Ostrich Journal of African Ornithology
ISSN: 0030-6525 (Print) 1727-947X (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tost20
Diurnal activity patterns of Harwood’s Spurfowl Pternistis harwoodi in relation to habitat types and climatic conditions in the Central Highlands of Ethiopia Abadi Mehari Abrha, Shimelis Aynalem Zelelew, Habtu Kiros Nigus & Aschalew Alelign To cite this article: Abadi Mehari Abrha, Shimelis Aynalem Zelelew, Habtu Kiros Nigus & Aschalew Alelign (2018): Diurnal activity patterns of Harwood’s Spurfowl Pternistis harwoodi in relation to habitat types and climatic conditions in the Central Highlands of Ethiopia, Ostrich To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.2989/00306525.2018.1429505
Published online: 06 Apr 2018.
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ISSN 0030–6525 EISSN 1727-947X http://dx.doi.org/10.2989/00306525.2018.1429505
OSTRICH
Short Note
Diurnal activity patterns of Harwood’s Spurfowl Pternistis harwoodi in relation to habitat types and climatic conditions in the Central Highlands of Ethiopia Abadi Mehari Abrha1 , Shimelis Aynalem Zelelew2* , Habtu Kiros Nigus3
and Aschalew Alelign1
Department of Animal, Rangeland and Wildlife Sciences, Mekelle University, Mekelle, Ethiopia Department of Fisheries, Wetlands and Wildlife Management, and Blue Nile Water Institute, Bahr Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia 3 Department of Statistics, Mekelle University, Mekelle, Ethiopia * Corresponding author, email:
[email protected] 1
2
Harwood’s Spurfowl Pternistis harwoodi is an endemic bird of Ethiopia. Globally, it is categorised as Vulnerable. Habitat loss and hunting are the major conservation threats to the species. This study investigated the activity patterns of Harwood’s Spurfowl in relation to biophysical variables in the Central Highlands of Ethiopia. A species focal sampling method was applied to quantify the time budget of the target species during the dry and wet seasons of 2016. The time spent by the species on various activity patterns were significantly different (p < 0.05). The mean proportion of time utilised by the species for ‘calling’, ‘feeding’, ‘preening’ and ‘resting’ activities based on habitat types and seasons were also statistically different (p < 0.05). Except for ‘resting’, most activity patterns showed bimodal patterns with peaks during the early morning and late in the afternoon. The number of Harwood’s Spurfowl (birds per hour per square metre) detected was higher during the cooler wet season. The highest bird counts occurred during low temperature, low wind speed and high relative humidity in the early morning and late afternoon. The species was recorded most in the scrubland habitat where human disturbance was low. Thus, this habitat should be conserved and managed to sustain the population.
Schémas d’activité diurne du Francolin de Harwood Pternistis harwoodi en relation avec les types d’habitat et les conditions climatiques dans les hauts plateaux du centre de l’Ethiopie Le Francolin de Harwood Pternistis harwoodi est un oiseau endémique de l’Ethiopie. À l’échelle mondiale, il est classé comme Vulnérable. La perte d’habitat et la chasse sont les principales menaces pour la conservation de l’espèce. Cette étude examine les modèles d’activité du Francolin de Harwood par rapport aux variables biophysiques dans les hautes terres centrales de l’Éthiopie. La méthode d’échantillonnage focale des espèces a été appliquée pour quantifier le budget-temps des espèces cibles durant les saisons sèches et humides de 2016. Le temps passé par l’espèce sur différents modèles d’activité était significativement différent (p < 0,05). La proportion moyenne de temps utilisée par l’espèce pour «émettre des cris», «s’alimenter», «se toiletter» et «se reposer» en fonction des types d›habitat et des saisons était également statistiquement différente (p < 0,05). À l›exception du «repos», la plupart des modèles d›activité présentaient des patrons bimodaux avec des pics tôt le matin et tard dans l›après-midi. Le nombre du Francolin de Harwood (oiseaux par heure et par mètre carré) détecté était plus élevé pendant la saison humide la plus fraîche. Les dénombrements d’oiseaux les plus élevés se sont produits à basse température, à faible vitesse du vent et à forte humidité relative tôt le matin et en fin d’après-midi. L’espèce a été observée surtout dans l’habitat broussailleux où les perturbations humaines étaient faibles. Ainsi, cet habitat devrait être conservé et géré pour maintenir la population. Keywords: Central Ethiopian highlands, diurnal activity, Harwood’s Spurfowl, time budget
Studying the activity patterns of birds helps to understand the ecological, physiological and behavioural features of the animal (Aissaoui et al. 2011), the life history and ecological adaptation (Hamilton et al. 2002), and habitat association of birds (Rave and Baldassarre 1989). Most behavioural activities of birds are influenced by temperature and light intensity (McNamara et al. 1994; Reyes-Arriagada et al.
