does everybody like vivaldi's four seasons? affective

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recognition of basic emotions happens rapidly, several seconds may not be enough ... traditional view is that in comparison to non-musicians, musicians have ... composer's intention to suggest the features of different seasons in his music. ... Antonio Vivaldi, performed by the Concerto Amsterdam orchestra conducted by.
Cognition, Brain, Behavior. An Interdisciplinary Journal Copyright © 2012 ASCR Publishing House. All rights reserved. ISSN: 1224-8398 Volume XVI, No. 1 (March), 107-119

DOES EVERYBODY LIKE VIVALDI’S FOUR SEASONS? AFFECTIVE SPACE AND A COMPARISON OF MUSIC-INDUCED EMOTIONS BETWEEN MUSICIANS AND NON-MUSICIANS Felicia Rodica BALTEŞ *, Mircea MICLEA & Andrei C. MIU Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, Department of Psychology, Babes-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania

ABSTRACT The present study investigated the affective space of the entire twelve movements of Vivaldi’s Four Seasons, and compared music-induced affect between musicians and non-musicians. The participants listened to each of the movements of the concertos, in shuffled order, and rated the emotional arousal and valence of each movement immediately after listening to it. We controlled for the affective mood before the experiment, and the familiarity with each movement of the concertos. All the movements of the concertos were perceived as pleasant, but with varying degrees of emotional activation. Emotional valence varied between the peaceful Adagio Molto Autumn and the joyful Allegro Spring 1. The movements with slow tempos were perceived as the least activating, whereas the most emotionally activating was the Tempo Impetuoso D’Estate. The comparison between musicians and non-musicians indicated that the former perceived the Adagio Molto Autumn as more activating and the Allegro Non Molto Summer as less pleasant than the latter. We suggest that these differences may be related to the increased focus of musicians’ aesthetic judgments on the originality and novelty of musical structures. These results support the view that there are only discrete differences in musicinduced affect between musicians and non-musicians. KEYWORDS: music, affectt, affective space, musical training, Vivaldi’s Four Seasons

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Corresponding author: E-mail: [email protected]

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INTRODUCTION Music fascinates us in so many ways. The power of music may lie within its ability to induce or modulate precious emotional states. Indeed, using various methods such as written reports, interviews or experience sampling, psychologists have shown that music can evoke a wide range of strong, self-relevant emotions (Gabrielsson & Lindström, 1993). Some of these emotions (e.g., wonder or feeling moved and admiring, transcendence or feeling overwhelmed and inspired) are more often induced by music compared to words or images (Zentner, Grandjean, & Scherer, 2008). Music can also be an agent of change or a promoter of the intensification or release of the existing emotions (Sloboda, 1992). For instance, music can intensify positive affect, vigilance and focus in the present, or facilitate emotion regulation functions (DeNora, 1999; Juslin, Liljestrom, Vastfjall, Barradas, & Silva, 2008; Sloboda, O'Neil, & Ivaldi, 2001). In line with similar efforts focused on the standardization of emotional words or pictures, Vieillard et al. (2008) have created the first archive of musical stimuli with affective norms. Such normatively-rated affective stimuli allow better experimental control in the selection of emotional stimuli, and facilitate the comparison of results across different studies conducted in the same or different laboratory (Lang, Bradley, & Cuthbert, 2005). The archive of Vieillard et al. (2008) includes short (mean 12.4 s), computer-generated musical stimuli. Such short stimuli have already been useful in describing the minimal time that is necessary for the successful classification of music according to emotional content. For instance, listeners without musical training were able to distinguish between cheerful and sad music in less than half a second from the beginning of the audition (Peretz, Gagnon, & Bouchard, 1998). However, the use of short stimuli in the study of music-induced emotions may be limited by several factors. The processing of emotional valence may be difficult in the case of short musical stimuli with low dynamics (Bigand, Vieillard, Madurell, Marozeau, & Dacquet, 2005). In addition, familiarity and the level of musical training influence the recognition of tunes, and these effects may be less obvious when short stimuli are used (Dalla Bella, Peretz, & Aronoff, 2003). Moreover, although studies using short musical stimuli emphasized that the recognition of basic emotions happens rapidly, several seconds may not be enough time for the full-blown psychophysiological responses associated with musicinduced emotions to develop. For instance, listening to a musically-complex and dramatically-coherent excerpt from Tosca induced positive emotion and autonomic arousal, seen in faster heart rate, but slower respiration rate and reduced skin conductance in comparison to baseline (Baltes, Avram, Miclea, & Miu, 2011). It has been argued that the complex arrangement of musical elements that is characteristic of everyday life music inspires a global affective response (Altenmuller, Schurmann, Lim, & Parlitz, 2002), and the use of entire musical pieces has a greater external validity when one investigates the emotional responses Cognition, Brain, Behavior. An Interdisciplinary Journal 16 (2012) 107-119

