Comparative Advertising In the Global Marketplace: The Effects of Cultural Orientation on Communication By: Zeynep Gürhan-Canli and Durairaj Maheswaran Working Paper Number 328 August 2000
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COMPARATIVE ADVERTISING IN THE GLOBAL MARKETPLACE: THE EFFECTS OF CULTURAL ORIENTATION ON COMMUNICATION
Zeynep Gürhan-Canli Durairaj Maheswaran*
*
Zeynep Gürhan-Canli is assistant professor of marketing at the University of Michigan Business School, 701 Tappan Street, Ann Arbor MI 48109-1234 (e-mail:
[email protected]). Durairaj Maheswaran is professor of marketing and international business at Stern School of Business, New York University, 7-75, Management Education Center, 44 West 4th Street, New York, NY 10012-1126 (e-mail:
[email protected]). This research is partially supported by a research fund at the University of Michigan.
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COMPARATIVE ADVERTISING IN THE GLOBAL MARKETPLACE: THE EFFECTS OF CULTURAL ORIENTATION ON COMMUNICATION
ABSTRACT
This research examined the efficacy of one type of communication strategy, comparative advertising, in communicating product superiority to consumers across different cultures. In individualist cultures such as the United States, comparative advertising that highlights the superiority of the target brand is seen as more effective. However, in collectivist cultures such as Thailand, comparative advertising that highlights the similarity between brands is more likely to be effective. In addition, comparative advertising was more believable for unfamiliar brands in individualist cultures whereas comparison for familiar brands was more believable in collectivist cultures.
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INTRODUCTION
Recent research in consumer behavior and cultural psychology has shown that consumers exhibit different behavioral patterns in responding to marketing stimuli across cultures (Aaker 2000; Aaker and Sengupta 2000; Aaker and Williams 1998). Cultural orientation or the extent to which consumers have different norms and values across cultures, has been identified as a major determinant of the differences in behavior across cultures (Han and Shavitt 1994). Cultural orientation has been shown to influence intergroup perceptions (Markus and Kitayama 1991), attribution styles (Morris and Peng 1994), and behavior patterns (Triandis 1989). However, relatively little research has examined the effects of cultural orientation on persuasion (Aaker and Williams 1998). This research examines the efficacy of one type of persuasive appeal, comparative advertising, across cultures. Comparative advertising is widely used and researched in the United States (Pechmann and Ratneshwar 1991; Zhang, Kardes, and Cronley 1999). MCI vs. AT&T, and Pepsi vs. Coke advertising are classic examples of this strategy. The FTC encourages substantiated comparisons since it is believed to provide the consumer with objective information and foster competition. Despite its effectiveness in the United States, several countries such as Thailand have either banned or have strictly regulated comparative advertising as a promotional tool (Douglas and Craig 2000). We explore the premise that the cultural orientation (i.e., the extent to which consumers are individualist or collectivist) will determine the effectiveness of the different types of comparative advertising. Individualist cultures such as the United States
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promote competition by comparison with other members of the group, thereby making comparisons based on superiority effective (e.g., Pepsi beats Coke in a taste test). However, countries like Japan and Thailand are collectivist cultures that foster competition by cooperation. Therefore, focusing on superiority will be culturally incompatible. In contrast, a comparison that highlights the similarity between brands (e.g., Dristan relieves as many cold symptoms as Sudafed) is more likely to be effective in collectivist cultures. An experiment was conducted in two countries (United States and Thailand) to explore the effect of cultural orientation on the relative effectiveness of superiority and similarity based comparison strategies. We also examine the process mechanisms that form the basis of persuasion across cultures. Finally, we identify product familiarity as a factor that systematically influences the believability of comparative advertising across cultures.
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Cultural Orientation
One major dimension of cultural orientation is the individualism-collectivism continuum. This view suggests that countries/cultures could be broadly classified into two types: individualist cultures and collectivist cultures (Triandis 1989). Individualist cultures are primarily Western European and the United States. These cultures are characterized by an expression of the self, comparison of others in relation to the self and
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emphasis on separateness and self-identity. The self is used as the focal point of one’s life. Collectivist cultures are primarily Asian and Middle Eastern countries. These cultures are characterized by an expression of self within the framework of the peer group, comparison and definition of self in relation to others and the emphasis is on connectedness and relationships. The peer group is the focal point of one’s life. Collectivists do not appear to view themselves as better than others in their society and they do not want to stand out from the crowd. While in the United States it is believed that “the squeaky wheel gets the grease”, in Japan, “the nail that stands out gets pounded down” (Markus and Kitayama 1991). It is well known that cultural norms and values form the basis of advertising strategies in any culture. So, differing cultural values should systematically influence the content of advertising appeals and the subsequent responses from the consumers. In a recent research, Aaker and Williams (1998) showed that the persuasive effect of emotional appeals differed across cultures. For example, ego-focused appeals were more effective in China whereas other-focused appeals were more effective in the United States. Han and Shavitt (1994) also found systematic differences in advertising appeals across cultures. In Korea, advertising appeals that emphasized family benefits were more persuasive whereas in the United States, appeals that emphasized individual benefits were more persuasive. Thus, there is some evidence to suggest that different types of persuasive appeals may be effective across cultures. In addition, individualism-collectivism framework may provide a useful theoretical framework for examining cultural differences in persuasion.
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Comparative Advertising
Comparative advertising has been extensively investigated in the marketing literature (Pechmann and Stewart 1990; Pechmann and Ratneshwar 1991). While the effectiveness of comparative advertising is context specific, the prevailing view is that it benefits the consumers by providing relevant competitive information (Jain 1993). In a typical comparative advertising, the advertiser claims superiority over a leading competitor (identified or unidentified) based on how superior the advertised brand is on an important attribute. For example, in the Pepsi challenge, Pepsi highlights its superiority over Coke by stating that more people preferred Pepsi over Coke in a recent taste test. The underlying principle is to differentiate the advertised brand from competition by demonstrating that it has better performance characteristics. Operationally, several comparison formats are used for communicating the claim such as direct comparisons, indirect comparisons or general superiority comparisons. For example, in the direct comparison strategy, the advertised brand may be explicitly compared with the comparison brand by stating that the latter is inferior on an important attribute (e.g., Pepsi vs. Coke taste test). In the indirect comparison, the competing brand will be referred to as the leading brand. A general comparison would be a statement such as the advertised brand has the best performance (Dröge 1989; Gorn and Weinberg 1984). Research has shown that comparative advertising enhances persuasion by both association as well as differentiation (Pechmann and Ratneshwar 1991). Several studies
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have shown that comparative advertising primarily associates the advertised brand with the comparison brand by making their perceived similarity salient (e.g., Dröge and Darmon 1987). In contrast, Pechmann and Ratneshwar (1991) showed that direct comparisons are more likely to differentiate the advertised brand from comparison brand by lowering the perceptions of the comparison brand when the featured attribute was typical of the category and the advertised brand was familiar. It appears that when the direct comparative ad explicitly states that the comparison brand is relatively inferior on a typical attribute, it is more effective in lowering the perceptions of the comparison brand. Past research also suggests that comparative advertising featuring an unfamiliar (vs. familiar) advertised brand is more believable (Dröge and Dorman 1987). The results are explained based on the categorization theory, which suggests that when consumers have prior beliefs about a brand, subsequent disconfirming information is less believable. If an advertised brand is familiar, this reasoning suggests that consumers have already classified the brand and subsequent attempts to “disconfirm” the previous beliefs will be less believable (vs. new belief formation). However, when the advertised brand is new or unfamiliar, the consumer has not previously categorized the brand. Hence, the superior comparison, assuming it is credible, is used as a basis to categorize the new brand as superior to the comparison brand (Pechmann and Ratneshwar 1991). Thus, two observations emerge from the review of the literature on comparative advertising. First, comparative advertising enhances persuasion either by highlighting perceived similarity or by making perceived differences salient. Second, product familiarity may systematically influence the believability of comparative claims.
