability in all settings. This proposal involves increasing the numbers and level/seniority of consultants in the Inclusive Support and Inclusive Technologies Teams and selecting them on merit/skills, in order to permit greater coverage and influence. Consideration should be given to conceptualising and organising services provided by other Departmental consultants, for example, in vision and hearing, as ‘Inclusion Support’, so as to reduce fragmentation and to increase coherence in policy and procedures.
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One of the purposes of this review is to inform such planning.
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2. Extending the already significant professional learning opportunities provided to classroom teachers. This option involves focusing professional learning on teachers’ current issues and concerns; linking professional learning to teachers’ use of evidencebased practices that are effective with students with a disability; challenging beliefs that are inimical to inclusive practice; providing teachers with time, support, mentoring and opportunity to observe in other schools and settings; and teachers evaluating the effectiveness of their approaches for all students including those with a disability. 3. Collaborating with colleagues in Catholic and Independent schools to improve the applicability and relevance of web-based sharing of effective teaching practices for students with a disability. These activities may include sharing user-friendly examples of linking with Every Chance to Learn; accessing teacher (and parent)-friendly curriculum supports and guides; sharing examples of differentiated curriculum for students with complex needs; networking and mentoring; and/or accessing videoed lessons in You-Tube style in which local leading practice is shared. 4. Conducting trials of the ‘Learning Support Coordinator’ (LSC) model as described – one that has the prime function to improve pedagogy across the school with a particular focus on any student who finds learning difficult, and particularly those whose performance is in the bottom quartile. This position is not a relabeling of the special education teacher. This is an experienced and qualified educator with developed skills in change management, and occupying a school leader position. The prime function is to assist classroom-based personnel to implement evidence-based pedagogy for all students. The establishment of this position would involve significant professional development for LSCs. It may also involve amalgamation of existing positions and/or cross-school collaborations. In operational and organisational terms, the approach may adopt relevant features of the existing ‘Pastoral Care Coordinator’ model in high schools. 5. Reinforcing the key role of the principal as the schools’ educational leader and supporting principals through targeted professional learning and appraisal processes pertinent to the learning outcomes of students with a disability. Such a model of support for principals is already being used successfully in the Hume Region’s Common Curriculum model (in Victoria) where all principals access advanced learning about the curriculum, ethical decision-making, equity leadership, technology for the classroom, inter alia. 6. Providing funding and technical support for schools and teachers to implement evidence-based strategies, or to buy in the necessary expertise to support them, for example, on how to engage in extensive collaboration with parents and carers to support learning; how to use the ‘Response to Intervention’ approach previously outlined; and/or how to implement the practices detailed by Mitchell 33 (2008). 7. Clarifying and re-focusing the roles played by LSAs in the classroom and encouraging schools to use the highly regarded work of Giangreco at the University of Vermont to identify any inadvertent dependency-based models that have evolved around the use of classroom assistants. Similar work is already being done in several districts and dioceses in Victoria.
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Mitchell, D. (2008). What really works in special and inclusive education: using evidence-based strategies. London: Routledge.
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Clarify policy about special schools, units and centres Many examples were provided of the ways in which the human and physical resources of special schools could be better utilised. While the contribution of the special schools is acknowledged, leading practice would suggest even more engagement with, and engagement by, mainstream education. It is proposed that ACTDET considers the following: 1. Working with stakeholders in special schools to reconceptualise special schools and to support them to re-engineer their vision, policies and practices to increase the synergy between specialist and mainstream schools in terms of expertise, personnel, pedagogies and learning opportunities for students and staff. 2. Developing and evaluating options that are consistent with the leading practice summarised in this report. Examples include co-location arrangements that further develop the models operating at Turner Primary and the Harrison Schools and their extension to all level of education with wraparound, co-located services from other relevant departments and agencies. Many units and centres are appreciated by parents and teachers. As long as they continue to demonstrate success in meeting the educational needs of students with a disability they should remain as options in the continuum of services. It is proposed that ACTDET considers: 3. Taking a more proactive, evidence-based stance with respect to the establishment and maintenance of units and centres, and carefully monitoring the learning outcomes of students in all units and centres; and 4. Providing principals of special schools, and schools that have units and centres, with professional learning about contemporary best practice for students with a disability and the ways in which principals can maximize the benefits and minimise any unintended deleterious effects that are often associated with such settings.
Reorganise multidisciplinary supports for student learning Although ACTDET does not currently employ therapists, a case can be made that ACTDET, as the education provider responsible for ‘reasonable adjustments’ to support the education of students with a disability, has considerable responsibility for therapy provision. The situation with respect to therapy provision requires decisive and immediate action and should serve as a good test of the ‘cross department’ and ‘whole of government’ policies that already exist. With respect to the provision of therapy in ACT Public schools, it is proposed that ACTDET considers the following: 1. Negotiating with the Department of Disability Housing and Community Services and Therapy ACT a service level agreement that guarantees a specified supply of therapy services for students with a disability in ACT schools, with ACTDET as the client. 2. Negotiating with the Department of Disability Housing and Community Services and Therapy ACT to establish an acceptable service delivery model for therapy services in schools, for example, one that has features of a transdisciplinary model, that has a
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curriculum focus, is designed to build capacity in schools, makes use of trained and supervised paraprofessionals in the delivery of therapy, and systematically involves community agencies that assist with curriculum goals, for example, fundamental movement skiing, horse riding and similar. 3. Collaborating with the Department of Disability Housing and Community Services and Therapy ACT to more accurately identify the extent and nature of therapy needs in ACT schools. 4. Exploring with the Department of Disability Housing and Community Services, Therapy ACT and the Department of Health the establishment of multidisciplinary hubs (e.g. North, South and Central) from which school-based therapy and mental health services could be organised and coordinated. 5. Negotiating with Therapy ACT to make more generally available therapy services that schools and teachers have found valuable, for example, provision of professional learning, therapy guides for teachers and similar. If agreements cannot be reached promptly about therapy provision in Public schools, it is proposed that ACTDET considers 6. Employing therapists to provide/supervise services for students with a disability in its schools in the ways already indicated. The situation with respect to meeting the needs of students with serious mental health issues also revolves around the availability, supply, and style of services provided by a separate department. With respect to the provision of mental health services for students in ACT Public schools, it is proposed that ACTDET considers: 7. Negotiating with the Department of Health a service level agreement that guarantees a specified supply of mental health services for students with a disability in ACT schools with ACTDET as the client; 8. Negotiating with the Department of Health a mutually acceptable service delivery model for mental health services for students in ACT Public schools, for example, one that takes into account the need for rapid response in some circumstances, an appropriate array of service options, and provides consultative support for school-based personnel, particularly school counsellors, for example, at referral and/or school reentry points; 9. Collaborating with the Department of Health to more accurately identify the extent and nature of the needs of ACT schools for assistance with mental health issues; and 10. Exploring with the Department of Health its involvement in the regional multidisciplinary hubs referred to above (e.g. North, South and Central) from which school-based mental health and therapy services could be organised and coordinated. Many students with a disability have complex needs and/or require coordinated support from multiple departments and/or agencies, i.e. they need ‘wraparound’ care and the support of well-integrated services. It is proposed that ACTDET considers: 11. Applying the existing policy ‘Framework for Service Collaboration for the Care, Protection and Well-Being of Children and Young People in the ACT’ and the ‘MultiAgency Response for Clients with Complex Needs’ to students with a disability who
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require multi agency services and monitoring and reporting on the effectiveness of such policies for improving service delivery. ACT parents often experience a great deal of stress in trying to get a diagnosis for their child’s developmental difficulties, often going from one specialist to another in search of answers. It is proposed that ACTDET, in collaboration with relevant Departments and the Non-Government sector, investigates: 12. Establishing a collaborative ‘diagnostic and assessment centre’ for the ACT, along the lines of similar, multidisciplinary centres that have been successful in other places, for example, the New England Educational Diagnostic Centre in Armidale NSW.
Reconfigure resource allocation There are two main funding challenges. The first is to secure the necessary resources and the second is to use them effectively. Attention has focused almost exclusively on the first and it remains a real problem. Not one participant claimed that resources were adequate in either sector. Providing the necessary support and adjustments for students with a disability is costly. However, attention needs to focus on the other major resource issue as well – how to use the available resources to shape education environments in which fewer adjustments are necessary. Recent Australian research confirms this view and thus queries overreliance on mechanisms such as the Student Centred Appraisal of Need as the sole or major funding model for students with a disability. It is proposed that ACTDET considers: 1. Making clear that resources provided to mainstream schools and derived from mechanisms such as the Student Centred Appraisal of Need are to complement the system/school funding that is made available for all students and that students with a disability should be beneficiaries as well 34; 2. Setting the quantum available through the Student Centred Appraisal of Need with reference to the number of students requiring educational adjustments, and making public the educational rationale for decisions with respect to the Student Centred Appraisal of Need; 3. Establishing a resource library and register in each region to facilitate the maintenance of, and access to, equipment and technological infrastructure; and 4. Extending the current ‘Technology & Support Equipment Fund’ so that necessary technological supports can be more easily purchased for students with a disability and supplied promptly. 5. Trialing approaches to funding that recognise the achievement of educational outcomes. That is, complement input, throughput and output funding schemes with those that recognise the achievement of outcomes;
34
It also should apply, where guidelines permit, that students who do not have a disability may receive ‘incidental benefit’ from disability-related resources.
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Unify processes to support student learning – the Student Centred Appraisal of Need and the Individual Learning Plan (ILP) The options that follow are designed to focus these labour and resource intensive activities more effectively and efficiently on curriculum and learning. In general, it is proposed that there be more emphasis on outcome achievement and less on income generation, and more attention given to the relevance of the plan and less to its individualisation. It is proposed that ACTDET considers the following: 1. Refining and integrating the processes of the Student-Centred Appraisal of Need and of Individual Planning to put the focus on the student’s curriculum needs and the funding necessary to support them. This would involve conducting the Student-Centred Appraisal of Need after initial consideration of the student’s Learning Plan. The facilitation and moderation around this process would require expertise in child development and education. 2. Refining the ILP requirements for some students, for example, those who meet specified criteria such as ‘in receipt of multidisciplinary services’ and/or ‘experiencing a major transition within the next two years’, so that their ILP has additional features, for example, longterm goals. 3. Requiring that the ILPs of students in special schools, units or centres have specific goals and strategies related to community inclusion. 4. Simplifying processes for some students, for example, those who meet specified criteria such as ‘not in receipt of services from outside the school’, or ‘needing adjustments no different to classmates’, i.e., that would only require documentation in the teacher’s program or the development of a group plan. 5. Requiring that all ILPs specify goals that focus on transition, i.e. on the knowledge and skills needed by the student to succeed in their next setting, for example, from primary to secondary school. 6. Instituting audits of ILP quality, implementation and achievement of outcomes. 7. Providing training and/or support, for example, translators for parents and carers and/or support for students to be active participants in the ILP process. 8. Aggregating ILP data as a way of documenting resource needs at school/system level in order to improve planning and budgeting, for example, for technology, therapy support and adapted equipment.
Clarify issues associated with Learning Support Assistants (LSAs) The report raised many issues associated with LSAs. It is proposed that ACTDET considers: 1. Adopting an alternative currency to LSA hours (such as cash) for disbursing supplementary resources for students with a disability; 2. Actively encouraging flexibility in the use of these funds and recommending preferred, evidence-based, forms of support;
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3. Developing system-wide policy with respect to appropriate roles and creative involvement of LSAs – when and where LSAs might be involved, for what purposes, for how long, with what students; 4. Exploring the development of a course or courses within the National Qualifications Framework that will equip LSAs for their roles; 5. Undertaking the necessary negotiations to permit LSAs’ access to training, for example, through on-the-job training; 6. Exploring the business case for providing a career structure for LSAs; 7. Negotiating with local tertiary institutions for significant numbers of undergraduate students from relevant courses, for example, Education, Psychology, Nursing, Physiotherapy, Sports Studies, Disability Studies and similar, to receive ‘course credit’ for undertaking LSA work for a semester or more; and 8. Ensuring that principals and executives are informed of the range of alternative options for supporting the learning of students with a disability.
Implement policies and practices that capitalise on the major contributions that parents and carers make to their child’s learning A strong case was made for schools and parents and carers to collaborate to promote students’ learning. It is proposed that ACTDET considers: 1. Giving priority in professional learning for principals, teachers and other personnel to the ways in which parents and carers can be maximally involved and engaged in their child’s learning, for example, developing skills in cultural awareness, communication, conflict resolution that promote successful collaboration with parents around student learning; 2. Providing learning opportunities for parents and carers to assist them to be maximally involved and engaged in their child’s learning, for example, knowledge of the curriculum and strategies for working collaboratively with teachers and other school staff to support their child’s learning; and 3. Providing opportunities for parent and carer participation in appropriately constituted advisory groups.
Extend partnerships with the tertiary education sector ACTDET already collaborates with local universities and the CIT in many ways. With particular reference to teacher preparation, it is proposed that ACTDET considers liaising with local universities to ensure that the curriculum for pre-service teachers: 1. Provides them with knowledge and skills of evidence-based strategies that are appropriate for all students, including those with a disability; 2. Provides them with knowledge and skills of evidence-based strategies for working effectively with parents and carers and learning support staff, such as LSAs, to improve student learning outcomes;
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3. Teaches them how to engage all students to the maximum in their own learning; 4. Prepares them for teaching in the digital age; 5. Teaches them how to engage in ongoing, action evaluation of classroom teaching; 6. Provides opportunities for interdisciplinary studies, for example, shared units of study for students in education, the therapies, sports studies and other courses that prepare students to work with people with a disability; and 7. Establishes ‘course credit’ arrangements to encourage undergraduate students in relevant disciplines to gain experience in working with students with a disability. It is also proposed that universities consider ways to: 8. Ensure that staff model the use of good pedagogy and ICT in their classes; and 9. Make available post-graduate courses and subjects that deal with specific ICT applications for students with complex disabilities; teaching students who have complex educational, medical and/or behavioural needs; and specialist studies related to particular diagnoses, for example, autism spectrum disorder. It would be appropriate to further develop current research collaborations with the tertiary sector. For example, the development of accountability measures for students with a disability is a research topic of national interest and one that would be a good candidate for funding under one of the national research schemes. It is proposed that ACTDET and local universities: 10. Collaborate on research and evaluation projects that are central to improving the educational outcomes of students with a disability in ACT schools.
