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Month: November Issue: 1
2017 1
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November 2017
Genesis, distribution, characteristics and management of sodic soils in India 1Eazhilkrishna,
N., T. Thilagavathi2 and T.Sundhari3
1. National Rice Research Institute (NRRI), Cuttack, Odisha, 2. Professor (SS&AC), TNAU, Coimbatore, 3. M.Sc Scholar, SS&AC, TNAU, Coimbatore – 641 003. Introduction
over a long period of soil salinization, C storage
Some amounts of salts are always present in soil. When the concentration of these salts are low, they are not harmful for the growth of plants. But, with an increase in salt content of the soil to high levels, plant growth is adversely affected, which in turn, decrease the productivity of agricultural crops. Globally, 75 countries have been recognized as having vast areas of salt affected lands. Salt-affected soils mostly exist in arid and semiarid regions of the world, and many salt affected wastelands have been productive lands in the past (Qadir et al., 2001). Worldwide, about 95 million hectares of soils are under
primary
salinization (salt accumulation through natural processes in soils and water) whereas 77 million hectares suffer from secondary salinization (as a result
of
human
activities
and
ever-rising
groundwater). Of major concern is that 23% of arable lands in the world are affected by salinity and a further 10 % are saline sodic soils while 340
decreases at a significant rate. Salt affected soils are generally classified on the basis of their electrical conductivity of the saturated extract (ECe), sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) and exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP), and pH. Based on these properties, saltaffected soils are thus classified as follows: (1) Saline soils, containing high levels of soluble salts and characterized by having high ECe values ( >4 dS m−1); (2) Sodic soils, having high levels of exchangeable sodium with SAR >13 and/or ESP ( >15); and (3) saline-sodic soils, in which both soluble salts and exchangeable sodium are high, i.e., ECe >4 dS m−1, SAR >13, and ESP >15. Due to the combined effects of salinity and sodicity on soil properties and plant growth in saline-sodic soils, these soils are considered to be the most degraded form of salt-affected soil. Genesis of sodic soil
million hectares of lands are sodic (NLWRA 2001).
The mechanisms responsible for the
The high salt concentration negatively affects soil
formation of sodium carbonate in soils which
microbial activity as well as soil chemical and
characterize
sodic
physical properties, thus causing a decline in soil
discussed
in
productivity. Decline in the growth of vegetation
Groundwater
due to salt toxicity and detrimental osmotic
bicarbonate is one of the chief contributing factors
potential results in lower carbon (C) inclusions into
in the formation of sodic soils in many regions.
these soils and leads to further deterioration of
The soils are reported to have formed by
their physical and chemical properties. Therefore,
desalinization in the absence of enough divalent
(alkali)
several containing
soils
have
standard carbonate
been works. and
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cations in some parts of the country, by high
the Indo - Gangetic Plain, these soils have
carbonate
by
occupied 1787759 ha covering 47% of the total
under
area in Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab and Bihar
and
denitrification
bicarbonate
and
sulphate
water
and
reduction
anaerobic conditions. Reduction
of
states.These soils are moderately and strongly sulphate
ions
under
anaerobic conditions and in the presence of organic matter was reported to result in the formation of sodium carbonate. According to Bhargava and Bhattachrjee (1982), alternate wet and dry seasons and the topographic (drainage)
sodic in Uttar Pradesh, slight and moderately sodic in Punjab and Bihar. Significant area (35%) Table 1. State wise extent and distribution of sodic soils in India S.
Sodic soils
State
No.
(ha)
1
Andhra Pradesh
2
Andaman & Nicobar
3
Bihar
105852
4
Gujarat
541430
5
Haryana
183399
6
Karnataka
148136
7
Kerala
8
Maharashtra
422670
causing an increase in the proportion of sodium
9
Madhya Pradesh
139720
ions in the soil solution and on the exchange
10
Orissa
0
complex with simultaneous increase in pH. This
11
Punjab
151717
process repeated over years resulted in the
12
Rajasthan
179371
formation of sodic soils.
13
Tamil Nadu
354784
14
Uttar Pradesh
15
West Bengal
conditions appeared to be the contributing factors in the formation of vast areas of sodic soils in the Indo Gangetic plains of India. During the wet season water containing products of aluminosilicate weathering accumulated in the low lying areas. In the ensuing dry season, as a result of evaporation, the soil solution is concentrated resulting in precipitation of some divalent cations,
Distribution of sodic soils in India Sodic soils have occupied 3770659 ha
Total
196609 0
0
1346971 0 3770659
covering 66% of the total area of the country.
(Source : CSSRI, 2010)
These soils are essentially located in the Indo-
of sodic soils is found in the arid and semiarid
Gangetic Plain, arid and semiarid region in
regions covering Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya
Western and Central India and the Peninsular
Pradesh and Maharashtra states. In Gujarat,
region in Southern India. State-wise extent and
these are strongly (18%) and moderately (5%)
distribution showed that significant area is located
sodic in nature. In Rajasthan, slightly (41 %) and
in Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil
moderately (6%) sodic soils are found in central
Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan,
and northern part. Slightly (69%) sodic soils are
Punjab, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh and Bihar. In
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found
in
Western
Madhya
have an exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP)
Pradesh, slightly (79%) sodic soils are occurring
of more than 15. Excess exchangeable sodium
in Gwalior, Bhind, Morena, Vidisha and Ujjain
has an adverse effect on the physical and
districts. In the peninsular region, sodic soils have
nutritional properties of the soil, with consequent
occupied extensive areas (18%) in the states of
reduction in crop growth, significantly or entirely.
Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. In
The soils lack appreciable quantities of neutral
Tamil
soluble
Nadu
Maharashtra.
sodic
Ramanathapuram,
soils
Cuddalore,
In
are
found
in
salts
but
contain
measurable
to
Kanchipuram,
appreciable quantities of salts capable of alkaline
Tirunelveli, Thanjavur, Pudukottai, Madurai and
hydrolysis, e.g. sodium carbonate. The electrical
Tiruchirapalli districts. These soils are either
conductivity
slightly (59%), moderately (32%) or strongly (4%)
therefore, likely to be variable but are often less
sodic in nature. Sodic soils are also found in
than 4 dS/m at 25 °C. The pH of saturated soil
Karnataka covering Chitradurga, Bellary, Raichur,
pastes is 8.2 or more and in extreme cases may
and Mysore distriets. These soils are slightly
be above 10.5. Dispersed and dissolved organic
(71%) and moderately (24 %) sodic in character.
matter present in the soil solution of highly sodic
Sodic soils are also distributed in the scarce
soils may be deposited on the soil surface by
rainfall zone of Rayalseema and southern zone of
evaporation giving a dark colour which is why
Andhra Pradesh covering Nalgonda, Anantpur,
these soils have also been termed as black sodic
Krishna, Prakasam, East Godavari, Kurnool,
soils.
of
saturation
soil
extracts
are,
Chittoor and Guntur districts. These are slight (41
Under field conditions after an irrigation or
%), moderate (22 %) and strongly (7%) sodic in
rainfall, sodic soils typically have convex surfaces.
nature.