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Cultural Orientation and Comparative Advertising
A review of the comparative advertising literature based on studies conducted in the United States suggests that most comparative advertising feature a superiority format, which can be direct or indirect (Dröge 1989; Pechmann and Ratneshwar 1991). In other words, the typical format of the comparison is an attempt at differentiation based on superiority. Very few comparisons are based on similarity and highlight the attributes shared by the comparison brand and the advertised brand. For example, a statement such as “Kenmore vacuum cleaners perform as well as Hoover” that attempts to associate Kenmore vacuum cleaners with a leading competitor is relatively limited. As noted earlier, if the persuasive impact of comparative advertising can follow a process of association based on similarity, then comparisons based on similarity should also be effective. However, it is likely that the similarity based comparisons may lead to an inference of the advertised brand as a “me too” product. It may be seen as one of the several good products in the category. This positioning may not be a productive strategy in individualist cultures. Individualist cultures value success in competition and to that extent a “me too” product may not be viewed as an attractive choice. Consumers would like to have the best and possess the winner rather than just another good brand. So, we suggest that even though, theoretically, similarity based comparisons may be effective in creating favorable associations with the comparison brand, they are not culturally
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compatible in individualist cultures. Since advertising reflects cultural norms and values, comparisons based on similarity are not viewed favorably in individualist cultures. In contrast, comparisons based on similarity should be culturally compatible in collectivist countries. As noted earlier, collectivist consumers value group membership and are averse to self-promotion at the expense of group harmony. They do not look favorably upon attempts by group members to differentiate themselves from other group members (Markus and Kitayama 1991). So, superiority based comparisons are not culturally compatible in collectivist cultures. However, comparisons based on similarity should be culturally acceptable as they promote associations based on perceived similarity and hence reflect the value system of collectivist cultures. Familiarity may also be viewed differentially across cultures. Collectivist cultures value relationships and relationships are built over time. Collectivists are more concerned about past associations and long-term relationships. For example, consumers in Japan buy products from companies they trust and are very brand loyal. They are very unlikely to buy products from unknown and foreign companies (Gürhan-Canli and Maheswaran 2000). In the social context, clear distinctions are made between in-group and out-group members. The interests of the in-group are given priority over out-group. To that extent, information related to familiar brands should receive more consideration and are more likely to be believed. Unfamiliar brands may be considered out-group members and to that extent are not easily trusted. Any comparison claims made by unfamiliar products (out-group), may not receive careful consideration and are not likely to be considered credible. In contrast, individualist cultures value performance. Familiarity per se may not
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have any specific advantages. They are more likely to buy a product that is superior in quality regardless of whether they are manufactured by a well-known or a new manufacturer. In the context of comparative advertising, as noted earlier, claims related to unfamiliar brands are more believable since they have not been categorized previously (Dröge and Dorman 1987). Based on the above discussion, the following conclusions emerge. First, cultural orientation is likely to influence whether consumers prefer a superiority or similarity strategy. Second, familiarity may be viewed differentially as a function of cultural orientation. In this research, it is suggested that cultural orientation will have differential effects on both the type of comparison (superior or similar) and the familiarity (familiar or unfamiliar) of the advertised brand.
Hypotheses
Consistent with past research (e.g., Triandis 1989), it is proposed that consumers in individualist cultures will favorably evaluate comparisons based on superiority. As noted earlier, in individualist cultures, the focus is on the individual and the individual strives to be unique and superior in relation to other members of the group. So, comparisons that highlight superior point of difference of the target product are more likely to be appealing to the individualists. In contrast, collectivist cultures prefer excellence through promoting better group performance and participation and highlighting the perceived similarity among group members. So, comparisons based on
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perceived similarity are more likely to be compatible with and further the individual’s goal of achieving conformity with the group. H1a: In an individualist culture like the United States, comparison that highlights superiority will be evaluated more favorably. H1b: In collectivist cultures like Thailand, comparison that highlights similarity will be evaluated more favorably. Research in the United States suggests that consumers are more likely to believe the superiority claim if the comparison brand was unfamiliar rather than familiar (Dröge and Dorman 1987). For example, superiority claims were found to be more effective for new product introductions. One rationale is that disconfirming information subsequent to categorization is less effective. In individualist cultures, the focus is on performance rather than relationships (Markus and Kitayama 1991), so even an unfamiliar brand can be rated better when its superiority is highlighted. Also, when consumers have been exposed to a product, they form individual opinions and these opinions are unlikely to change by an advertising claim to the contrary. This finding is also compatible with research that suggests that individualistic consumers assign more weight to their individual opinions (Aaker and Sengupta 2000). However, in collectivist cultures, an opposite effect is anticipated. Collectivist cultures are based on relationships and the members value familiarity. Hence, familiarity is likely to be valued highly in those cultures. Acceptance in a relationship is based on familiarity. To that extent, it is hypothesized that consumers are more likely to believe statements from familiar (vs. unfamiliar) brands.
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H2a: In the United States, consumers are more likely to believe the advertising claim, if the advertised brand is unfamiliar (new product) rather than familiar. H2b: In Thailand, consumers are more likely to believe the advertising claim, if the advertised brand is familiar rather than unfamiliar. In order to understand the processes by which comparative advertising leads to attitude change, respondents’ thoughts will be examined (Ahluwalia, Burnkrant, and Unnava 2000). It is anticipated that favorable or unfavorable thoughts related to the type of comparison featured will mediate subsequent product evaluations. In conditions where the advertising execution is culturally compatible, more favorable thoughts or “support arguments” will be reported. However, under conditions where the advertising execution is culturally incompatible, more unfavorable thoughts or “counter arguments” will be generated. H3a: In the United States, more support arguments (favorable thoughts) will be generated and they will mediate evaluations when the comparison is based on superiority. H3b: In Thailand, more support arguments (favorable thoughts) will be generated and they will mediate evaluations when the comparison is based on similarity.
METHOD
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Subjects
One hundred and ninety subjects (98 from the United States and 92 from Thailand) participated in this experiment as part of a course requirement. They were undergraduates enrolled in an introductory marketing class in the United States and in Thailand. They participated in small group sessions and were randomly assigned to conditions in a 2 (type of comparison: superiority or similarity) X 2 (familiarity: familiar or unfamiliar brand name) between subjects design and cultural orientation was operationalized as a measured variable.
Procedure
The study was described as a “consumer product study.” The respondents were given a packet of materials that contained a mock-up ad and a questionnaire. They were told that the ad was a pre-print version. They were instructed to examine the booklet as if they would read a magazine. The respondents were blind to the objective of the study to control for demand artifacts. After examining the ad, subjects completed a series of responses indicating product evaluations, claim believability, and listed their thoughts. Finally, they completed several manipulation checks including a self-construal scale (Singelis 1994) and were debriefed. The materials used in Thailand were translated into Thai by a professional organization that used back translation to ensure reliability (Brislin
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1986). The English version was first translated into Thai by a bilingual person. A second bilingual person translated the Thai version into English. Finally, the differences were resolved by discussion with a bilingual supervisor.
Independent Variables
Cultural orientation. The data were collected in two countries, Thailand and the United States. Prior research suggests that people from Thailand (United States) have collectivist (individualist) orientation (Triandis 1989). A scale was used to measure the degree to which subjects varied on independent self-construal (i.e., individualism) and interdependent self-construal (i.e., collectivism; Singelis 1994).
Familiarity. Familiarity was operationalized by the choice of the advertised brand that was either new to the country (unfamiliar) or already available in the country. We used toothpaste as the product category. The target brand was named “Crystal” in the unfamiliar condition. In the familiar condition, “Colgate” was used as the target brand. The comparison brand was “Crest” in both the familiar and unfamiliar conditions in the United States and was “Close-up” in Thailand. Colgate and Crest (Close-up) were the two leading brands in the United States (Thailand). Specifically, Colgate was chosen based on the results of a pretest that suggested that subjects in both cultures were equally familiar with Colgate. We decided to use “Crest” as a comparison brand in the United States because American subjects were equally familiar with and had equally favorable attitudes
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toward Colgate and Crest. We used “Close-up” as a comparison brand in Thailand because Thai subjects were equally familiar with and had equally favorable attitudes toward Colgate and Close-up. Subjects were not familiar with Crystal as a toothpaste brand, but believed that Crystal was an appropriate name for toothpaste in both cultures.
Type of Comparison. The stimulus ad either highlighted superiority or similarity in the copy. In the superiority condition, the advertising established the superiority of the target brand by highlighting how superior the advertised brand is on an important attribute. In the similarity condition, the advertising established the extent to which the target brand is “similar” to the comparison brand. In the superiority condition for the unfamiliar brand, subjects read: CRYSTAL is more effective in preventing tooth decay than CREST. Research has consistently shown that CRYSTAL provides cavity protection that is far superior to CREST. Try CRYSTAL today and experience better cavity prevention than CREST. In the similarity condition, the statement for a familiar brand read: COLGATE is as effective in preventing tooth decay as CREST. Research has consistently shown that COLGATE provides cavity protection that is similar to CREST. Try COLGATE today and experience similar cavity prevention as CREST.
Dependent Variables
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All dependent measures except for cognitive responses were assessed using scales whose numerical anchors were 1 and 7.
Evaluations. Subjects evaluated the target brand of toothpaste (Colgate or Crystal) on three 7-point scales anchored by “very unfavorable” versus “very favorable,” “very bad” versus “very good,” “very negative” versus “very positive.” Subjects also indicated their intentions to purchase the target product on a scale anchored by “would definitely not consider buying” versus “would definitely consider buying.” These items were averaged to form an evaluation index (α = .92).
Claim believability. After indicating product evaluations, subjects indicated the extent to which the arguments were believable. Claim believability was assessed on three point scales indicating the extent to which respondents thought the advertising information was “not at all (vs. highly) believable,” “not at all (vs. absolutely) true,” and “not at all (vs. totally) acceptable.” These items were averaged to form a claim believability index (α = .80).