Plan services for students with a disability Features of the current governance and policy context in public education in the ACT, for example, school-based management and the significant parental choice in schooling options, complicate the Department’s capacity to plan and so meet its legal responsibilities under the DDA 1992 and the Disability Standards for Education 2005. It is proposed that ACTDET considers: 1. Planning and delivering services for students with a disability on a regional basis (e.g. North, South, Central); 2. Establishing in each region a broadly equivalent set of supports for students with a disability that involves regionally-based coordination of ancillary services such as multidisciplinary support and coordination and the provision of more regionally accessible resources and equipment; 3. Supporting each region to collaborate around services and resources for students with a disability so that each regional network or community of schools is reasonably selfsufficient; 4. Planning new services in each region with reference to leading practice, for example, new services should demonstrate innovative, interagency collaboration and co-location arrangements with respect to specialist schools;
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5. Establishing an information management system for monitoring and predicting demand, planning services for students with a disability, and implementing personnel attraction and retention strategies, for example, for those who work with students with very specific learning needs in vision and hearing; 6. Implementing, and if necessary developing, internal accountability mechanisms for legal and policy compliance and for the educational outcomes of students with a disability; 7. Initiating regular external reviews, for example, three yearly reviews by the Auditor General, of compliance with the Disability Standards for Education 2005; and 8. Collaborating with the non-government sector in initiatives that realise the Government’s priority (as expressed in the Building Our Community: The Canberra Social Plan (2004)), to “lead Australia in education, training and life-long learning” with respect to students with a disability in ACT schools.
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Chapter 11 Options for Catholic Schools in the ACT35 This chapter proposes options for the Catholic Education Office of the Archdiocese of Canberra and Goulburn related to: • • • • • • • • • •
Vision and scope Educational leadership Support for teachers and capacity-building at classroom level Resources and resource allocation Individual Learning Plans Learning Support Staff Learning Support Assistants (LSAs) Collaboration with parents and carers Partnerships with the tertiary sector Planning and accountability.
The purpose of the review was to provide advice on future options for the provision of special education services in ACT government and non-government schools and to show how these services would improve student outcomes. ACT Catholic schools have a good record of educating students with a disability in mainstream educational environments and have plans for further development of services for students with disabilities. The options below have been written to assist the planning process. Currently the delivery model in ACT Catholic schools is transitioning from a ‘special education’ to a ‘learning support’ model and this is evident in the written policies that underpin services. The approach to the education of students with a disability in ACT Catholic schools is clearly ‘between paradigms’.
Clarify the vision, goals and scope of services for students with a disability in ACT Catholic schools The vision is clear at ‘office level’ and some sophisticated processes are being trialed, for example, for profiling student’s needs to guide the development of Individualised Education Plans (IEPs). However, more policy refinement, elaboration, discussion and dissemination are necessary if the ‘new’ approach of meeting the needs of students with a
35
Although Catholic schools in the ACT experience distinct issues, there is some overlap with issues raised in Chapter 10 (Public schools) and Chapter 12 (Independent schools).
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disability in the context of ‘learning for all’ is to be thoroughly understood and implemented. Some service gaps have not been formally addressed. For example, some Catholic parents would like to send their child to a Catholic School but fear that the school may not be able to meet their child’s extensive educational needs. It is proposed therefore that the Catholic Education Office of the Archdiocese of Canberra and Goulburn: 1. In collaboration with key stakeholders, including parents and school communities, clarifies the vision, goals and scope of services for students with a disability in its ACT schools 36; 2. Considers renaming its services for services for students with a disability and ‘special needs’ using disability-related nomenclature, for example, Services/Supports for Students with a Disability; 3. Encourages school staff to discontinue using ‘special’, with respect to students with a disability (special needs, special education); 4. Considers how the definition of disability contained in the ACT Disability Discrimination Act (1991) might guide eligibility for additional funding support for students with a disability in ACT Catholic schools. 5. Considers ‘leading practice’ options with respect to Catholic students with severe and complex disabilities whose parents desire a faith-based setting, (e.g. as described in Chapter 6) but who believe that their child’s needs could not presently be met in the mainstream environment of a Catholic school; 6. Further explores options for meeting this need, if appropriate, for example through different funding arrangements (as described in Chapter 9) or through possible collaborative arrangement with ACTDET; 7. Further develops the collaborative, ‘student profiling’ processes that support the development of the IEP; and 8. Allocates sufficient resources, including personnel, to the important task of developing policy and ensuring that the implications of policy are fully understood at school level.
Develop educational leaders The leading practice literature confirms the pivotal role of school leaders in implementing an inclusive vision and during this review we encountered Catholic school leaders with the necessary disposition, knowledge and skills. Informed leadership is particularly important in regard to students with a disability in Catholic schools because of the generally limited access that the schools have to specialist and consultancy support, for example, in comparison with some of the Independent schools and with the Public sector. It is proposed that the Catholic Education Office of the Archdiocese of Canberra and Goulburn considers: 1. Reinforcing the key role of the principal as the schools’ educational leader through the leadership framework and supporting principals through targeted professional learning
36
The Archdiocese operates schools in NSW as well as in the ACT
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and appraisal processes pertinent to the learning outcomes of students with a disability. For example, a model of support to principals already being used successfully is the Hume Region’s Common Curriculum model in Victoria where all principals access advanced learning about the curriculum, ethical decision-making, equity leadership, technology for the classroom, inter alia; and 2. Assisting principals through quality professional learning, the leadership framework, and appraisal processes to understand their responsibilities under the relevant legislation, and the ways in which they, as school leaders, ensure that students with a disability participate in education on the same basis as other students.
Support the pivotal role of classroom teachers While systems, schools, parents and students contribute to student learning in essential ways, what classroom teachers actually do – how and what they teach – has a singular effect on student learning. Consequently, improving the knowledge, skills, attitudes and commitment of classroom teachers should be given absolute priority. The success of the inclusive model in Catholic schools is highly dependent on the quality of the classroom teacher. It is proposed that the Catholic Education Office of the Archdiocese of Canberra and Goulburn considers the following: 1. Giving priority to professional learning for classroom teachers. This option involves focusing professional learning on teachers’ current issues and concerns; linking professional learning to teachers’ use of evidence-based practices that are effective with students with a disability; challenging discourse that undermine inclusive practice; providing them with time, support, mentoring and opportunity to observe in other schools and settings; and teachers evaluating the effectiveness of these approaches for all students including those with a disability. The current consideration by Catholic Education of the Plan Do Study Act (PDSA) action research cycle (e.g. as described by Marino & Haggerty Raines, 2004) is a promising initiative. 2. Collaborating with colleagues in the Public sector and Independent schools to develop the applicability and relevance of web-based sharing of effective teaching practices for students with a disability. These activities may include sharing user-friendly examples of linking with Every Chance to Learn; accessing teacher (and parent)-friendly curriculum supports and guides; sharing examples of differentiated curriculum for students with complex needs; networking and mentoring; and/or accessing videoed lessons in You-Tube style in which local leading practice is shared. 3. Establishing a “Leading Practice Innovation Fund” or similar for schools and teachers to access resources to implement and trial evidence-based strategies such as engaging in extensive collaboration with parents and carers to support learning, using the ‘Response to Intervention’ approach previously outlined, and/or implementing the practices detailed by Mitchell 37 (2008). A community-based project in Liverpool, UK, the ADHD Project under the auspices of by the Children's Fund, funded by all school systems and local council, provides a specific example. The project focuses on parental
37
Mitchell, D. (2008). What really works in special and inclusive education: using evidence-based strategies. London: Routledge.
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empowerment and rebuilding home-school relationship to reduce inappropriate and disruptive behaviours and increase the engagement of students with ADHD. 4. Exploring opportunities for sharing professional learning within the Catholic sector (systemic and congregational schools) as well as with the Public sector and with Independent schools. The reviewers were given several examples of excellent professional learning in particular schools which would have benefited nearby schools.
Reconfigure resource allocation The Catholic Education Office (2006) support document, Using School and System Resources to Support Students with Special Needs (including students with disabilities) states that any “additional resources are not directly for the student but for the teacher, who has the responsibility, first and foremost for all students in the class”. The document comments on “the traditional ‘deficit’ way of thinking of disability (that) attach(es) funding directly to a student”. This interpretation - at Office level- is accurate in terms of the purposes of supplementary funding, and it reveals an understanding of the factors that support inclusive practice. However, many school-based personnel do not think this way and complain that they must use ‘school funds’ to support students with a disability. In regard to Catholic schools, the differing views illustrate how important it is for policy to be appreciated in the schools, particularly as this way of thinking about students with a disability (i.e. that they are a drain on school funding) can impede inclusive practice and successful education. It also highlights the need for funding to be delivered in a variety of schemes (e.g. input, throughput, output, outcomes) so that the unintended, deleterious effects of any one funding distribution scheme are minimised. It is proposed that the Catholic Education Office of the Archdiocese of Canberra and Goulburn considers: 1. Collaborating with ACTDET and the Independent Schools Association in any reconfiguration of resource allocation strategies so that they reflect the principles (outlined in Chapter 7) for enhancing inclusive practice; 2. When allocating resources within ACT Catholic schools, implementing the principles (outlined Chapter 7) for enhancing inclusive practice, including the use of evidencebased pedagogy, greater school level flexibility in the use of funds, and increased accountability for learning outcomes; 3. Making clear that resources derived from the Student Centred Appraisal of Need are to complement the system/school funding that is made available for all students and that students with a disability should be beneficiaries as well 38; 4. Investigating opportunities for collaboration with the Public sector and/or the Independent schools and/or tertiary institutions in sharing, gaining access to, and/or buying into professional learning and research opportunities, multidisciplinary services (e.g. through the proposed hubs and the diagnostic centre), early intervention services, technology support and similar; and 38
It also should apply, where guidelines permit, that students who do not have a disability may receive ‘incidental benefit’ from disability-related resources.
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5. Establishing, or buying into, a resource library to facilitate the maintenance of, and access to, equipment and assistive technological infrastructure.
Maximise the potential of learning support staff The Catholic Education Office of the Archdiocese of Canberra and Goulburn has adopted a model that utilises school-based Learning Support Teachers with a primary focus on students with special needs/ disability. As outlined in this report, there is evidence, that with the right people with the right skills, the role can be very effective. Indeed, this report has proposed trials of a model of ‘Learning Support Coordination’ by ACTDET in which the Learning Support Coordinator would assist the principal in implementing support for all students who experience difficulties in learning, i.e. the role would not be disabilityspecific. The cost however of these approaches is not inconsequential and expenditure on Learning Support Teachers may makes expenditure on other options less possible, for example, further class size reductions. As the model needs to be given every chance of success it is proposed that the Catholic Education Office of the Archdiocese of Canberra and Goulburn considers: 1. Giving priority to extensive professional learning for the Learning Support Teachers, ranging from ongoing, ‘within system’ networking, to formal, postgraduate qualifications in inclusive practice; 2. Conducting trials of the extension of the responsibilities of Learning Support Teachers to students who may be underperforming for any reason (including disability), with the aim of integrating schools’ pedagogical approaches for students functioning in the lowest quartile, i.e., trial the ‘Learning Support Coordination’ model; and 3. Monitoring the effectiveness of the ‘Learning Support Teacher Model’ and, if trialed, the ‘Learning Support Coordinator model’ and sharing the results with the nongovernment and government sectors.
Clarify issues associated with Learning Support Assistants (LSAs) The Catholic Education Office has developed policy and fostered training for LSAs for several years and the results have been very favourable. Individual schools have built LSAs into their array of supports for students with a disability in effective ways. However dependency issues around the deployment and employment of LSAs still remain. For example, some schools rely on the LSA to deliver the education program for the student/s with a disability. It is proposed that the Catholic Education Office of the Archdiocese of Canberra and Goulburn considers: 1. Adopting an alternative currency to LSA hours (such as cash) for disbursing supplementary resources for students with a disability; 2. Encouraging flexibility in the use of these funds and recommending preferred, evidence-based, forms of support;
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3. Developing and disseminating system-wide policy with respect to appropriate roles and creative involvement of LSAs – when and where LSAs might be involved, for what purposes, for how long, with what students; and encourages schools to use the highly regarded work of Giangreco at the University of Vermont to identify any inadvertent dependency-based models that have evolved around the use of classroom assistants. Similar work is already being done in several districts and dioceses in Victoria, for example, Sandhurst and Ballarat; 4. Continuing to support training courses for LSAs; 5. Exploring the business case for providing a career structure for LSAs; 6. Negotiating with local tertiary institutions for significant numbers of undergraduate students from relevant courses, for example,, Education, Psychology, Nursing, Physiotherapy, Sports Studies, Disability Studies and similar, to receive ‘course credit’ for undertaking LSA work for a semester or more; and 7. Ensuring that principals and executives are informed of the range of alternative options for supporting the learning of students with a disability.
Implement policies and practices that capitalise on the major contributions that parents and carers make to their child’s learning Catholic schools already enjoy strong parental support and this report has highlighted the major contribution of parent-teacher collaboration around student learning. It is proposed that the Catholic Education Office of the Archdiocese of Canberra and Goulburn considers: 1. Providing opportunities for parents and carers to be maximally involved and engaged in their child’s learning, for example, knowledge of the curriculum and strategies for working collaboratively with teachers and other school staff to support their child’s learning, assistance with interpreters and similar; 2. Providing opportunities for parent and carer participation in appropriately constituted advisory groups; and 3. Providing opportunities for parents to participate in, lead, and/or be consulted about disability-awareness raising programs and activities that are already used locally and in other Catholic jurisdictions, for example, ‘Circle of Friends’, ‘Grief in Families’, ‘Seasons for Growth’ and ‘Seasons Loss and Grief’.
Extend partnerships with the tertiary education sector As teacher quality is a major determinant of student learning, ongoing collaboration with the tertiary sector is essential. It is proposed that the Catholic Education Office of the Archdiocese of Canberra and Goulburn consults with the tertiary sector to ensure that the sector: 1. Provides teachers in training with knowledge and skills of evidence-based strategies that are appropriate for all students, including those with a disability;
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2. Provides them with knowledge and skills of evidence-based strategies for working effectively with parents and carers and learning support staff, such as LSAs, to improve student learning outcomes; 3. Teaches them how to engage all students to the maximum in their own learning; 4. Prepares them for teaching in the digital age; 5. Teaches them how to engage in ongoing, action evaluation of classroom teaching; 6. Provides opportunities for interdisciplinary studies, for example, shared units of study for students in education, the therapies and other disciplines courses that work with people with a disability; and 7. Establishes ‘course credit’ arrangements to encourage undergraduate students in relevant disciplines to gain experience in working with students with a disability. It is also proposed that universities: 8. Ensure that staff model the use of good pedagogy and ICT in their classes; and 9. Make available post-graduate courses and subjects that deal with specific ICT applications for students with complex disabilities; teaching students who have complex educational, medical and/or behavioural needs; and specialist studies related to particular diagnoses, for example, autism spectrum disorder; and It is proposed that the Catholic Education Office of the Archdiocese of Canberra and Goulburn and local universities: 10. Collaborate on research and evaluation projects that are central to improving the educational outcomes of students with a disability in ACT Catholic schools.
Implement accountability measures for students with a disability The Catholic Education Office already engages in some good accountability measures, for example, checks are made on IEP processes in every school. It is proposed that the Catholic Education Office of the Archdiocese of Canberra and Goulburn considers: 1. Implementing, and if necessary further developing, internal accountability mechanisms for legal and policy compliance and for the educational outcomes of students with a disability; 2. Participating in regular external reviews, for example, three yearly reviews by the Auditor General, of compliance with the Disability Standards for Education 2005; and 3. Implementing its mission and purpose to provide an inclusive Catholic education and assists in the realisation of the Government’s priority (as expressed in the Building Our Community: The Canberra Social Plan (2004), to “lead Australia in education, training and life-long learning” with respect to students with a disability in ACT schools.