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to music (Baltes et al., 2011; Levitin, 2006; Rickard, 2004). Therefore, the aim of the present study was to explore the affective space of an entire musical composition. We chose to use Vivaldi’s Four Seasons because we suspected that the extensive popularity of this composition may be related to its emotional content. The Four Seasons has been previously used in cognitive research that investigated the effects of music on memory or categorization tasks in older adults (Mammarella, Fairfield, & Cornoldi, 2007; Thompson, Moulin, Hayre, & Jones, 2005). Clearly, in light of the rapidly developing literature on music and cognition, mapping the affective space of everyday music will become increasingly necessary. The affective space of select musical stimuli has started to be mapped on the two dimensions of emotional arousal and valence (Grewe, Nagel, Kopiez, & Altenmuller, 2007; Vieillard et al., 2008). In Russell’s circumplex model, the conceptual distance between different emotions and the structure of affective experience are represented by a circle that has pleasure and displeasure (i.e., valence) on the extremes of the left-right axis, and activation and sleepiness (i.e., arousal) on the extremes of the upper-lower axis (Russell, 1980). Using the multidimensional scale method, which allows for emotions to be investigated without the use of linguistic labels, another study confirmed that emotional activation and valence are representative dimensions of music-induced emotions (Bigand et al., 2005). For instance, excerpts from Bach and Mahler were both perceived as pleasant, but they were distinguished by different degrees of emotional arousal (Flores-Gutierrez et al., 2007). Therefore, the present study used self-report measures of music-induced emotional arousal and valence. Another important aim of this study was to investigate whether there are differences in music-induced emotions between musicians and non-musicians. The traditional view is that in comparison to non-musicians, musicians have subtler and more complex knowledge about the musical tonalities typical to their culture, and they use it in order to improve their musical perception and memory (Dowling, 1978; Krumhansl & Shepard, 1979). This perspective has been supported by studies from cognitive neuroscience, which identified various neuroanatomical and neurophysiological differences between musicians and non-musicians. For instance, musicians displayed increased grey matter density in Heschl’s gyrus (i.e., primary auditory cortex) and early auditory N19-P30 evoked potentials; these differences correlated with the musicality score on the Advance Measures of Music Audiation test (Hutchinson, Lee, Gaab, & Schlaug, 2003; Schlaug, Jancke, Huang, Staiger, & Steinmetz, 1995). However, non-musicians are also able to learn the tonal principles of their cultural musical idiom, and they accurately use this knowledge in music processing tasks in order to differentiate tonal from atonal melodies, for instance (Bartlett & Dowling, 1980; Frances, 1988). The emerging view is that all music listeners, whether musicians or non-musicians, may share a certain form of musical knowledge, which gives meaning to the music that they listen to (Halpern, Cognition, Brain, Behavior. An Interdisciplinary Journal 16 (2012) 107-119

