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e SS NEWS LETTER

Month: November Issue: 1

2017 1

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November 2017

Genesis, distribution, characteristics and management of sodic soils in India 1Eazhilkrishna,

N., T. Thilagavathi2 and T.Sundhari3

1. National Rice Research Institute (NRRI), Cuttack, Odisha, 2. Professor (SS&AC), TNAU, Coimbatore, 3. M.Sc Scholar, SS&AC, TNAU, Coimbatore – 641 003. Introduction

over a long period of soil salinization, C storage

Some amounts of salts are always present in soil. When the concentration of these salts are low, they are not harmful for the growth of plants. But, with an increase in salt content of the soil to high levels, plant growth is adversely affected, which in turn, decrease the productivity of agricultural crops. Globally, 75 countries have been recognized as having vast areas of salt affected lands. Salt-affected soils mostly exist in arid and semiarid regions of the world, and many salt affected wastelands have been productive lands in the past (Qadir et al., 2001). Worldwide, about 95 million hectares of soils are under

primary

salinization (salt accumulation through natural processes in soils and water) whereas 77 million hectares suffer from secondary salinization (as a result

of

human

activities

and

ever-rising

groundwater). Of major concern is that 23% of arable lands in the world are affected by salinity and a further 10 % are saline sodic soils while 340

decreases at a significant rate. Salt affected soils are generally classified on the basis of their electrical conductivity of the saturated extract (ECe), sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) and exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP), and pH. Based on these properties, saltaffected soils are thus classified as follows: (1) Saline soils, containing high levels of soluble salts and characterized by having high ECe values ( >4 dS m−1); (2) Sodic soils, having high levels of exchangeable sodium with SAR >13 and/or ESP ( >15); and (3) saline-sodic soils, in which both soluble salts and exchangeable sodium are high, i.e., ECe >4 dS m−1, SAR >13, and ESP >15. Due to the combined effects of salinity and sodicity on soil properties and plant growth in saline-sodic soils, these soils are considered to be the most degraded form of salt-affected soil. Genesis of sodic soil

million hectares of lands are sodic (NLWRA 2001).

The mechanisms responsible for the

The high salt concentration negatively affects soil

formation of sodium carbonate in soils which

microbial activity as well as soil chemical and

characterize

sodic

physical properties, thus causing a decline in soil

discussed

in

productivity. Decline in the growth of vegetation

Groundwater

due to salt toxicity and detrimental osmotic

bicarbonate is one of the chief contributing factors

potential results in lower carbon (C) inclusions into

in the formation of sodic soils in many regions.

these soils and leads to further deterioration of

The soils are reported to have formed by

their physical and chemical properties. Therefore,

desalinization in the absence of enough divalent

(alkali)

several containing

soils

have

standard carbonate

been works. and

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cations in some parts of the country, by high

the Indo - Gangetic Plain, these soils have

carbonate

by

occupied 1787759 ha covering 47% of the total

under

area in Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab and Bihar

and

denitrification

bicarbonate

and

sulphate

water

and

reduction

anaerobic conditions. Reduction

of

states.These soils are moderately and strongly sulphate

ions

under

anaerobic conditions and in the presence of organic matter was reported to result in the formation of sodium carbonate. According to Bhargava and Bhattachrjee (1982), alternate wet and dry seasons and the topographic (drainage)

sodic in Uttar Pradesh, slight and moderately sodic in Punjab and Bihar. Significant area (35%) Table 1. State wise extent and distribution of sodic soils in India S.

Sodic soils

State

No.

(ha)

1

Andhra Pradesh

2

Andaman & Nicobar

3

Bihar

105852

4

Gujarat

541430

5

Haryana

183399

6

Karnataka

148136

7

Kerala

8

Maharashtra

422670

causing an increase in the proportion of sodium

9

Madhya Pradesh

139720

ions in the soil solution and on the exchange

10

Orissa

0

complex with simultaneous increase in pH. This

11

Punjab

151717

process repeated over years resulted in the

12

Rajasthan

179371

formation of sodic soils.

13

Tamil Nadu

354784

14

Uttar Pradesh

15

West Bengal

conditions appeared to be the contributing factors in the formation of vast areas of sodic soils in the Indo Gangetic plains of India. During the wet season water containing products of aluminosilicate weathering accumulated in the low lying areas. In the ensuing dry season, as a result of evaporation, the soil solution is concentrated resulting in precipitation of some divalent cations,

Distribution of sodic soils in India Sodic soils have occupied 3770659 ha

Total

196609 0

0

1346971 0 3770659

covering 66% of the total area of the country.

(Source : CSSRI, 2010)

These soils are essentially located in the Indo-

of sodic soils is found in the arid and semiarid

Gangetic Plain, arid and semiarid region in

regions covering Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya

Western and Central India and the Peninsular

Pradesh and Maharashtra states. In Gujarat,

region in Southern India. State-wise extent and

these are strongly (18%) and moderately (5%)

distribution showed that significant area is located

sodic in nature. In Rajasthan, slightly (41 %) and

in Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil

moderately (6%) sodic soils are found in central

Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan,

and northern part. Slightly (69%) sodic soils are

Punjab, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh and Bihar. In

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found

in

Western

Madhya

have an exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP)

Pradesh, slightly (79%) sodic soils are occurring

of more than 15. Excess exchangeable sodium

in Gwalior, Bhind, Morena, Vidisha and Ujjain

has an adverse effect on the physical and

districts. In the peninsular region, sodic soils have

nutritional properties of the soil, with consequent

occupied extensive areas (18%) in the states of

reduction in crop growth, significantly or entirely.

Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. In

The soils lack appreciable quantities of neutral

Tamil

soluble

Nadu

Maharashtra.

sodic

Ramanathapuram,

soils

Cuddalore,

In

are

found

in

salts

but

contain

measurable

to

Kanchipuram,

appreciable quantities of salts capable of alkaline

Tirunelveli, Thanjavur, Pudukottai, Madurai and

hydrolysis, e.g. sodium carbonate. The electrical

Tiruchirapalli districts. These soils are either

conductivity

slightly (59%), moderately (32%) or strongly (4%)

therefore, likely to be variable but are often less

sodic in nature. Sodic soils are also found in

than 4 dS/m at 25 °C. The pH of saturated soil

Karnataka covering Chitradurga, Bellary, Raichur,

pastes is 8.2 or more and in extreme cases may

and Mysore distriets. These soils are slightly

be above 10.5. Dispersed and dissolved organic

(71%) and moderately (24 %) sodic in character.

matter present in the soil solution of highly sodic

Sodic soils are also distributed in the scarce

soils may be deposited on the soil surface by

rainfall zone of Rayalseema and southern zone of

evaporation giving a dark colour which is why

Andhra Pradesh covering Nalgonda, Anantpur,

these soils have also been termed as black sodic

Krishna, Prakasam, East Godavari, Kurnool,

soils.

of

saturation

soil

extracts

are,

Chittoor and Guntur districts. These are slight (41

Under field conditions after an irrigation or

%), moderate (22 %) and strongly (7%) sodic in

rainfall, sodic soils typically have convex surfaces.

nature.