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Chapter 12: Options for ACT Independent Schools39 This chapter proposes options for ACT Independent Schools related to: • • • • • • • •
Vision and scope Support for teachers and capacity-building at classroom level Resources and resource allocation Learning Support Assistants (LSAs) Accountability. Educational leadership Resourceful service delivery Collaboration.
The presentation of options for the consideration of Independent schools begins with an important clarification - Independent schools are independent. The operations and governance of each Independent school are the responsibility of their respective governing bodies. That is, the 17 Independent schools in the ACT are owned and operated by 17 separate and different boards. While there is an Association of Independent Schools, the Association does not have jurisdiction over the Independent schools. Furthermore, each ACT Independent school is unique. Independent schools differ in many ways including religious beliefs, culture, values, enrolments, school expertise, the social capital of the school community, resources, and/or the range and sophistication of supports for students with a disability. The options outlined below are derived from the review of leading practice and the views of stakeholders as presented in the previous chapters. The primary consideration is to improve the learning outcomes of students with a disability. As it is difficult to specify options that are pertinent to each school, school boards and principals should study the whole report and assess the relevance and implications for their school The following are general options only.
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Although each Independent school in the ACT experiences distinct issues, there is some overlap with issues raised in Chapter 10 (Public schools) and Chapter 11 (Catholic schools).
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Clarify the vision, goals and scope of services for students with a disability in the school Many Independent schools espouse inclusive values and provide inclusive services for students who find learning difficult. Personnel in some schools, however, were not well aware of their legal obligations in regard to students with a disability. Furthermore, the way services were provided for students with a disability in some schools was somewhat marginalising. It is proposed that school boards and principals: 1. Where necessary, clarify their understanding of their responsibilities under the relevant legislation and the obligations of the school to ensure that students with a disability participate in education on the same basis as other students; 2. In collaboration with key stakeholders, including parents and the school community, clarify the school’s vision, goals and scope of services for students with a disability; 3. Consider the adoption of a learning support, rather than a special needs delivery model, so that support for students with a disability is conceptualised and delivered to meet the diverse learning needs of all students, irrespective of the source of the need; and 4. Consider discontinuing the use of ‘special’ with respect to students with a disability.
Support the pivotal role of classroom teachers While systems, schools, parents and students contribute to student learning in essential ways, what classroom teachers actually do – how and what they teach – has a singular effect on student learning. Consequently, improving the knowledge, skills, attitudes and commitment of classroom teachers should be given absolute priority. The success of the inclusive model that operates in most Independent schools depends on the quality of the classroom teacher. It is proposed that school boards and principals consider the following: 1. Giving further priority to professional learning for classroom teachers. This option involves focusing professional learning on teachers’ current issues and concerns; linking professional learning to teachers’ use of evidence-based practices that are effective with students with a disability; providing them with time, support, mentoring and opportunity to observe in other schools and settings; and teachers evaluating the effectiveness of these approaches for all students including those with a disability. 2. Collaborating with colleagues in the Public sector and Catholic schools to develop the applicability and relevance of web-based sharing of effective teaching practices for students with a disability. These activities may include sharing user-friendly examples of linking with Every Chance to Learn; accessing teacher (and parent)-friendly curriculum supports and guides; sharing examples of differentiated curriculum for students with complex needs; networking and mentoring; and/or accessing videoed lessons in You-Tube style in which local leading practice is shared. 3. Supporting teachers to trial evidence-based strategies, or buying in the necessary expertise for them to extend their teaching repertoires, for example, engaging in extensive collaboration with parents and carers to support learning; using the
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‘Response to Intervention’ approach previously outlined; and/or implementing the practices detailed by Mitchell 40 (2008). 4. Exploring opportunities for sharing professional learning with Public, Catholic and/or other Independent schools.
Use resources inclusively Many believe that Independent schools are under-resourced for students with a disability. It is certainly true that students with a disability, like all students in Independent schools and Catholic schools, receive less public support than if they were educated in a Public school. The case for Governments to provide more funding for students with a disability irrespective of the sector in which the student is educated is frequently debated (see Chapter 7). The consensus of opinion is that increased funding is needed in all sectors. Some principals, teachers and parents from Independent schools mentioned the use of ‘school funds’ to support students with a disability. A premise that school funds are not for students with a disability is contestable. Furthermore, an assumption that the sole or major resource support for students with a disability should be that derived from the Student Centred Appraisal of Need is incorrect and this way of thinking works against inclusive practice and successful education. It is proposed that school boards and principals consider: 1. Collaborating with ACTDET and Catholic Education in any reconfiguration of resource allocation strategies so that they reflect the principles outlined in this report for enhancing inclusive practice; 2. Investigating opportunities for collaboration with the Public sector and/or the Catholic schools and/or tertiary institutions in sharing, gaining access to, and/or buying into professional learning and research opportunities, multidisciplinary services (e.g. through the proposed hubs and the diagnostic centre), early intervention services, technology support and similar; 3. Establishing, or buying into, a resource library to facilitate the maintenance of, and access to, equipment and assistive technological infrastructure; and 4. Establishing an information service to assist schools in locating services and supports for students with a disability.
Reduce reliance on Learning Support Assistants (LSAs) Although practices differ markedly across schools, some rely heavily on the LSA to deliver the education program for the student/s with a disability. It is proposed that school boards and principals:
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Mitchell, D. (2008). What really works in special and inclusive education: using evidence-based strategies. London: Routledge.
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1. Consider the benefits of using funds on a wider array of supports, for example, on teacher professional learning; giving teachers time for networking; reducing class sizes; assisting teachers implement new approaches to teaching that require ‘set-up time’; and/or purchasing therapy, equipment, consultancy and other supports for inclusive practice.
Implement accountability measures for students with a disability It is proposed that school boards and principals consider: 1. Implementing internal accountability mechanisms for legal and policy compliance and for the educational outcomes of students with a disability; and 2. Participating in any regular external reviews, for example, three yearly reviews by the Auditor General, of compliance with the Disability Standards for Education 2005.
Demonstrate leadership Some Independent schools are relatively well-resourced, have staff with considerable expertise and/or engage in practices that are examples of ‘leading practice’. For example, many Independent schools display a genuine sense of community, welcome and involve parents and carers in significant ways and/or consult with students about their learning as a matter of course. Some have sophisticated multidisciplinary teams and some have implemented systems for the early detection of learning difficulties. It is proposed that school boards and principals consider: 1. Sharing these leading practices within the government and non-government sector, for example, through web-based postings.
Implement resourceful solutions Some Independent schools in the ACT have a small resource base in terms of finances and social capital; limited expertise in regard to students with a disability; small enrolments; and/or limited opportunities for economies of scale. Some are physically isolated as well. It is proposed that the boards and principals of these schools: 1. Work on building the capacity of the school as a whole to respond to diversity because such an approach is more sustainable; 2. Implement the evidence-based strategies that supplement funded support, for example, peer tutoring and cooperative learning; 3. Consider different staff configurations, for example, try to have at least one staff member with qualifications in Inclusive Education; and/or share a Learning Support Coordinator with one or more schools; 4. Consolidate resources from different funding allocations (where permissible) to fund integrated support for any student in need; and
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5. Invite academics and researchers into the school to assist school staff to become more research-engaged, e.g. ‘researcher in residence’.
Develop collaborative relationships In addition to the proposals for greater collaboration already made, it is proposed that school boards and principals: 1. Invite local tertiary institutions to routinely place students in Education, Psychology, Nursing, Physiotherapy, Sports Studies, Disability Studies and similar at the school for their practicum; 2. Invite tertiary institutions to provide relevant professional development courses for school staff; 3. Explore with other schools and relevant organisations the extension of networks, meetings and web-based interactions for those responsible for learning support or ‘special needs’ in the schools, for example, a meeting once a term to share promising practices; development of an ‘advisory service’ to share knowledge of resources – financial and pedagogical; 4. Establish buddy, mentoring and/or consultancy arrangements with a school that has more expertise and/or resources for students with a disability; and 5. Implement the unique mission and purpose of the school and assist in the realisation of the Government’s priority (as expressed in the Building Our Community: The Canberra Social Plan (2004)), to “lead Australia in education, training and life-long learning” with respect to students with a disability in ACT schools.
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Chapter 13: Postscript Everyday in the ACT, parents, carers, teachers, assistants, support staff, therapists and consultants assist students with disabilities to reach their potential. The task is sometimes difficult, frequently rewarding and always challenging. While acknowledging the effective work that occurs in ACT schools to improve the educational outcomes of students with a disability, the review drew attention to many areas where improvements are not only possible but necessary. The immediate task for sectors and schools is to consider the options that have been proposed and to adjust their course. The review concludes that contemporary responses to disability are more likely to be successful if they are framed within a diversity mindset. The idea is hardly novel. Over 15 years ago, a UNESCO report concluded, Special needs education - an issue of equal concern to countries of the North and of the South - cannot advance in isolation. It has to form part of an overall educational strategy and, indeed, of new social and economic policies. It calls for major reform of the ordinary school (United Nations Educational, Scientific & Cultural Organization (UNESCO), pp. iii & iv, 1994)
In summary, the challenges for ACT Public, Catholic and Independent schools into the immediate future revolve around three major issues: coherence, capacity and collaboration. Coherence relates to the clarity and internal consistency of the vision for students with a disability that is adopted by sectors and schools. Schools need to articulate their position on a fundamental issue raised by Hardman and Nagle, (2004, p.286), At the heart of the argument is the belief that special education policy has served its purpose of obtaining access for students with disabilities and should be dismantled. The new focus for discourse should be on how best to educate all students, not just a few who manifest the required disability characteristics.
Public Sector education services for students with a disability are extensive and differentiated, with many services having been added on over time. The achievement of coherence requires drawing together, and giving a common purpose and understanding to, the array of services. For example, the place of special schools, units and centres in the context of inclusivity needs to be expressed unambiguously as does the extent to which ‘capacity-building’ becomes the prime function of consultancy services. For Catholic schools, the coherence at Office level needs to be matched in the schools. The challenge is to ensure that the inclusive practice vision is understood, appreciated and implemented and this will require discussion, policy development, monitoring and support for implementation. Each of the Independent schools is at a different place with respect to coherence. However, all schools could benefit by assessing where they stand on, for example, the Index of Inclusion (Booth & Ainscow 2002) that guides schools through a self-examination of school cultures, policies and practices, or on Jenkins’ (2002) Continuum-Based Model of
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Inclusion, that helps schools clarify the extent to which their teaching and learning policies are supported by their use of resources. In terms of capacity, Public schools have a variety of supports for students with a disability. However, on average, Public schools also teach students who are more complex and challenging. No one associated with the education of students with a disability in Public schools claimed that resources were adequate. Some students are extraordinarily difficult to teach and manage no matter how extensive the resources and expertise. The continuing success of the inclusive model in Catholic schools will depend to a large extent on the capacity of the Learning Support Teachers, on how they are supported, and how well they support classroom teachers. Independent schools vary greatly in capacity, but for each, the task is to make the best use of the available resources to improve students’ learning. This must often be done in a context in which there are high parental expectations. Throughout this report, the benefits and desirability of collaboration between the government and non-government sectors and with other stakeholders was stressed. In the relatively small Australian Capital Territory, there are good examples of, and huge potential for, collaborations to support the educational outcomes of our students with a disability. Finally, the ‘appreciative inquiry’ methodology that guided the review required the reviewers to first gain an appreciation of ‘what is’. This was followed by work on ‘what could be’ and ‘what should be’, and the data sources for these tasks were conversations with stakeholders, observations of good practice in schools and an extensive review of leading practice. Armed with the options that have now been proposed, school systems and schools need to undertake the work suggested in the Discussion paper – to “chart a way forward together in solutions-focused, data-based and defensible ways”. In doing so they will complete the last task of the appreciative inquiry model – determining what ‘will be’. Central to this task is the implementation of strategies that ensure that ACT students with a disability receive an education ‘on the same basis’ as all other students. This is their legal right.
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APPENDICES Appendix 1: Terms of Reference The Consultant will research leading practice, both nationally and internationally, in curriculum and pedagogy for the ranges of students with disabilities in ACT public and non-government schools: and provide detail of how these services improve student outcomes. The Consultant will provide advice on future options for the provision of special education service in ACT public and non-government schools.
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Appendix 2: Review Team Anthony Shaddock Tony initially worked as a mainstream teacher in inner city schools and in the western suburbs of Sydney. He subsequently worked in the Department of Health as a psychologist at Grosvenor Diagnostic Clinic in Summer Hill. In the late seventies Tony was Program Director and Head of Psychological Services at Marsden Hospital and Rehabilitation Centre, a large residential facility for children and adults with complex developmental disabilities. After gaining his PhD in Special Education from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Tony was appointed Director of the New England Educational Diagnostic Centre in Armidale, NSW. In addition, Tony coordinated the Department of Health’s developmental disability services in the New England Region, a role that involved the establishment of accommodation alternatives to institutions and the provision of community-based services for children and adults with complex learning and developmental needs. Tony’s most recent research includes studies of teachers’ responses to the challenging behaviour of students with special needs; mainstream options for secondary students with autism; and national research on improving the learning outcomes of students with disabilities in the mainstream. Tony has published over one hundred books, chapters and articles and he is a frequent contributor to national and international journals and conferences. In 2006, Tony and his University of Canberra colleagues were awarded a national Carrick award for outstanding contributions to the learning of university students about students with disabilities. Currently Tony heads the Evaluation Team of the Australian Autism Education and Training Consortium (AAETC), the group contracted by DEEWR to provide a national program of professional development for teachers and school staff and information sessions for parents about improving the learning outcomes of students on the autism spectrum. In 2009 Tony was made a Fellow of the Australian College of Education for services to students with disabilities.
Nancy MacDonald In over 35 years, Nancy’s career in education has involved teaching placements in Canada and Australia; classroom teaching and executive positions in both mainstream and special school settings; experience in primary, secondary and university sectors; central office experience as executive officer and 7 years as Principal of a special school. In her career, a primary focus has been the commitment to special education. In 2007, Nancy was recognised for her service to special education in ACT through the presentation of the Commissioner for Public Administration Award for ‘providing an exceptional learning environment for students through outstanding leadership and demonstrated personal commitment’. She has also been awarded the 2002 Departmental Award for ‘outstanding commitment to leadership within the department by an individual’. Nancy has been an active member of various committees concerned with the delivery of quality educational programs in special education, including the Special Education Reference Group and the Australian Association of Special Education Inc (ACT President for two years). Nancy is
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currently retired and provides part time support to special education in the area of principal mentoring and consultative work.