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Bartlett, & Dowling, 1995). However, it is unclear whether music-induced affect is similar in musicians and non-musicians. Comparisons between musicians and non-musicians suggested that aesthetic judgments are also grounded on a common conceptual content that may be somewhat modified by musical expertise (Ystok et al., 2009). Using a verbal association task, it was shown that non-musicians generated more adjectives connected to the mood or emotional balance related to music, whereas musicians appreciated the inciting features of music, its novelty and originality (Ystok et al., 2009). The emotional categorization of short musical stimuli was equally reliable in musicians and non-musicians (Bigand et al., 2005). Using positron emission tomography, Blood and Zatorre (2001) found that the intensity of music-induced chills is associated with increased cerebral blood flow in reward areas (e.g., ventral striatum, midbrain, amygdala, orbitofrontal and ventral medial prefrontal cortex). This study included only musicians, on the assumption that this population is more likely to experience strong emotional responses to music, although the authors acknowledged that music training is not necessary to experience these responses (Blood & Zatorre, 2001). Clearly, further studies are required in order to clarify whether musical training impacts music-induced emotions. The objectives of the present study were: (1) to explore the affective space of Vivaldi’s Four Seasons; and (2) to compare the emotional arousal and valence of the Four Seasons between musicians and non-musicians. Although Vivaldi’s masterpiece is widely known, we expected differences in familiarity between musicians and non-musicians, and consequently we controlled for this variable in the comparisons of emotional responses. We hypothesized that the movements of Vivaldi’s Four Seasons would cover the entire affective space (i.e., positive and negative valence with varying degrees of emotional arousal), considering the composer’s intention to suggest the features of different seasons in his music. Another hypothesis was that, although we controlled for differences in familiarity with this particular composition, musicians would perceive the Four Seasons as less emotionally activating and pleasant than non-musicians, due to their knowledge of baroque music style. MATERIALS AND METHODS Participants N = 16 musicians and N = 14 non-musicians with ages from 22 to 40 years (mean age = 28 years), with good hearing abilities and no neurological disease records, have taken part in this experiment. The musicians group included instrument players and choir members from the National Opera House from Cluj-Napoca, Romania. The musicians benefited of an average of ten years of musical education and they were actively involved in musical activity at the time of this study. The non-musicians were recruited from the population of students in psychology from Cognition, Brain, Behavior. An Interdisciplinary Journal 16 (2012) 107-119

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Babes-Bolyai University. They did not report any specific musical education, but they all stated (i.e., inclusion criterion for this study) that they frequently listened to music and appreciate classical music. Materials The musical stimuli comprised the twelve movements of the Four Seasons by Antonio Vivaldi, performed by the Concerto Amsterdam orchestra conducted by Jaap Schröder (Hmf Musique D'abord, 2000). The movements, with durations between 1’30’’ and 5’30’’, were presented randomly (i.e., shuffled playlist) to the participants using a laptop and Logitech amplifying system set to a comfortable volume level. Immediately after the arrival at the laboratory, the participants filled in the general affect part of Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS-I) (Watson & Clark, 1994), which measures affective mood in the past few weeks until present. Emotional responses to music were measured on two 5-point Likert scales for arousal and valence. A third similar Likert scale measured the familiarity with the music. The extremes of the scales (e.g., whether 1 on the valence scale denoted “pleasant” or “unpleasant”) were counterbalanced between the concertos’† movements. Each scale was explained to the participants, and they were warned that the extremes of the scales change from one movement to another, so they should pay attention to this aspect. Procedure After they completed PANAS-I, all the participants were taken to the laboratory where they listened to the musical stimuli in group. Before the first musical stimulus was played, the participants were informed that they will listen to Vivaldi’s Four Seasons, and were asked to attentively listen to the music no matter how familiar it was. The order in which the parts were presented was the following: 1. Adagio Summer; 2. La Caccia: Allegro Autumn; 3. Tempo Impetuoso D’Estate Summer; 4. Allegro Non Molto Winter; 5. Allegro Winter; 6. Largo e Pianissimo Sempre Spring; 7. Adagio Molto Autumn; 8. Largo Winter; 9. Allegro Spring 1; 10. Allegro Autumn; †

Although usually presented together nowadays, each of the Four Seasons were written as individual violin concertos that were part of a larger set of twelve concertos (Vivaldi’s Opus 8) entitled The Contest between Harmony and Invention.