The soil, a few centimetres below the surface may

Characteristics of sodic soil The chief characteristic of sodic soils from the agricultural stand point is that they contain sufficient exchangeable sodium to adversely affect the growth of most crop plants. For the purpose of definition, sodic soils are those which

be saturated with water while at the same time the surface is dry and hard. Upon dehydration, cracks of 1-2 cm across and several centimetres deep are formed and which close when wetted. The cracks, generally, appear at the same place on the surface each time the soil dries unless it has been disturbed mechanically.

Table 2. Distinguishing features of sodic soils Characteristics 1. Chemical

Sodic soils a. Appreciable quantities of neutral soluble salts generally absent. Appreciable quantities of salts capable of alkaline hydrolysis, e.g. presence of Na 2CO3 b. pH of the saturated soil paste is more than 8.2.

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c. An exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) of 15 or more is the generally accepted limit above which soils are classed as ‘sodic’. EC of the saturated soil extract is generally less than 4 dS m-1 at 25 °C. d. Sodium is the dominant soluble cation. High pH of the soils results in precipitation of soluble Ca and Mg such that their concentration in the soil solution is very low. Gypsum is nearly always absent in such soils. 2. Physical

a. Excess exchangeable sodium and high pH result in the dispersion of clay and the soils have an unstable structure. b. Permeability of soils to water and air is restricted. Physical properties of the soils become worse with increasing levels of exchangeable sodium/pH.

3. Effect on plant

Plant growth is adversely affected due to restricted oxygen supply:

growth

a. chiefly through the dispersive effect of excess exchangeable sodium resulting in poor physical properties; b. through the effect of high soil pH on nutritional imbalances including a deficiency of calcium; c. through toxicity of specific ions, e.g. Na, CO 3, Mo, etc.

4. Soil improvement

Improvement of sodic soils essentially requires the replacement of sodium in the soil exchange complex by calcium through use of soil amendments and leaching and drainage of salts resulting from reaction of amendments with exchangeable sodium.

5. Distribution

Sodic soils tend to dominate in semi-arid and sub-humid regions.

6. Ground-water quality

Groundwater in areas dominated by sodic soils has generally low to medium electrolyte concentration and some of it may have residual sodicity leading to potential sodicity hazard.

Management of sodic soil

amendments are expensive or not available, and

1. Amendments

he is willing to wait many years before he can

Basically, reclamation or improvement

get good crop yields, soil can still be reclaimed

of sodic soils requires the removal of part or

but at a slow rate by long-continued irrigated

most of the exchangeable sodium and its

cropping, ideally including a rice crop and sodic

replacement by the more favourable calcium

tolerant crops in the cropping sequence, along

ions in the root zone. This can be accomplished

with the incorporation of organic residues and/or

in many ways, the best by utilizing locally

farmyard manure. For reasonably quick results

available resources and the kind of crops to be

cropping must be preceded by the application of

grown on the reclaimed soils. If the cultivator

chemical soil amendments followed by leaching

can spend very little for reclamation and the

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for removal of salts derived from the reaction of the amendment with the sodic soil.

The

suitability

of

one

or

another

amendment for sodic soil reclamation will largely

Soil amendments are materials, such as

depend on the nature of the soil and cost

gypsum or calcium chloride, that directly supply

considerations. Ground limestone, CaCO3, is an

soluble

of

effective amendment only in soils having pH

exchangeable sodium, or other substances,

below about 7.0 because its solubility rapidly

such as sulphuric acid and sulphur, that

decreases as the soil pH increases. It is

indirectly through chemical or biological action,

apparent that the effectiveness of limestone as

make the relatively insoluble calcium carbonate

an amendment is markedly decreased at pH

commonly found in sodic soils, available for

values above 7.0. Some soils that contain

replacement of sodium. Organic matter (i.e.

excess

straw, farm and green manures) decomposition

appreciable

and plant root action also help dissolve the

hydrogen and therefore have an acidic reaction,

calcium compounds found in most soils, thus

e.g. degraded sodic soils. Lime reacts in such

promoting reclamation but this is relatively a

soils according to the reaction:

calcium

for

the

replacement

slow process. The kind and quantity of a chemical

amendment

to

be

used

exchangeable sodium also contain quantities

of

exchangeable

Na, H - clay micelle + CaCO3 ---------> Ca - clay

for

micelle + NaHCO3

replacement of exchangeable sodium in the

However,

lime

is

not

an effective

soils depend on the soil characteristics including

amendment for most sodic soils as their pH is

the extent of soil deterioration, desired level of

always

soil improvement including crops intended to be

measurable to appreciable quantities of sodium

grown and economic considerations.

carbonate which imparts to these soils a high

i. Kind of amendments Chemical amendments for sodic soil reclamation can be broadly grouped into three categories: 1. Soluble calcium salts, e.g. gypsum, calcium chloride. 2. Acids or acid forming substances, e.g. sulphuric acid, iron sulphate, aluminium sulphate, lime-sulphur, sulphur, pyrite, etc. 3. Calcium salts of low solubility, e.g. ground limestone.

high.

In

fact,

sodic

soils

contain

pH, always more than 8.2 when measured on a saturated soil paste, and up to 10.8 or so when appreciable quantities of free sodium carbonate are present. In such soils only amendments comprising soluble calcium salts or acids or acid-forming substances are beneficial. The following

chemical

equations

illustrate

the

manner in which some of the amendments react in these soils.

Gypsum Gypsum is chemically CaSO4.2H2O and is a white mineral that occurs extensively in

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natural deposits. It must be ground before it is

When

applied

to

soils,

these

compounds

applied to the soil. Gypsum is soluble in water to

dissolve in soil water and hydrolyse to form

the extent of about one-fourth of 1 percent and

sulphuric acid, which in turn supplies soluble

is, therefore, a direct source of soluble calcium.

calcium through its reaction with lime present in

Gypsum reacts with both the Na2CO3, and the

sodic soils. Chemical reactions involved are:

adsorbed sodium as follows:

FeSO4 + 2H2O ----> H2SO4 + Fe (OH)2

Na2CO3 +CaSO4 ---

H2SO4 + CaCO3 ----> CaSO4 + H2O + CO2

>CaCO3 +Na2SO4 (leachable) Similar reactions are responsible for the

Calcium chloride

improvement of sodic soils when aluminium

Calcium

chloride

is

chemically

CaCl2 2H2O. It is a highly soluble salt which supplies soluble calcium directly. Its reactions in

sulphate is used as an amendment.