Julie Hook Julie has over 26 years experience working in the special education / disability field in a range of roles, including classroom teacher, school principal, consultant and manager of a state wide team responsible for supporting schools to meet the needs of students with high and complex support needs. She has worked across educational settings (primary, secondary and special school) and has also worked with each of the education sectors in NSW in a consultancy and support role. Julie has had experience in working in the Tasmanian education system in a support teacher role as well as extensive experience teaching in the university sector at an undergraduate and post graduate level. Her current role is Project Manager of the Australian Autism Education and Training Consortium (AAETC), responsible for the development and national delivery of professional development workshops for school staff and workshop and information sessions for parents/carers of school aged children with autism (a DEEWR component of the Australian Government’s Helping Children with Autism initiative).
Loretta Giorcelli With a Bachelor’s degree in Education, a Master’s degree in Education, a Master’s degree in Special Education, and a PhD in Linguistics and Communication Disabilities, Loretta has worked as a teacher, consultant, school principal in Queensland and London schools, university lecturer, and as the NSW Director of Special Education and Equity Programs. Loretta is a visiting professor in Special Education at San Francisco State University and has been associated in honorary capacities with Macquarie University, the Children’s Hospital of Sydney, the University of Western Sydney and the Beijing ENT Institute. Since 1996, Loretta has headed her own educational consultancy company, working for the European Union and United Nations as a government advisor in Cyprus and China and for the Australian Government on overseas development projects in PNG. She also works extensively in Hong Kong, New Zealand, South Africa, Malta, Britain, as well as throughout Australia. From 2004-2007, she worked with Tony Shaddock (Project Manager) and Julie Hook on national, DEEWR-funded, research on improving the learning outcomes of students with a disability in mainstream schools. She was awarded an OAM for services to education in 2007 and made a Fellow of the Australian College of Education in 2009.
Michael Arthur-Kelly Michael has conducted applied research in a range of areas in disability and special education including communication intervention for people with severe disability and staff training in managing challenging behaviour. He is internationally known for his research into behaviour state assessment protocols for people with multiple and severe disability. With Professor Phil Foreman he recently conducted an evaluation of educational programs for the Alice Betteridge School, part of the Royal Institute for Deaf and Blind Children.
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Michael has published extensively in the area of special education. In recent years, he is the author of 13 journal articles, 6 book chapters, and the co-author of 5 books. In his academic career, Michael has also been the winner of 10 collaborative and independent grants. Currently, he is involved in a $500,000 grant for Research and Training in Social and Communication Supports for Young Children with Autism for the NSW Department of Ageing, Disability and Home Care, and a $152,000 ARC Discovery Grant for Partner Training and Communication Outcomes in Students with Multiple and Severe Disability. Michael is an Associate Professor at the University of Newcastle.
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Appendix 3: Reference Committees Public Schools’ Reference Committee Dr Mark Collis
Director, Student Services
Mr Ian Copland
Manager, Student Support Section
Ms Sue Northmore
Secondary Principals
Ms Lyn Woodbury
Primary Principals
Ms Karin Wetselaar
Special School Principals
Ms Lyndall Read
Manager, Early Years Learning
Ms Estelle Sydney-Smith
ACT Council of P&C Associations Inc
Ms Cathy Smith/Bill Book
Australian Education Union
Mr Russel Hertel
Special Needs Counsellors
Ms Roslyn Hayes
Manager, Therapy ACT
Dr Chris Kilham
Australian Association of Special Education
Ms Julia Bocking
Advocacy for Inclusion
Ms Lisa Grant
National Disability Services
Ms Gay von Ess
Autism Asperger ACT Inc
Ms Jenny Bottrell
ACT Down Syndrome Association
Ms Alex Turner
Canberra Deaf Children’s Association
Ms Christine Kallir Preece
ACT Council of P&C Associations Inc
Mr Josh Braham
Student Representative (Lake Tuggeranong College)
Ms Fiona McIntosh
Disability ACT
Ms Summer Field
ACT Department of Education and Training
Ms Nancye Burkevics
ACT Department of Education and Training
Ms Kim Bryant
ACT Department of Education and Training.
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Non-Government Schools’ Reference Committee Ms Alyssa Bullman
Student
Ms Rita Evans
Parent Representative-St Vincent’s Primary School, Aranda
Ms Jackie Groom
Independent Education Union
Ms Joan Harmer
Learning Support Teacher, Saint Francis Xavier, Florey
Mr Jeremy Irvine
Association of Independent Schools of the ACT
Ms Meredith Joslin
Association of Independent Schools of the ACT
Ms Susan Just
Principal Canberra Girls Grammar School
Mr Patrick Kelly
Catholic Education Office
Ms Kate Lyttle
Parents and Friends Association
Ms Jane Pamenter
Congregational Schools Representative
Ms Lyn Renno
Independent Education Union
Mr Dhushantha Sheales
Student
Ms Judy Spence
Principal, St Thomas the Apostle Primary School, Kambah
Ms Annmarie Thomas
Catholic Education Office
Mr Michael Traynor
Catholic Education Office
Ms Maree Williams
Catholic Education Office
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Appendix 4: Dictionary of Terms Adaptive technology “Adaptive technology is the name for products which help people who cannot use regular versions of products, primarily people with physical disabilities such as limitations to vision, hearing, and mobility. Adaptive technology promotes greater effectiveness for persons with functional limitations or disabilities by enabling them to perform tasks that they were formerly unable to accomplish, or had great difficulty accomplishing. Adaptive technology provides changed methods of interacting with or enhancements to the technology” (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptive_technology).
Assistive technology “Assistive technology (AT) is a generic term that includes assistive, adaptive, and rehabilitative devices for people with disabilities and includes the process used in selecting, locating, and using them. The Technology-Related Assistance for Individuals with Disabilities Act of 1988 (US Public Law 100-407) states that it is "technology designed to be utilized in an assistive technology device or assistive technology service." AT promotes greater independence by enabling people to perform tasks that they were formerly unable to accomplish, or had great difficulty accomplishing, by providing enhancements to or changed methods of interacting with the technology needed to accomplish such tasks” (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assistive_technology).
Curriculum Curriculum is “all learning planned, guided and implemented by the school” (ACT Department of Education and Training, 2009a, p.2). “In its entirety, curriculum develops the whole child – intellectually, physically, socially, emotionally and spiritually (ACT Department of Education and Training, 2007, p.7). “Educational curriculum is what students learn or the content of instruction” (Reynolds et al. 1990).
Disability In the Discrimination Act 1991 (Section 5AA )
“disability" means— 1. (a) total or partial loss of a bodily function; or (b) total or partial loss of a part of the body; or (c) malfunction of a part of the body; or (d) malformation or disfigurement of a part of the body; or (e) the presence in the body of organisms that cause or are capable of causing disease; or
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(f) an illness or condition which impairs a person's thought processes, perception of reality, emotions or judgment or which results in disturbed behaviour; or (g) an intellectual disability or developmental delay. (2) Except in section 49 (Work related discrimination) and section 50 (Discrimination by qualifying bodies etc), "disability" includes a disability— (a) that the person has, or is thought to have (whether or not the person in fact has the disability); or (b) that the person had in the past, or is thought to have had in the past (whether or not the person in fact had the disability); or (c) that the person will have in the future, or is thought will have in the future (whether or not the person in fact will have the disability). In the Disability Standards for Education 2005
“disability”, in relation to a person, means: a) b) c) d) e) f) g)
h) i) j) k)
total or partial loss of the person’s bodily or mental functions; or total or partial loss of a part of the body; or the presence in the body of organisms causing disease or illness; or the presence in the body of organisms capable of causing disease or illness; or the malfunction, malformation or disfigurement of a part of the person’s body; or a disorder or malfunction that results in the person learning differently from a person without the disorder or malfunction; or a disorder, illness or disease that affects a person’s thought processes, perception of reality, emotions or judgment or that results in disturbed behaviour; and includes a disability that: presently exists; or previously existed but no longer exists; or may exist in the future; or is imputed to a person.
In the ACT Policy Framework Government Policy Framework for Children and Young people with a Disability and Their Families (2009)
Disability is defined according to the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) description of disability, that is, as a multi-dimensional concept, relating to the body functions and structures of people; the activities they do; the life areas in which they participate, and the factors in their environment that affect these experiences (WHO, 2001).
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Effect size The source for this reasonably accessible definition of ‘effect size’ is Wikipedia 41. In statistics, an effect size is a measure of the strength of the relationship between two variables in a statistical population, or a sample-based estimate of that quantity. In scientific experiments and observational studies, it is often useful to know not only whether a relationship is statistically significant, but also the size of the observed relationship. In practical situations, effect sizes are helpful for making decisions, since a highly significant relationship may be uninteresting if its effect size is small. Effect size measures play an important role in meta-analysis studies that summarise findings from a specific area of research For Cohen's d an effect size of 0.2 to 0.3 might be a "small" effect, around 0.5 a "medium" effect and 0.8 to infinity, a "large" effect. Lenth's concerns: "The terms 'small,' 'medium,' and 'large' are relative, not only to each other, but to the area of behavioral science or even more particularly to the specific content and research method being employed in any given investigation....In the face of this relativity, there is a certain risk inherent in offering conventional operational definitions for these terms for use in power analysis in as diverse a field of inquiry as behavioral science. This risk is nevertheless accepted in the belief that more is to be gained than lost by supplying a common conventional frame of reference which is recommended for use only when no better basis for estimating the ES index is available."
As an effect size of over 0.54 is considered ‘major’, the effect size for ‘home encouragement’ puts it well ahead of mastery learning (0.53), professional development (0.48), individualised instruction (0.42), remedial programs (0.35), instructional time (0.34), within-class grouping (0.31), team teaching (0.06) and ability grouping (0.05). Although, for example, direct instruction (0.93), reciprocal teaching (0.86) and feedback (0.81) are highly efficacious, home encouragement of learning (0.69) is clearly very effective.
Inclusion A term used by the educational community to refer to how a student participates in school. It is not only referring to placement in general education classes, but to a sense of belonging to a school community as an equally valued member. In order for a student to be truly included, three components are necessary: •
physical placement in age appropriate general education classes with access to the physical environments and routines of the school,
•
social interactions and relationships with peers that are similar to what peers experience,
41
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effect_size#.22Small.22.2C_.22medium.22.2C_.22large.22, retrieved 26 August 2009.
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•
meaningful participation in the general education curriculum with supports and services to make progress in that curriculum and on the goals and objectives of the IEP (Almazan, 2009, p.9).
Leading practice We have defined ‘leading practice’ as “a set of educational processes and procedures for which there is credible evidence of effectiveness with a large number of students and which are recognised within the profession as effective ways of teaching’.
Learning Support Centres LSCs are a small class in some ACT Public schools for students with a borderline to mild intellectual disability or a significant learning difficulty. In primary school LSUs there are 14 students who are usually taught by one teacher and one LSA. In secondary schools, one teacher and one LSA are usually provided to teach 16 students. Students are eligible if a) they meet the ACT Disability Criteria for intellectual disability or b) have an IQ measured as ‘borderline’ and demonstrate significant deficits in academic achievement or meet the ACT Student Disability Criteria for ASD.
Learning Support Units (LSUs) LSUs are small classes in some ACT Public schools of 8 students that are typically supported by one teacher and one Learning Support Assistant (LSA). Students in LSUs must meet the ACT Disability Criteria for intellectual disability. There are 15 Learning Support Units in Primary schools (10 schools); five in high schools (5 schools); and 5 in secondary colleges (2 colleges). In addition, there are 9 Learning Support Centres (in 10 primary schools); 4 in Secondary schools (4 schools); and 2 in secondary colleges (2 colleges).
Learning Support Units Autism (LSUAs) LSUAs are small classes in some ACT Public schools of 6 students who meet the ACT Student Disability criteria for ASD and they are usually taught by one teacher and one LSA (primary and high schools only).
Multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary ‘Multidisciplinary’ has two somewhat different meanings. In its widest sense, it refers to situations in which there is involvement of more than one discipline, for example, when a student receives assistance from a teacher, counselor, physiotherapist and speech pathologist. More narrowly, and when applied to the model in which the different disciplines deliver services, ‘multidisciplinary’ means that one member of the team determines which other disciplines are invited to participate in an independent, discipline-specific team that
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conducts separate assessment, planning, and provision of services with little coordination (Dyer, 2003). ‘Interdisciplinary’ work expands the multidisciplinary team process through collaborative communication rather then shared communication. Establishing collaborative team goals produces a collaborative service plan. In this model, team members are involved in problem solving beyond the confines of their discipline (Dyer, 2003). ‘Transdisciplinary’ work extends the teamwork among the disciplines. It involves each individual working with others to develop an integrated approach to treatment that synthesizes the contributions of the various disciplines to promote an efficient response to needs. Transdisciplinary work values the knowledge and skills of team members and it depends on effective and frequent communication among members (Dyer, 2003).
Pedagogy Pedagogy is “the art and science of teaching. Pedagogy can be seen in the activity that takes place in classrooms or other educational settings, as well as in the nature of the learning and assessment tasks set by teachers” (ACT Department of Education and Training, 2009a).
Special Education 1. Classroom or private instruction involving techniques, exercises, and subject matter designed for students whose learning needs cannot be met by a standard school curriculum. 2. Special education refers to a range of educational and social services provided by the public school system and other educational institutions to individuals with disabilities. Both definitions are from Children’s Health Encyclopedia (USA). Available: http://www.answers.com/topic/special-education 3. Special education has been an attempt to increase the fairness of universal public education for exceptional learners (those with specific difficulties or extraordinary abilities in learning. (Kauffman & Hallahan, 2005, p.10). 4. Special education exists for the primary purpose of providing better instruction to students at the extremes of statistical distributions of achievement (Kauffman & Hallahan, 2005, p. 54). Note: ‘special’ is not clearly defined in any of the definitions. In addition, the first definition includes the contestable assumption that the standard school curriculum should not be inclusive of all students, and thus appears inconsistent with the Disability Standards for Education 2005.
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Student outcomes ‘Student outcomes’ are understood in the Review in terms of ‘Curriculum Requirements in ACT Public Schools, Preschool to Year 10’ and the ‘ACT Guidelines for the Individual Planning Process’. Learning outcomes refer to priorities for learning that are “developed through a collaborative planning process between school, parents/carers and other relevant services and agencies” (P 3 ILPs)
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Appendix 5: Methodology There were several phases in the review. The evaluation phase involved visits, consultations and document analysis. The Review Team visited 45 schools, agencies and/or sites associated with Public schools; 28 related to Catholic schools; and 18 related to Independent schools. Nine community consultations were held in north, south and central locations on evenings and/or weekends. Some methods and procedures of Appreciative Inquiry were used and focused on aspects of the current programs and services that were working well. In the evaluation phase, attention focused on ‘What is?’ with the reviewers attempting to gain a good understanding of the current services, issues and stakeholder views. Towards the end of the review, more attention was given to ‘What could be?’ and ‘What should be?’ (Cooperrider, Sorenson, Whitney, & Yaeger, 2000: Thatchenkery & Chowdhry, 2007). Two draft reports were discussed with the Reference Groups prior to the finalisation of the report.