2015), wind speed and rainfall (Reyes-Arriagada et al. 2015), food availability (Blake and Loiselle 2009), land-use changes (Martínez 2000) or latitude (McNamara et al. 2005). Harwood’s Spurfowl Pternistis harwoodi (Crowe and Little 2004) is an endemic bird of Ethiopia occurring in the upper Blue Nile River watershed. Globally, the species is categorised as Vulnerable (IUCN 2017). Harwood’s Spurfowl is
Ostrich is co-published by NISC (Pty) Ltd and Informa UK Limited (trading as Taylor & Francis Group) Published online 06 Apr 2018
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Abrha, Zelelew, Nigus and Alelign
heavily hunted for food and is sometimes caught for sale at local markets in Ethiopia. Its eggs are also a food source. In Ethiopia it is uncommon to hunt wild birds except the spurfowl, francolin and guineafowl species (Zelelew 2013). However, habitat loss as human population pressure force local people into the marginal scrubland habitats favoured by the birds remains a major conservation threat. The flock size of Harwood’s Spurfowl ranges from one to eight individuals (Robertson et al. 1997). The species displays gregarious behaviour and has a polygamous mating system (Robertson et al. 1997). Harwood’s Spurfowl compete with Erckel’s Spurfowl Pternistis erckelii when foraging, but share similar habitats with Helmeted Guineafowl Numida meleagris. They forage on seeds and invertebrates (Robertson et al. 1997). Individuals are most active during dawn and dusk (Robertson et al. 1997). To encourage conservation measures where the species is distributed, studying the activity pattern in relation to variables that could affect behaviour of the species is important. We therefore investigated the activity patterns of Harwood’s Spurfowl in relation to the climatic conditions in
various habitat types along the upper Blue Nile catchment, and at Jemma and Jara Valleys, Merhabete district, Ethiopia. The study was carried out in the Central Highlands of Ethiopia from February to September, 2016 (09°54′ to 10°08′ N, 38°56′ to 39°04′ E; Figure 1). The mean elevation of the area is 2 000 m above sea level (asl). The area has characteristic rolling, rocky, rugged and steep mountainous terrain. It has both dry evergreen montane forest and evergreen scrub ecosystems. The annual mean minimum and maximum temperature ranges are 24–29 °C and 18–25 °C at the lower and higher altitudes, respectively. The area has rainfall ranging from 50 to 350 mm annually, which mainly falls during July and August (National Meteorology Agency 2016, unpublished data). Observation of the activity patterns of Harwood’s Spurfowl was conducted in four blocks with a total area of 100 km2. The area of each block was Block ‘A’ (25 km2), Block ‘B’ (40 km2), Block ‘C’ (30 km2) and Block ‘D’ (5 km2) (Figure 1). Four key habitat types were identified and assigned within the study blocks, and their habitat characteristics and locations are described below (Table 1). The
Study site
Towns Road Study Site A B C D
10°6' N
Amhara
AFRICA Ethiopia
Addis Abeba
ETHIOPIA
Alem Ketema
Werk Amba
Fetra
Embema
Fetira
10°0' N
Merekeze
Gebeb Kechechiwa
Sebage Berkato Haro Genda
Afezezina Kuarit Endomeka
Geren
6 km 9°54' N 38°48' E
38°54' E
39°0' E
Figure 1: Map of the study area and study blocks in the southern Amhara Regional State, Ethiopia (source: Abrha and Nigus 2017)
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proportion of habitats in the blocks were Block A: forestland (2.5 %), scrubland (6%), farmland (84%); Block B: forestland (3.6%), scrubland (9.2%), farmland (78.6%); Block C: forestland (4.7%), scrubland (13.3%), farmland (73.5%); and Block D: forestland (3.7%), wetland (10%). Activity patterns were investigated based on habitat type and season. The seasons were categorised as ‘dry’ (February to May) and ‘wet’ (June to September) during 2016. Bird counting was conducted from 20 line transects ranging from 0.5 km to 1.2 km long covering a total of area of 100 km2 within each habitat. Climatic variables recorded were temperature, wind speed, rainfall and relative humidity. The first two variables were measured using a handheld Kestrel 2500 Weather Meter. The latter two variables were obtained from the Alemketema Meteorological Station, less than 3 km from the study site. These climatic variables were recorded simultaneously while collecting the behavioural activity patterns of the species. Following construction