The soil, a few centimetres below the surface may
Characteristics of sodic soil The chief characteristic of sodic soils from the agricultural stand point is that they contain sufficient exchangeable sodium to adversely affect the growth of most crop plants. For the purpose of definition, sodic soils are those which
be saturated with water while at the same time the surface is dry and hard. Upon dehydration, cracks of 1-2 cm across and several centimetres deep are formed and which close when wetted. The cracks, generally, appear at the same place on the surface each time the soil dries unless it has been disturbed mechanically.
Table 2. Distinguishing features of sodic soils Characteristics 1. Chemical
Sodic soils a. Appreciable quantities of neutral soluble salts generally absent. Appreciable quantities of salts capable of alkaline hydrolysis, e.g. presence of Na 2CO3 b. pH of the saturated soil paste is more than 8.2.
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c. An exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) of 15 or more is the generally accepted limit above which soils are classed as ‘sodic’. EC of the saturated soil extract is generally less than 4 dS m-1 at 25 °C. d. Sodium is the dominant soluble cation. High pH of the soils results in precipitation of soluble Ca and Mg such that their concentration in the soil solution is very low. Gypsum is nearly always absent in such soils. 2. Physical
a. Excess exchangeable sodium and high pH result in the dispersion of clay and the soils have an unstable structure. b. Permeability of soils to water and air is restricted. Physical properties of the soils become worse with increasing levels of exchangeable sodium/pH.
3. Effect on plant
Plant growth is adversely affected due to restricted oxygen supply:
growth
a. chiefly through the dispersive effect of excess exchangeable sodium resulting in poor physical properties; b. through the effect of high soil pH on nutritional imbalances including a deficiency of calcium; c. through toxicity of specific ions, e.g. Na, CO 3, Mo, etc.
4. Soil improvement
Improvement of sodic soils essentially requires the replacement of sodium in the soil exchange complex by calcium through use of soil amendments and leaching and drainage of salts resulting from reaction of amendments with exchangeable sodium.
5. Distribution
Sodic soils tend to dominate in semi-arid and sub-humid regions.
6. Ground-water quality
Groundwater in areas dominated by sodic soils has generally low to medium electrolyte concentration and some of it may have residual sodicity leading to potential sodicity hazard.
Management of sodic soil
amendments are expensive or not available, and
1. Amendments
he is willing to wait many years before he can
Basically, reclamation or improvement
get good crop yields, soil can still be reclaimed
of sodic soils requires the removal of part or
but at a slow rate by long-continued irrigated
most of the exchangeable sodium and its
cropping, ideally including a rice crop and sodic
replacement by the more favourable calcium
tolerant crops in the cropping sequence, along
ions in the root zone. This can be accomplished
with the incorporation of organic residues and/or
in many ways, the best by utilizing locally
farmyard manure. For reasonably quick results
available resources and the kind of crops to be
cropping must be preceded by the application of
grown on the reclaimed soils. If the cultivator
chemical soil amendments followed by leaching
can spend very little for reclamation and the
5
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for removal of salts derived from the reaction of the amendment with the sodic soil.
The
suitability
of
one
or
another
amendment for sodic soil reclamation will largely
Soil amendments are materials, such as
depend on the nature of the soil and cost
gypsum or calcium chloride, that directly supply
considerations. Ground limestone, CaCO3, is an
soluble
of
effective amendment only in soils having pH
exchangeable sodium, or other substances,
below about 7.0 because its solubility rapidly
such as sulphuric acid and sulphur, that
decreases as the soil pH increases. It is
indirectly through chemical or biological action,
apparent that the effectiveness of limestone as
make the relatively insoluble calcium carbonate
an amendment is markedly decreased at pH
commonly found in sodic soils, available for
values above 7.0. Some soils that contain
replacement of sodium. Organic matter (i.e.
excess
straw, farm and green manures) decomposition
appreciable
and plant root action also help dissolve the
hydrogen and therefore have an acidic reaction,
calcium compounds found in most soils, thus
e.g. degraded sodic soils. Lime reacts in such
promoting reclamation but this is relatively a
soils according to the reaction:
calcium
for
the
replacement
slow process. The kind and quantity of a chemical
amendment
to
be
used
exchangeable sodium also contain quantities
of
exchangeable
Na, H - clay micelle + CaCO3 ---------> Ca - clay
for
micelle + NaHCO3
replacement of exchangeable sodium in the
However,
lime
is
not
an effective
soils depend on the soil characteristics including
amendment for most sodic soils as their pH is
the extent of soil deterioration, desired level of
always
soil improvement including crops intended to be
measurable to appreciable quantities of sodium
grown and economic considerations.
carbonate which imparts to these soils a high
i. Kind of amendments Chemical amendments for sodic soil reclamation can be broadly grouped into three categories: 1. Soluble calcium salts, e.g. gypsum, calcium chloride. 2. Acids or acid forming substances, e.g. sulphuric acid, iron sulphate, aluminium sulphate, lime-sulphur, sulphur, pyrite, etc. 3. Calcium salts of low solubility, e.g. ground limestone.
high.
In
fact,
sodic
soils
contain
pH, always more than 8.2 when measured on a saturated soil paste, and up to 10.8 or so when appreciable quantities of free sodium carbonate are present. In such soils only amendments comprising soluble calcium salts or acids or acid-forming substances are beneficial. The following
chemical
equations
illustrate
the
manner in which some of the amendments react in these soils.
Gypsum Gypsum is chemically CaSO4.2H2O and is a white mineral that occurs extensively in
6
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natural deposits. It must be ground before it is
When
applied
to
soils,
these
compounds
applied to the soil. Gypsum is soluble in water to
dissolve in soil water and hydrolyse to form
the extent of about one-fourth of 1 percent and
sulphuric acid, which in turn supplies soluble
is, therefore, a direct source of soluble calcium.
calcium through its reaction with lime present in
Gypsum reacts with both the Na2CO3, and the
sodic soils. Chemical reactions involved are:
adsorbed sodium as follows:
FeSO4 + 2H2O ----> H2SO4 + Fe (OH)2
Na2CO3 +CaSO4 ---
H2SO4 + CaCO3 ----> CaSO4 + H2O + CO2
>CaCO3 +Na2SO4 (leachable) Similar reactions are responsible for the
Calcium chloride
improvement of sodic soils when aluminium
Calcium
chloride
is
chemically
CaCl2 2H2O. It is a highly soluble salt which supplies soluble calcium directly. Its reactions in
sulphate is used as an amendment.