Example of data protocol (non-government schools 42) Thank you for commenting on the delivery of services for students with disabilities and special needs in ACT non-government schools - what is working well and how it could be improved. Your participation is voluntary and your comments are anonymous. Please visit (website) if you need further information about the Review. The Terms of Reference are summarised on the website and you will note the emphasis on student learning outcomes. The following points will be explored at consultations – interviews, visits, focus groups and similar. • • •
• •
42
What is the extent of your experience with Special Education in ACT non-government schools What are the strengths? What is working well? What allows you to draw these conclusions? (Evidence? Data?) With specific reference to pedagogy, curriculum and student learning outcomes, how effective is Special Education in ACT non-government schools? What current good practices should be extended? Why? With specific reference to pedagogy, curriculum and student learning outcomes, what ‘might be’? How well aligned are “Mainstream Education” and “ Special Education” policy and practice? What makes you conclude this way?
A similar protocol was used in public schools.
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•
•
•
• •
•
How efficient is Special Education in ACT non-government schools in terms of organisation, operational model, teamwork & collaboration? What allows you to draw these conclusions? (Evidence? Data?) Would you say that Special Education services are user friendly? For students? For classroom teachers? For parents? For school communities more generally? What allows you to draw these conclusions? (Evidence? Data?) In relation to Students with Special Needs, what is your view of the o Current procedures for identification of needs and allocation of resources? (Evidence? Data?) o Current service delivery model? (Evidence? Data?) o Services for students with communication disorders, sensory impairments, chronic medical conditions, mental health issues, and/or those on the autism spectrum? (Evidence? Data?) o Provision of services to students not identified through current disability criteria? What are the best features of the current supports for schools and families in responding to behavioural and mental health issues and ‘what might be’? How do we know if Special Education is making a significant difference for a) students and b) schools? How are you measuring the success of your intervention programs and services? Are there any other points you would like to make about any aspect of Special Education in ACT Schools?
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Appendix 6: Summary of Observations in Schools Appendix 6 (a): Public Schools’ Issues: The Discussion Paper 1.
Introduction
This paper aims to contribute to the ‘Special Education Review’ by stimulating community-wide conversation about curriculum and pedagogy for the range of students with disabilities in ACT public schools (see Terms of Reference, Appendix 1 & Dictionary of Terms, Appendix 4). The Review is forward-looking. It was initiated by the Australian Capital Territory Department of Education and Training to assist in future planning and delivery. The discussion of issues and options raised in this paper is one part of a process that commenced with visits and community consultation in March 2009 and will lead to a report and set of recommendations to the ACT Department of Education and Training in late July 2009. This paper discusses issues raised in submissions and visits and we are most grateful for the input received so far. Many submissions focused on very specific issues, often related to a single student, or to a particular group of students. In this Review however, we are required to take into account the needs of all students receiving special education services. We have been most impressed by the range and quality of services and programs that are available to students with a disability in ACT public schools and even more impressed by the motivation of all stakeholders to improve them. Even when perceived deficiencies have been mentioned, the motivation for raising them is clearly the great desire of all stakeholders to provide an excellent educational service for every student with a disability in ACT public schools. The Discussion Paper reflects the Review Team’s current appreciation of the developing Special Education context in the ACT, of international issues and trends, and of the evidence for practices that reflect ‘leading practice’ (see Appendix 4, Dictionary of Terms) in meeting the needs of students with a disability. As we aimed to write a relatively brief and readable paper and focus on significant issues for the future, we did not attempt to address every issue that was brought to our attention. However, the conversations that the Review Team will now have with the ACT community will help us to improve our understanding of the issues before moving towards recommendations about future options. The Discussion Paper is organised around three broad, interrelated issues. Section One examines Contextual issues. Section Two discusses Curriculum and Pedagogical Issues. Section Three examines Organisational Issues. To conclude this introduction we draw attention to the statement in the Terms of Reference about “Provid(ing) advice on future options for the provision of special education services October 2009
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in ACT public schools within the existing budget provision.” We well understand that decisions and planning must consider a range of determinants including legal obligations, government policy and budgetary and resource constraints. However we take the view that the initial focus of this Review should be on curriculum, pedagogy and future options based on leading practice.
2.
Contextual issues
2.1 The legal bases Future options (what could be?) for students with a disability in ACT Public Schools must be based on a clear understanding of existing legal rights and obligations (what must be!). ACT legal foundations are provided through the Education Act 2004, the Discrimination Act 1991, and the Human Rights Act 2004. Legal obligations are also imposed and elaborated by the Commonwealth Disability Discrimination Act 1992, and the Commonwealth Disability Standards for Education 2005. In opening this Discussion Paper by focusing on the legal basis for the education of students with a disability we make one simple point. That is, although it may appear somewhat uninspiring to consider future options in education with reference to existing legal obligations, the legal ‘bottom line’ is a good place to start. The ACT Education Act 2004 states that education should aim to develop every child’s potential and maximise educational achievements, improve the learning outcomes of students who are disadvantaged for a range of reasons and recognise the individual needs of children with disabilities. In addition the Act mentions the need for innovation, diversity and opportunity within and among schools; outlines the need for a combination of central and school-level policies and decision-making; requires effective quality assurance mechanisms and accountability; stresses the importance of partnerships between home, community and educational providers; and emphasises the primary responsibility of the principal for the educational outcomes of every student at the school. The ACT Discrimination Act 1991 prohibits discrimination on the ground of disability in the area of education, as does the Commonwealth Disability Discrimination Act 1992 (DDA). The ACT Human Rights Act 2004 requires that, as far as possible, all ACT laws must be interpreted and applied in a way that is compatible with the human rights guaranteed in that Act. In the area of special education, a number of those rights might be relevant, such as the right to recognition and equality before the law and the right to protection of the family and children. From 1 January 2009, the Human Rights Act also expressly requires public authorities to act consistently with human rights and when making decisions to give proper consideration to relevant human rights. The Disability Standards for Education 2005, (‘the Standards’) were formulated under the DDA. The Standards elaborate the legal obligations of education providers in relation to enrolment, participation, curriculum, student support and avoidance of harassment and victimisation for students with a disability. The Standards also provide specific and nonbinding examples of the ways education providers may comply with obligations under the Act. These provisions are further articulated for schools and parents in the On the Same
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Basis As materials produced by the Department of Education and Children’s Services South Australia (2007). Several features of the Standards, and the obligations of anti-discrimination law more generally, have particular relevance for the current Review of Special Education in ACT Public Schools. First, the description and meanings of ‘disability’ in anti-discrimination legislation at both the ACT and Commonwealth level are broad compared with definitions of disability that are contained in the eight categories in the ACT Department of Education and Training policy – Intellectual, Physical, Vision, Hearing, Autism Spectrum Disorders, Language, Mental Health and Chronic Medical Condition. Secondly, many students with a disability require specialised services in order to access the curriculum and to achieve appropriate learning outcomes, e.g., some may need therapy or mental health support that may be provided by individuals and organisations that are not under the direct control of the ACT Department of Education and Training. In these circumstances, the Standards require that the education provider takes appropriate steps to ensure that collaborative arrangements with specialised service providers are adequate. Thirdly, the Standards do not mention ‘special education’ or ‘inclusion’ or ‘inclusivity’. The Standards simply state and re-state the fundamental right of a student with a disability to participate in education on the same basis as a student without a disability. (The phrase, ‘on the same basis’ is used 33 times in the Standards and Guidance Notes). Continuing the conversation 1. What lessons might be learned from other jurisdictions that are either more or less prescriptive of education services for students with disabilities? 2. What could the provision of educational services to students with disabilities with ACT public schools look like in the future if the ACT rigorously adopted the ‘on the same basis’ orientation of the Disability Standards for Education 2005? 2.2 Education, Special Education and the ACT International practices, priorities and trends influence Australian education policy. In the past, students with ‘special needs’ in many countries did not participate in public education and this exclusion was based on assumptions and values about what is ‘normal’ or ‘typical’ and the purpose of ‘mainstream’ education. These dichotomous ways of thinking are inadequate for understanding and responding to the diversity in contemporary society and its schools but they continue to exert an unhelpful influence on educational structures, policies, service delivery models and resourcing mechanisms in special education and in education more generally. Current international trends influence Australian education policy. For example, the international school reform literature urges school systems to focus on: • •
Developing learning environments that stimulate student engagement, satisfaction, commitment and learning; Organising educational experiences to meet the individual needs and interests of students;
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• • •
Facilitating transition from school to work; Connecting schools and families in ways that promote student success; and Re-thinking school administration and funding policies to promote whole-school reform. (Centre for Social Organisation of Schools, CSOS, n.d.).
In England the strategies for school improvement include ambitious standards; clear targets, good data and accountability; access to best practice professional development; and devolved responsibility with intervention in inverse proportion to success. With its Every Child Matters: Changes for Children policy (Department for Education and Skills, 2004), the United Kingdom has embarked on a revolutionary, whole of government multidepartmental strategy to provide wraparound services that aim to maximise opportunity and minimise risk for all children and young people. The Melbourne Declaration (Ministerial Council on Education, Employment, Training and Youth Affairs, 2008) and its support documents state that the two main goals of contemporary Australian education are that “Australian schooling promotes equity and excellence”; and that “All young Australians become successful learners, confident and creative individuals and active and informed citizens”.
Contemporary education policy emphasises: • • • • •
Greater flexibility with a focus on improving the educational outcomes of all students; Assessment of learning against specified educational standards; Lifting literacy and numeracy standards particularly for disadvantaged students; School leadership and teacher quality; and Increased transparency and accountability and decreased reporting and red tape.
The actions proposed to achieve these goals include the facilitation of the following: • • • •
• •
Partnerships with parents, local community groups and agencies; Partnerships between schools, sharing facilities and school-to-school mentoring; Improving the performance management of schools; A focus on the educational needs and well-being of individual students, including personalised planning for learning, provision of targeted support to address the learning of disadvantaged students and the mobilisation of tailored services from outside the school; Value-added measures for schools’ performance and analysing student results over time; and The establishment of ways of tracking student performance from the first year of compulsory schooling to post-school education and training.
The ACT has numerous policies that are relevant to the current Review. For example, the ACT Social Plan has expressed a priority for the Territory to “Lead Australia in education, training and life-long learning” and has given priority to:
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• • • • • •
•
All young people completing 13 years of schooling and achieving a Year 12 certificate or equivalent vocational qualification; Industry links for senior secondary students; Improving the capacity of government schools to increase literacy and numeracy levels through intensive support for underachieving students; Improving learning outcomes for students with a disability; Providing early education for Indigenous children; Ensuring that government schools are resourced to deliver information and communication technology (ICT) to students irrespective of school size and financial capacity; and Having environments that are conducive to effective learning.
The ACT Government is currently updating policy on outcomes and opportunities for all Canberrans who have a disability. Strategic priorities are being developed with the community around key messages from individuals, families, cares and service providers about type of support, contribution to, and engagement with, the community, learning opportunities and the requirements of a quality service system for people with a disability. Within the ACT Department of Education and Training, key documents include Students with a disability: Meeting their educational needs (2008) and The Inclusivity Challenge: Within Reach of Us All Discussion Paper (2002). These and many other documents outline the Department’s policies and procedures for supporting the diverse range of students in ACT public schools. There is a strong commitment to ensure access and participation in school curriculum, programs and activities by students with a disability. Continuing the conversation 1. How effective is the policy framework around the provision of educational service to students with a disability in ACT public schools? What, if any, are the implications, e.g. for policy development/refinement? 2. What other policy-practice issues are relevant? 2.3 Students with a disability in a diverse society Australian society and its schools are becoming more diverse and while students with a disability contribute to this diversity, they are certainly not the only source. Improving pedagogy and curriculum for students with a disability needs to be understood with reference to diversity more generally and the demands it places on schools, teachers and students. For example, over 100 languages are spoken in the homes of students whose families are coming to Australia in large numbers as migrants, refugees or as humanitarian entrants. Some of these students have experienced trauma and abuse. As well, about 90 indigenous languages are spoken in Australian homes. A key requirement of contemporary education is to improve the educational performance of the lowest performing school students (Fullan, 2006). These students are sometimes referred to as ‘at-risk’ and ‘disengaged’, implying that the ‘problem’ is in the student. However, they are also referred to as ‘put at risk for disengagement’, implying that societal and/or educational factors may be the cause. In any case, research shows that raising the literacy and numeracy scores of these students contributes significantly to economic
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prosperity and social cohesion. Many of these students engage in behaviour that is challenging for teachers and is disruptive of the learning of other students. The recent decision in the ACT to increase the participation age to 17 will no doubt add to school and classroom diversity at high school and college level. ‘Students with a disability’ contribute to school diversity and they are an extremely diverse subsection of the school population. Descriptions of individual students in terms of typical ‘categories of disability’ – Intellectual, Physical, Vision, Hearing, Autism Spectrum Disorders, Language, Mental Health and Chronic Medical Condition - cannot convey the unique nature of each student and their needs. Children who share the same diagnostic category may be very different. Furthermore, many students who experience difficulties in learning do not quite ‘fit’ under any particular disability category, yet, because of a combination of social, educational, behavioural and/or other reasons, they need additional educational support. Advances in medical science and technology are contributing to school diversity. Many children who once would have not survived because of pre, peri and/or postnatal complications, or who have contracted serious illnesses such as cancer, attend school and many continue to experience severe or subtle learning and developmental difficulties. The prevalence of some conditions is also increasing, or, at the very least, these conditions are being more correctly diagnosed and managed in educational settings, e.g. Autism Spectrum Disorder and Foetal Alcohol Syndrome. About 6% of children have a primary speech and language delay and many will require additional educational support. Many students experience the stress of living in a dysfunctional family. Furthermore, research suggests that about 14% of Australian students experience poor social-emotional wellbeing at some stage and 20% experience depression before adulthood. Approximately 2-5% of students have exceptional gifts and talents and some experience classroom difficulties with social relationships, engagement with the curriculum and conformity with school routines. While many local educators are working successfully and creatively in this complex and demanding milieu, the contemporary educational environment is extremely diverse and challenging. Continuing the conversation 1. How might decision-making about the most appropriate programs for individual students in schools be improved? 2. What opportunities are provided by current circumstances and this Review for the ACT to improve education services for all students while improving education services for students with a disability?
3
Curriculum and Pedagogical Issues
3.1 Curriculum Curriculum is all learning planned, guided and implemented by a school or college. Page 208
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The aims of the ACT Curriculum Framework, Every Chance to Learn, are that: • •
• • •
Students will have every chance to learn the essential knowledge, understandings and skills that will allow them to be active, effective and responsible participants in society; Students will have every chance to learn a core of discipline-based study from the eight key learning areas of English, Mathematics, Science, the Social Sciences, Technology, Health and Physical Education, Languages and the Arts; Students will be prepared to take part in further education, training and work in the 21st century; Students will be encouraged and enabled to enjoy learning and to realise their individual potential and to contribute to a fair and just society that values diversity; and The curriculum will promote continuity and coherence of learning across year and school transitions.