Sulphur (S) Sulphur is a yellow powder ranging in

sodic soil are similar to those of gypsum: Na2CO3 + CaCl2 ---> CaCO3 + 2 NaCl

purity from 50 percent to more than 99 percent.

(leachable)

It is not soluble in water and does not supply calcium directly for replacement of adsorbed sodium. When applied for sodic soil reclamation,

Sulphuric acid

sulphur has to undergo oxidation to form

Sulphuric acid is chemically H2SO4. It is

sulphuric acid which in turn reacts with lime

an oily corrosive liquid and is usually about 95

present in the soil to form soluble calcium in the

percent

form of calcium sulphate:

pure.

Upon

application

to

soils

containing calcium carbonate it immediately reacts to form calcium sulphate and thus

2 S + 3 O2 ----> 2 SO3 (microbiological oxidation) SO3 + H2O ---> H2SO4

provides soluble calcium indirectly. Chemical reactions involved are:

H2SO4 + CaCO3 ----> CaSO4 + H2O + CO2

Na2CO3 +H2SO4 ---->CO2 +H2O+Na2SO4 CaCO3 + H2SO4 ----> CaSO4 + H2O + CO2

Pyrite Pyrite (FeS2) is another material that

Iron sulphate and aluminium sulphate (alum) Chemically

these

compounds

are

FeSO4.7H2O and Al2(SO4)3.18H2O, respectively. Both these solid granular materials usually have a high degree of purity and are soluble in water.

has been suggested as a possible amendment for sodic soil reclamation. Reactions leading to oxidation of pyrite are complex and appear to consist of chemical as well as biological

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processes. The first step in the oxidation is non-

as judged from improvement of soil properties

biological and iron II sulphate (ferrous) is formed

and crop growth and the relative costs involved.

2 FeS2 + 2 H2O + 7 O2 ----> 2 FeSO4 + 2 H2SO4

The time required for an amendment to react in

This reaction is then followed by the bacterial

the soil and effectively replace adsorbed sodium

oxidation of iron II sulphate, a reaction normally

is also a consideration in the choice of an

carried out by Thiobacillus ferrooxidans,

amendment. Because of its high solubility in

4FeSO4 + O2 +2H2SO4 ----> 2Fe2(SO4)3 + 2H2O Subsequently iron III sulphate (ferric) is

water, calcium chloride is the most readily available source of soluble calcium but it has rarely

been

used

for

reclamation

on

an

reduced and pyrite is oxidized by what appears

extensive scale because of its high cost.

to be a strictly chemical reaction.

Similarly iron and aluminium sulphates are

Fe2 (SO4)3 + FeS2 ----> 3 FeSO4 + 2 S Elemental sulphur so produced may then be oxidized by T. thiooxidans and the acidity generated favours the continuation of the process

usually too costly and have not been used for any large-scale improvement of sodic soils in the past. Because amendments like sulphur and pyrite must first be oxidized to sulphuric acid by soil microorganisms before they are available for reaction, the amendments are relatively slow

2 S + 3 O2 + 2 H2O ----> 2 H2SO4

acting. Being cheapest and most abundantly available, gypsum is the most widely used

Others In some localities cheap acidic industrial wastes may be available which can be profitably used for sodic soil improvement. Pressmud, a waste product from sugar factories, is one such material commonly used for soil improvement. Pressmud contains either lime or some gypsum depending on whether the sugar factory is adopting carbonation or a sulphitation process for the clarification of juice. It also contains variable quantities of organic matter. ii. Choice of amendment The choice of an amendment at any place will depend upon its relative effectiveness

amendment. 2. Organic manures Organic manures have long been known to facilitate the reclamation of sodic soils. The mechanisms involved and the precise reasons for observed responses are not always clear. Puttaswamy gowda and Pratt (1973) attributed the beneficial effect of straw incorporated in a sodic soil under submerged conditions to (i) the decomposition of organic matter, evolution of CO2 and certain organic acids; (ii) lowering of pH and the release of cations by solubilization of CaCO3 and

other

soil

minerals

thereby

increasing the EC; and (iii) replacement of

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exchangeable Na by Ca and Mg and thereby lowering

the

ESP.

Submerged

Dhaincha

anaerobic

conditions were optimum for these processes in

conjunction

with

Cotton, at germination

Sugarbeet

according to these workers. However when applied

Cotton Berseem

Sodic

soils

usually

Mung are

the

most

inorganic

expensive to reclaim and, in many situations,

amendments or when applied in soils of mild

reclamation is not economical. The reclamation

sodicity, organic materials have always proved

procedures discussed here can improve sodic

beneficial

the

soils, but many years or decades of good soil

reclamation of sodic soils occupies an important

and crop management are required to fully

place.

remediate a sodic soil.

3. Crops in sodic soils

References

and therefore

their

use in

during

Central Soil Salinity Research Institute (CSSRI).

reclamation of sodic soils is important. Growing

2010. Computerized database on salt

crops tolerant to excess exchangeable sodium

affected soils in india, Technical bulletin,

can ensure reasonable returns during the initial

Karnal, Hariyana, India - 132 001.

Proper

choice

of

crops

phases of reclamation or when the crops are

FAO,

1988.

Salt-Affected

Soils

and

their

grown with irrigation water having sodicity

Management, Soils bulletin 39, Food

hazard. It has been observed that, generally,

And Agriculture Organization of the

crops that are able to withstand excess moisture

United Nations, Rome.

oxygen

Qadir M, Schubert S, Ghafoor A, Murtaza G.

deficiencies are also more tolerant of sodic

2001. Amelioration strategies for sodic

conditions because the excess exchangeable

soils: a review, Land degrad dev., 13:

sodium adversely affects crop growth chiefly

275–294

conditions

resulting

in

short-term

through its adverse effect on soil physical

NLWRA

(2001)

National

dryland

salinity

assessment. National land and water

properties.

resources audit. Table 3. Relative tolerance of selected crops and grasses to exchangeable sodium Tolerant

Semi-tolerant

Bhargava, G.P. and Bhattachrjee, J. 1982. Morphology, genesis and classification

Sensitive

Karnal grass

Wheat

Cowpeas

Rhodes grass

Barley

Groundnut

Para grass

Oats

Lentil

Bermuda grass

Sugarcane

Peas

Rice

Bajra

Maize

of salt affected soils. In: Review of Soil Research in India Part III International Congress of Soil Science, New Delhi, 507-528.

9

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CANAL-BANK PLANTING TECHNIQUE

generation in the olden days leads to large scale degradation.