Cognitive Responses. The process issues were examined by eliciting the cognitive responses. Subjects were asked to write “all thoughts that came to your mind while you were going through the ad, related or unrelated to the brands featured in the ad, to the claims made and the evidence provided, or to the ad per se.” Two judges blind to the hypotheses coded the thoughts following Ahuluwalia et al. (2000). Respondents’ protocols were
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accordingly coded as counter arguments, support arguments, and other message-related thoughts. Counter arguments are thoughts that suggest disbelief in the attribute claim or unfavorable about the performance of the focal brand. (e.g., I don’t think Colgate is better than Crest in cavity prevention). Support arguments are thoughts that suggest belief in the attribute claim or favorable about the performance of the focal brand (e.g., Crystal offers better cavity prevention). Other message-related thoughts include inquiries for further information (e.g., How much does it cost?) and usage of the featured brands (e.g., I have used Crest before). 94% of the responses were successfully categorized by this procedure. Differences in the judges’ opinions were resolved by a third judge.
Manipulation checks. Cultural orientation was assessed using the self-construal scale developed by Singelis (1994). This scale was used to ensure that the classification of the countries as individualist and collectivist cultures is appropriate. The scale was shown to be reliable and valid. The scale contains 15 independent items and 15 interdependent items. Prior research has shown that people in individualist cultures have independent self-construal and people in collectivist cultures have interdependent selfconstruals (Aaker and Williams 1998). Subjects’ familiarity with the target brand was measured on two scales anchored by “not at all familiar” versus “very familiar and “not at all well-known” versus “very well-known.” They were averaged to form a familiarity index (r = .79).
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Other measures. Subjects rated the importance of the featured attribute in the ad and responded to an open-ended suspicion probe. They also indicated their sex and age.
RESULTS
The data were analyzed using a 2 (cultural orientation) X 2 (type of comparison) X 2 (familiarity) between subjects ANOVA. No differential effects on the dependent measures were observed with respect to age and gender as covariates.
Manipulation Checks
Subjects’ cultural orientation was assessed using the Self-Construal Scale (Singelis 1994). Consistent with prior research, items that measure independent selfconstrual (α = .70) and interdependent self-construal (α = .74) were averaged so that each subject received two scores: one for the strength of independent self and one for the interdependent self. An ANOVA on the independent self-construal index revealed only a main effect of culture such that subject from the United States had higher ratings than those from Thailand (Ms = 4.77 vs. 4.30; F(1,182) = 42.73, p < .001). Similarly, an ANOVA on the interdependent self-construal index yielded only a significant effect of culture such that Thai subjects had higher interdependent self-construal scales than American subjects (Ms = 4.66 vs. 4.36; F(1, 182) = 10.72, p < .001).
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An ANOVA on the familiarity index resulted in only a significant effect of familiarity such that Colgate was perceived to be more familiar than Crystal (Ms = 5.40 vs. 2.85; F(1,182) = 360.29, p < .001).
Test of the Hypotheses
Evaluations. An ANOVA on the evaluation index revealed a significant effect of familiarity (F(1,182) = 11.73, p < .001). Subjects evaluated the familiar brand (i.e., Colgate) more favorably than the unfamiliar brand (i.e., Crystal; Ms = 4.95 vs. 4.47). More importantly, the two-way interaction of culture and the type of comparison was also significant (F(1,182) = 81.65, p < .001). Consistent with Hypothesis 1a, the simple effects test indicated that in an individualist culture like the United States, superiority-based comparison led to more favorable evaluations than similarity-based comparison (Ms = 5.16 vs. 4.06; F(1,182) = 33.28, p < .001). Furthermore, consistent with Hypothesis 1b, in collectivist cultures like Thailand, similarity (vs. superiority) based comparison lead to more favorable evaluations (Ms = 5.51 vs. 4.13; F(1,182) = 49.20, p < .001). The means and standard deviations for major dependent variables are presented in Table 1. _____________________ Insert Table 1 about here _____________________
Claim believability. An ANOVA on the claim believability index revealed only a significant interaction of familiarity by culture (F(1,182) = 26.35, p < .001). Consistent
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with Hypothesis 2a, the simple effects test showed that, in the United States, consumers are more likely to believe the comparison claim, if the advertised brand is unfamiliar rather than familiar (Ms = 4.75 vs. 3.98; F(1,182) = 14.77, p < .001). In contrast, consistent with Hypothesis 2b, Thai consumers were more likely to believe the comparison claim, if the advertised brand is familiar rather than unfamiliar (Ms = 4.64 vs. 3.93; F(1.182) = 12.08, p < .001).
Cognitive Responses. An ANOVA on the total number of thoughts yielded no significant effects (M = 3.25; p’s > .36). Subsequent analyses on the types of thoughts supported Hypothesis 3. Hypothesis 3a suggests that more support arguments would be generated in response to superiority (vs. similarity) based comparisons in the United States. In contrast, Hypothesis 3b suggests that Thai subjects would generate more support argument in response to similarity (vs. superiority) based comparisons. Consistent with our expectations, an ANOVA on the support arguments revealed a significant interaction between the type of comparison and culture (F(1,182) = 101.57, p < .001). The simple effects test suggested that American subjects generated more support thoughts when the comparison was based on superiority (vs. similarity) (Ms = 1.36 vs. 0.35; F(1,182) = 46.83, p < .001). We also found that Thai subjects generated more support thoughts in response to similarity (vs. superiority) based comparison (Ms = 1.44 vs. 0.32; F(1,182) = 55.02, p < 001). An ANOVA on the number of counter arguments yielded only a significant twoway interaction between culture and type of comparison (F(1,182) = 63.52, p < .001).
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Specifically, American subjects generated more counter arguments in response to similarity (vs. superiority) based comparisons (Ms = 1.38 vs. 0.48; F(1,182) = 23.05, p < .001). In contrast, Thai subjects generated more counter arguments in response to superiority (vs. similarity) based comparisons (Ms =1.51 vs. 0.27; F(1,182) = 41.81, p < .001). Finally, an ANOVA on the other message related thoughts revealed no significant effects (M = 1.47, p’s > .37).
Regression analyses. Hypothesis 3a suggests that support arguments would mediate product evaluations for American subjects when the comparison is based on superiority. Hypothesis 3b proposes that support arguments would mediate evaluations for Thai subjects when the comparison is based on similarity. In order to test these predictions, we conducted regression analyses that utilized the number of support arguments and the dummy coded type of comparison as the independent variables and product evaluations as the dependent variable. The analyses were conducted separately for two cultures. Specifically, we conducted three sets of regressions for each culture, as suggested by Baron and Kenny (1986). In the first regression, evaluations were regressed on the type of comparison. In the second regression, the number of support arguments was regressed on the type of comparison. Finally, in the full model, evaluations were regressed on the type of comparison and the number of support arguments. Support arguments would be shown to mediate evaluations partially if (1) the type of comparison is significant in predicting evaluations; (2) the number of support arguments is significant in predicting the type of comparison; and (3) significance of the type of comparison
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decreases when both the type of comparison and the number of support arguments are entered in the regression to predict evaluations. The findings are presented in Table 2. _____________________ Insert Table 2 about here _____________________
For American subjects, we found a significant effect of type of comparison on evaluations such that more favorable evaluations were obtained when the comparison was based on superiority (β = 0.56, p < .001). The path analysis showed that the significance of type of comparison decreased when the number of support arguments was included in the regression (β = 0.29, p < .01). In sum, findings indicate that the effect of type of comparison on evaluations was partially mediated by the number of support arguments. We obtained similar findings for Thai subjects. Specifically, there was a significant effect of type of comparison on evaluations (β = -0.54, p < .001). Thai subjects had more favorable evaluations when the comparison was based on association. We also found that this effect decreased when the number of support arguments was included in the regression (β = -0.36, p < .01). Therefore, findings suggest that support arguments mediated evaluations partially for both American and Thai samples.