Sulphur (S) Sulphur is a yellow powder ranging in
sodic soil are similar to those of gypsum: Na2CO3 + CaCl2 ---> CaCO3 + 2 NaCl
purity from 50 percent to more than 99 percent.
(leachable)
It is not soluble in water and does not supply calcium directly for replacement of adsorbed sodium. When applied for sodic soil reclamation,
Sulphuric acid
sulphur has to undergo oxidation to form
Sulphuric acid is chemically H2SO4. It is
sulphuric acid which in turn reacts with lime
an oily corrosive liquid and is usually about 95
present in the soil to form soluble calcium in the
percent
form of calcium sulphate:
pure.
Upon
application
to
soils
containing calcium carbonate it immediately reacts to form calcium sulphate and thus
2 S + 3 O2 ----> 2 SO3 (microbiological oxidation) SO3 + H2O ---> H2SO4
provides soluble calcium indirectly. Chemical reactions involved are:
H2SO4 + CaCO3 ----> CaSO4 + H2O + CO2
Na2CO3 +H2SO4 ---->CO2 +H2O+Na2SO4 CaCO3 + H2SO4 ----> CaSO4 + H2O + CO2
Pyrite Pyrite (FeS2) is another material that
Iron sulphate and aluminium sulphate (alum) Chemically
these
compounds
are
FeSO4.7H2O and Al2(SO4)3.18H2O, respectively. Both these solid granular materials usually have a high degree of purity and are soluble in water.
has been suggested as a possible amendment for sodic soil reclamation. Reactions leading to oxidation of pyrite are complex and appear to consist of chemical as well as biological
7
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processes. The first step in the oxidation is non-
as judged from improvement of soil properties
biological and iron II sulphate (ferrous) is formed
and crop growth and the relative costs involved.
2 FeS2 + 2 H2O + 7 O2 ----> 2 FeSO4 + 2 H2SO4
The time required for an amendment to react in
This reaction is then followed by the bacterial
the soil and effectively replace adsorbed sodium
oxidation of iron II sulphate, a reaction normally
is also a consideration in the choice of an
carried out by Thiobacillus ferrooxidans,
amendment. Because of its high solubility in
4FeSO4 + O2 +2H2SO4 ----> 2Fe2(SO4)3 + 2H2O Subsequently iron III sulphate (ferric) is
water, calcium chloride is the most readily available source of soluble calcium but it has rarely
been
used
for
reclamation
on
an
reduced and pyrite is oxidized by what appears
extensive scale because of its high cost.
to be a strictly chemical reaction.
Similarly iron and aluminium sulphates are
Fe2 (SO4)3 + FeS2 ----> 3 FeSO4 + 2 S Elemental sulphur so produced may then be oxidized by T. thiooxidans and the acidity generated favours the continuation of the process
usually too costly and have not been used for any large-scale improvement of sodic soils in the past. Because amendments like sulphur and pyrite must first be oxidized to sulphuric acid by soil microorganisms before they are available for reaction, the amendments are relatively slow
2 S + 3 O2 + 2 H2O ----> 2 H2SO4
acting. Being cheapest and most abundantly available, gypsum is the most widely used
Others In some localities cheap acidic industrial wastes may be available which can be profitably used for sodic soil improvement. Pressmud, a waste product from sugar factories, is one such material commonly used for soil improvement. Pressmud contains either lime or some gypsum depending on whether the sugar factory is adopting carbonation or a sulphitation process for the clarification of juice. It also contains variable quantities of organic matter. ii. Choice of amendment The choice of an amendment at any place will depend upon its relative effectiveness
amendment. 2. Organic manures Organic manures have long been known to facilitate the reclamation of sodic soils. The mechanisms involved and the precise reasons for observed responses are not always clear. Puttaswamy gowda and Pratt (1973) attributed the beneficial effect of straw incorporated in a sodic soil under submerged conditions to (i) the decomposition of organic matter, evolution of CO2 and certain organic acids; (ii) lowering of pH and the release of cations by solubilization of CaCO3 and
other
soil
minerals
thereby
increasing the EC; and (iii) replacement of
8
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exchangeable Na by Ca and Mg and thereby lowering
the
ESP.
Submerged
Dhaincha
anaerobic
conditions were optimum for these processes in
conjunction
with
Cotton, at germination
Sugarbeet
according to these workers. However when applied
Cotton Berseem
Sodic
soils
usually
Mung are
the
most
inorganic
expensive to reclaim and, in many situations,
amendments or when applied in soils of mild
reclamation is not economical. The reclamation
sodicity, organic materials have always proved
procedures discussed here can improve sodic
beneficial
the
soils, but many years or decades of good soil
reclamation of sodic soils occupies an important
and crop management are required to fully
place.
remediate a sodic soil.
3. Crops in sodic soils
References
and therefore
their
use in
during
Central Soil Salinity Research Institute (CSSRI).
reclamation of sodic soils is important. Growing
2010. Computerized database on salt
crops tolerant to excess exchangeable sodium
affected soils in india, Technical bulletin,
can ensure reasonable returns during the initial
Karnal, Hariyana, India - 132 001.
Proper
choice
of
crops
phases of reclamation or when the crops are
FAO,
1988.
Salt-Affected
Soils
and
their
grown with irrigation water having sodicity
Management, Soils bulletin 39, Food
hazard. It has been observed that, generally,
And Agriculture Organization of the
crops that are able to withstand excess moisture
United Nations, Rome.
oxygen
Qadir M, Schubert S, Ghafoor A, Murtaza G.
deficiencies are also more tolerant of sodic
2001. Amelioration strategies for sodic
conditions because the excess exchangeable
soils: a review, Land degrad dev., 13:
sodium adversely affects crop growth chiefly
275–294
conditions
resulting
in
short-term
through its adverse effect on soil physical
NLWRA
(2001)
National
dryland
salinity
assessment. National land and water
properties.
resources audit. Table 3. Relative tolerance of selected crops and grasses to exchangeable sodium Tolerant
Semi-tolerant
Bhargava, G.P. and Bhattachrjee, J. 1982. Morphology, genesis and classification
Sensitive
Karnal grass
Wheat
Cowpeas
Rhodes grass
Barley
Groundnut
Para grass
Oats
Lentil
Bermuda grass
Sugarcane
Peas
Rice
Bajra
Maize
of salt affected soils. In: Review of Soil Research in India Part III International Congress of Soil Science, New Delhi, 507-528.