IN MANGROVES - A Field Restoration

Field Restoration by Canal Bank Planting

C.N.Hari Prasath, A.Balasubramanian

Techniques Since

and S.Radhakrishnan Forest College and Research Institute Tamil Nadu Agricultural University

There was no field restriction or any silvicultural practice

till

flushing

representing intermediate vegetation between

regeneration.

land and sea that grown in oxygen deficient waterlogged soils as a productive ecosystem. Mangrove performs a vital ecological function maintenance

of

hydrological regime, coastal protection, fishfauna production, etc. leads to the sustenance for both man and animals. The total area under mangrove forest in Tamil Nadu is 39 sq.km, where Muthupet accounts for 61% and lesser extent by other mangroves with 13 mangrove species (FSI, 2011). Major threats faced are Lack of fresh water supply due to presence of dams and barrages upstream have resulted in loss of biodiversity, siltation of the lagoon and increasing

formation

and

incidence

clear

felling

of for

the

adoption

of

Canal

Bank

that hyper saline soil condition and lack of tidal

tolerant vegetation occurring in inter-tidal zones,

creek,

the

for degradation of the mangroves, it was found

Mangroves are unique forest of salt

recycling,

of

Techniques in 1987. While analysing the reason

Mettupalayam – 641 301

nutrient

management

mangroves concentrated primarily on protection.

Department of Silviculture

like

1971,

oyster-bed revenue

1.

were

Methodology

responsible

of

for

Canal-Bank

lack

of

Planting

Technique Field regeneration of mangroves in India is being carried out by two main methods i. Planting of nursery raised seedlings, ii. Dibbling of propagules on mudflats and degraded areas. Canals are first formed in the degraded areas to permit flow of tidal water for reducing soil salinity and create conditions conducive for planting mangroves. Mangrove propagules are then planted on the slopes of the canals in the intertidal region. Steps involved in Canal-Bank Planting Technique are proper site selection, formation of canal before rains, choice of species, timely planting, desiliting of canals and casualty replacement and after-care

10

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2. Canal Bank Designs

inundation of the plantation site. This was further

i. The Linear Pattern (1987-1998)

replaced by the Modification Box Design.

This was the earlier design where the canals were formed in parallel rows and planting was carried out on the banks. The dimension of the earliest canals were not standardised and top width varied between 1 to 1.5m. Later block planting by creating depression on mudflats was also tried but without much success. The early plantations did not establish well due to siltation of the canals. This design however presented one big drawback shows that due to lack of adequate flushing, the areas in between the canals failed to regenerate satisfactory. The design was later modified into Box design in 1998.

iii. Modification Box Design (1999-2001) The box design presented two problems are Siltation in canals (It was observed that most of the canals in box design were getting heavily silted within the first 2-3 years) and Poor regeneration in the boxes (Area within boxes failed to regenerate satisfactorily as earth dumped on the banks while forming canals prevented entry of tidal water inside the boxes). With the above two modification the box design came to be known as the Modified Box Design. The widening of the canals not only reduced the rate of siltation but also ensured a higher supply of tidal water to the regeneration site leading to

ii. Box Design (1998-1999)

better growth of the plant.

In the Box-Design the parallel canals of the earlier Linear Pattern were inter-connected at intervals by perpendicular canals. The canals

iv. Fishbone Design (2001-2004)

drawing water from the creeks are called Main

The Fishbone design was adopted in

Canals and the interconnecting canals are called

2001, with a wide feeder canals has side

Side Canals. As both main canals and side

distribution canals fanning out on either side at

canals were spaced 20m apart, the resulting

an angle of 30°. As the combination of Feeder

layout resembled a series of square boxes with

and Distribution canals resembles a fishbone,

canals

hence the name fishbone design.

criss-crossing

in

between.

The

dimensions on the main and side canals were same, i.e., Top width: 2.0m; Bottom width: 75cm; Depth: 75cm. The modification resulted in better field success due to increase in tidal

11

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”Canal-Bank Planting can lead to more than 100% field establishment”. To put it simply, if we plant 100 plants today we can hope to get more than 100 plants in the future. This amazing achievement is possible as the technique induce profuse natural regeneration. REFERENCES The layout was an improvement over

Atlas

of

mangroves

wetlands

the previous design in two respects, viz, 1st as

M.S.Swaminathan

the distribution canals are angled in the direction

Foundation, Chennai.

in

India.

Research

of eater flow; it reduced loss of kinetic energy of tidal water. This resulted in better flushing and lower siltation rate. 2nd as the ends of the Feeder and Distribution canals are kept open, it permits

Baruah.A.D., 2004. Muthupet Mangroves and Canal Bank Planting Technique. TNFD. Ben Brown. 2006. Five steps to Successful

easy enter and exit of tidal water over the

Ecological

plantation site.

Mangrove Action project.

v. Modified Fishbone Design The Fishbone Design, considered to be technically the best design presented two serious problems.

1st

restoration

of

Mangroves.

Forest Survey of India, 2011. Status of Forest Report,

Ministry

of

Environment

and

Forests, Government of India, New Delhi.

are casualty was observed

at the far ends of the Distribution canals. 2nd as money available for forming canals was much below the required amount, successive Feeder canals had to be spaced far apart with wide gaps in between. These gaps threatened a similar situation as observed in the earlier Linear Pattern where the intermediate areas have failed to regenerate. The angling would help conserve

LAC – A POTENTIAL CROP FOR

kinetic energy and the absence of open ends

POOR MAN

would take care of the problem of siltation.

12

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November 2017

A.Balasubramanian, C.N.Hari Prasath,

Myanmar, Thailand and Malaysia, parts of

S.Radhakrishnan and S.Manivasakan

China, Taiwan, Vietnam and Srilanka etc are the lac producing countries. Among

Department of Silviculture

them, India and Thailand are the main lacs

Forest College and Research Institute

producing countries of the world. Out of entire lac produced in the

Tamil Nadu Agricultural University

India, 80-85 % is from rangeeni strain which

Mettupalayam – 641 301

is contributed mainly by palash (Butea

Lac is a natural heritage of our country by providing regular income in absence of other cash crops to tribal and poor people. Lac is produced by insect which gets its nourishment from plants. Due to massive destruction of forest resources and indiscriminate cutting of lac host trees

monosperma) followed by ber (Zizyphus spp.). The best quality of resin produced by Kusumi strain is obtained from Kusum (Schleichera oleosa) in India. LAC CULTIVATION i) Conventional Method

for social, industrial and mining activities

The trees are infested with lac insect

areas under lac cultivation is reason for

crawlers by putting broodlac sticks along

gradually shrinking.

with leaves attached on the branches of

The lac is a resin not gum and produced by tiny insect with soft-bodied belonging

to

coceid

group

of

order,

Homoptera. Two genera and 19 species of lac insects have been observed in India and most

common

Indian

lac

insect

of

commercial importance is Kerria lacca kerr. (Rangeeni)

and

Kusami.