GENERAL DISCUSSION
Theoretically, this research adds to the literature on advertising effectiveness and cross-cultural differences. Our findings extend previous research on comparative
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advertising conducted in the United States (e.g., Pechmann and Ratneshwar 1991) by showing that advertising content is culture specific and different types of creative strategies need to be used in different cultures. Superiority based claims are the norm and are compatible with individualist cultures. However, similarity based claims are likely to be culturally compatible in collectivist cultures and hence more persuasive. Our findings also add to the growing literature in consumer behavior that documents cultural differences. As noted earlier, Aaker and Williams (1998) showed that cultural orientation has a systematic effect on emotional appeals. We extend their findings by demonstrating that cultural orientation also has a systematic impact on rational appeals such as comparative advertising. Also, emotional (vs. rational) appeals have been considered to be more successful strategies in collectivist countries (Douglas and Craig 2000). This research suggests that more rational appeals like comparative advertising can also be effective if they are executed in culturally compatible ways. Future research is needed to examine the persuasive impact of other rational appeals such as testimonials and two-sided appeals. We also identified individualism-collectivism as a useful theoretical framework for examining cultural differences. However, it must be noted that individualismcollectivism is a multi-dimensional construct. Recent research on individualismcollectivism suggests that differences exist within individualist and collectivist cultures, and specific dimensions need to be identified (Triandis and Gelfand 1998). One such typology suggests the individualism-collectivism can be differentiated based on the extent to which horizontal or vertical relationships exist within a culture. Horizontal dimension
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assumes that all group members are equal whereas vertical dimension assumes that group members differ in a hierarchical manner. It is likely that the superiority claims may have different impact within different individualist cultures. For example, superiority claims may have more appeal in individualist countries along the vertical dimension whereas the similarity appeals may also be persuasive along the horizontal individualism dimension. We examined the differences in the persuasive impact of comparative advertising by using a direct comparison format. Our study explicitly compared the advertised brand with an identified comparison brand. Future research is needed to examine the efficacy of other types of comparisons such indirect comparisons or general comparisons. Yet another type of comparison based on valence may also be relevant in the cross-cultural context. As Jain (1993) points out, comparisons may be either positive or negative. In a positive comparison, the advertised brand is featured as having more of the featured attribute than the comparison brand. In the negative comparison, the advertised brand is featured as having the attribute that is not present in the comparison brand. While both comparisons are used in the United States, negative comparisons may not be acceptable in collectivist cultures. Given the group enhancement orientation of collectivist cultures, an explicit derogation may be unacceptable. A more general theoretical extension of our research is the investigation of attitude strength and how strength affects processing of comparative claims across different cultures (Haugtvedt and Wegener 1994). While we did not address attitude strength issues in our research, it is likely that strength of attitudes associated with the target and comparison brands may moderate the effect of type of comparison on
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evaluations. For example, in individualist cultures, consumers who have strong positive attitudes toward the comparison brand may prefer a similarity (vs. superiority) based comparison because such an appeal would be consistent with their individual opinions. One possible limitation of our findings could be the generalizability to all collectivist countries. Our study was conducted only in a single collectivist country, Thailand. It is likely that the use of multiple collectivist countries can strengthen the generalizability of our findings. Interestingly, our findings are compatible with similar studies that have examined cross-cultural differences in advertising appeals (Han and Shavitt 1994). Han and Shavitt (1994) found that group oriented appeals are more effective in collectivist cultures. Consistent with this finding, we also showed that highlighting similarity, a defining characteristic of groups, is more effective in a collectivist country. Yet another limitation could be that we used a single product. Using multiple products may also strengthen our findings. This may be of interest since previous research has shown that the persuasiveness of advertising appeals can be product specific. For example, Han and Shavitt (1994) showed that product characteristics moderated the overall effects found in their study. Cultural differences were stronger for products that were consumed with others than for products that were used individually. Our research documented relatively strong effects with toothpaste, an individually consumed product. Replicating our findings with products that are consumed with others may provide stronger effects and serve to strengthen our findings.
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Investing in global markets has received considerable attention during the last decade both as a function of the liberalization of many economies and the market potential represented in these countries. The findings from this research may help managers better understand the culture based psychological processes underlying consumer behavior in different countries. It is likely to lead to a more informed approach to the design and execution of advertising strategies in multinational corporations. This research also sheds some light on the standardization vs. customization debate. Most published research on this issue is conceptual and this research provides empirical evidence to show that using superiority claim is inappropriate in collectivist cultures. At the policy level, our findings may help to change the official negative view of comparative advertising in collectivist countries. A culturally compatible similarity strategy may be used effectively to provide additional competitive information that may help the consumers make more informed product choices.
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NY: Wiley. Dröge, Cornelia (1989), “Shaping the Route to Attitude Change: Central Versus Peripheral Processing Through Comparative Versus Noncomparative Advertising,” Journal of Marketing Research, 26 (May), 193-204. __________ and Rene Y. Darmon (1987), “Associative Positioning Strategies Through Comparative Advertising: Attribute versus Overall Similarity Approaches,” Journal of Marketing Research, 24 (November), 377-388. Gorn, Gerald J. and Charles B. Weinberg (1984), “The Impact of Comparative Advertising On Perception and Attitude: Some Positive Findings,” Journal of Consumer Research, 11 (September), 719-727. Gürhan-Canli, Zeynep and Durairaj Maheswaran (2000), “Cultural Variations in Country of Origin Effects,” Journal of Marketing Research, forthcoming. Han, Sang-Pil and Sharon Shavitt (1994), “Persuasion and Culture: Advertising Appeals in Individualistic and Collectivistic Societies” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 30 (July), 326-350. Haugtvedt, Curtis R. and Duane T. Wegener (1994), “Message Order Effects in Persuasion: An Attitude Strength Perspective,” Journal of Consumer Research, 21 (June), 205218. Jain, Shailendra Pratap (1993), “Positive versus Negative Comparative Advertising,” Marketing Letters, 4 (4), 309-320. Markus, Hazel and Shinobu Kitayama (1991), “Culture and the Self: Implications for Cognition, Emotion and Motivation,” Psychological Review, 98 (2), 242-253.
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Morris, Michael W. and Kaiping Peng (1994), “Culture and Cause: American and Chinese Attributions for Social and Physical Events,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67 (December), 949-971. Pechmann, Cornelia and David W. Stewart (1990), “The Effects of Comparative Advertising on Attention, Memory, and Purchase Intentions,” Journal of Consumer Research, 17 (September), 180-191. __________ and S. Ratneshwar (1991), “The Use of Comparative Advertising for Brand Positioning: Association versus Differentiation,” Journal of Consumer Research, 18 (September), 145-160. Singelis, Theodore M. (1994), “The Measurement of Independent and Interdependent Self-Construals,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20 (October), 580-591. Triandis, Harry C. (1989), “The Self and Social Behavior in Differing Cultural Contexts,” Psychological Review, 96 (July), 506-520. __________ and Michel J. Gelfand (1998), “Converging Measurement of Horizontal and Vertical Individualism and Collectivism,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74 (January), 118-128. Zhang, Shi, Frank R. Kardes, and Maria Cronley (1999), “The Role of Attribute Alignability in Comparative Advertising Effectiveness,” Working Paper, No 329, Marketing Studies Center, UCLA.
31
TABLE 1 MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR PRODUCT EVALUATIONS, CLAIM BELIAVABILITY AND THOUGHTS AS A FUNCTION OF CULTURE, TYPE OF COMPARISON AND FAMILIARITY __________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Individualist Culture (United States) Collectivist Culture (Thailand) _______________________________________________________________________________________________ Familiar Unfamiliar Familiar Unfamiliar _______________________________________________________________________________________________ Superiority Similarity Superiority Similarity Superiority Similarity Superiority Similarity ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Evaluations 5.38 (.78) Claim Believability 3.91 (1.03)
4.22 (.83)
4.94 (.79)
3.90 (.81)
4.44 (1.16)
5.76 (.96)
3.83 (1.13)
5.25 (1.02)
4.06 (1.16)
4.84 (.89)
4.65 (.91)
4.42 (.97)
4.87 (.90)
3.78 (1.16)
4.09 (.81)
3.20 (1.26)
3.21 (1.89)
3.44 (1.16)
3.33 (1.05)
3.39 (1.59)
3.17 (.83)
3.29 (.91)
2.96 (1.14)
1.24 (.83)
.25 (.44)
1.48 (1.09)
.46 (.66)
.35 (.57)
1.52 (.85)
.29 (.46)
1.36 (.66)
.44 (.58)
1.46 (1.35)
.52 (.82)
1.29 (.99)
1.44 (.95)
.13 (.46)
1.58 (1.21)
.41 (.59)
Thoughts Total Support Arguments Counter Arguments
Other 1.52 (1.01) 1.50 (1.06) 1.44 (1.00) 1.58 (1.10) 1.61 (1.16) 1.52 (.79) 1.42 (1.14) 1.18 (1.02) ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
32
TABLE 2 PATH ANALYSIS: THE EFFECT OF TYPE OF COMPARISON ON EVALUATIONS AND ITS MEDIATION BY SUPPORT ARGUMENTS ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Individualist Culture Collectivist Culture (United States) (Thailand) ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Type of Comparison ! Evaluations 0.56a (t = 6.69)*** -0.54 (t = -6.04)*** Type of Comparison ! Support Arguments
0.54 (t = 6.27)***
-0.66 (t = -8.38)***
Support Arguments ! Evaluations
0.51 (t = 6.02)***
0.27 (t = 2.34)***
Type of Comparison ! Evaluations 0.29 (t = 3.35)** -0.36 (t = -3.08)** (when support arguments are also included) ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________ NOTE. -- a: standardized beta values. *** : p < .001. ** : p < .01
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DAVIDSON INSTITUTE WORKING PAPER SERIES CURRENT AS OF 8/10/00 Publication No. 328 Comparative Advertising in the Global Marketplace: The Effects of Cultural Orientation on Communication No. 327 Post Privatization Enterprise Restructuring No. 326 Who is Afraid of Political Instability? No. 325 Business Groups, the Financial Market and Modernization No. 324 Restructuring with What Success? A Case Study of Russian Firms No. 323 Priorities and Sequencing in Privatization: Theory and Evidence from the Czech Republic No. 322 Liquidity, Volatility, and Equity Trading Costs Across Countries and Over Time No. 321 Equilibrium Wage Arrears: Institutional Lock-In of Contractual Failure in Russia No. 320 Rethinking Marketing Programs for Emerging Markets No. 319 Public Finance and Low Equilibria in Transition Economies; the Role of Institutions No. 318 Some Econometric Evidence on the Effectiveness of Active Labour Market Programmes in East Germany No. 317 A Model of Russia’s “Virtual Economy” No. 316 Financial Institutions, Financial Contagion, and Financial Crises No. 315 Privatization versus Regulation in Developing Economies: The Case of West African Banks No. 314 Is Life More Risky in the Open? Household Risk-Coping and the Opening of China’s Labor Markets No. 313 Networks, Migration and Investment: Insiders and Outsiders in Tirupur’s Production Cluster No. 312 Computational Analysis of the Impact on India of the Uruguay Round and the Forthcoming WTO Trade Negotiations No. 311 Subsidized Jobs for Unemployed Workers in Slovakia
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No. 269a: Russian Privatization and Corporate Governance: What Went Wrong?