9
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CANAL-BANK PLANTING TECHNIQUE
generation in the olden days leads to large scale degradation.
IN MANGROVES - A Field Restoration
Field Restoration by Canal Bank Planting
C.N.Hari Prasath, A.Balasubramanian
Techniques Since
and S.Radhakrishnan Forest College and Research Institute Tamil Nadu Agricultural University
There was no field restriction or any silvicultural practice
till
flushing
representing intermediate vegetation between
regeneration.
land and sea that grown in oxygen deficient waterlogged soils as a productive ecosystem. Mangrove performs a vital ecological function maintenance
of
hydrological regime, coastal protection, fishfauna production, etc. leads to the sustenance for both man and animals. The total area under mangrove forest in Tamil Nadu is 39 sq.km, where Muthupet accounts for 61% and lesser extent by other mangroves with 13 mangrove species (FSI, 2011). Major threats faced are Lack of fresh water supply due to presence of dams and barrages upstream have resulted in loss of biodiversity, siltation of the lagoon and increasing
formation
and
incidence
clear
felling
of for
the
adoption
of
Canal
Bank
that hyper saline soil condition and lack of tidal
tolerant vegetation occurring in inter-tidal zones,
creek,
the
for degradation of the mangroves, it was found
Mangroves are unique forest of salt
recycling,
of
Techniques in 1987. While analysing the reason
Mettupalayam – 641 301
nutrient
management
mangroves concentrated primarily on protection.
Department of Silviculture
like
1971,
oyster-bed revenue
1.
were
Methodology
responsible
of
for
Canal-Bank
lack
of
Planting
Technique Field regeneration of mangroves in India is being carried out by two main methods i. Planting of nursery raised seedlings, ii. Dibbling of propagules on mudflats and degraded areas. Canals are first formed in the degraded areas to permit flow of tidal water for reducing soil salinity and create conditions conducive for planting mangroves. Mangrove propagules are then planted on the slopes of the canals in the intertidal region. Steps involved in Canal-Bank Planting Technique are proper site selection, formation of canal before rains, choice of species, timely planting, desiliting of canals and casualty replacement and after-care
10
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2. Canal Bank Designs
inundation of the plantation site. This was further
i. The Linear Pattern (1987-1998)
replaced by the Modification Box Design.
This was the earlier design where the canals were formed in parallel rows and planting was carried out on the banks. The dimension of the earliest canals were not standardised and top width varied between 1 to 1.5m. Later block planting by creating depression on mudflats was also tried but without much success. The early plantations did not establish well due to siltation of the canals. This design however presented one big drawback shows that due to lack of adequate flushing, the areas in between the canals failed to regenerate satisfactory. The design was later modified into Box design in 1998.
iii. Modification Box Design (1999-2001) The box design presented two problems are Siltation in canals (It was observed that most of the canals in box design were getting heavily silted within the first 2-3 years) and Poor regeneration in the boxes (Area within boxes failed to regenerate satisfactorily as earth dumped on the banks while forming canals prevented entry of tidal water inside the boxes). With the above two modification the box design came to be known as the Modified Box Design. The widening of the canals not only reduced the rate of siltation but also ensured a higher supply of tidal water to the regeneration site leading to
ii. Box Design (1998-1999)
better growth of the plant.
In the Box-Design the parallel canals of the earlier Linear Pattern were inter-connected at intervals by perpendicular canals. The canals
iv. Fishbone Design (2001-2004)
drawing water from the creeks are called Main
The Fishbone design was adopted in
Canals and the interconnecting canals are called
2001, with a wide feeder canals has side
Side Canals. As both main canals and side
distribution canals fanning out on either side at
canals were spaced 20m apart, the resulting
an angle of 30°. As the combination of Feeder
layout resembled a series of square boxes with
and Distribution canals resembles a fishbone,
canals
hence the name fishbone design.
criss-crossing
in
between.
The
dimensions on the main and side canals were same, i.e., Top width: 2.0m; Bottom width: 75cm; Depth: 75cm. The modification resulted in better field success due to increase in tidal
11
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”Canal-Bank Planting can lead to more than 100% field establishment”. To put it simply, if we plant 100 plants today we can hope to get more than 100 plants in the future. This amazing achievement is possible as the technique induce profuse natural regeneration. REFERENCES The layout was an improvement over
Atlas
of
mangroves
wetlands
the previous design in two respects, viz, 1st as
M.S.Swaminathan
the distribution canals are angled in the direction
Foundation, Chennai.
in
India.
Research
of eater flow; it reduced loss of kinetic energy of tidal water. This resulted in better flushing and lower siltation rate. 2nd as the ends of the Feeder and Distribution canals are kept open, it permits
Baruah.A.D., 2004. Muthupet Mangroves and Canal Bank Planting Technique. TNFD. Ben Brown. 2006. Five steps to Successful
easy enter and exit of tidal water over the
Ecological
plantation site.
Mangrove Action project.
v. Modified Fishbone Design The Fishbone Design, considered to be technically the best design presented two serious problems.
1st
restoration
of
Mangroves.
Forest Survey of India, 2011. Status of Forest Report,
Ministry
of
Environment
and
Forests, Government of India, New Delhi.
are casualty was observed
at the far ends of the Distribution canals. 2nd as money available for forming canals was much below the required amount, successive Feeder canals had to be spaced far apart with wide gaps in between. These gaps threatened a similar situation as observed in the earlier Linear Pattern where the intermediate areas have failed to regenerate. The angling would help conserve
LAC – A POTENTIAL CROP FOR
kinetic energy and the absence of open ends
POOR MAN
would take care of the problem of siltation.
12
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A.Balasubramanian, C.N.Hari Prasath,
Myanmar, Thailand and Malaysia, parts of
S.Radhakrishnan and S.Manivasakan
China, Taiwan, Vietnam and Srilanka etc are the lac producing countries. Among
Department of Silviculture
them, India and Thailand are the main lacs
Forest College and Research Institute
producing countries of the world. Out of entire lac produced in the
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University
India, 80-85 % is from rangeeni strain which
Mettupalayam – 641 301
is contributed mainly by palash (Butea
Lac is a natural heritage of our country by providing regular income in absence of other cash crops to tribal and poor people. Lac is produced by insect which gets its nourishment from plants. Due to massive destruction of forest resources and indiscriminate cutting of lac host trees
monosperma) followed by ber (Zizyphus spp.). The best quality of resin produced by Kusumi strain is obtained from Kusum (Schleichera oleosa) in India. LAC CULTIVATION i) Conventional Method
for social, industrial and mining activities
The trees are infested with lac insect
areas under lac cultivation is reason for
crawlers by putting broodlac sticks along
gradually shrinking.
with leaves attached on the branches of
The lac is a resin not gum and produced by tiny insect with soft-bodied belonging
to
coceid
group
of
order,
Homoptera. Two genera and 19 species of lac insects have been observed in India and most
common
Indian
lac
insect
of
commercial importance is Kerria lacca kerr. (Rangeeni)
and
Kusami.