The intent of Every Chance to Learn is that it should be applicable to all children from preschool to Year 10. While the framework identifies learning that is essential for all ACT students, it gives teachers “the professional freedom and responsibility to determine how best to organise that essential learning and to make adjustments to meet the particular needs of their students”. Thus, the adequacy of each student’s educational experience depends to a great extent on their teacher’s ability to ‘differentiate’ the curriculum by making pedagogical adaptations, changes or adjustments to accommodate the different needs of students. The following curriculum issues are pertinent to the Review of Special Education: 1. Differentiating the curriculum is a demanding and time-consuming task even for highly skilled and experienced teachers; 2. Differentiation is typically conducted by individual teachers, teams of teachers, sometimes with expert assistance from support services; 3. Differentiating the curriculum for particular students and student groups can be exceptionally difficult e.g. those with very high support needs. This may be a function of the complex needs of these students and the necessary focus on preparing them for future life; 4. Successful differentiation at the high school and college level is complicated by a variety of factors – structural, pedagogical and organisational. The relevance of the curriculum for some students has been questioned, e.g. for those students who struggle to appreciate the relevance of the curriculum to their lives and aspirations; 5. The linking of Every Chance to Learn to the student’s Individual Learning Plan (ILP) can be complex, particularly in the mainstream, when a the student has very precise and functional needs that require systematic instruction over a significant period of time to ensure that the knowledge and skills are learned and can be applied, e.g. the development of social and interpersonal skills; and 6. The ACT’s school-based curriculum policy results in considerable variation in curriculum across the system.
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Although better teacher preparation and professional development in differentiating the curriculum are obvious options to consider, teachers also value more context-specific, student-specific, and timely assistance with differentiating the curriculum, and indeed, for navigating the complex terrain of ‘special needs provision’. There are a number of effective ways of providing this support, e.g. through having a skilled, school-based person who provides mentoring and coordination and who also acts as the lynchpin connecting teachers with the specialised services and supports with which they may be unfamiliar. Jurisdictions elsewhere are increasingly making available to school-based personnel webbased supports that provide accessible, practical, teacher-oriented guidance and examples of pedagogy for all students. More systematic ways of sharing ‘leading practice’ in ACT special and mainstream schools and ‘system learning’ about curriculum differentiation might be desirable. Curriculum differentiation takes time. Some schools are already adapting their schedules and organisation to generate the time for teachers to undertake curriculum planning and differentiation. Continuing the conversation 1. Would a more detailed differentiation of Every Chance to Learn, with the needs of all learners in mind, be desirable? The process of further articulating the curriculum, and linking it to the functional outcomes that many students must achieve, may be educative for teachers and parents, ultimately efficient of teacher time and effort, and benefit a wide range of students. 2. How can a better integration of the class curriculum and the student’s ILP (Individual Learning Plan) be achieved in effective, efficient and feasible ways? 3.2 Individual Learning Plans Individual Learning Plans (ILPs) in the ACT Department of Education and Training schools are an adaptation of the general model of Individualised Education Plans (IEPs) that have been a part of special education for over 30 years. They were mandated in USA legislation to bring structure, relevance, coordination and accountability into service delivery for individuals with a disability. ILPs are mandatory for specified students in ACT public schools. Some individuals commented that the ILP process provides opportunities for teachers to share and act on the knowledge of various participants including family and multidisciplinary colleagues. Others mentioned that the ILP is the key process for planning and delivering an agreed educational program for students with a disability. Since 2001, the ACT Department of Education and Training has put considerable resources into professional learning to increase the effectiveness of the ILP. A Professional Learning Package was researched and developed and system-wide professional learning has been provided by the Inclusion Support Team. However, operational issues have been raised in relation to ILPs including the following: • •
Varied quality and usefulness; Difficulty in measuring progress because of the way goals are stated;
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• • • • • • • •
While some ILPs change little from year to year, others change dramatically and appear to have insufficient connection with previous plans; Some ILPs do not sufficiently focus on the life skills that students need in order to function successfully in present and future environments; The coordination benefit of plans may not be realised because a student may have several plans; ILPs have to be developed quickly, sometimes before the student can be known well by those who should have input, e.g. itinerant support staff and/or therapists; Some teachers see the ILP more as a bureaucratic requirement than a teaching tool; Perhaps for reasons of efficiency, some plans are ‘pre-drafted’, but this leaves insufficient opportunity for parent involvement; Accountability for ILP quality and outcomes is needed; and The success of ILPs depends to some extent on the availability of resources.
The literature suggests that individual planning is most effective when it is genuinely student-centred, strengths-oriented and focused on specific learning outcomes that relate to the student’s immediate and longer-term goals. The student’s learning needs for functioning successfully in present and future environments should provide the framework and logic in which short-term objectives are identified. Integral to the original IEP concept was the role of a ‘case manager’ or similar, with responsibility for the quality of the plan and accountability for its implementation. One way to achieve this might be to strengthen ‘Case Coordination’ at school level. The ILP is a pivotal process in curriculum planning, delivery and evaluation. Currently the ILP Guidelines state “Many schools provide a line/time allowance for the case coordinator”, suggesting the importance of resource allocation at school level so that the full benefits of the individual planning process can be realised. Continuing the conversation 1. The development and implementation of ILPs is time-consuming, resource intensive, and time-demanding. What could be done to make the ILP a more effective, efficient, accountable, and feasible support for student learning? 2. Might there be advantages in aligning general policies and procedures for all ILP processes in ACT public schools, e.g. for Indigenous students, gifted and talented students and for students with a disability? 3.3 Transition Commencing pre-school or school, and making the transition from primary to high school, high school to college, and college to adult life are crucial occurrences in each student’s life. Transitions are often highly stressful for students and parents and carers. The child’s transition from the education system to adult life is a major source of concern for most parents and carers of children with a disability. Transitions raise many issues – systemic, structural, organisational and pedagogical. Transition also raises issues about the necessary skills and infrastructure in the settings to which students are transitioning and the logistics of getting them there. For example, our
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attention was drawn to the need for basic arrangements that directly affect curriculum and pedagogy such as school location and transport. Teachers and parents know very well that a student who has had a long and upsetting bus trip across the ACT to school may have a bad day, learn little, and disrupt the learning of others. Early intervention is important but rarely does it remove the need for ongoing support to access the curriculum. Many parents and teachers worry that the good work done in the early years of schooling may be undone if the student’s ‘next environment’ is unable to build on earlier achievements. At a system-wide level, the availability of appropriate educational settings to which students can transition is an issue. In particular, transition can be a major issue for some year 10 students in special schools. The relevance of curriculum and pedagogy at the ‘next’ setting is an issue for some parents and teachers. For example, students who have made good progress throughout primary school where the possibly specialised, differentiated pedagogy matched their needs, may not have access to the same pedagogy in the ‘next’ setting. Although many teachers and school staff work hard to engage in the necessary communication and liaison to facilitate smooth transitions for all of their students, many of these arrangements are unresourced and informal and may not be sustainable. Leading practice suggests that senior students with a disability benefit from systematic career guidance and support. In United States planning for adult life is legally required to commence at age 14 and must be incorporated into the student’s individual plan. In Australia and elsewhere, school-based, innovative ‘experience of work’ initiatives (in contrast to ‘work experience’) are having great success in assisting senior students, including those with very high support needs, to have meaningful employment and to develop essential friendship networks as they leave school. These initiatives often involve practical, grassroots, community partnerships, e.g. with Chambers of Commerce or particular businesses or industries, such as are recommended in Australia’s Goals for Schooling. Continuing the conversation 1. Transition to school is very important and it builds upon the work done in early intervention services. How might students with a disability and their families be supported in making this transition? 2. A key transition for students with a disability is the transition from adolescence to adulthood. Options are available in ACT Department of Education schools targeting this period. How might services be better deployed to improve transition outcomes? 3.4 Pedagogy Pedagogy is the term used to describe the art and science of teaching. Pedagogy can be seen in the activity that takes place in classrooms or other educational settings, as well as in the nature of the learning and assessment tasks set by teachers. In ACT schools there is a tradition of giving priority to pedagogy and to strategies to improve it, e.g., professional learning about good pedagogy. Currently, considerable Page 212
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resources are being directed towards implementing the Quality Teaching Model (known in NSW as the Quality Teaching Framework) through post-graduate training, provision of teaching and resource materials and the establishment of intensive support and networking opportunities for teachers from resource personnel. A commitment to ongoing improvement in pedagogy is a feature of ACT schools and this is reinforced through teacher and principal appraisal processes. Some school-based staff commented positively on the range of available in-service courses aimed at meeting the individual needs of students in the classroom although these tend to be pitched to the needs of mainstream teachers. The Department has also sponsored many teachers to undertake post-graduate studies and has worked with the University of Canberra to construct courses so that the learning has an impact on pedagogy across the system. All beginning teachers are now required to have completed at least one compulsory unit on special education in their teacher training. Issues raised about pedagogy during consultations and visits included the need for: • • • •
The theoretical framework and rationale for pedagogy and curriculum to be made clear to parents; Teachers to use strategies that have an adequate research base; Pedagogy that is available in one setting, e.g. in an autism-specific unit in a primary school, to be available when the student moves to another setting; Students to learn relevant ‘life skills’, e.g., important social skills should be taught for long enough and in sufficient depth for the student to be able to use them.
Research shows that ‘individual teacher variables’ have a huge impact on student learning, i.e. students’ outcomes are directly affected by the knowledge, skills and attitudes of the classroom teacher. A synthesis of relevant research by Alton-Lee (2003) describes what quality teaching and learning look like. Quality teaching for effective learning: •
• • • • • • • •
Focuses on student achievement (including social outcomes) and facilitate high standards of student outcomes for all students including those with special learning needs or vulnerabilities; Enables classes and other learning groupings to work as caring, inclusive, and cohesive learning communities; Enables effective links to be created between school and other cultural contexts in which students are socialised, to facilitate learning; Is responsive to student learning processes; Ensures that opportunities to learn are effective and sufficient; Allows students to engage in and complete learning processes so that what is learned is remembered; Ensures that curriculum goals, resources including ICT usage, task design, teaching and school practices are effectively aligned; Scaffolds and provides appropriate feedback on students' task engagement; Promotes learning strength self-knowledge, student self-regulation, meta-cognitive strategies and thoughtful student discourse; and
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•
Enables teachers and students to engage constructively in goal-oriented assessment.
There is a growing body of research on effective strategies for special and inclusive education (e.g., Mitchell, 2008). The extent to which teachers are using the full range of strategies available to them is unknown. The provision of just-in-time learning support, i.e., timely assistance, encouragement and professional learning about currently encountered issues, is valuable for teachers. Schools intent on continuous learning and change which matches the needs of students with disabilities must match high expectations with resources such as coaches and mentors and foster collaborative practice such as study groups, action research groups and networking opportunities to encourage the most effective practice among school personnel. Contemporary research on teaching also emphasises the social context and ‘climate’ of the school and classroom, reinforcing the point that good pedagogy is not just a technical matter of adopting evidence-based techniques. Finally, leading practice indicates that effective teaching involves establishing good relationships with students and families, consulting students about their learning and organising schools and delivering educational services in student-friendly ways. Continuing the conversation 1. Do some students require particular pedagogy? What are the implications? 2. Is there a balance to be achieved between mainstream and specialised pedagogies? Does the Quality Teaching Model provide a language and unifying conceptual framework? 3.5 Providing support for classroom-based personnel Many teams have been established to support schools and teachers to meet the specific needs of students, including those with a disability. Relevant to this Review are School Counsellors; Inclusion Support; Transition Support; Inclusive Technologies; Support for Learning Support Units; Disability Services Officers; Vision Support; and Hearing Support Teams. Some of these teams have highly specialised skills, excellent reputations and enjoy strong support from parents and school communities. Depending on the needs of specific students, teachers and schools may also need support from multidisciplinary personnel employed by other agencies, e.g. services of Speech and Occupational Therapists and Physiotherapists or the Child and Adolescent Mental Health Service. Many individuals spoke highly of particular support services and valued their contribution to individual students and schools. For example, they commented favourably on: • • • •
Support for ILP development, including where necessary, the development of specialised teaching materials; Support in communicating and working with families; Detailed and educationally useful assessments; and Provision of helpful professional learning and resource materials.
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The following issues were raised in relation to support services provided by the ACT Department of Education and Training: • •
• • • • • • •
Some schools and teachers are unclear about how to access additional support and what processes to follow; Although some staff have commented positively on the quality of support provided by Central Office, some believe that there are too few consultants to assist with specific disability-related issues; Links with these services are sometimes ‘personal’ and when key staff are transferred, communication with the particular support service is interrupted; Documentation about these teams is fragmented; The services appear to be somewhat compartmentalised and not sufficiently integrated, but this may not be the perception of service users; While there was evidence of a case management approach for students with more complex needs, there was considerable variability in philosophy and operation; The success of some teams in providing support has led to increased demand and their capacity being stretched; Policy around the role of teams to ‘build capacity’ in schools lacked specificity. It was unclear what this meant operationally; and Some support staff find it difficult to integrate what they do for the student with the classroom program.
In relation to support services provided by other agencies it was observed, generally, that there are issues around: • • • •
Referrals and the waiting time for necessary services; Coordination and communication between schools and these agencies; Absence of service protocols or agreements about levels of service to be provided; and Particular difficulties around providing therapy for students with a disability in mainstream schools.
Research and contemporary leading practice highlight the importance of: • • • • • • • •
A clear philosophical underpinning and vision for the operation of support services in schools with a focus on student learning outcomes; The integration of curriculum, pedagogical and support perspectives and goals; A case management approach for students with more complex needs; Good coordination at school level of the ways services provided by external agencies are managed and integrated with school policies, organisation and routines; A focus of student support personnel of building school capacity through: A clearly articulated, jointly developed philosophical framework/rationale for ‘student support’; Development of plans to implement a cohesive approach to student support; Identification of the support that schools need to develop their capacity to meet needs of all students; and
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• •
Data on the extent to which schools are developing the capacity to meet the complex needs of students; and Opportunity to rethink ways of delivering support and identifying the necessary skills.
Continuing the conversation 1. What options might be considered to improve students’ access to specialist services provided by outside agencies (such as Speech Pathology, Mental Health Services)? 2. What might be done to ensure the integration of support and therapy services with students’ educational programs?
4.
Organisational Issues
4.1 General models of service delivery There is consistent anecdotal evidence that one factor that motivates families to move to the ACT is the quality of the educational services provided for students with a disability. The ACT Department of Education and Training provides a wide range of options for students with a disability, and as summarised on the website (http://www.det.act.gov.au/school_education/special_education) there is a diverse range of services from early intervention to the senior school years, specialised programs of many different kinds in regular settings and in special schools. Many of these options have a specific focus, e.g. on students who share the same diagnostic category. In addition, students with a disability are also eligible for assistance from a wide range of Student Support services. In general, public education in the ACT is characterised by the following: • • • • • • • •
A tradition of good classroom practice with regard to students with disabilities; Recognition of excellence. Some schools provide outstanding services and have national reputations; School-based curricula that have the potential to link closely with student needs; Many initiatives in early intervention and early childhood education; Increasing attention, in some schools, to the individual needs of all students; Provision of quality, on-going professional development opportunities for teachers; Increasing use of technology in schools; and System wide adoption of the research-based Quality Teaching Model.