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John E. Jackson and Aleksander S.
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Andrzej Bratkowski, Irena Grosfeld,
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March 1999
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No. 221: Technology Spillovers through Foreign Direct Investment No. 220: Managerial, Expertise and Team Centered Forms of Organizing: A CrossCultural Exploration of Independence in Engineering Work No. 219: Household Structure and Labor Demand in Agriculture: Testing for Separability in Rural China No. 218: Competing Strategies of FDI and Technology Transfer to China: American and Japanese Firms No. 217 Published in: Journal of Comparative Economics, “Returns to Mobility in the Transition to a Market Economy” Vol. 27, No. 1, March 1999, pp. 4No. 216 Published in: Journal of Comparative Economics, “Labor Market Policies and Unemployment in the Czech Republic.” Vol. 27, No. 1, March 1999, pp. 33-60. No. 215 Published in: Journal of Comparative Economics, “Active Labor Market Policies in Poland: Human Capital Enhancement, Stigmatization or Benefit Churning?” Vol. 27, No. 1, March 1999, pp. 61No. 214 Published in: Journal of Comparative Economics, “Does the Slovenian Public Work Program Increase Participants' Chances to Find a Job?” Vol. 27, No.1, March 1999, pp. 113No. 213 Published in: Journal of Comparative Economics, “Effects of Active Labor Market Programs on the Transition Rate from Unemployment into Regular Jobs in the Slovak Republic.” Vol. 27, No. 1, March 1999, pp. 90No. 212: The Marketing System in Bulgarian Livestock Production – The Present State and Evolutionary Processes During the Period of Economic Transition No. 211: Bankruptcy Experience in Hungary and the Czech Republic No 210: Values, Optimum Stimulation Levels and Brand Loyalty: New Scales in New Populations No. 209: Inherited Wealth, Corporate Control and Economic Growth
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January 1999
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February 1998
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Dan Candea and Rodica M. Candea
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December 1997
Paul W. Beamish and Andrew Delios
November 1997
Dr. Ivan Perlaki
January 1998
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July 1998
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September 1997
Publications denoted by an asterisk are not available on the Kresge Library webpage (http://www.wdi.bus.umich.edu)
THE WILLIAM DAVIDSON INSTITUTE AT THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN BUSINESS SCHOOL
No. 190: Strategic Restructuring: Making Capitalism in Post-Communist Eastern Europe. Forthcoming in Teaching the Dinosaurs to Dance: Organizational Change in Transition Economies ed. Daniel Denison. No. 189: Published in: Regional Science and Urban Economics, “Russia’s Internal Border”, 29 (5), September 1999. No. 187: Corporate Structure and Performance in Hungary No. 186: Performance of Czech Companies by Ownership Structure No. 185: Firm Performance in Bulgaria and Estonia: The effects of competitive pressure, financial pressure and disorganisation No. 184: Investment and Wages during the Transition: Evidence from Slovene Firms No. 183: Investment Portfolio under Soft Budget: Implications for Growth, Volatility and Savings No. 181: Delegation and Delay in Bank Privatization No. 180: Financing Mechanisms and R&D Investment No. 179: Organizational Culture and Effectiveness: The Case of Foreign Firms in Russia No. 178: Output and Unemployment Dynamics in Transition No. 177: Published in: Economics of Transition,, “Bureaucracies in the Russian Voucher Privatization” Vol. 8, No. 1, 2000, pp. 37-57. No. 176: Chronic Moderate Inflation in Transition: The Tale of Hungary No. 175: Privatisation and Market Structure in a Transition Economy No. 174: Ownership and Managerial Competition: Employee, Customer, or Outside Ownership No. 173: Intragovernment Procurement of Local Public Good: A Theory of Decentralization in Nondemocratic Government No. 172: Political Instability and Growth in Proprietary Economies No. 171: Published in Post-Communist Economies, “Framework Issues in the Privatization Strategies of the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland” Vol. 11, no. 1 March 1999.
Lawrence P. King
September 1997
Daniel Berkowitz and David N. DeJong
July 1998
László Halpern and Gábor Kórsöi
July 1998
Andrew Weiss and Georgiy Nikitin
June 1998
Jozef Konings
July 1998
Janez Prasnikar and Jan Svejnar
July 1998
Chongen Bai and Yijiang Wang
Loránd Ambrus-Lakatos and Ulrich Hege
July 1998
Haizhou Huang and Chenggang Xu
July 1998
Carl F. Fey and Daniel R. Denison
January 1999
Vivek H. Dehejia and Douglas W. Dwyer
January 1998
Guido Friebel
June 1998
János Vincze
June 1998
John Bennett and James Maw
June 1998
Patrick Bolton and Chenggang Xu
June 1998
Chong-en Bai, Yu Pan and Yijiang Wang
June 1998
Jody Overland and Michael Spagat
August 1998
Morris Bornstein
June 1998
Publications denoted by an asterisk are not available on the Kresge Library webpage (http://www.wdi.bus.umich.edu)
THE WILLIAM DAVIDSON INSTITUTE AT THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN BUSINESS SCHOOL
No. 170: Published in: European Journal of Political Economy “Privatization, Ownership Structure and Transparency: How to Measure a Real Involvement of the State” 15(4), November 1999, pp. 605-18. No. 169 Published in: American Economic Review, “Unemployment and the Social Safety Net during Transitions to a Market Economy: Evidence from Czech and Slovak Men.” Vol. 88, No. 5, Dec. 1998, pp. 1117-1142. No. 167: Voucher Privatization with Investment Funds: An Institutional Analysis No. 166: Published in: Marketing Issues in Transitional Economies, “Value Priorities and Consumer Behavior in a Transitional Economy: The Case of South Africa” ed. Rajeev Batra. No. 164: Finance and Investment in Transition: Czech Enterprises, 1993-1994 No. 163: European Union Trade and Investment Flows U-Shaping Industrial Output in Central and Eastern Europe: Theory and Evidence No. 162: Skill Acquisition and Private Firm Creation in Transition Economies No. 161: Corruption in Transition No. 160a: Tenures that Shook the World: Worker Turnover in Russia, Poland and Britain No. 160: Tenures that Shook the World: Worker Turnover in the Russian Federation and Poland No. 159: Does Market Structure Matter? New Evidence from Russia No. 158: Structural Adjustment and Regional Long Term Unemployment in Poland No. 157: Baby Boom or Bust? Changing Fertility in Post-Communist Czech Republic and Slovakia No. 156 Published in: Leadership and Organization Development Journal, “Leading Radical Change in Transition Economies.” Vol. 19, No. 6, 1998, pp. 309324. No. 155 Published in: Oxford Review of Economic Policy, “From Theory into Practice? Restructuring and Dynamism in Transition Economies.” Vol. 13, No. 2, Summer 1997, pp. 77-105.