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11. Allegro Spring 2; 12. Allegro Non Molto Summer. Immediately after each part, the participants were instructed to use the scales that had been handed to them at the start of the experiment, in order to evaluate how activated the music made them feel (i.e., emotional arousal), how much they liked it (i.e., emotional valence), and how familiar the music was to them (i.e., degree of familiarity). There was no time limit, and each stage of the experiment (i.e., music listening followed by questionnaires) continued only when all the participants had finished completing the scales and unless they asked for a break. RESULTS Affective space. Repeated measure ANOVAs indicated that there were significant differences between the movements of the concertos on emotional arousal (F[11, 18] = 30.65, p < 0.0001, partial η2 = 0.82), valence (F[11, 18] = 2.69, p < 0.002, partial η2 = 0.064), and familiarity (F[11, 18] = 10.57, p < 0.0001, partial η2 = 0.16). An inspection of the affective space (Fig. 1) indicates that all the movements were perceived as pleasant (i.e., emotional valence scores above three), with the Adagio Molto Autumn having the smallest (score = 3.63) valence score (i.e., least pleasant) and the Allegro Spring 1 having the highest valence score (score = 4.67). The emotional arousal of the movements varied from the least activating part, the Largo e Pianissimo Sempre Spring (score = 1.63), to the most activating one, the Tempo Impetuoso D’Estate Summer (score = 4.47). The comparison of affect between musicians and non-musicians. In order to control for differences in familiarity with the musical stimuli, we first compared the familiarity scores between musicians and non-musicians. The results of the Student t-tests indicated that in comparison to non-musicians, musicians were more familiar with all the parts (t[10] = 13.08, p < 0.0001, Cohen’s d = 1.36). The sole exception was the Allegro Spring 1, which was equally familiar to both musicians and nonmusicians. Therefore, we included the familiarity scores in the ANCOVA analyses that compared emotional arousal and valence between musicians and nonmusicians, for all musical stimuli except the Allegro Spring. It is worth mentioning that there were no differences in previous affective mood between musicians and non-musicians (i.e., PANAS scores’ mean ± SEM: 27.63 ± 2.81 for musicians, and 29.07 ± 6.59 for non-musicians), and consequently this variable was not included as a covariate in the following statistical analyses. Musical education had a significant effect on the emotional arousal scores of the Adagio Molto Autumn (F[1, 28] = 7.25, p < 0.01, partial η2 = 0.2), with musicians having perceived this movement as more activating than non-musicians. Cognition, Brain, Behavior. An Interdisciplinary Journal 16 (2012) 107-119

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There were also significant differences between emotional valence scores of the Allegro Non Molto Summer (F[1, 28] = 5.63, p < 0.02, partial η2 = 0.13), with musicians having perceived this movement as less pleasant than non-musicians. 5.00

Allegro Spring 1 Largo E Pianissimo Sempre Spring Alegro Spring 2 Alegro Non Molto Summer

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Adagio Summer Tempo Impetuoso D'estate Summer Allegro Autumn Adagio Molto Autumn

AROUSAL

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La Caccia: Alegro Autumn Allegro Non Molto Winter Largo Winter Allegro Winter

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1.00

0.00 0.00

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VALENCE

Figure 1. The affective space of Vivaldi’s Four Seasons.