Mainly
India,
new trees, when lac crawler emergence begins. The broodlac sticks remain on tree for a long time even after emergence is over. The lac crop is harvested, whenever encrustation is thick irrespective of crop maturity. Normally crop is not harvested completely, but some amount of mature lac is left on the tree to act as brood lac for developing the next crop. 13
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November 2017
ii) Scientific Method
Removing used-up broodlac sticks -
Pruning of trees - This is an essential
operation
availability
of
to
large
ensure
number
of
succulent shoots at the time of infestation. This operation is carried out six months before infestation for raising summer crop (April) and
The used broodlac stick should be removed from infested tree as soon as emergence of lac larvae is over. Normally this period is 15- 20 days after tying of bundles on trees. This period should not exceed beyond 21 days in any case.
rainy season (February). In April, the
Crop harvesting - The crop is
most suitable stage of pruning is
harvested either as an immature
judged by appearance of pod, after
summer
shedding
trees
mature crop as broodlac (Lac insect
should not be pruned once sprouting
value). If crop harvesting is carried
for new leaves and shoots begin.
out for broodlac purpose, the date of
of
flowers.
The
Infestation of host tree - Spreading of lac insect on succulent shoot is called
infestation.
method,
the
In
broodlac
scientific stick
of
approximately 6 inch length are cut and 4-5 sticks are bundled and tied at several places over host tree. Tree should be infested in such ways that on most of the succulent shoots, lac insect are inoculated uniformly.
crop
(Resin
value)
or
hatching should be kept in mind. Immature summer lac is cut at any time, when encrustation becomes relatively thicker. Normally brood lac is harvested in October/November when crop mature. IMPORTANCE OF LAC CULTIVATION A good source of livelihood for poor farmers,
tribals
with
meager
investment. A good crop for marginal and degraded lands. No competition for 14
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November 2017
land
operation
with
agricultural/
horticultural crops. It
is
like
an
Lac is one of the most versatile natural resinous materials. It has a unique
insurance
crop,
especially during drought year as the crop is very good during adverse climate.
combination of properties, which renders it useful for a variety of applications in the plastics, electrical (Moulded insulators like knobs and switch handles, Switch bases and boards, Spark sheets, Use in Surface
Lac cultivation involves significant
coatings and Spirit varnish), adhesive,
women
leather, wood finishing, hat manufacturing
participation
and
helps
and
ecosystem development. Helps
maintaining
good
environment.
other
industries
Medicines,
Nail
(Glazed Polish,
paper, Dental
Compositions, Jewellery fillings, Optical frames, Wax crayons and Pharmaceutical).
Quality of Indian Kusumi lac is most
It is thermoplastic; it is soluble in alcohol
superior in world.
and weak alkalis and lac films are resilient, possess
Lac is the most predominant source
high
scratch-hardness,
good
adhesion and electrical insulation.
of natural resin and dye for various CONCLUSION
applications. It has high export potential. About 75%
of
present
production
is
exported.
Lac cultivation plays major role in the development of fringe people in the forest areas. It will provide a marginal income during adverse condition also. The
India is leader in lac production and
lac host plants shoots be maintain properly
export.
under care and management during the cultivation. REFERENCE
USES
15
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November 2017
Krishnaswami, S. 1960. Lac cultivation in India. Farm Bulletin, Directorate of Extension,
Ministry
of
Food
&
Agriculture, Govt. of India, New Delhi, Pp: 36. Sailesh Chattopadhyay. 2011. Introduction to Lac and Lac Culture. Department of
Forest
Biology
and
Tree
Improvement, Faculty of Forestry, Birsa Agricultural University, Kanke, Ranchi-834 006 (Jharkhand).
NATURAL GUMS – A BIOLOGICAL RESOURCE
16
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November 2017
A.Balasubramanian, C.N.Hari Prasath
exploitation is restricted to a few species of Leguminosae,
and S.Radhakrishnan
Sterculiaceae
and
Combretaceae.
Department of Silviculture Classification of Gums
Forest College and Research Institute Gums are present in high quantities
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University
in varieties of plants, animals, seaweeds, fungi and other microbial sources, where
Mettupalayam – 641 301
they perform a number of structural and Natural gums (gums obtained from plants)
are
polymers
hydrophilic
of
high
carbohydrate
molecular
weights,
metabolic functions; plant sources provide the largest amounts. The different available Gums can be classified as follows.
generally composed of monosaccharide units joined by glucocidic bonds. They are generally
insoluble
in
oils
or
organic
solvents such as hydrocarbons, ether or alcohols. Gums are either water soluble or absorb water and swell up or disperse in cold water to give a viscous solution or jelly. On
hydrolysis
they
yield
arabinose,
galactose, mannose and glucuronic acid. Natural gums obtained from plants have diverse applications in drug delivery as a
disintegrant,
emulsifying
agent,
suspending agents and as binders. Gums are produced by members of a large number
of
families
but
According
to
the
charge
(Anionic
Polysaccharides,
Cationic
Polysaccharides,
Nonionic
Polysaccharides,
Amphoteric
Polysaccharides
and
Hydrophobic
Polysaccharides). According
to
the
source
(Marine
origin/algal gums, Plant origin, Seed gums, Animal origin, Microbial origin, prepared gums and Semi-synthetic gums). According
to
shape
(Linear
and
Branched)
commercial
17
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November 2017
According
to
chemical
structure
(Homoglycans, Diheteroglycans, Triheteroglycans,
indica
Chondrus
LIST OF NATURAL GUMS AND TYPES Type
Exudate/Produ ct
Natural Gum
A.
gum
Tetra-heteroglycans
and Penta-heteroglycans).
Name of
Tamarindus
senegal
crispus
Carrageenan
Seaweeds
Gelidium
(Gums)
Xanthomonas
Gum Arabic
(L.) Willd.
compestris Leuconostoc
Xanthan Biosyntheti c (Gums)
mesenteroides
Anogiessus
Agar
amansii
Dextran
Gum ghatti
latifolia Wall. Azadirachta indica
A.
Juss.
Plant Gum (Tapping)
Neem gum Joel or Jingan
Gum karaya
coromandelic
Biodegradable - Naturally available biodegradable
gum
Lannea
Advantages in pharmaceutical science
polymers
are
produced by all living organisms. They
represent
truly
renewable
a
source and they have no adverse
Sterculia
impact on humans or Environmental
urens Roxb.
health (e.g. skin and eye irritation).