of an ethogram, a focal sampling method was applied in the field to identify activity budgets of the species (Altmann 1974). Individuals were observed and a category of activities was recorded within continuous 10-minute bouts using a pair of binoculars and a digital camera (Table 2). A handheld Global Positioning System (GPS) was used to record the location of each habitat type. Observations were carried out at a distance of 10 to 30 m. The study time blocks were morning (06:00–12:00) and afternoon (12:01–18:00). Following a preliminary survey, hours of the day were classified into four study time blocks: 06:00–09:00, 09:01–12:00, 12:01–15:00 and 15:01–18:00. Each hour was partitioned into four 10-minute bouts
followed by a 10-minute break and 10 minutes spent searching for the birds. Observations were done once a month at each habitat type for each block. A total of 251.4 h within 88 d were spent recording behavioural activities in the study blocks. The Kruskal–Wallis test was performed to assess differences among hours of day (time block) and behavioural activity of the species based on habitat types. Specific post-hoc pairwise comparisons using Conover (Conover and Iman 1979) with Bonferroni adjustment was employed to distinguish differences within time blocks and habitat types. The Mann–Whitney (U) test was also performed to compare each behavioural activity between seasons. Proportion of the time budget of each activity was calculated by the time activity index (TAI; Morrier and McNeil 1991), i.e. TAI = TTA/TDO × 100, where TTA = total time spent for a single activity pattern during the study period, and TDO = total duration spent for all behavioural activity observations of the target species. The data collected from time spent on different activities of the species were pooled. Descriptive statistics were reported as mean ± SD and mean ± SE, for activity patterns and climatic variables, respectively. The statistical significance level was considered at α = 0.05. The analyses were done using R version 3.4.1 software (R Core Team 2017). The time spent by individuals on various activity patterns were significantly different in the study area (Kruskal– Wallis, H = 358.6; df = 6; p < 0.05). Generally, the most time spent by Harwood’s Spurfowl during the study period was on feeding (55.3 ± 23.2%) followed by scanning (30.9 ± 12%), walking (26.4 ± 12.1%), resting (23.5 ± 12.4%), flying (15.2 ± 6.2%), preening (15.1 ± 12.9%) and calling (5 ± 6.2%) (Table 3). In the dry season a total of 6 914 min
Table 1: Habitat types and their characteristics at the Jemma and Jara Valleys, Merhabete district, Ethiopia No. 1
Habitat type Scrubland
Altitude (m asl) 1 350–2 400
2
Forestland
1 400–2 300
3
Farmland
1 300–2 500
4
Wetland
1 250–1 350
Habitat characteristics Steep to gentle slope terrain at mid elevation level. Vegetation types that include Rhus natalensis, Euphorbia canariensis, Grewia mollis, Pennisetum schimperi and Rumex nervosus. From scrubland to the base of the mountains. Senegalia and Vachellia spp. are the most dominant tree species. Flat terrain at the plateau and foot of the mountains. Important for the production of various cereals, such as sorghum, maize, bean, soybean and sesame. Plain area at lowest elevation along both tributaries of Blue Nile river, dominated by Typha beds combined with agricultural crops (beans, sugarcane and pepper).
Table 2: Behavioural activities of Harwood’s Spurfowl and their definitions, recorded at Jemma and Jara Valleys, Merhabete district, Ethiopia Behavioural activity Calling Feeding Flying Preening Resting Scanning Walking
Definition of behavioural activity Male birds emitted rasping sounds during early morning and in the evening to attract mates, and to demarcate territories mainly in the wet season. Scratching or rubbing the ground for foraging and consuming of insects, particularly in riparian habitats and farmlands. Flying was mostly to escape from potential predators, such as Augur Buzzard Buteo augur. The presence of human activity also caused the birds to flee by flying. Body shaking to clean its feather and tail, wing flapping, bill and leg cleaning. Hiding and sleeping during sunny days and unfavourable weather conditions. Vigilant scanning to detect and avoid predators and other biological and environmental disturbances. Moving on foot from place to place to avoid potential predators, to forage and to search for conspecifics.