Mainly

India,

new trees, when lac crawler emergence begins. The broodlac sticks remain on tree for a long time even after emergence is over. The lac crop is harvested, whenever encrustation is thick irrespective of crop maturity. Normally crop is not harvested completely, but some amount of mature lac is left on the tree to act as brood lac for developing the next crop. 13

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November 2017

ii) Scientific Method

 Removing used-up broodlac sticks -

 Pruning of trees - This is an essential

operation

availability

of

to

large

ensure

number

of

succulent shoots at the time of infestation. This operation is carried out six months before infestation for raising summer crop (April) and

The used broodlac stick should be removed from infested tree as soon as emergence of lac larvae is over. Normally this period is 15- 20 days after tying of bundles on trees. This period should not exceed beyond 21 days in any case.

rainy season (February). In April, the

 Crop harvesting - The crop is

most suitable stage of pruning is

harvested either as an immature

judged by appearance of pod, after

summer

shedding

trees

mature crop as broodlac (Lac insect

should not be pruned once sprouting

value). If crop harvesting is carried

for new leaves and shoots begin.

out for broodlac purpose, the date of

of

flowers.

The

 Infestation of host tree - Spreading of lac insect on succulent shoot is called

infestation.

method,

the

In

broodlac

scientific stick

of

approximately 6 inch length are cut and 4-5 sticks are bundled and tied at several places over host tree. Tree should be infested in such ways that on most of the succulent shoots, lac insect are inoculated uniformly.

crop

(Resin

value)

or

hatching should be kept in mind. Immature summer lac is cut at any time, when encrustation becomes relatively thicker. Normally brood lac is harvested in October/November when crop mature. IMPORTANCE OF LAC CULTIVATION A good source of livelihood for poor farmers,

tribals

with

meager

investment. A good crop for marginal and degraded lands. No competition for 14

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November 2017

land

operation

with

agricultural/

horticultural crops. It

is

like

an

Lac is one of the most versatile natural resinous materials. It has a unique

insurance

crop,

especially during drought year as the crop is very good during adverse climate.

combination of properties, which renders it useful for a variety of applications in the plastics, electrical (Moulded insulators like knobs and switch handles, Switch bases and boards, Spark sheets, Use in Surface

Lac cultivation involves significant

coatings and Spirit varnish), adhesive,

women

leather, wood finishing, hat manufacturing

participation

and

helps

and

ecosystem development. Helps

maintaining

good

environment.

other

industries

Medicines,

Nail

(Glazed Polish,

paper, Dental

Compositions, Jewellery fillings, Optical frames, Wax crayons and Pharmaceutical).

Quality of Indian Kusumi lac is most

It is thermoplastic; it is soluble in alcohol

superior in world.

and weak alkalis and lac films are resilient, possess

Lac is the most predominant source

high

scratch-hardness,

good

adhesion and electrical insulation.

of natural resin and dye for various CONCLUSION

applications. It has high export potential. About 75%

of

present

production

is

exported.

Lac cultivation plays major role in the development of fringe people in the forest areas. It will provide a marginal income during adverse condition also. The

India is leader in lac production and

lac host plants shoots be maintain properly

export.

under care and management during the cultivation. REFERENCE

USES

15

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November 2017

Krishnaswami, S. 1960. Lac cultivation in India. Farm Bulletin, Directorate of Extension,

Ministry

of

Food

&

Agriculture, Govt. of India, New Delhi, Pp: 36. Sailesh Chattopadhyay. 2011. Introduction to Lac and Lac Culture. Department of

Forest

Biology

and

Tree

Improvement, Faculty of Forestry, Birsa Agricultural University, Kanke, Ranchi-834 006 (Jharkhand).

NATURAL GUMS – A BIOLOGICAL RESOURCE

16

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November 2017

A.Balasubramanian, C.N.Hari Prasath

exploitation is restricted to a few species of Leguminosae,

and S.Radhakrishnan

Sterculiaceae

and

Combretaceae.

Department of Silviculture Classification of Gums

Forest College and Research Institute Gums are present in high quantities

Tamil Nadu Agricultural University

in varieties of plants, animals, seaweeds, fungi and other microbial sources, where

Mettupalayam – 641 301

they perform a number of structural and Natural gums (gums obtained from plants)

are

polymers

hydrophilic

of

high

carbohydrate

molecular

weights,

metabolic functions; plant sources provide the largest amounts. The different available Gums can be classified as follows.

generally composed of monosaccharide units joined by glucocidic bonds. They are generally

insoluble

in

oils

or

organic

solvents such as hydrocarbons, ether or alcohols. Gums are either water soluble or absorb water and swell up or disperse in cold water to give a viscous solution or jelly. On

hydrolysis

they

yield

arabinose,

galactose, mannose and glucuronic acid. Natural gums obtained from plants have diverse applications in drug delivery as a

disintegrant,

emulsifying

agent,

suspending agents and as binders. Gums are produced by members of a large number

of

families

but

 According

to

the

charge

(Anionic

Polysaccharides,

Cationic

Polysaccharides,

Nonionic

Polysaccharides,

Amphoteric

Polysaccharides

and

Hydrophobic

Polysaccharides).  According

to

the

source

(Marine

origin/algal gums, Plant origin, Seed gums, Animal origin, Microbial origin, prepared gums and Semi-synthetic gums).  According

to

shape

(Linear

and

Branched)

commercial

17

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November 2017

 According

to

chemical

structure

(Homoglycans, Diheteroglycans, Triheteroglycans,

indica

Chondrus

LIST OF NATURAL GUMS AND TYPES Type

Exudate/Produ ct

Natural Gum

A.

gum

Tetra-heteroglycans

and Penta-heteroglycans).

Name of

Tamarindus

senegal

crispus

Carrageenan

Seaweeds

Gelidium

(Gums)

Xanthomonas

Gum Arabic

(L.) Willd.

compestris Leuconostoc

Xanthan Biosyntheti c (Gums)

mesenteroides

Anogiessus

Agar

amansii

Dextran

Gum ghatti

latifolia Wall. Azadirachta indica

A.

Juss.

Plant Gum (Tapping)

Neem gum Joel or Jingan

Gum karaya

coromandelic

 Biodegradable - Naturally available biodegradable

gum

Lannea

Advantages in pharmaceutical science

polymers

are

produced by all living organisms. They

represent

truly

renewable

a

source and they have no adverse

Sterculia

impact on humans or Environmental

urens Roxb.

health (e.g. skin and eye irritation).