Frantisek Turnovec
May 1998
John C. Ham, Jan Svejnar, and Katherine Terrell
December 1998
David Ellerman
March 1998
Steven M. Burgess and Jan-Benedict E.M. Steenkamp
August 1998
Ronald Anderson and Chantal Kegels
September 1997
Alexander Repkine and Patrick P. Walsh
April 1998
Zuzana Brixiova and Wenli Li
October 1999
Susanto Basu and David D. Li Hartmut Lehmann and Jonathan Wadsworth
May 1998 November 1999
Hartmut Lehmann and Jonathan Wadsworth
June 1998
Annette N. Brown and J. David Brown
June 1998
Hartmut Lehmann and Patrick P. Walsh
June 1997
Robert S. Chase
April 1998
Karen L. Newman
June 1998
Wendy Carlin and Michael Landesmann
June 1997
Publications denoted by an asterisk are not available on the Kresge Library webpage (http://www.wdi.bus.umich.edu)
THE WILLIAM DAVIDSON INSTITUTE AT THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN BUSINESS SCHOOL
No. 154: The Model and the Reality: Assessment of Vietnamese SOE Reform— Implementation at the Firm Level No. 153 Published in: Journal of Comparative Economics, “Causes of the Soft Budget Constraint: Evidence on Three Explanations.” Vol. 26, No. 1, March 1998, pp. 104-116. No. 152 Published in: Comparative Economic Studies, “Enterprise Restructuring in Russia’s Transition Economy: Formal and Informal Mechanisms.” Vol. 40, No. 2, Summer 1998, pp. 5-52. No. 151: Labor Productivity in Transition: A Regional Analysis of Russian Industry No. 150: Tax Avoidance and the Allocation of Credit. Forthcoming in Financial Systems in Transition: The Design of Financial Systems in Central Europe eds. Anna Meyendorff and Anjan Thakor. No. 149: Commitment, Versatility and Balance: Determinants of Work Time Standards and Norms in a Multi-Country Study of Software Engineers No. 148: Changes in Poland’s Transfer Payments in the 1990s: the Fate of Pensioners No. 147: Environmental Protection and Economic Development: The Case of the Huaihe River Basin Cleanup Plan No. 146: Chief Executive Compensation During Early Transition: Further Evidence from Bulgaria No. 145 Published in: Economics of Transition, “Women’s Unemployment During the Transition: Evidence from Czech and Slovak Micro Data,” Vol. 7, No. 1, May 1999, pp. 47-78. No. 144: Investment and Wages in Slovenia No. 143 Published in: Review of Financial Studies, “Optimal Bankruptcy Laws Across Different Economic Systems,” 12(2), Summer 1999, pgs. 347-77. No. 142: Industrial Policy and Poverty in Transition Economies: Two Steps Forward or One Step Back? No. 141: Collective Ownership and Privatization of China’s Village Enterprises No. 140: A Comparative Look at Labor Mobility in the Czech Republic: Where have all the Workers Gone?
Edmund Malesky, Vu Thanh Hung, Vu Thi Dieu Anh, and Nancy K. Napier
July 1998
David D. Li and Minsong Liang
March 1998
Susan J. Linz and Gary Krueger
April 1998
Susan J. Linz
May 1998
Anna Meyendorff
June 1998
Leslie Perlow and Ron Fortgang
April 1998
Bozena Leven
June 1998
Robert Letovsky, Reze Ramazani, and Debra Murphy
June 1998
Derek C. Jones, Takao Kato, and Jeffrey Miller
June 1998
John Ham, Jan Svejnar, and Katherine Terrell
May 1998
Janez Prasnikar Elazar Berkovitch and Ronen Israel
May 1998 March 1998
Susan J. Linz
March 1998
Suwen Pan and Albert Park
April 1998
Vit Sorm and Katherine Terrell
April 1999
Publications denoted by an asterisk are not available on the Kresge Library webpage (http://www.wdi.bus.umich.edu)
THE WILLIAM DAVIDSON INSTITUTE AT THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN BUSINESS SCHOOL
No. 139: The Failure of the Government-Led Program of Corporate Reorganization in Romania No. 138: Ownership and Employment in Russian Industry: 1992-1995 No. 137 Published in: Journal of Political Economy, “Reform Without Losers: An Interpretation of China’s Dual-Track Approach to Transition,” Feb. 2000; Vol. 108, Iss.1; pg. 120 No. 136 Published in: European Economic Review, “The Political Economy of Mass Privatization and the Risk of Expropriation,” 44(2), February 2000, pgs. 393-421 No. 135: Radical Organizational Change: The Role of Starting Conditions, Competition, and Leaders No. 134: To Restructure or Not to Restructure: Informal Activities and Enterprise Behavior in Transition No. 133: Management 101: Behavior of Firms in Transition Economies No. 132 Published in: Quarterly Journal of Economics, “Interfirm Relationships and Informal Credit in Vietnam,” 114(4), Nov. 1999, pgs. 1285-1320 No. 131 Published in: Comparative Economic Studies, “Will Restructuring Hungarian Companies Innovate? An Investigation Based on Joseph Berliner’s Analysis of Innovation in Soviet Industry.” Vol. 40, No. 2, Summer 1998, pp. 53-74. No. 130: Published in The American Economic Review, “Changing Incentives of the Chinese Bureaucracy.” May, 1998. No. 129: Restructuring Investment in Transition: A Model of the Enterprise Decision No. 128 Published in: Comparative Economic Studies, “Job Rights in Russian Firms: Endangered or Extinct Institutions?” Vol. 40, No. 4, Winter 1998, pp. 1-32. No. 127: Accounting for Growth in PostSoviet Russia No. 126 Published in: Economics of Transition, “From Federalism, Chinese Style, to Privatization Chinese Style,” 7(1), 1999, pgs. 103-31
Simeon Djankov and Kosali Ilayperuma
September 1997
Susan J. Linz
March 1998
Lawrence J. Lau, Yingyi Qian, and Gerard Roland
November 1997
Klaus M. Schmidt
March 1998
Karen L. Newman
January 1998
Clifford Gaddy and Barry W. Ickes
May 1998
Josef C. Brada
March 1998
John McMillan and Christopher Woodruff
February 1998
John B. Bonin and Istvan Abel
March 1998
David D. Li
January 1998
Richard E. Ericson
January 1998
Susan J. Linz
January 1998
Daniel Berkowitz and David N. DeJong
January 1998
Yuanzheng Cao, Yingyi Qian, and Barry R. Weingast
December 1997
Publications denoted by an asterisk are not available on the Kresge Library webpage (http://www.wdi.bus.umich.edu)
THE WILLIAM DAVIDSON INSTITUTE AT THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN BUSINESS SCHOOL
No. 125: Market Discipline in Conglomerate Banks: Is an Internal Allocation of Cost of Capital Necessary as Incentive Device? Forthcoming in Financial Systems in Transition: The Design of Financial Systems in Central Europe eds. Anna Meyendorff and Anjan Thakor. No. 124: Financial Discipline in the Enterprise Sector in Transition Countries: How Does China Compare? No. 123: Considerations of an Emerging Marketplace: Managers’ Perceptions in the Southern African Economic Community No. 122: A Model of the Informal Economy in Transition Economies No. 121: Local Labour Market Dynamics in the Czech and Slovak Republics No. 121: Local Labour Market Dynamics in the Czech and Slovak Republics No. 119: Institutional Upheaval and Company Transformation in Emerging Market Economies No. 118: Industrial Decline and Labor Reallocation in Romania No. 117: Notes for an Essay on the Soft Budget Constraint No. 116: Labor Demand During Transition in Hungary No. 115: Enterprise Performance and Managers’ Profiles No. 114b Employment and Wages in Enterprises under Communism and in Transition: Evidence From Central Europe and Russia No. 114: Employment and Wage Behavior of Enterprises in Transitional Economies No. 113: Preliminary Evidence on Active Labor Programs’ Impact in Hungary and Poland No. 111: Unemployment Benefits and Incentives in Hungary: New Evidence No. 110: Published in: Empirical Economics, “Long-Term Unemployment, Unemployment Benefits and Social Assistance: The Polish Experience” Empirical-Economics; 23(1-2), 1998, pages 55-85.