Ceratonia
Locust
siliqua L
gum
Cyamopsis
Seed Gum
bean
Guar gum
Low cost - It is always cheaper to use natural sources. The production cost is also much lower compared
tetragonolobu s
Biocompatible and non-toxic.
Tamarind
with that for synthetic material.
18
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November 2017
Edible sources - Most gums are obtained from edible sources.
contamination
-
polysaccharides
and
their
derivatives), it has been found that after storage there is reduced in
Disadvantages in pharmaceutical science Microbial
to
viscosity.
The
equilibrium moisture content present in the gums is normally 10% or more.
CONCLUSION Natural
gums
are
promising
biodegradable polymeric materials. Clearly
Batch to batch variation - Synthetic
gums have many advantages over synthetic
controlled
materials. Various applications of gums
procedure with fixed quantities of
have been established in the field of
ingredients, while the production of
pharmaceuticals. Therefore, in the years to
gums
come, there will be continued interest in
manufacturing
is
is
a
dependent
on
environmental and seasonal factors. Uncontrolled rate of hydration - Due to differences in the collection of natural materials at different times, as well as differences in region, species and climate conditions the percentage of chemical constituents present in a given material may vary.
natural gums and their modifications aimed at the development of better materials for drug delivery. REFERENCES Kulkarni, D, A.K.Dwivedi and J.P.S.Sarin. 1997. Tamarind seed polyose: A potential sustained
polysaccharides release
of
for
verapamil
Reduced viscosity on storage -
hydrochloride as a model drug,
Normally, when gums come into
Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical
contact with water there is an
Science, 59 (1): 1-7.
increase in the viscosity of the formulations. Due to the complex nature of Gums (monosaccharide’s
Pawar, H. and P.M.D'mello. 2004. Isolation of seed gum from cassia tora and
19
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November 2017
preliminary studies of its applications
NUTRITIONAL AND MEDICINAL
as a binder for tablets. Indian Drugs,
PROPERTIES OF KARONDA (Carissa
41(8): 465-468. Sunil Goswami and Sonali Naik. 2014. Natural gums and its pharmaceutical application. Journal of Scientific and Innovative Research, 3 (1): 112-121.
carandas) C.N.Hari Prasath, A.Balasubramanian, S.Manivasakan and S.Radhakrishnan Department of Silviculture Forest College and Research Institute Tamil Nadu Agricultural University Mettupalayam – 641 301 Karonda is an evergreen deciduous, generally
2-4
m
tall
shrub
of
family
Apocynaceae. Its stem is rich in white latex, having sharp spines on branches. The leaves are oblong and conical, 4-6 inch long and 2-3 inch wide, green on the top and brown below. The plant produces white colored flowers, measuring 3-5 cm in diameter. The fruit is a berry, which is formed in clusters of 3-10 fruits with 5-1 hard angles curving upwards. The fruit shape is globose
20
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November 2017
to broad ovoid consisting of several seeds.
convulsant
Ripe fruit color varies from white, green and
inflammatory, anti-pyretic, hepatoprotective
pinkish red depending on the genotype.
activity,
Seed 3-5 per fruit, blackish brown, flat, eleptical and light in weight.
neuropharmacological, cardiovascular
anti-
diuretic
activity,
anti-
nociceptive activity, anti-cancerous activity,
constipation, diarrhea, anthelmintic activity and
Fresh fruit) Nutrients
analgesic,
antioxidant potentials, anti-ulcer activity,
NUTRITIONAL COMPOSITION (100 g of
Sl.No.
activities,
activity,
Composition
1
Moisture
83.17-83.24 g
2
Protein
0.39-0.66 g
3
Fat
2.57-4.63 g
4
Carbohydrates
0.51-0.94 g
5
Fiber
0.62-1.81 g
6
Ascorbic acid
9-11 mg
antimalarial
In
traditional
medicine the fruit is used to improve female libido and to remove worms from the intestinal tract. The juice can be applied to the skin to relieve any skin problems. A leaf decoction of karonda is used against fever, diarrhoea and earache. The roots serve as a stomachic, vermifuge, remedy for itches and insect repellent. COMMON USES Karonda
MEDICINAL PROPERTIES
activity.
is
good
appetizer.
Its
regular in the cropping season, flushes out the intestinal worms. Its leaves feed the
Karonda is known to posses wide
tussar silkworm; the wood is used for
range of phytochemicals in its plant parts
making household utensils, such as large
(roots, leaves, stem, and fruits) that imparts
cooking spoons and the root can be
immense medicinal value to the plant.
pounded to a paste to make insect
These active constituents give medicinal
repellant. Karonda is used mainly used for
value to the plant. The fruit is an astringent,
making pickle, making jelly, jam, squash,
anti-scorbutic, anti-diabetic activity, anti21
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November 2017
syrup
and
chutney.
The
fruits
have
Sethi, V.K. and J.C.Anand. 1977. Dyeing of
astringent properties and have been used
Karonda for making their preserve.
for tanning and dying.
Indian food pacer, 33 (8): 20-23.
CONCLUSION (C.
Karonda
carandus)
an
evergreen, deciduous shrub with immense medicinal value want to be reviewed as a source
for
biology,
ethnopharmacology
phytochemistry,
and
conservation
strategy for further research on it. REFERENCES Awasthi, C.P., I.S.Singh and A.Singh. 1986. Biochemical
composition
promising
carandas)
Karonda cultivars.
of
(Carissa Progressive
horticulture, 20 (3-4): 294-296. Dalal, R.P.S., Navjot Gupta, Anirudh Thakur and Avatar Singh. 2010. Nutritional value of Karonda (Carissa caranda linn.)- A non -conventional fruit under semi-arid condition of Punjab. Indian Journal of Agroforestry, 12 (2): 102-104.
22
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November 2017
GREENING OF URBAN FREE
The concentration of buildings and urban areas
SPACES FOR CLIMATE CHANGE
during urbanisation leads to the formation of a
MITIGATION
specific climate characterised by higher night time temperatures.
C.N.Hari Prasath, A.Balasubramanian, Urban greenery/forestry is one of the
S.Radhakrishnan and S.Manivasakan
ways to bridge this gap between people and
Department of Silviculture Forest College and Research Institute Tamil Nadu Agricultural University
nature. High population density in India is one of the reasons for under development of urban greenery sector.