Ceratonia

Locust

siliqua L

gum

Cyamopsis

Seed Gum

bean

Guar gum

 Low cost - It is always cheaper to use natural sources. The production cost is also much lower compared

tetragonolobu s

 Biocompatible and non-toxic.

Tamarind

with that for synthetic material.

18

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November 2017

 Edible sources - Most gums are obtained from edible sources.

contamination

-

polysaccharides

and

their

derivatives), it has been found that after storage there is reduced in

Disadvantages in pharmaceutical science  Microbial

to

viscosity.

The

equilibrium moisture content present in the gums is normally 10% or more.

CONCLUSION Natural

gums

are

promising

biodegradable polymeric materials. Clearly

 Batch to batch variation - Synthetic

gums have many advantages over synthetic

controlled

materials. Various applications of gums

procedure with fixed quantities of

have been established in the field of

ingredients, while the production of

pharmaceuticals. Therefore, in the years to

gums

come, there will be continued interest in

manufacturing

is

is

a

dependent

on

environmental and seasonal factors.  Uncontrolled rate of hydration - Due to differences in the collection of natural materials at different times, as well as differences in region, species and climate conditions the percentage of chemical constituents present in a given material may vary.

natural gums and their modifications aimed at the development of better materials for drug delivery. REFERENCES Kulkarni, D, A.K.Dwivedi and J.P.S.Sarin. 1997. Tamarind seed polyose: A potential sustained

polysaccharides release

of

for

verapamil

 Reduced viscosity on storage -

hydrochloride as a model drug,

Normally, when gums come into

Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical

contact with water there is an

Science, 59 (1): 1-7.

increase in the viscosity of the formulations. Due to the complex nature of Gums (monosaccharide’s

Pawar, H. and P.M.D'mello. 2004. Isolation of seed gum from cassia tora and

19

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November 2017

preliminary studies of its applications

NUTRITIONAL AND MEDICINAL

as a binder for tablets. Indian Drugs,

PROPERTIES OF KARONDA (Carissa

41(8): 465-468. Sunil Goswami and Sonali Naik. 2014. Natural gums and its pharmaceutical application. Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research, 3 (1): 112-121.

carandas) C.N.Hari Prasath, A.Balasubramanian, S.Manivasakan and S.Radhakrishnan Department of Silviculture Forest College and Research Institute Tamil Nadu Agricultural University Mettupalayam – 641 301 Karonda is an evergreen deciduous, generally

2-4

m

tall

shrub

of

family

Apocynaceae. Its stem is rich in white latex, having sharp spines on branches. The leaves are oblong and conical, 4-6 inch long and 2-3 inch wide, green on the top and brown below. The plant produces white colored flowers, measuring 3-5 cm in diameter. The fruit is a berry, which is formed in clusters of 3-10 fruits with 5-1 hard angles curving upwards. The fruit shape is globose

20

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November 2017

to broad ovoid consisting of several seeds.

convulsant

Ripe fruit color varies from white, green and

inflammatory, anti-pyretic, hepatoprotective

pinkish red depending on the genotype.

activity,

Seed 3-5 per fruit, blackish brown, flat, eleptical and light in weight.

neuropharmacological, cardiovascular

anti-

diuretic

activity,

anti-

nociceptive activity, anti-cancerous activity,

constipation, diarrhea, anthelmintic activity and

Fresh fruit) Nutrients

analgesic,

antioxidant potentials, anti-ulcer activity,

NUTRITIONAL COMPOSITION (100 g of

Sl.No.

activities,

activity,

Composition

1

Moisture

83.17-83.24 g

2

Protein

0.39-0.66 g

3

Fat

2.57-4.63 g

4

Carbohydrates

0.51-0.94 g

5

Fiber

0.62-1.81 g

6

Ascorbic acid

9-11 mg

antimalarial

In

traditional

medicine the fruit is used to improve female libido and to remove worms from the intestinal tract. The juice can be applied to the skin to relieve any skin problems. A leaf decoction of karonda is used against fever, diarrhoea and earache. The roots serve as a stomachic, vermifuge, remedy for itches and insect repellent. COMMON USES Karonda

MEDICINAL PROPERTIES

activity.

is

good

appetizer.

Its

regular in the cropping season, flushes out the intestinal worms. Its leaves feed the

Karonda is known to posses wide

tussar silkworm; the wood is used for

range of phytochemicals in its plant parts

making household utensils, such as large

(roots, leaves, stem, and fruits) that imparts

cooking spoons and the root can be

immense medicinal value to the plant.

pounded to a paste to make insect

These active constituents give medicinal

repellant. Karonda is used mainly used for

value to the plant. The fruit is an astringent,

making pickle, making jelly, jam, squash,

anti-scorbutic, anti-diabetic activity, anti21

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November 2017

syrup

and

chutney.

The

fruits

have

Sethi, V.K. and J.C.Anand. 1977. Dyeing of

astringent properties and have been used

Karonda for making their preserve.

for tanning and dying.

Indian food pacer, 33 (8): 20-23.

CONCLUSION (C.

Karonda

carandus)

an

evergreen, deciduous shrub with immense medicinal value want to be reviewed as a source

for

biology,

ethnopharmacology

phytochemistry,

and

conservation

strategy for further research on it. REFERENCES Awasthi, C.P., I.S.Singh and A.Singh. 1986. Biochemical

composition

promising

carandas)

Karonda cultivars.

of

(Carissa Progressive

horticulture, 20 (3-4): 294-296. Dalal, R.P.S., Navjot Gupta, Anirudh Thakur and Avatar Singh. 2010. Nutritional value of Karonda (Carissa caranda linn.)- A non -conventional fruit under semi-arid condition of Punjab. Indian Journal of Agroforestry, 12 (2): 102-104.

22

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November 2017

GREENING OF URBAN FREE

The concentration of buildings and urban areas

SPACES FOR CLIMATE CHANGE

during urbanisation leads to the formation of a

MITIGATION

specific climate characterised by higher night time temperatures.

C.N.Hari Prasath, A.Balasubramanian, Urban greenery/forestry is one of the

S.Radhakrishnan and S.Manivasakan

ways to bridge this gap between people and

Department of Silviculture Forest College and Research Institute Tamil Nadu Agricultural University

nature. High population density in India is one of the reasons for under development of urban greenery sector.