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Abrha, Zelelew, Nigus and Alelign
(45.8%) and 8 168 min (55.2%) in the wet season were consumed by these behavioural activities. The daily activity time budget differed significantly according to hours of the day (p < 0.05) (Table 4), with most activity patterns higher during morning and late afternoon. However, resting was high during midday and early afternoon (Table 3). Calling, feeding, preening and resting activity showed significant differences among habitat types (p < 0.05). On the other hand, the time spent flying, scanning and walking were not different among habitat types (p > 0.05) (Table 4). In the dry season, the highest mean proportion of time was spent feeding (40 ± 14%) followed by scanning (36.8 ± 8.9%), walking (34.4 ± 10.3%) and resting (20.1 ± 10.4%). In the wet season, the highest time budget was for feeding (70.5 ± 20.4%), resting (26.9 ± 13.3%) and scanning (25.0 ± 11.8%) (Table 4). Excluding flying, scanning and walking, the other behavioural activities were higher during the wet season (p < 0.05). Temperature and wind speed were higher during the dry season in the study habitats. In contrast, during the wet season, the rainfall and relative humidity were higher. Maximum temperatures and wind speeds were recorded during midday and early afternoon (12:00–15:00) in both seasons (Figure 2). The number of Harwood’s Spurfowl (birds h−1 m−2) detected was higher during the wet season. The highest bird abundance was recorded, chronologically, in scrubland, forestland, farmland and wetland (Figure 3). The highest bird count was observed when there was low temperature, low wind speed and high relative humidity in the early morning (06:00–09:00) and late in the afternoon
(15:00–18:00). Generally, the detection of the focal species was higher in the wet season when precipitation and humidity were high in the study habitats. A focal animal sampling technique is applicable for the observation of individual animals chosen randomly at predetermined time periods (Altmann 1974). Investigation of activity patterns has been studied for many birds (Speakman et al. 2000; Reyes-Arriagada et al. 2015), mammals (Beier and McCullough 1990; Speakman et al. 2000; Podolski et al. 2013) and insects (Ashikin and Hashim 2015). The activities of animals may differ in relation to temporal and spatial features. For instance, the amount of time budgeted for avifaunal behavioural activities are affected by hour of day, seasonal variation, climatic conditions (Reyes-Arriagada et al. 2015) and habitat types (Cimprich et al. 2005; Boyes and Perrin 2010). Hence, breeding time, times of day, habitat type and seasonal variation of avian species synchronise with their behavioural activity patterns. The type of habitats also determine the activities of bird species, suggesting that habitat features (food, water and shelter) within the ecosystem positively influence the conspicuousness and survival of birds (Blake and Loiselle 2009). Harwood’s Spurfowl foraged on various food items, such as crops, invertebrates, underground bulbs and roots of plant species such as bush onion Cyperus bulbosus and Cynodon dactylon. The activity patterns were higher in the morning and late afternoon than in the middle of the day, probably associated with the lower heat during these times, concurring with Bibby et al. (1998) that many avifauna species are more active during early morning than the rest of the day time.
Table 3: Proportion of time spent (n = 88, Mean±SD) by Harwood’s Spurfowl based on hours of day (seasons, months and habitats pooled). The p values in the table are from results of Kruskal-Wallis test (H) determines variation in activity patterns among hours of day based on Eastern Africa Time (EAT; UTC+3), which is 3 h ahead of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). The same superscript letter within a row indicates a non-significant difference (α = 0.05) Activity pattern Calling Feeding Flying Preening Resting Scanning Walking
06:00–09:00 3.2 ± 4.2a 31.5 ± 15.4a 6.8 ± 3.8a 6.1 ± 5.1a 1.9 ± 2.2c 11.4 ± 4.1a 12.6 ± 6.1a
Hours of day 09:00–12:00 12:00–15:30 0.6 ± 0.9b 0.1 ± 0.3c 5.5 ± 3.9c 1.4 ± 1.3d 2.0 ± 1.3c 1.1 ± 1.0d 3.0 ± 3.1b 1.6 ± 1.9b 6.2 ± 3.5b 13.6 ± 8.2a 4.5 ± 2.8b 4.1 ± 2.8b 3.7 ± 2.3c 1.8 ± 1.2d
15:00–18:00 1.2 ± 1.6b 16.7 ± 6.0b 5.3 ± 3.2b 4.8 ± 3.8a 1.8 ± 1.6c 11.1 ± 4.8a 8.4 ± 6.1a
H
p-value
66.8 279.5 185.0 104.0 204.0 176.7 183.6