Mettupalayam – 641 301
Most of the Indian cities
are far behind in quality as well as quantity of
Over the last two hundred and fifty
urban forests than their counterpart in Europe
years, since industrialisation begun, the delicate
and America. Most of the Indian cities, with the
balance in the earth’s systems and atmosphere
exceptions of Gandhinagar and Chandigarh, are
has
far behind in per capita urban forest availability
been
disturbed
by
pollution
of
unprecedented nature. One form of potential
in
atmospheric pollution sources is due to the
American cities.
release
of
greenhouse
gases
that
comparison
to
European/
Australian/
are
associated with the consumption of fossil fuels
Urban Green Spaces and Climate Change
such as coal, oil and gas - at a rate that does not
Mitigation and Adaptation
allow
them
to
replenish
Urban
themselves.
green
spaces
can
help
to
Unfortunately in the twenty first century these
alleviate the consequences of climate change
various forms of energy provide the backbone of
through
economic growth. Urban areas, where the majority of the population live, warm more than rural ones because buildings absorb heat. There are significant temperature differences between city centres and their surrounding countryside and surface temperatures can be up to 6°C greater.
1) Cooling Urban green spaces can act as ‘park cool islands’ by cooling air. The extent of the cooling effect is greatest, when temperatures beyond the park are the highest. As climate change increases and temperatures rise the cooling effect
23
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November 2017
of urban green spaces will become increasingly important.
Urban green spaces provide valuable
Trees, especially when located close to buildings,
can
conditioners
act
and
3) Providing a Habitat for Biodiversity
as
natural
provide
air
shading
habitats for animals and plants, but species
can
respond
strongly
to
environmental change.
through evapo-transpiration, therefore
There is a need for wildlife corridors
reducing energy consumption required
within towns and cities to help plants
to maintain comfortable temperatures.
and animals move in response to
Very
careful
maintenance required.
management of
Green
green
spaces
spaces
which
and is are
permitted to dry out and lose soil moisture actually result in a higher absorption of day time solar energy and higher night time radiation adding to the urban heat island effect. 2) Water Management Green space can help with water management as it provides a permeable surface, reducing surface run-off into drains and therefore lowers the risk of flooding during peak flows.
climate change. The existence of water areas can also encourage biodiversity. REFERENCE TCPA (2007) ‘Climate change adaptation by design’, plus additional information from Gill. S, J. Handley, R. Ennos, S. Pauleit (2007)
‘Adapting
change:
the
cities
role
of
for the
climate green
infrastructure’. Forest Department (Gujarat and Chandigarh). 2008.
Tree
cover
assessment
in
Gandhinagar capital project area, using remote
sensing
technology,
In addition green spaces allow water to
prepared
filter down and replenish groundwater.
department, Gujarat, India.
by
GIS
Centre,
Report Forest
Vegetation also intercepts more rain thereby reducing the flash flooding. The numerous leaves of plants and trees provide a greater area for water to evaporate from than flat surfaces.
24
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November 2017
VERMICOMPOSTING – A FARMER’S
rich in nutrients, growth promoting substances,
FRIENDLY APPROACH
beneficial soil micro flora, properties of inhibiting
C.N.Hari Prasath, A.Balasubramanian,
pathogenic
microbes
and
stabilized
humic
substances.
S.Manivasakan and S.Radhakrishnan Vermicompost is stable, fine granular
Department of Silviculture Forest College and Research Institute Tamil Nadu Agricultural University Mettupalayam – 641 301 The
problem
of
solid
organic manure, which enriches soil quality by improving its physicochemical and biological properties. Exotic species like Eudrilus euginae, Perionyx excavatus and Eisenia foetida are
waste
management is increasing due to the rapid
employed for vermicomposting in India next to indigenous species Lumbricus mauritii.
increase of population, intensive agriculture and industrialization. Large quantities of organic waste are produced and they pose major environmental (offensive odours, contamination of ground water and soil) and disposal problems. Effective disposal of different types of waste is
Methods of vermicomposting 1) Bed method: Composting is done on the pucca / kachcha floor by making bed of organic mixture. This method is easy to maintain and to practice.
more important to maintain healthy environment.
2) Pit method: Composting is done in the
Vermicomposting is an appropriate alternative
cemented pits. The unit is covered with thatch
for the safe, hygienic and cost effective disposal
grass or any other locally available materials.
of organic solid wastes. Vermicomposting is a
This method is not preferred due to poor
method of preparing enriched compost with the
aeration, water logging at bottom and more cost
use of earthworms. It is one of the easiest
of production.
methods to recycle animal excreta, kitchen waste,
farm
residues
and
forest
litter
(leguminous trees, non-leguminous tree and crop residues) to produce quality compost. Earthworms consume biomass and excrete it in digested form called worm casts. Worm casts are popularly called as Black gold. The casts are
Method of Harvesting Vermicompost Growth rate of earthworms is very fast and a mature adult can attain up to 1500 mg body weight and attain reproduction capability within 50-55 days of hatching from cocoon. After raw material is completely decomposed it
25
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November 2017
appears black and granular. Watering should be
for proper growth and multiplication of
stopped as compost gets ready. The compost
earthworms.
shout
be
kept
over
a
heap
of
partially
4. Optimum moisture level (30-40 %)
decomposed cow dung so that earthworms
should be maintained
could migrate to cow dung from compost. After
5. 18-25ºC
two days compost can be separated and sieved for use.
temperature
should
be
maintained for proper decomposition. Nutrient status in Vermicomposting Nutrients
Measurement (%)
Organic Carbon
9.15 to 17.88
Nitrogen
0.5 to 0.9
Phosphorus
0.1 to 0.26
Potash
0.15 to 0.256
Sodium
0.55 to 0.95
Calcium and Magnesium (Meq/100 g)
22.67 to 47.6
Copper, mg L-1
2.0 to9.5
Iron , mg L-1
2.0 to 9.3
Zinc , mg L-1
5.7 to 9.3
Sulphur ,mg L-1
128.0 to 548.0
PH
6-8 (Thiruneelakandan & Subbulakshmi, 2014)
Preventive measures 1. The floor of unit should be compact to prevent earthworms’ migration into soil. 2. 15-20 days old cow dung should be used to avoid excess heat. 3. The organic wastes should be free from plastics,
chemicals,
pesticides
and
metals. Aeration should be maintained
Comparison between Chemical Fertilizer and Vermicompost Criteria for
Chemical
Comparison
Fertilizers
Vermicompost
Macro
Mostly
Contains all i.e.