Mettupalayam – 641 301

Most of the Indian cities

are far behind in quality as well as quantity of

Over the last two hundred and fifty

urban forests than their counterpart in Europe

years, since industrialisation begun, the delicate

and America. Most of the Indian cities, with the

balance in the earth’s systems and atmosphere

exceptions of Gandhinagar and Chandigarh, are

has

far behind in per capita urban forest availability

been

disturbed

by

pollution

of

unprecedented nature. One form of potential

in

atmospheric pollution sources is due to the

American cities.

release

of

greenhouse

gases

that

comparison

to

European/

Australian/

are

associated with the consumption of fossil fuels

Urban Green Spaces and Climate Change

such as coal, oil and gas - at a rate that does not

Mitigation and Adaptation

allow

them

to

replenish

Urban

themselves.

green

spaces

can

help

to

Unfortunately in the twenty first century these

alleviate the consequences of climate change

various forms of energy provide the backbone of

through

economic growth. Urban areas, where the majority of the population live, warm more than rural ones because buildings absorb heat. There are significant temperature differences between city centres and their surrounding countryside and surface temperatures can be up to 6°C greater.

1) Cooling Urban green spaces can act as ‘park cool islands’ by cooling air. The extent of the cooling effect is greatest, when temperatures beyond the park are the highest. As climate change increases and temperatures rise the cooling effect

23

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November 2017

of urban green spaces will become increasingly important.

Urban green spaces provide valuable

Trees, especially when located close to buildings,

can

conditioners

act

and

3) Providing a Habitat for Biodiversity

as

natural

provide

air

shading

habitats for animals and plants, but species

can

respond

strongly

to

environmental change.

through evapo-transpiration, therefore

There is a need for wildlife corridors

reducing energy consumption required

within towns and cities to help plants

to maintain comfortable temperatures.

and animals move in response to

Very

careful

maintenance required.

management of

Green

green

spaces

spaces

which

and is are

permitted to dry out and lose soil moisture actually result in a higher absorption of day time solar energy and higher night time radiation adding to the urban heat island effect. 2) Water Management Green space can help with water management as it provides a permeable surface, reducing surface run-off into drains and therefore lowers the risk of flooding during peak flows.

climate change. The existence of water areas can also encourage biodiversity. REFERENCE TCPA (2007) ‘Climate change adaptation by design’, plus additional information from Gill. S, J. Handley, R. Ennos, S. Pauleit (2007)

‘Adapting

change:

the

cities

role

of

for the

climate green

infrastructure’. Forest Department (Gujarat and Chandigarh). 2008.

Tree

cover

assessment

in

Gandhinagar capital project area, using remote

sensing

technology,

In addition green spaces allow water to

prepared

filter down and replenish groundwater.

department, Gujarat, India.

by

GIS

Centre,

Report Forest

Vegetation also intercepts more rain thereby reducing the flash flooding. The numerous leaves of plants and trees provide a greater area for water to evaporate from than flat surfaces.

24

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November 2017

VERMICOMPOSTING – A FARMER’S

rich in nutrients, growth promoting substances,

FRIENDLY APPROACH

beneficial soil micro flora, properties of inhibiting

C.N.Hari Prasath, A.Balasubramanian,

pathogenic

microbes

and

stabilized

humic

substances.

S.Manivasakan and S.Radhakrishnan Vermicompost is stable, fine granular

Department of Silviculture Forest College and Research Institute Tamil Nadu Agricultural University Mettupalayam – 641 301 The

problem

of

solid

organic manure, which enriches soil quality by improving its physicochemical and biological properties. Exotic species like Eudrilus euginae, Perionyx excavatus and Eisenia foetida are

waste

management is increasing due to the rapid

employed for vermicomposting in India next to indigenous species Lumbricus mauritii.

increase of population, intensive agriculture and industrialization. Large quantities of organic waste are produced and they pose major environmental (offensive odours, contamination of ground water and soil) and disposal problems. Effective disposal of different types of waste is

Methods of vermicomposting 1) Bed method: Composting is done on the pucca / kachcha floor by making bed of organic mixture. This method is easy to maintain and to practice.

more important to maintain healthy environment.

2) Pit method: Composting is done in the

Vermicomposting is an appropriate alternative

cemented pits. The unit is covered with thatch

for the safe, hygienic and cost effective disposal

grass or any other locally available materials.

of organic solid wastes. Vermicomposting is a

This method is not preferred due to poor

method of preparing enriched compost with the

aeration, water logging at bottom and more cost

use of earthworms. It is one of the easiest

of production.

methods to recycle animal excreta, kitchen waste,

farm

residues

and

forest

litter

(leguminous trees, non-leguminous tree and crop residues) to produce quality compost. Earthworms consume biomass and excrete it in digested form called worm casts. Worm casts are popularly called as Black gold. The casts are

Method of Harvesting Vermicompost Growth rate of earthworms is very fast and a mature adult can attain up to 1500 mg body weight and attain reproduction capability within 50-55 days of hatching from cocoon. After raw material is completely decomposed it

25

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November 2017

appears black and granular. Watering should be

for proper growth and multiplication of

stopped as compost gets ready. The compost

earthworms.

shout

be

kept

over

a

heap

of

partially

4. Optimum moisture level (30-40 %)

decomposed cow dung so that earthworms

should be maintained

could migrate to cow dung from compost. After

5. 18-25ºC

two days compost can be separated and sieved for use.

temperature

should

be

maintained for proper decomposition. Nutrient status in Vermicomposting Nutrients

Measurement (%)

Organic Carbon

9.15 to 17.88

Nitrogen

0.5 to 0.9

Phosphorus

0.1 to 0.26

Potash

0.15 to 0.256

Sodium

0.55 to 0.95

Calcium and Magnesium (Meq/100 g)

22.67 to 47.6

Copper, mg L-1

2.0 to9.5

Iron , mg L-1

2.0 to 9.3

Zinc , mg L-1

5.7 to 9.3

Sulphur ,mg L-1

128.0 to 548.0

PH

6-8 (Thiruneelakandan & Subbulakshmi, 2014)

Preventive measures 1. The floor of unit should be compact to prevent earthworms’ migration into soil. 2. 15-20 days old cow dung should be used to avoid excess heat. 3. The organic wastes should be free from plastics,

chemicals,

pesticides

and

metals. Aeration should be maintained

Comparison between Chemical Fertilizer and Vermicompost Criteria for

Chemical

Comparison

Fertilizers

Vermicompost

Macro

Mostly

Contains all i.e.