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DISCUSSION This study explored the affective space of Vivaldi’s Four Seasons, as well as the potential differences between musicians and non-musicians on the affect induced by this musical composition. In line with others who argued that the use entire musical pieces or at least musically and dramatically coherent excerpts has a greater external validity when one investigates the affective responses to music (Baltes et al., 2011; Levitin, 2006; Rickard, 2004), the aim of the present study was to map the affective space of all the twelve parts of the Four Seasons. It has also been argued that the effects of musical training on music processing is discrete and may be less obvious when short, artificial stimuli are used (Dalla Bella et al., 2003). Therefore, using the entire Four Seasons in the present study offered an appropriate experimental setting for us to observe the effects of musical education on musicinduced emotions. Vivaldi wanted to suggest the features of different seasons in his four concertos, which he also appended by explicatory sonnets. Each of the Four Seasons includes a central largo preceded and followed by two fast movements, alternating tutti and solo passages – the tuttis express the dominant mood of the piece (e.g., joyfulness of the first movement of the Spring, frightfulness of the first movement in the Winter), and the solos describe the pictorial details or allusions (e.g., songs of birds, a tumble on glare ice) (Pincherle, 1957). In light of the composer’s intention to express different feelings associated with the Four Seasons, and considering the differences between the movements of each concerto, which range in dynamics (i.e., from piano at the softest points to forte at the loudest parts) and tempo (i.e., from slow to fast), we expected that the concertos would cover the entire affective space, with movements that represent positive and negative valence with varying degrees of emotional arousal. A visual inspection of the affective space presented in Fig. 1 clearly indicates that the slow movements had the lowest arousal scores. The Largo e pianissimo sempre from the Spring was the least activating movement from all the concertos. Therefore, the present results suggest that the differences in tempo were the major influence on the perceived emotional arousal of the movements in Vivaldi’s Four Seasons, and extend previous observations on the relationship between music tempo and emotional arousal (Holbrook, 1990; Husain, Thompson, & Schellenberg, 2002; Scherer & Zentner, 2001). The valence scores were exclusively distributed in the right half of the affective space, that is, all the movements were perceived as pleasant. However, there were significant differences between the valence scores of various movements, with the Adagio molto from the Autumn being perceived as the least pleasant, and the first Allegro from the Spring being the most pleasant. Whereas the former movement suggests the peacefulness of outdoor sleep that follow the celebration of the harvest, the second suggests the joyfulness associated with the happiness of birds, the flowing of streams and the Cognition, Brain, Behavior. An Interdisciplinary Journal 16 (2012) 107-119

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gentle blow of the zephyr. Therefore, the difference in valence between these movements seems to distinguish between the peacefulness and joyfulness that the composer wanted to suggest. The Allegro spring is also the most popular and best known movement of Vivaldi’s Four Seasons, with no differences in familiarity between musicians and non-musicians in this study. Not surprisingly, excerpts from this movement have also been used in previous psychophysiological research as happy music. For instance, using several second excerpts from this movement, (Krumhansl, 1997) found that it induced emotions of happiness, amusement and contentment that were associated with faster breathing rate and decreased respiration depth. The pleasant and activating affect associated with this movement from Vivaldi’s Four Seasons may have contributed to its popularity among listeners. The literature on the effects of musical training on music processing indicates that the differences between musicians and non-musicians may be more subtle than originally expected. Persons without formal musical education, but sufficiently exposed to their cultural musical idiom are “experienced listeners” who are able to use the same grammatical musical structuring principles as the expert musicians, although “in a more limited way” (Lerdhal & Jackendoff, 1983). For instance, non-musicians effectively use the tonal principles of the Western music in order to differentiate tonal from atonal melodies (Bartlett & Dowling, 1980; Frances, 1988). Does this extend to music-induced affect and what would in this case limit of similarities between experienced listeners and formally-trained musicians mean? By comparing between groups of musicians and non-musicians, the present study found only two significant differences related to the emotional arousal triggered by the Adagio molto autumn and the emotional valence induced by the Allegro non-molto summer. We believe that these movements may not be incidentally associated with affective differences between musicians and nonmusicians. Musicians’ aesthetic judgments may be focused on the novelty and originality of music (Ystok et al., 2009) – with them being more familiar with the features of the baroque musical style, the Adagio movement from the Autumn may have stood out as more original and thus more inciting. Intriguingly, probably Vivaldi also found this movement particularly original since he returned to it, by simply transposing it and making it the middle movement (Il Sonno) of Opus 10, no. 2 (Pincherle, 1957). Perhaps for the same reasons of novelty and originality, the musicians in the present study found the Allegro Non-Molto Summer as less pleasant than non-musicians. Quoting from Picherle’s (1957, p. 192) musical analysis, this movement “fall[s] back into a more conventional realm with restless figuration intended to depict […] the summer thunderstorm”. In summary, we found discrete differences in affect between musicians and non-musicians, and we suggest that these differences are related to the formal training in musical grammar that gives musicians an advantage in appreciating the originality of a musical piece, Cognition, Brain, Behavior. An Interdisciplinary Journal 16 (2012) 107-119