Arnoud W. A. Boot and Anjolein Schmeits
Shumei Gao Schaffer
and
Mark
November 1997
E. February 1998
Brent Chrite and David Hudson
February 1998
Simon Commander and Andrei Tolstopiatenko Peter Huber and Andreas Worgotter
November 1997 November 1997
Peter Huber and Andreas Worgotter
November 1997
Karen L. Newman
March 1998
John S. Earle
October 1997
Lorand Ambrus-Lakatos
January 1997
Gabor Korosi
October 1997
Simeon Djankov and Stijn Claessens
December 1997
Swati Basu, Saul Estrin, and Jan Svejnar
April 2000
Swati Basu, Saul Estrin, and Jan Svejnar
October 1997
Christopher J. O’Leary
October 1997
Joachim Wolff
October 1997
Marek Gora and Christoph M. Schmidt
April 1997
Publications denoted by an asterisk are not available on the Kresge Library webpage (http://www.wdi.bus.umich.edu)
THE WILLIAM DAVIDSON INSTITUTE AT THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN BUSINESS SCHOOL
No. 109 Published in: Industrial and Labor Relations Review, “Markets for Communist Human Capital: Returns to Education and Experience in Post-Communist Czech Republic and Slovakia.” Vol. 51, No. 3, April 1998, pp. 401-423. No. 107: The Worker-Firm Matching in the Transition: (Why) Are the Czechs More Successful Than Others? No. 106 Published in: Journal of Comparative Economics, “Job Creation, Job Destruction and Growth of Newly Established, Privatized and State-Owned Enterprises in Transition Economies: Survey Evidence from Bulgaria, Hungary, and Romania,” Vol. 26, No.3, September 1998, pp. 429-445. No. 105: Getting Behind the East-West [German] Wage Differential: Theory and Evidence No. 104: The Birth of the “Wage Curve” in Hungary, 1989-95 No. 103: Published in: Journal of Comparative Economics, “Grime and Punishment: Job Insecurity and Wage Arrears in the Russian Federation” 27, 595-617 (1999). No. 102: Social Networks in Transition No. 101: Depreciation and Russian Corporate Finance: A Pragmatic Approach to Surviving the Transition No. 100: Romanian Financial System Reform No. 99: Proceedings of the Conference on Strategic Alliances in Transitional Economies, held May 20, 1997 at the Davidson Institute No. 98: Institutions, Strain and the Underground Economy No. 97: Structure and Strain in Explaining Inter-Enterprise Arrears No. 96: Resource Misallocation and Strain: Explaining Shocks in Post-Command Economies No. 95: Published in: Finance-a-Uver, “Czech Money Market: Emerging Links Among Interest Rates.” 48(2) 1998 pp. 99109. No. 94: Pre-Reform Industry and the State Monopsony in China No. 93: China’s State-Owned Enterprises In the First Reform Decade: An Analysis of a Declining Monopsony
Robert S. Chase
October 1997
Daniel Münich, Jan Svejnar, and Katherine Terrell
October 1997
Valentijn Bilsen and Jozef Konings
September 1998
Michael Burda and Christoph Schmidt
May 1997
Gabor Kertesi and Janos Kollo
October 1997
Hartmut Lehmann, Jonathan Wadsworth, and Alessandro Acquisti
October 1997
Lorena Barberia, Simon Johnson, and Daniel Kaufmann Susan J. Linz
October 1997 November 1997
Anna Meyendorff and Anjan V. Thakor Edited by Cynthia Koch
November 1997 May 1997
Daniel Daianu and Lucian Albu
November 1997
Daniel Daianu
November 1997
Daniel Daianu
November 1997
Jan Hanousek and Evzen Kocenda
November 1997
Xiao-Yuan Dong and Louis Putterman
October 1997
Xiao-Yuan Dong and Louis Putterman
October 1997
Publications denoted by an asterisk are not available on the Kresge Library webpage (http://www.wdi.bus.umich.edu)
THE WILLIAM DAVIDSON INSTITUTE AT THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN BUSINESS SCHOOL
No. 92: Expatriate Management in the Czech Republic No. 91: China and the Idea of Economic Reform No. 90 Published in: China Economic Review, “China’s State Enterprise Reform: An Overseas Perspective.” Vol. 8, Spring 1997, pp. 89-98. No. 89: The Economic Determinants of Internal Migration Flows in Russia During Transition No. 88: Gender Wage Gaps in China’s Labor Market: Size, Structure, Trends No. 87: Privatisation in Central and Eastern Europe No. 86: Published in : Economics of Transition, “The Effect of Privatization on Wealth Distribution in Russia.” v. 7, no. 2, 1999, pp. 449-65 No. 85: Was Privatization in Eastern Germany a Special Case? Some Lessons from the Treuhand No. 84: Start-ups and Transition No. 83: Which Enterprises (Believe They) Have Soft Budgets after Mass Privatization? Evidence from Mongolia No. 82: Published in: European Economic Review, “Unemployment Dynamics and the Restructuring of the Slovak Unemployment Benefit System.” April, 1997. No. 81: Determinants of Unemployment Duration in Russia No. 80: The Many Faces of Information Disclosure No. 79: Published in: Journal of Finance, “Foreign Speculators and Emerging Equity Markets.”v.22, iss. 2, 2000, pp. 565-613 No. 78: The Relationship Between Economic Factors and Equity Markets in Central Europe No. 77 Published in: Economics of Transition, “A Gini Decomposition Analysis of Inequality in the Czech and Slovak Republics During the Transition,” Vol. 6, No.1, May 1998, pp. 23-46. No. 76: China’s Emerging Market for Property Rights: Theoretical and Empirical Perspectives No. 75b: Test of Permanent Income Hypothesis on Czech Voucher Privatization
Richard B. Peterson
September 1997
Thomas G. Rawski
April 1997
Thomas G. Rawski
July 1997
Annette N. Brown
July 1997
Margaret Maurer-Fazio, Thomas G. Rawski, and Wei Zhang Saul Estrin
July 1997 June 1997
Michael Alexeev
February 1998
Uwe Siegmund
September 1997
Daniel M. Berkowitz and David J. Cooper James Anderson, Georges Korsun, and Peter Murrell
September 1997 October 1997
Martina Lubyova and Jan C. van Ours
June 1997
Mark C. Foley
August 1997
Arnoud W.A. Boot and Anjan V. Thakor
October 1997
Geert Bekaert and Campbell R. Harvey
August 1997
Jan Hanousek and Randall K. Filer
June 1997
Thesia I. Garner and Katherine Terrell
May 1998
Gary H. Jefferson and Thomas G. Rawski
June 1997
Jan Hanousek and Zdenek Tima
October 1997
Publications denoted by an asterisk are not available on the Kresge Library webpage (http://www.wdi.bus.umich.edu)
THE WILLIAM DAVIDSON INSTITUTE AT THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN BUSINESS SCHOOL
No. 74: Determinants of Performance of Manufacturing Firms in Seven European Transition Economies No. 73 Published in: Economics of Transition, “The Restructuring of Large Firms in Slovak Republic.” Vol. 6, No. 1, May 1998, pp. 67-85 No. 72: Law, Relationships, and Private Enforcement: Transactional Strategies of Russian Enterprises No. 71: Giving Credit Where Credit Is Due: The Changing Role of Rural Financial Institutions in China No. 70: Privatization Versus Competition: Changing Enterprise Behavior in Russia No. 69: Russian Managers under Storm: Explicit Reality and Implicit Leadership Theories (A Pilot Exploration) No. 68: The Political Economy of CentralLocal Relations in China: Inflation and Investment Controls During the Reform Era No. 67: Between Two Coordination Failures: Automotive Industrial Policy in China with a Comparison to Korea No. 66 Published in: Post-Soviet Geography and Economics, “Red Executives in Russia’s Transition Economy.” Vol. 27, No. 10, November 1996, pp. 633-651. No. 65 Published in: Industrial and Corporate Change, “On the Sequencing of Privatization in Transition Economies.” Vol. 7, No. 1, 1998. No. 64: Published in: Journal of Law and Economics, “Foreign Ownership and Profitability: Property Rights, Control and the Performance of Firms in Indian Industry” 42(1), April 1999, pp. 209-38. No. 63: How Taxing Is Corruption on International Investors? No. 62: What Can We Learn from the Experience of Transitional Economies with Labour Market Policies? No. 61: Published in: Accounting Organizations and Society, “Economic Transition, Strategy and the Evolution of Management Accounting Practices: The Case of India” 24(5,6), Jul/Aug 1999, pp. 379-412. No. 60a: Enterprise Investment During the Transition: Evidence from Czech Panel Data
Stijn Claessens, Simeon Djankov, and Gerhard Pohl
February 1997
Simeon Djankov and Gerhard Pohl
May 1998
Kathryn Hendley, Peter Murrell, and Randi Ryterman
November 1998
Albert Park, Loren Brandt, and John Giles
March 1997
John S. Earle and Saul Estrin
Spring 1997
Igor Gurkov
October 1998
Yasheng Huang
Spring 1997
Yasheng Huang
Spring 1997
Susan J. Linz
January 1997
Gautam Ahuja and Sumit K. Majumdar
April 1997
Pradeep K. Chhibber and Sumit K. Majumdar
April 1997
Shang-Jin Wei
February 1997
Tito Boeri
1997
Shannon W. Anderson and William N. Lanen
April 1997
Lubomír Lizal and Jan Svejnar
December 1997
Publications denoted by an asterisk are not available on the Kresge Library webpage (http://www.wdi.bus.umich.edu)
THE WILLIAM DAVIDSON INSTITUTE AT THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN BUSINESS SCHOOL
No. 59: Published in: Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization, “Institutional Environment, Community Government, and Corporate Governance: Understanding China’s Township-Village Enterprises.” 14(1), April 1998, pages 1-23 No. 58: From the Grabbing Hand to the Helping Hand No. 57: Published in: Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, “The Unofficial Economy in Transition.” 1: 1998. No. 56: Taxes and Government Incentives: Eastern Europe vs. China No. 55: Corruption and Reform No. 54: Decentralization and the Macroeconomic Consequences of Commitment to State-Owned Firms No. 53: Published in: The International Journal of Industrial Organization, “Competitive Shocks and Industrial Structure: The Case of Polish Manufacturing.” August, 1999. . No. 52: Published in: The Quarterly Journal of Economics, “Insecure Property Rights and Government Ownership of Firms.” May, 1998. No. 51: Incentives, Scale Economies, and Organizational Form No. 50: Published in: Post-Soviet-Affairs, “End of the Tunnel? The Effects of Financial Stabilization in Russia” April-June 1997, pages 105-33 No. 49: The Evolution of Bank Credit Quality in Transition: Theory and Evidence from Romania No. 48: Where Do the Leaders Trade? Information Revelation and Interactions Between the Segments of Czech Capital Markets No. 47: Firms’ Heterogeneity in Transition: Evidence from a Polish Panel Data Set No. 46: Strategic Creditor Passivity, Regulation, and Bank Bailouts No. 45a: Decentralization in Transition Economies: A Tragedy of the Commons? No. 44a: The Information Content of Stock Markets: Why do Emerging Markets have Synchronous Stock Price Movements? (forthcoming in the Journal of Financial Economics).