Despite these positive features, a number of service delivery issues deserve mention. These include: •
•
The ‘Learning Centre’ model may be inappropriate for many students and may have marginalising effects. (Students attending a Learning Support Centre do not necessarily have a disability under Australian Capital Territory Education and Training policy); There is huge diversity of program delivery approaches in units and centres but little data about overall outcomes;
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• • •
• •
Services for students with a disability or special needs in some schools could be better coordinated; As noted already, difficulties are encountered in accessing externally provided specialist services in a timely way and to the level of intensity needed; There is a lack of networking in special education. For example, some mainstream staff who teach students with disabilities have expressed the need for improved links with other special education teachers; There is insufficient role clarity, training and professional development opportunities for Learning Support Assistants (LSAs); and Staff find it difficult to attend professional development courses for a range of reasons such as the shortage of appropriately skilled relief teachers, the burden their attendance places on their colleagues, and the negative effects on their students of having a ‘new’ teacher for the day.
The diversity of educational practices and programs in the ACT is impressive and the variety of offerings seems to reflect not only school autonomy, but, at a more fundamental level, the interplay among different service delivery paradigms. These paradigms include the Special Education or Psych-Educational discourse (which tends to focus on how students are different and to provide special programs and facilities); the Diversity or Inclusion discourse (which tends to focus on how students are the same and favours mainstream curriculum and location); and, the variously named ‘Multidisciplinary Service System’ discourse, that seeks to provide, coordinated, multidisciplinary wraparound services based on need in the mainstream and with a strong emphasis on learning outcomes (e.g., as described by Gallagher, 2006). While the first two models are essentially delivered by education authorities with some involvement of other agencies, the latter requires considerably more inter-agency commitment, coordination and collaboration. Differences of opinion about the relative merits of the paradigms described above are evident in the ACT in ongoing debates about whether ‘the management of Special Education’ should be further separated from regular education; whether a functional curriculum or one derived from the regular curriculum should be followed; the manner in which therapy services (such as Speech, Occupational and Physiotherapy) should be provided; and/or whether students with a disability are bettered catered for in the mainstream or in specialised programs. While the literature is not consistent or complete enough to allow a definitive statement about what is ‘best’ in any literal sense or ‘best’ for every student in this regard, there is a growing body of research about ‘what works’ in terms of delivery models and school organisation (e.g., Mitchell, 2008). For example, the research we have referenced points to the effectiveness of: • • • • • •
A school focus on learning outcomes – academic, personal, social and vocational; Challenging and supportive school ethos – a ‘community of learners’ approach; Professional learning that is focused on improving student outcomes; Flexibility and responsiveness to individual needs; Whole-school, as opposed to withdrawal or separate programs (generally, but not universally); Intervening early – early and proactive interventions;
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•
•
Having a specifically identified person in the school with the required training, skills and knowledge to coordinate ‘special education delivery’, e.g. support for programming and differentiation of the curriculum; coordination; liaison with therapists and other support personnel; accessing resources; and leadership in professional development; and The commitment of school leadership to, and support for, the planning, organisation and resourcing of supports for students with a disability at the school.
This analysis raises a number of questions for a school system that provides a relatively wide range of program types and delivery models. For example the desirability of incorporating relevant ‘best practice’ features into all programs might be considered. It might also be desirable to consider strengthening accountability for student outcomes around all programs. This information might assist teachers and schools to provide the evidence for particular programs and also inform parent choice and system planning. The range of program options suggests the desirability of making available to parents and carers up to date and accurate information so they can make informed choices about educational services for their child. Other obvious implications are that teacher training and professional development give high priority to evidence-based practice and that school communities are further supported to engage in the ‘practitioner inquiry’ that is building the knowledge base and informing professional practice at school level. Continuing the conversation 1. Is there any problem/advantage in having multiple service delivery models? What are the implications? 2. Increased accountability for the learning outcomes of all students is mentioned frequently in the literature. Is it desirable? For students? For teachers? What would need to happen to ensure that the task was fair and feasible for schools and teachers and that it benefitted students? 4.2
Resourcing student learning
We draw attention to the statement in the Terms of Reference about “Provid(ing) advice on future options for the provision of special education services in ACT public schools within the existing budget provision” and first make some general observations about resourcing: • •
Schools receive significant resources that are provided for every student; Resources are not just points/money. Examples of resources include: o Organisational - stakeholder involvement, planning, timetable, school organisation; o Personal and personnel – leadership, the skills of school-based personnel, school climate & culture, engagement with school community, communication; and o Technical – curriculum, instruction, assessment, use of technology; o The ACT uses a Student Centred Appraisal of Need (SCAN) process for making decisions about the allocation of supplementary resources to support the learning of students with a disability in schools across the system.
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Many participants agreed that the SCAN process is a definite improvement on the previous ascertainment process and it leads to more consistency and system-wide understanding of resourcing. However, it is inadequate, as an appraisal of a student’s classroom needs, as suggested in the following views of parents and carers and/or education personnel: •
• • •
SCAN-based resourcing purports to be needs-based, but SCAN funding may not match student need or provide the capacity to implement system policy, e.g. around the Quality Teaching Model; The way in which SCAN scores are converted to an allocation is unclear; Some schools use the resources derived from SCAN in limited ways, i.e. they select from a narrow range of options; and The somewhat negative focus of the SCAN process is confronting and upsetting for many parents.
Special Education budgets in educational jurisdictions throughout the world are experiencing pressure and many potential solutions are being trialed. The following observations from the literature are relevant to the situation in the ACT. •
•
•
•
•
•
Funding mechanisms play a big part in determining the characteristics of service systems. Therefore, resourcing strategies should be designed so that they simultaneously direct resources where they are needed and support the achievement of system goals, e.g. towards more inclusive and integrated service delivery, and the use of evidence-based pedagogy; Inclusive settings tend to view the points/resources gained through disability-specific processes as supplementary. These resources are not the only source of support for students with a disability; Consequently, resourcing that is whole-school focused and flexible rather than strictly individual and student-focused has better outcomes but there needs to be transparency and equity in allocation across schools, accountability in regard to the learning outcomes of each student, and a vision and plan within the school of ‘good pedagogy for all’; Better outcomes are achieved when funding from different sources is pooled at school level (consistent with guidelines and regulations) to foster whole-school approaches to teaching and support for learning; A combination of funding mechanisms (such as input, throughput and outcomes-based) is preferable because there are fewer unintended negative consequences than when there is reliance on a single approach; and Resource allocation strategies that are developed in partnership with schools and other relevant stakeholders are more acceptable.
Continuing the conversation 1. The SCAN process is a resource intensive procedure that focuses mainly on student variables. However, theories of learning, and practical experience in classrooms, indicate that learning is dependent not just on student characteristics but on a range of contextual variables. How might the SCAN take these into account and, for instance, become a LOCAN (Learning Outcomes Centred Assessment of Need)?
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2. If schools were allocated resources and supported to use them flexibly to meet the needs of each student, what might need to happen to ensure appropriate allocation of resources and accountability for the learning outcomes of students with a disability? Could a future be envisaged in which SCAN-like processes were no longer necessary? 4.3 Staffing This section discusses more general staffing issues, such as supply, demand, deployment, utilisation and workforce planning. All of these issues impact on curriculum and pedagogy for students with a disability. The ways in which teachers are appointed to units and centres was raised. It was asserted that some Learning Support Units and Learning Support Centres are staffed by relatively inexperienced teachers who may not have sufficient qualifications or experience in teaching students with a disability. Although there is variation among schools, some teachers in units and centres experience a degree of professional isolation from mainstream and special education colleagues and may lack necessary mentoring opportunities. The ‘Mobility Clause’, a requirement for teachers to transfer within the Department at certain stages in their careers, concerns many educators and parents and carers. It was reported that highly skilled school-based and staff in support roles, e.g. those who provide specialist advice to classroom teachers, are required periodically to move to a different setting and undertake different responsibilities that are possibly unrelated to their specific expertise. Although the arguments for this requirement were understood, it appears to be a policy in need of fine-tuning. Attention was drawn to the apparent inefficiency of this policy for the Department, the disruption and lack of professional control over appointments for schools, disruptions to the careers of teachers committed to special education, and, more importantly, the potential impact of this requirement on students with a disability. The effective utilisation of staff was frequently mentioned. In relation to therapy staff, there is uncertainty in the ACT about the optimal way to deploy therapists in mainstream schools. In relation to school counsellors, it was reported that they currently devote considerable time and resources to assessing students for ‘program eligibility’. Their skills as educational and clinical psychologists may be underutilised, e.g. in identifying and recommending support for students with forms of dyslexia. In relation to Learning Support Assistants (LSAs), system policy around the nature and scope of their role and the skills they need to assist teachers with curriculum and pedagogy are unclear. Issues around the current and future availability of appropriately qualified and experienced itinerant staff, special education teachers, learning support assistants, and a range of therapy staff were frequently raised. Improving the pre service preparation of teachers was frequently mentioned. Currently, all teacher education students at the University of Canberra receive an introduction to responding to individual needs. Some students, perhaps 20-30 per cohort, may choose to undertake a six subject Major in Inclusive Education. However, the Major in Inclusive Education is not designed to prepare graduates to work in special schools. Training and professional development for LSAs is needed, but prior to that, a clear role that is consistent with current research needs to be developed. The research evidence
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reinforces the classroom teacher’s primary responsibility for teaching and learning and indicates that the LSA role should be essentially to support the teacher to fulfil this role. The literature suggests that specialist staff such as counsellors should seek to engage in more ‘upstream’ and preventative interventions and minimise, or seek efficiencies in, resource-intensive functions that only indirectly improve curriculum and pedagogy. Recommended proactive interventions might include assistance with the implementation of whole-school, evidence-based programs that contribute to student learning, e.g. peer tutoring and/or assisting teachers to implement efficient monitoring systems for tracking student outcomes and/or a school’s implementation of school-wide Positive Behaviour Support. There is a need for better data about the system’s capacity to ensure it has the staff to implement current policy, e.g. the number of teachers with the types of expertise required in special education schools, in specialised programs and for itinerant specialist support. Such data would allow benchmarking, the development of recruitment and retention strategies, and inform workforce training and professional development policy. Continuing the conversation 1. What actions need to be taken to ensure the supply of appropriately skilled staff – teachers, Learning Support Assistants, visiting ‘specialist’ teachers, counsellors and others? 2. What other staffing issues should be considered in the Review of Special Education? 4.4 Special schools ACT special schools deliver positive outcomes for many students and their families and their contribution to public education in the ACT is greatly appreciated and acknowledged in the community. Although unique in character and role, the special schools demonstrate a commitment to tailoring educational programs for students with extraordinarily diverse needs; leadership in data-based instruction; the development of curriculum to meet special needs; and, in particular cases, a very strong commitment to research-based teaching techniques. Enrolments in special schools seem to be relatively stable over time. It appears that staff with the necessary interest, qualifications and/or experience are attracted to the focused instructional efforts made by special schools (notwithstanding ‘mobility clause’ issues). Special schools have the resource potential to be lighthouses of exemplary practice and several of the ACT Department of Education and Training special schools have already received national recognition for the quality of their programs. Some staff in special schools have expertise that would benefit other teachers if there were capacity to reach out and support/network with staff who are teaching students with a disability in units and mainstream classrooms. For example, many special school staff produce high quality, tailored instructional and curricular support material that has application system-wide. However, there are some issues around special schools. Philosophically, the separate locations and history of special schools emphasise ‘difference’. Physical separation and history may result in insufficient recognition of their place within the overall system – a perception of a lack of system coherence experienced by some as ‘not belonging’. For
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example, some special school staff expressed the view that the manner in which ‘inclusivity’ has been promoted has not positioned special schools well. Within special school communities many practical issues were raised including: • • • • •
Difficulty in attracting and retaining skilled and experienced teachers and Learning Support Assistants; Health and safety issues, particularly around the physical nature of the work and the challenging behaviour of some students; Issues with infrastructure, space and equipment for meeting students’ highly specialised needs; Insufficient influence on system policy, e.g. around curriculum development; and Issues with the availability, suitability and location of appropriate educational settings to which their students can transition and related concerns about continuity in terms of curriculum and pedagogy.
The literature reports that some special schools have ‘reinvented’ themselves as hubs of best practice (Farrell, 2008). Their focus has switched from one of relative isolation to ‘what special schools can offer the entire educational community?’ Others have developed the ‘extended school concept’, one that provides, often on a fee for service basis a “range of services often beyond the school day to help meet the needs of its pupils, their families and the wider community’. Special schools can be also become staging points for in-school therapy provisions, professional development and research into exemplary practices. Continuing the conversation 1. How might the level of integration of special schools into educational planning and provision in the ACT Department of Education and Training be further developed? 2. What might be some of the elements in a desirable vision for special schools in the ACT? How might special schools be best configured to be coherent with the primary – high school – college structure? 4.5 Planning The Review of Special Education must ultimately identify ‘future options for the provision of special education services in ACT public schools within the existing budget provision’. This requirement emphasises the need for Special Education services in the ACT to be resourceful and efficient, as well as effective. An effective, efficient and resourceful delivery system requires vision, planning, resources, skills and incentive. While there are many examples in the ACT of individual schools ‘leading practice’ by engaging in processes to define their vision and identify processes to realise it, the systemic vision for special education in ACT public schools needs refinement. As implied throughout this Discussion Paper, better outcomes for students are likely to be achieved when Special Education, the ACT Department of Education and Training, other services for children and young people, and school communities share a vision for a desirable service for students with a disability. It is to be hoped that the
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conversations stimulated by this Discussion Paper might lead stakeholders to move towards such a vision. As has been noted, schools in the ACT have considerable autonomy over curriculum, pedagogy and school policy and management and this degree of freedom is an acknowledged strength of the ACT system. However, these features are somewhat at odds with national developments and they complicate Special Education planning, the delivery of specialised services and programs in the required locations, and accountability for outcomes. Inclusive practice implies ‘universal design’, i.e. the needs of all students are considered in planning and delivery. ‘Universal design’ is not just about curriculum, pedagogy and physical access. The concept has implications for all aspects of educational provision, including specific architectural conditions (such as space and rooms with appropriate acoustics) that are essential for some students. A feature of leading practice in education is the use of data. Good policies already exist but good data is required for planning the type and location of needed services, for monitoring policy implementation, and for quality monitoring at system, program, and school and student level. It would be appropriate to consider how data collection and data management might be given increased priority in ACT Special Education, and, consistent with a refined vision for Special Education, it would be appropriate to consider desirable targets and key performance indicators. Continuing the conversation 1. What information needs to be collected to ensure that ACT schools are able to provide programs to meet the needs of all students with disabilities in the next planning cycle? 2. Would more regionally-based planning improve collaboration, networking, and the provision of complementary services?