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and detecting fine changes in musical structure (e.g., dynamics, intensity, instrumentation, tonal norms). The main limit of this study is related to the rather small sample size. Although this sample is appropriate by traditional statistical standards for comparing between the affect of musicians and non-musicians, it may be too small to support the present arousal and valence scores as affective norms. Although admittedly exploratory, these scores represent the first attempt of mapping the affective space of an entire musical composition. We also speculate that the present observations of positive affective valence reported for all the movements in Vivaldi’s Four Seasons may at least partially explain the high popularity of these concertos. People may look for exposure to such music as a form of selfadministered psychotherapy (Sloboda, 1985), considering that a common reason that people invoke for listening to music is related to its positive effects on emotion regulation and vigilance (DeNora, 1999; Juslin et al., 2008; Sloboda et al., 2001). The present study may also have implications for clinical research. Such activating and pleasant music has been shown to reduce burn-out symptoms and alleviate the quality of life in burnout patients (Brandes et al., 2009), as well as enhance recovery of verbal memory and focused attention, and prevent negative mood in early poststroke stage (Sarkamo et al., 2008). The present results inform the potential use of Vivaldi’s Four Seasons in these interventions. Another limit of this study may be related to the possibility that we underestimated the differences between musicians and non-musicians by using simple linguistic measures of arousal and valence, based on Russell’s circumplex model of affect. Multidimensional measures of music-induced emotions such as the Geneva Emotional Music Scales (Zentner et al., 2008) are increasingly used, and we have used it ourselves in other studies (Baltes et al., 2011; Miu & Baltes, 2012). However, we chose here the simpler measure of affect because it was easy to apply, reliable, and allowed the direct comparison of different emotions based on the representative dimensions of emotional arousal and valence (Bigand et al., 2005; Flores-Gutierrez et al., 2007; Scherer, 2004). Nonetheless, musicians may be trained to identify and express a greater variety of emotions associated with music, and consequently the use of global measures of affect may underestimate differences in music-induced affect between musicians and non-musicians. In conclusion, the present study found that all the movements of Vivaldi’s Four Seasons are perceived as pleasant, with slower movements inducing less emotional arousal than faster movements. In addition, we found discrete differences in the affect that this music induced in musicians and non-musicians, and suggest that these differences are related to the increased focus of musicians on original features of certain movements in relation to the others. This study encourages efforts to map the affective space of entire musical compositions, which would be useful in behavioral interventions aimed at supporting emotion regulation in everyday life, and enhancing cognitive recovery in clinical populations. Cognition, Brain, Behavior. An Interdisciplinary Journal 16 (2012) 107-119

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are grateful to Diana Lungu for help with questionnaire scoring.

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Cognition, Brain, Behavior. An Interdisciplinary Journal 16 (2012) 107-119