Jiahua Che and Yingyi Qian
April 1997
Jiahua Che
June 2000
Simon Johnson, Daniel Kaufmann, and Andrei Schleifer
June 1997
Roger H. Gordon and David D. Li
April 1997
Susanto Basu and David Li Loren Brandt and Xiaodong Zhu
June 1996 June 1997
Pankaj Ghemawat and Robert E. Kennedy
May 1997
Jiahua Che and Yingyi Qian
May 1997
Eric Maskin, Yingyi Qian, and Chenggang Xu Barry W. Ickes, Peter Murrell, and Randi Ryterman
May 1997
Enrico C. Perotti and Octavian Carare
October 1996
Jan Hanousek and Libor Nemecek
May 1997
Irena Grosfeld and Jean-François Nivet
May 1997
Janet Mitchell
May 1997
Daniel M. Berkowitz and Wei Li
September 1997
Randall Morck, Bernard Yeung, and Wayne Yu
February 1999
March 1997
Publications denoted by an asterisk are not available on the Kresge Library webpage (http://www.wdi.bus.umich.edu)
THE WILLIAM DAVIDSON INSTITUTE AT THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN BUSINESS SCHOOL
No. 43: Agency in Project Screening and Termination Decisions: Why Is Good Money Thrown After Bad? No. 42: Published in: Economics of Transition, “Channels of Redistribution: Inequality and Poverty in the Russian Transition.” Vol. 7 (2) 1999. No. 41: Published in: Economics of Transition, “Labour Market Characteristics and Profitability: Econometric Analysis of Hungarian Exporting Firms, 1986-1995” 6(1), May 1998, pages 145-62 No. 40: Published in: the Harvard Law Review, “The Tragedy of the Anticommons: Property in the Transition from Marx to Markets.” January 1998. No. 39: Privatization and Managerial Efficiency No. 38 Published in: The Quarterly Journal of Economics, “Disorganization.” Vol. 112, No. 4, November 1997, pp. 1091-1126. No. 37: Published in: Economics of Transition, “Transition and the Output Fall.” 7(1), 1999, pages 1-28. No. 36: Restructuring an Industry During Transition: A Two-Period Model No. 34: The East-West Joint Venture: BC Torsion Case Study No. 33 Published in: Journal of Comparative Economics, “Quantifying Price Liberalization in Russia.” Vol. 26, No. 4, December 1998, pp. 735-737. No. 32: What Can North Korea Learn from China’s Market Reforms? No. 31: Published in : China-EconomicReview, “Towards a Model of China as a Partially Reformed Developing Economy Under a Semifederalist Government.” , 9(1), Spring 1998, pages 1-23. No. 30: Convergence in Output in Transition Economies: Central and Eastern Europe, 1970-1995 No. 29: Published in: Economics of Transition, “Altered Band and Exchange Volatility.” Volume 6, no. 1, 1998, 173-181. No. 28: Published in: Quarterly Journal of Economics, “Public Versus Private Ownership of Firms: Evidence from Rural China.” Volume 113, no. 3, August 1998, 773808.
Chong-en Bai and Yijiang Wang
May 1997
Simon Commander, Andrei Tolstopiatenko, and Ruslan Yemtsov
May 1997
László Halpern and Gabor Korosi
May 1997
Michael Heller
February 1997
Olivier Debande and Guido Friebel
May 1997
Olivier Blanchard and Michael Kremer
January 1997
Gérard Roland and Thierry Verdier
March 1997
Richard Ericson
September 1996
Sonia Ferencikova and Vern Terpstra
December 1998
Daniel Berkowitz, David DeJong, and Steven Husted
December 1998
John McMillan
September 1996
Yijiang Wang and Chun Chang
March 1997
Saul Estrin and Giovanni Urga
February 1997
Evzen Kocenda
March 1997
Hehui Jin and Yingyi Qian
January 1997
Publications denoted by an asterisk are not available on the Kresge Library webpage (http://www.wdi.bus.umich.edu)
THE WILLIAM DAVIDSON INSTITUTE AT THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN BUSINESS SCHOOL
No. 27: East-West Joint Ventures in a Transitional Economy: The Case of Slovakia No. 26: Published in Economic Analysis “Behavior of a Slovenian Firm in Transition” Vol. 1, no. 1, 1998, 57-73. No. 25: Cultural Encounters and Claims to Expertise in Postcommunist Capitalism No. 24: ZVU a.s.: Investment Funds on the Board of Directors of an Engineering Giant No. 23: The Role of Investment Funds in the Czech Republic (joint publication with Czech Management Center) No. 22: Czech Investment Fund Industry: Development and Behaviour (joint publication with Czech Management Center) No. 21: Restructuring of Czech Firms: An Example of Gama, a.s. (joint publication with Czech Management Center) No. 20: YSE Funds: A Story of Czech Investment Funds (joint publication with Czech Management Center) No. 19: První Investicni a.s., The First Investment Corporation (joint publication with Czech Management Center) No. 18: PPF a.s., The First Private Investment Fund (joint publication with Czech Management Center) No. 17 Published in: Post-Soviet Geography and Economics, “Russia’s Managers in Transition: Pilferers or Paladins?” Vol. 37, o.7 (September 1996), pp. 397-426. No. 16: Banks in Transition— Investment Opportunities in Central Europe and Russia Edited Transcript from 31 May 1996 Conference in New York City No. 15: Marketing in Transitional Economies: Edited Transcript & Papers from 1 April 1996 Conference in Ann Arbor, Michigan No. 14: Pensions in the Former Soviet Bloc: Problems and Solutions. Published by Council on Foreign Relations. “The Coming Global Pension Crisis” New York, 1997 No. 13: Enterprise Restructuring and Performance in the Transition. Forthcoming in Financial Systems in Transition: The Design of Financial Systems in Central Europe eds. Anna Meyendorff and Anjan Thakor.
Sonia Ferencikova
March 1997
Janez Prasnikar
February 1997
Michael D. Kennedy
February 1997
Tory Wolff
August 1995
Dusan Triska
June 1996
Richard Podpiera
May 1996
Antonin Bulin
June 1996
Michal Otradovec
November 1995
Jaroslav Jirasek
August 1995
Michal Otradovec
November 1995
Susan J. Linz and Gary Krueger
November 1996
With commentary and edited by Anna Meyendorff
January 1997
Compiled by The Davidson Institute
December 1996
Jan Svejnar
November 1996
Lubomir Lizal, Miroslav Singer, and Jan Svejnar
December 1996
Publications denoted by an asterisk are not available on the Kresge Library webpage (http://www.wdi.bus.umich.edu)
THE WILLIAM DAVIDSON INSTITUTE AT THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN BUSINESS SCHOOL
No. 12 Published in: Journal of International Marketing, “Executive Insights: Marketing Issues and Challenges in Transitional Economies.” Vol. 5, No. 4, 1997, pp. 95-114. Also published in: Marketing Issues in Transitional Economies ed. Rajeev Batra. No. 11: Worker Trust and System Vulnerability in the Transition from Socialism to Capitalism No. 10 Published in: Comparative Economic Studies, “Russian Firms in Transition: Champions, Challengers, and Chaff.” Vol. 39, No.2, Summer 1997, pp. 1-36. No. 9: Corporate Debt Crisis and Bankruptcy Law During the Transition: The Case of China No. 8 Published in: Journal of Comparative Economics, “A Theory of Ambiguous Property Rights in Transition Economies: The Case of the Chinese Non-State Sector.” Vol. 23, No. 1, August 1996, pp. 1-19. No. 7: The Foreign Economic Contract Law of China: Cases and Analysis No. 3: Bank Privatization in Hungary and the Magyar Kulkereskedelmi Bank Transaction Replacing Nos. 1-2 & 4-6: Journal of Comparative Economics Symposium on “Bank Privatization in Central Europe and Russia.” Vol. 25, No. 1, August 1997.
Rajeev Batra
April 1997
Andrew Schotter
August 1996
Susan J. Linz
July 1996
David D. Li and Shan Li
December 1995
David D. Li
June 1996
Dong-lai Li
June 1993
Roger Kormendi and Karen Schnatterly
May 1996
No. 1 “Bank Privatization in Transitional Economies” by Roger Kormendi and Edward Snyder. No. 2 “Transactional Structures of Bank Privatizations in Central Europe and Russia” by Anna Meyendorff and Edward A. Snyder. No. 4 “Bank Privatization in Poland: The Case of Bank Slaski” by Jeffery Abarbaness and John Bonin. No. 5 “Bank Privatization in Post-Communist Russia: The Case of Zhilsotsbank” by Jeffery Abarbanell and Anna Meyendorff and No. 6 “”The Czech Republic’s Commercial Bank: Komercni Banka” by Edward A. Snyder and Roger C. Kormendi.
August 1997
Publications denoted by an asterisk are not available on the Kresge Library webpage (http://www.wdi.bus.umich.edu)