nutrient

contains only

nitrogen

contents

one (n in

(n), phosphorus

urea) or at

(p) &

26

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November 2017

the most two

potassium (k) in

affecting

plant nutrient

(n & p in dap)

sufficient

nutrients

adsorption

nutrients in

quantities

assimilation

any one type

Organic

of chemical

carbon

Not available

organic carbon

fertilizer Secondary

and humus Calcium (ca),

contents

nutrient

Magnesium

improves soil

contents

(mg) & sulphur

characteristics

Micro nutrient

Not available

Very high

Not available

contents

pH balancing

EC correction

(s) is

Moisture

Reduces

Increases

available in

retention

moisture

moistures

required

capacity

retention

retention

quantities

capacity of

capacity of the

Zinc (zn), boron

the soil

soil

Damages soil

Improves soil

Manganese

texture to

texture for

(Mn), iron (Fe),

reduce

better aeration

copper (cu),

aeration

(b),

Soil texture

molybdenum

Plant growth

(Mo) and

hormones

Not available

Sufficient quantity helps

chlorine (Cl)

in better growth

also present

and

Disturb soil

Helps in the

production

pH to create

control of soil

salinity and

pH and checks

alkalinity

the salinity and

conditions

alkalinity in soil

Creates

Helps in

imbalance in

balancing the

soil EC

EC to improve

Advantages of Vermicompost It

provides

efficient

conversion

of

organic wastes/crop/animal residues. It

is

a

stable

and

enriched

soil

conditioner. It helps

in reducing population

of

pathogenic microbes.

27

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November 2017

It helps in reducing the toxicity of heavy

vermicomposting”. Tropical Agricultural

metals.

Research& Extension 13(2):1.

It

is

economically

environmentally

viable

safe

and

nutrient

supplement for organic food production. It is an easily adoptable low cost technology. CONCLUSION Vermitechnology

is

a

promising

technique that has shown its potential in certain challenging areas like augmentation of food production, waste recycling and management of solid wastes. It is better organic manure on basis of nutrient content. REFERENCES Dickerson, George W. 2004. Vermicomposting. H-164. New Mexico State University Cooperative

Extension

Service.

www.aces.nmsu.edu/desertblooms/nms ugardeni ng /do cs/chap_1/chap1.h.pdf. Jyoti Kapoor, Sachin Sharma and N.K.Rana. 2015.

Vermicomposting

Waste

Management.

for

Organic

International

Journal of Recent Scientific Research, 6(12): 7956-7960. Samaranayake, J. W. K. and S.Wijekoon. 2010. “Effects of selected earthworms on soil fertility,

plant

growth

and

28

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GST IMPLEMENTATION AND ITS

Central Goods and Services Tax (CGST): It is

IMPACTS IN INDIA

levied under the CGST Act on the intra-state

M. Priyadharshini*1, T.Mohanasundari2

State government combine their levies with an

and A.Mahadevan3 1Final

year Student,

supplies of goods and services. The Central and

3Assistant

Professor (Horticulture),

appropriate revenue sharing agreement between them. The power to levy CGST and

PGP College of Agricultural Sciences,

SGST has been provided for in Section 8 of the

Palani Nagar, Namakkal.

GST Act. The tax is levied based on the

2Research

recommendation of the council but not

Scholar, Department of

Agricultural Economics, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore -3.

exceeding 14%. State Goods and Services Tax (SGST): It is a

What is GST? GST is an indirect tax levied on the supply of goods and services. The Goods and Service Tax (GST) is India’s biggest tax reform

tax levied under the SGST Act on intra-state supplies of goods and services. SGST also do not exceed 14% which make the total of 28% (maximum slab of GST).

in the 70 years of independence. GST is an

Integrated Goods and Services Tax (IGST):

indirect tax applicable throughout India replacing

Integrated GST or IGST is the tax levied under

multiple taxes system which was levied by the

the IGST Act on the supply of any goods and/or

Central and State governments.

services in the inter-state trade across India.

Various Types of GST:

GST RATES FOR DIFFERENT COUNTRIES:

There are three kinds of GST are present now.

Country

Tax Rate

India

5%, 12%, 18%, 28%

Singapore

7%

29

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November 2017

Malaysia

6%

New Zealand

15%

Aruba

1.5%

Brazil

7%, 12%

Germany

19%



Higher Revenue Efficiency

GST is expected to decrease the cost of collection of tax revenues of the government which leads to higher revenue efficiency

Advantages of GST 

Reduction in cost of production



Ease of doing business

Disadvantages of GST 

Higher compliance and administrative cost

With the implementation of GST, Multiple taxes

It is understood that new implementation of any

like Octroi (Local body tax), central sales tax,

structure includes high compliance and

state sales tax, entry tax, license fees, turnover

administrative cost.

tax etc. will no longer be present. 

Common national market



Human Resource problem

For the effective implementation of India’s

GST follows the destination principle. It will be

greatest reform in tax ‘GST’, Indian Government

levied only at the final stage of consumption and

has to recruit trained staff in various aspects i.e.

not at various stages. This will help to develop a

IT, Finance, Taxation.

common national market. 

Improved Competitiveness



Major revenue items out of scope of the GST

Reduction in transaction costs of doing business

In India, Tax rates on the tobacco and alcohol

would eventually lead to an improved

products are very high. But these are not

competitiveness for the trade and industry.

included in the GST bill.

30

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November 2017

Harvesters and 18% for Pesticides(Plant

GST - A Boon or Bane? Though GST has many disadvantages it

protection measures).

provides clear data to the consumers .Hence it is a boon to tax payers and bane to tax evaders. GST for different agricultural inputs

As GST of the inputs is increased, the output product may get an increased rate of 35%. As the GST for organic fertilizers get increased people may move towards more

20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

usage of inorganic fertilizers .This also affects the soil health and our environment. Short term impact on the economy: GST results in higher Consumer Price Index (CPI)

inflation of food products. The

GST leads to CPI inflation by 20-70bps in the first year due to higher prices of electricity, After GST

Before GST

clothing & footwear, health/medicine and education after accounting for input taxes.

X-axis=Tax percent

Long term impact:

Y-axis=Farm inputs It is expected to be Beneficial because

There is no GST for Seeds, hand operated tools like spade, hand hoe. The GST is 5% for Hand pumps and parts, solar water heater and systems, solar lamp and 12% for fertilizers, Power drawn pumps, Milking machines / Dairy machines, Composting machines and

most of the indirect taxes levied on agricultural products are subsumed under GST which enables free movement of commodities across the country by removing hurdles in the supply chain.

31

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November 2017

Reference Rakesh kumar,2017,Diamond Pocket Books (P)Ltd,New Delhi

AUTHOR GUIDE LINES Title, Author, and Affiliation: 12 font size Content : 10 font size.

https://www.indiafilings.com/gst-advantages-

Reference: 10 font size.

disadvantages/

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https://www.caclubindia,com/articles/gst-boonor-bane-to-indian-economy-25606asp

Contents arranged in two columns in the MS word file.

International journal for innovative research in multidisciplinary field ISSN-2455-0620 Volume2, Issue-9,Sep-2016 https://blog.saginfotech.com/gst-impact-on-

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