5
Conclusion
This brief paper has aimed to identify issues of fundamental importance to the future of Special Education in ACT public schools. We are most grateful for the contribution of so many individuals and groups to its development. The paper did not try and cover every issue. So if readers believe we have missed the significance of particular matters that were mentioned to us, they are urged to raise them again in the conversations that will follow. Education and teaching are relational activities. They work best when there is cooperation and collaboration that are motivated by a common purpose. That does not of course imply ‘group think’. We appreciate that the quality of the educational opportunities provided to students with a disability is such a crucial matter that there will be strongly held differences of opinion among the various stakeholders. However, if the focus remains on what’s best for the students, if we are respectful of the views of others, and if we attempt to be as evidence-based as possible, the process will produce good results. As in education itself, the success of the Review process is dependent on healthy relationships and good communication.
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Although there is a rich and expanding literature about the delivery of special education, as far as we know, no ‘off the shelf’ solutions are available to many of the issues we must address. Throughout the world, various jurisdictions are trying a range of different strategies to provide an excellent service and to do so without expanding costs. Very often, as noted by Norwich (2008), stakeholders find themselves debating and making choices about recurring dilemmas: whether to identify – the identification dilemma; what to teach – the curriculum dilemma; whose views should be heard – the parent-professional dilemma; and where to learn – the integration dilemma. One of the major advantages that the ACT has over just about any other state or territory anywhere in the world is the extent and depth of the talent in its educational settings and in the community more generally. The ACT community is well-educated, knowledgeable and multi-skilled. These advantages provide the opportunity, challenge and invitation to chart a way forward together in solutions-focused, data-based and defensible ways – to become creators of leading practice in special education. Service development is a journey and we need to chart a course – one that values, but is not constrained by, where we have been. We look forward to the conversations about the desirable destinations and routes for Special Education within ACT public schools.
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Appendix 6 (b): Non Government Schools’ Issues The Discussion Paper for Public Schools (appendix 6 a), dealt with issues and concerns that arose from visits and consultations in relation to ACT Public schools. However, this consultation process was open to the ACT community and so the Discussion Paper also includes issues raised by non-government education leaders, educators and parents and carers. What follows is a listing of matters that arose during the visits and consultations in non-government schools. As, by and large, the issues and concerns across Public, Catholic and Independent schools are similar, the points below list the more significant issues facing non-government schools and/or nuances of issues experienced across the sectors.
Catholic schools Despite the very positive features of ‘special education’ delivery in ACT Catholic Schools that were listed in Chapter One, issues of concern were raised at visits, consultations and in submissions. These included: 1. Considerable need for professional learning for some principals and classroom teachers about their obligations under the DDA 1992 and the Disability Standards for Education 2005; 2. Considerable need for professional learning for teachers and Learning Support Assistants (LSAs) about evidence-based pedagogies for students with a disability; 3. An over-reliance on LSAs in the delivery model in some schools; 4. Need for policy development around the roles and responsibilities of LSAs; 5. A strong belief in some schools that the resources arising from the Student Centred Appraisal of Need are the sole source of support for students with a disability; 6. Difficulties for some schools in accessing specialised equipment and particularly in Information and Communication Technologies (ICT); 7. Inadequate choice in settings for some students with disabilities in Catholic schools, for example, Catholic special schools and preschools. 8. Limited access in some schools to timely consultation, advice and support, for example, around students with mental health issues; 9. Inadequate multidisciplinary supports and a consequent burden on parents and carers, particularly in regard to therapy assessment and treatment; 10. Inadequate networking with local schools in other sectors and sharing of resources, for example, for professional learning; and 11. Strong perception that resources are inadequate.
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Independent schools It is important to stress that Independent schools are genuinely independent and that each school is separate and different. Given their diversity, it would be incorrect to generalise about Independent schools. Therefore, it should not be assumed that the issues and concerns that were raised or observed in particular Independent schools apply to all Independent schools. With these caveats clearly understood, the following points should be noted: 1. Some principals and classroom teachers need to be more cognisant of their obligations under the DDA 1992 and the Disability Standards for Education 2005. There is a need for professional learning and ready access to relevant support documents, for example, copies of the Disability Standards for Education 2005 and the On the same basis: Implementing the Disability Discrimination Act resource (Department of Education and Children’s Services of South Australia, 2007); 2. Considerable need for professional learning for some schools and teachers about legal issues, curriculum differentiation, individual planning, alternative pathways, responding to the particular needs of students with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and those on the autism spectrum; 3. A view in some schools that the only way to support a student with a disability is to have a Learning Support Assistant (LSA) work solely with that student; 4. Some Independent schools have a very high proportion of students with additional needs, for example, English as a Second Language (ESL) and the parents of these students face similar language and cultural challenges; 5. Very limited resources to provide and/or enhance pedagogy in some schools, for example, in ICT, and a belief that there is a lack of equity in resource distribution to support students with a disability, for example, re equipment and information; 6. A strong belief in some schools that the resources arising from the Student Centred Appraisal of Need are the sole source of support for students with a disability; 7. Little access in some schools to consultation, advice and support, for example, around students with mental health issues; 8. Inadequate multidisciplinary assessment and treatment services in some schools and a consequent burden on parents and carers; and 9. A degree of professional isolation in some schools evidenced by inadequate networking and sharing resources with local schools in other sectors and/or with Independent schools in other states and territories.
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Appendix 7: Student Variables that Affect Learning Outcomes Table 5: Major ‘student variables’ described by prominent researchers and theorists. Student characteristics that are associated with learning 43
Theorist/researcher
Ability Prior achievement Motivation Self concept Perseverance
Walberg (1984a)
Biological structures & functions Primary memories and associations Motivational states, e.g. personal goals, self confidence, self concept, trust in their environments Strategies and ‘executive’ functions, e.g. cognitive strategies, selfregulation Memory, short and longterm
Mitchell (2008)
Cognitive attributes, e.g. memory & information processing, communication, knowledge utilisation. Metacognitive attributes, e.g. goal setting, process monitoring, disposition monitoring and self-regulation. Self-attributes, e.g. relationships and acceptance, beliefs about selfefficacy, the purpose/personal relevance of the task, motivation and attention.
Marzano (1998)
Prior knowledge of learning Expectation Degree of openness to experience Beliefs about the value and worth to them from trying to learn Engagement Sense of self from engagement in learning
Hattie (2009)
Student attentiveness Student needs and interests Enjoyment Perceived usefulness of the curriculum Student perception that teacher cares, is helpful & responsive
Rowe (2003; 2005)
43
Most teachers attribute students’ unsatisfactory learning to student, parent or home factors also (Hattie, 2009; Lipsky et al. 1987; Stainback & Stainback, 1996).
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Appendix 8: Effective Teaching Major Theorists & Researchers Table 6: Elements of effective teaching Theorist/Researcher
Descriptor
Elements
Christenson et al. (1989) reported in Kavale & Forness (1999)
Critical factors in learning and teaching
Effective classroom management Positive school environment Appropriate instructional match Clear goals & expectations Instructional support High opportunity to respond Teachers monitor student progress Frequent and appropriate evaluation of performance
Hattie (2009)
Examples of teacher bahaviour associated with learning
Formative evaluation Micro teaching Teacher clarity Reciprocal teaching Feedback Teacher student relationships Meta cognitive strategies Direct instruction Mastery learning Peer tutoring Cooperative learning.
Quality Teaching Framework
Conditions necessary for students to produce work of high intellectual quality
Intellectual quality – Deep knowledge, Deep understanding, Problematic knowledge, Higher order understanding, metalanguage, substantive communication. Quality learning environment – Explicit quality criteria, Engagement, High expectations, Social support, Student’s self-regulation, Student direction. Significance – Background knowledge, Cultural knowledge, Knowledge integration, Inclusivity, Connectedness, Narrative.
Institute for Academic Success (University of Kansas
SMARTER strategies of Effective Teachers
Select critical outcomes; what students need to learn Map (organise) critical content Analyse difficulty Reach enhancement decisions so the student can learn Teach strategically – Cue-Do-Review Evaluate mastery Re-evaluate outcomes, i.e. reflect on strategies and change them if necessary.
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Algozzine & Ysseldyke (1999)
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Effective instructional practices
Planning Decide what to teach by assessing gaps, considering context & establishing logical sequences Decide- how to teach, e.g. set instructional goals, establish performance criteria, choose instructional methods, determine pace, establish groupings Communicate realistic expectations Prepare students for instruction – class rules, manage disruptions, student self-management Use time productively Establish positive classroom environment Deliver instruction – gain/maintain attention, review students’ prior knowledge, present the lesson in an orderly way. Deliver instruction in a way that Motivates students Assists them to engage with the learning & be actively involved Provides relevant practice Provides relevant feedback Adapts and adjusts to meet students’ needs.
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Appendix 9: Principles of Effective Mental Health Services in Schools Table 7: Evidence-based principles and practices for services for students with mental health issues Principles Giving students ‘voice and choice’ Care & compassion for students and families Proactivity Flexibility Safety & success Strengths-based, student and familycentred support in natural contexts
Type of Support
School Resources
Resources from outside the school
Systems for Positive Support
School policy on social & emotional development, wellbeing & positive relationships Health promotion, e.g. re drug education Accommodation to support learning and behaviour Partnerships with parents and carers
Youth engagement and development programs Recreation, leisure and enrichment Support for school and teacher professional learning
Systems for Early Intervention and treatment
Whole school, evidence-based, timely programs targeting specific issues – violence, bullying. school dropout Crisis prevention and intervention strategies Individually-tailored support for individuals within the social context of the school Short-term counseling and therapy case managed by the school
Short-term, out of school interventions Out of home placements Family support
Systems of Education and Care for Longterm, Severe Problems
Specific programs for students with emotional disturbances and chronic mental health problems Coordinated referral, treatment and return to school with external agencies
Timely support for emergency and crisis interventions Long-term therapy coordinated with school services Hospitalisation
(Synthesised from American Academy of Pediatrics, 2004; Community Action Network, 2009; Nation et al, 2003; National Alliance on Mental Illness, 2007; Patton et al. 2003; Power, 2003; & Rowling, 2003).
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Appendix 10: Leading Practice We have defined ‘leading practice’ as “a set of educational processes and procedures for which there is credible evidence of effectiveness with a large number of students and which are recognised within the profession as effective ways of teaching’. As this definition adopts some of the principles of ‘best practice’ the caveats that apply to ‘best practice’ are equally applicable, for example, are evidence-based practices necessarily applicable across time, students, settings and personnel? We caution against dogged and/or dogmatic prescription that teachers must use only research-based practices. The research base is not complete and it does not always address the challenges experienced by teachers. Specific applications (of research-based practices) require the sagacity and perspicacity of the individual special education practitioner that should not be limited by any research-based over-specification of the teaching–learning process. Like doctors and engineers, special education practitioners will need to go beyond the scientific basis of their work. A special education student is quite likely to present problems where scientific generalisations, principles, and suppositions will not apply directly and must be mediated through the teacher’s own creative rendering of best practice. Therefore, the creativity of the individual special education practitioner must not be stifled, because quality education for special education students will always be based on the artful application of science. (Kavale & Forness, 1999, p. 93)
The term ‘best practice’ is problematic for a number of reasons. Often there is inadequate comparative data to support the conclusion that any one approach, treatment of method is literally ‘the best’. Furthermore, ‘best practice’ may not be best for everyone … so what may be ‘best practice’ in one teacher’s classroom may not be best for others. There is also the issue of ‘procedural integrity’ or ‘treatment fidelity’ in the application of ‘best practice’. Obviously a particular ‘best practice’ will be effective only to the extent that it is replicated faithfully and thoroughly in the different or new context. Another frequently used term is ‘evidence-based practice’ (EBP) and it raises similar difficulties. For example, Johnson & Austin (2005) restate the original definition developed by “a Canadian medical group at McMaster University. This group defined EBP as a process that considers ‘the conscientious, explicit, and judicious use of current best evidence in making decisions about the care of individuals (Sackett, Richardson, Rosenberg, & Haynes, 1997)”. Johnston and Austin then discuss the uncertainties surrounding the following: 1. The traditional hierarchy of evidence and the judgement/discretion exercised in giving more or less weight to particular research; 2. The fact that different questions require different methodologies; 3. The privileging of scientific knowledge over the views of service users; and 4. The possibility that a reliance only on strategies for which evidence exists will stifle innovation.
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Arguing that underlying the ‘evidence-based’ agenda in education (one that is derived from the medical research paradigm) has a ‘social engineering’ purpose, esteemed educational researcher, Frederick Erickson, recounts a conversation with a medical researcher who had worked for many years at the Salk Institute. He said, “If knowledge development in polio research had had to depend only on conclusive findings from experiments, research on polio would today consist mainly of studies of the treatment effects of the iron lung.” (p. 9) Similarly, Biesta (2007) argues that the evidence-based agenda restricts decision-making to questions only of effectiveness and in so doing is somewhat elitist and anti democratic. Biesta argues that reliance on evidence-based practice puts control of education in the hands of those who are preoccupied with ‘technique’ while depriving others of the opportunity to be involved in decision-making. Commenting on the political dimensions of US educational policy, Erickson (2005, p. 8) writes, “Make no mistake: the Blue Meanies have taken over the Yellow Submarine.”
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Appendix 11: List of Submissions Many formal and informal (e.g. short email) submissions were made to this Review. 66 submissions were posted on the website or were received anonymously. In addition, the following 53 identified written contributions were received in person or via email or mail. ACT Chapter of the Australasian Association of Special Education Inc. ACT Council of P & C Associations ACT Human Rights Commission M. Adorni Australian Education Union Autism Asperger ACT Rachel Baker Tim Bavinton, Sexual Health and Family Planning ACT Inc. Liz Blakey Phillip Brown Greg Burgess Denise Caddy Canberra & Queanbeyan ADD Support Group Inc. Canberra Deaf Children’s Association Cranleigh School Dale Daniels Jim Docherty Barb Donnan, Educational Pathways Pete Halsey, ACT Deafness Resource Centre Sue Healy Martin Hehir, Chief Executive, Department of Disability, Housing & Community Services Margo Hodge Andrew Hunt Inclusion Support Team Independent School Counsellors’ Association Jeremy Irvine, Executive Director, Association of Independent Schools of the ACT Chris Jenkins Jenny Kaye Chris Kilham Jan Kruger Bridget Larsen Renee Leon
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Kate Lyttle, Executive Officer, Association of Parents and Friends of ACT Schools Malkara School staff Kathy Melsom, Director, Indigenous Education and Early Years Learning, ACTDET Moira Najdecki, Director, Catholic Education Office of the Archdiocese of Canberra & Goulburn Karna O’Dea Viv Pearce Pegasus, Riding for the Disabled of ACT Inc. Jodie Reid Sally Richards Marijan and Maryanne Rupcic Lyndee Savage Rebecca Shee Special Education Advocacy Group Alan Stewart Estelle Sydney-Smith Therapy ACT Trinity Christian School Varjavandi family Woden School Board Woden School Board and Teachers Nicole Zimmer
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