nutrient
contains only
nitrogen
contents
one (n in
(n), phosphorus
urea) or at
(p) &
26
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November 2017
the most two
potassium (k) in
affecting
plant nutrient
(n & p in dap)
sufficient
nutrients
adsorption
nutrients in
quantities
assimilation
any one type
Organic
of chemical
carbon
Not available
organic carbon
fertilizer Secondary
and humus Calcium (ca),
contents
nutrient
Magnesium
improves soil
contents
(mg) & sulphur
characteristics
Micro nutrient
Not available
Very high
Not available
contents
pH balancing
EC correction
(s) is
Moisture
Reduces
Increases
available in
retention
moisture
moistures
required
capacity
retention
retention
quantities
capacity of
capacity of the
Zinc (zn), boron
the soil
soil
Damages soil
Improves soil
Manganese
texture to
texture for
(Mn), iron (Fe),
reduce
better aeration
copper (cu),
aeration
(b),
Soil texture
molybdenum
Plant growth
(Mo) and
hormones
Not available
Sufficient quantity helps
chlorine (Cl)
in better growth
also present
and
Disturb soil
Helps in the
production
pH to create
control of soil
salinity and
pH and checks
alkalinity
the salinity and
conditions
alkalinity in soil
Creates
Helps in
imbalance in
balancing the
soil EC
EC to improve
Advantages of Vermicompost It
provides
efficient
conversion
of
organic wastes/crop/animal residues. It
is
a
stable
and
enriched
soil
conditioner. It helps
in reducing population
of
pathogenic microbes.
27
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November 2017
It helps in reducing the toxicity of heavy
vermicomposting”. Tropical Agricultural
metals.
Research& Extension 13(2):1.
It
is
economically
environmentally
viable
safe
and
nutrient
supplement for organic food production. It is an easily adoptable low cost technology. CONCLUSION Vermitechnology
is
a
promising
technique that has shown its potential in certain challenging areas like augmentation of food production, waste recycling and management of solid wastes. It is better organic manure on basis of nutrient content. REFERENCES Dickerson, George W. 2004. Vermicomposting. H-164. New Mexico State University Cooperative
Extension
Service.
www.aces.nmsu.edu/desertblooms/nms ugardeni ng /do cs/chap_1/chap1.h.pdf. Jyoti Kapoor, Sachin Sharma and N.K.Rana. 2015.
Vermicomposting
Waste
Management.
for
Organic
International
Journal of Recent Scientific Research, 6(12): 7956-7960. Samaranayake, J. W. K. and S.Wijekoon. 2010. “Effects of selected earthworms on soil fertility,
plant
growth
and
28
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GST IMPLEMENTATION AND ITS
Central Goods and Services Tax (CGST): It is
IMPACTS IN INDIA
levied under the CGST Act on the intra-state
M. Priyadharshini*1, T.Mohanasundari2
State government combine their levies with an
and A.Mahadevan3 1Final
year Student,
supplies of goods and services. The Central and
3Assistant
Professor (Horticulture),
appropriate revenue sharing agreement between them. The power to levy CGST and
PGP College of Agricultural Sciences,
SGST has been provided for in Section 8 of the
Palani Nagar, Namakkal.
GST Act. The tax is levied based on the
2Research
recommendation of the council but not
Scholar, Department of
Agricultural Economics, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore -3.
exceeding 14%. State Goods and Services Tax (SGST): It is a
What is GST? GST is an indirect tax levied on the supply of goods and services. The Goods and Service Tax (GST) is India’s biggest tax reform
tax levied under the SGST Act on intra-state supplies of goods and services. SGST also do not exceed 14% which make the total of 28% (maximum slab of GST).
in the 70 years of independence. GST is an
Integrated Goods and Services Tax (IGST):
indirect tax applicable throughout India replacing
Integrated GST or IGST is the tax levied under
multiple taxes system which was levied by the
the IGST Act on the supply of any goods and/or
Central and State governments.
services in the inter-state trade across India.
Various Types of GST:
GST RATES FOR DIFFERENT COUNTRIES:
There are three kinds of GST are present now.
Country
Tax Rate
India
5%, 12%, 18%, 28%
Singapore
7%
29
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November 2017
Malaysia
6%
New Zealand
15%
Aruba
1.5%
Brazil
7%, 12%
Germany
19%
Higher Revenue Efficiency
GST is expected to decrease the cost of collection of tax revenues of the government which leads to higher revenue efficiency
Advantages of GST
Reduction in cost of production
Ease of doing business
Disadvantages of GST
Higher compliance and administrative cost
With the implementation of GST, Multiple taxes
It is understood that new implementation of any
like Octroi (Local body tax), central sales tax,
structure includes high compliance and
state sales tax, entry tax, license fees, turnover
administrative cost.
tax etc. will no longer be present.
Common national market
Human Resource problem
For the effective implementation of India’s
GST follows the destination principle. It will be
greatest reform in tax ‘GST’, Indian Government
levied only at the final stage of consumption and
has to recruit trained staff in various aspects i.e.
not at various stages. This will help to develop a
IT, Finance, Taxation.
common national market.
Improved Competitiveness
Major revenue items out of scope of the GST
Reduction in transaction costs of doing business
In India, Tax rates on the tobacco and alcohol
would eventually lead to an improved
products are very high. But these are not
competitiveness for the trade and industry.
included in the GST bill.
30
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November 2017
Harvesters and 18% for Pesticides(Plant
GST - A Boon or Bane? Though GST has many disadvantages it
protection measures).
provides clear data to the consumers .Hence it is a boon to tax payers and bane to tax evaders. GST for different agricultural inputs
As GST of the inputs is increased, the output product may get an increased rate of 35%. As the GST for organic fertilizers get increased people may move towards more
20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0
usage of inorganic fertilizers .This also affects the soil health and our environment. Short term impact on the economy: GST results in higher Consumer Price Index (CPI)
inflation of food products. The
GST leads to CPI inflation by 20-70bps in the first year due to higher prices of electricity, After GST
Before GST
clothing & footwear, health/medicine and education after accounting for input taxes.
X-axis=Tax percent
Long term impact:
Y-axis=Farm inputs It is expected to be Beneficial because
There is no GST for Seeds, hand operated tools like spade, hand hoe. The GST is 5% for Hand pumps and parts, solar water heater and systems, solar lamp and 12% for fertilizers, Power drawn pumps, Milking machines / Dairy machines, Composting machines and
most of the indirect taxes levied on agricultural products are subsumed under GST which enables free movement of commodities across the country by removing hurdles in the supply chain.
31
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Reference Rakesh kumar,2017,Diamond Pocket Books (P)Ltd,New Delhi
AUTHOR GUIDE LINES Title, Author, and Affiliation: 12 font size Content : 10 font size.
https://www.indiafilings.com/gst-advantages-
Reference: 10 font size.
disadvantages/
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e Journal of Agriculture Sciences https://sites.google.com/a/essociety.in/ejas/home e Journal of Agriculture Sciences is an open-access journal publishing full-length research papers and short notes covering subjects that fall under the wide spectrum of agriculture science.
33
e SS
November 2017