year old children who used computers with support- ... 173. 1082-3301/07/1000-0173/0 â 2007 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC ... vides large numbers of original software applications ... and development, while the computer programs.
Early Childhood Education Journal, Vol. 35, No. 2, October 2007 ( 2007) DOI: 10.1007/s10643-007-0168-5
Peer Reviewed
Early Childhood Educational Software: Specific Features and Issues of Localization Kleopatra Nikolopoulou1,2
The computer has now become a recognized tool in the education of young children and when used appropriately can reinforce their learning experiences. This paper reviews specific features (relating to pedagogic design, software content and user-interface design) of early childhood educational software and discusses issues in favor of its localization. Specific features in favor of its localization include the dominance of pictures, animation and sound, the culture-independent content and the neutrality of graphical, interface and story-line features. ChildrenÕs software worth being adapted to fit another countryÕs curriculum needs to be developmentally appropriate. The quality of the software will need to be combined with other factors, such as the role of the teacher, in order to contribute to young childrenÕs learning and development. KEY WORDS: early childhood; educational software features; software localization; computers; ICTs.
and criticized it as one-sided picture of the issues and related empirical evidence. The fierce debate has died down and the computer has become a recognized tool in the education of young children, a tool that can support the teaching and learning process (Clements, 1998; Clements & Sarama, 2003; Haugland & Wright, 1997; Siraj-Blatchford & Siraj-Blatchford, 2006; Stephen & Plowman, 2003). When the software is developmentally appropriate and the technology is used appropriately, research has shown improvement in various areas such as language, fine motor, cognitive and social skills (e.g., Bhargava & Escobedo, 1997; Haugland, 1992; Liu, 1996; Moxley, Warash, Coffman, Brinton, & Concannon, 1997). For example, Haugland (1992) has shown that three- and fouryear old children who used computers with supporting activities that reinforced the major objectives of the programs had significantly greater developmental gains when compared to children without computer experiences in similar classrooms. Such gains concerned intelligence, non-verbal skills, structural knowledge, long-term memory, manual dexterity, verbal skills, problem solving, abstraction and conceptual skills. In addition, 3- to 5-year-olds demonstrated a great interest in using the technology
INTRODUCTION Early on the use of computers in early childhood settings prompted intense concerns about computers being hard or abstract for young children. In the USA there was a fierce debate about young children and their use of computers. The report ‘‘FoolÕs gold: a critical look at computers in childhood’’ (Cordes & Miller, 2000) argued that computers are potentially harmful to young childrenÕs health, creativity, sociocultural development and suggested a refocus on the essentials of a healthy childhood such as play, handson experiences of nature and physical engagement with the real world. The report ‘‘Tech Tonic’’ (Alliance for Childhood, 2004) was a follow-up and proposed a new definition for the technology literacy. However, the ‘‘FoolÕs gold’’ was widely noted in the literature. For example, Clements and Sarama (2003) responded
1
Department of Early Childhood Education, Univeristy of Athens, Athens, Navarinou 13A 10680, Greece. 2 Correspondence should be directed to Kleopatra Nikolopoulou, Department of Early Childhood Education, Univeristy of Athens, Athens, Navarinou 13A 10680, Greece., e-mail: kleopatra@ internet.gr
173 1082-3301/07/1000-0173/0 2007 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC
174 and had little difficulty in adjusting to the new learning environment (Liu, 1996). Due to increase in early childhood educational software titles and the increase in hardware and software costs, more and more children have access to computers at kindergartens and at home. As computers are increasingly present in both settings, the selection and localization of educational software takes on even more importance. The Internet provides large numbers of original software applications for localization. The variety and ease of software applications retrieval facilitate selective integration of localization into curriculum. Here, the term localization is used as synonymous to adaptation and means the process of adapting educational software to meet the language, cultural and other requirements of a specific target environment. This paper reviews specific features of early childhood educational software relating to pedagogic design, software content and user-interface design. Taken into account these specific features, issues in favor of software localization arise. The focus of this paper is on 3- to 5-yearold children because computers are not recommended for children younger than three (Hohman, 1998) and after the age of five many children enter primary education. The role of the computer and ICTs (Information and Communication Technologies) is considered supportive to young childrenÕs learning and development, while the computer programs cannot replace hands-on experiences with the real world. SPECIFIC FEATURES OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATIONAL SOFTWARE Pedagogic Design and Software Content There are currently three main theories of learning, which are usually adopted, during the pedagogic design of early childhood educational software. The theory of behaviorism, the theory of constructivism and socio-cultural theories of learning (e.g., Vygotsky, 1997). Contemporary approaches include an interdisciplinary approach (it is essential to provide activities and situations which are close to the real world), an exploratory learning approach (the educational software should provide children with opportunities to explore and discover the knowledge) and a collaborative learning approach (it should provide opportunities for the children to work as members of a team). Lately, there is a tendency of combining aspects of different learning theories and approaches (Cox & Webb, 2004; Segers
Nikolopoulou & Verhoeven, 2002). The approaches particularly valued are those which favor exploratory and autonomous learning via a constructivist learning experience, which allow child control and also take into account the socio-cultural context of the whole learning experience. In the U.S., the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC, 1996) suggested that computers could be best utilized when combined with a constructivist or open-ended approach to learning and stressed that childrenÕs engagements with technology should be developmentally appropriate. The pedagogic design as well as the choice of the content should be according to the cognitive and developmental level of the kindergartners. Researchers (e.g., Haugland, 1999a; Haugland & Wright, 1997) discussed extensively what constitutes developmentally appropriate software. This is in accordance with the cognitive and developmental levels of the children, can be adapted for children with different skill levels and can also be incorporated into the kindergarten curriculum. Moreover, it provides opportunities for exploratory and collaborative learning approaches, uses appropriate feedback techniques, allows the child to control the process and encourages active involvement. It has to be mentioned that CD-ROMs are still the main source of programs for children in early childhood settings, because so few of them have access to websites (Stephen & Plowman, 2003). CD-ROMs are often more suitable for very young children as they incorporate voice instructions, narrative, and the fixed boundaries of their content protect children of inappropriate websites (Plowman & Stephen, 2003). Main features relating to the pedagogic design and software content include the process orientation, the software focus and the feedback. The process orientation (Haugland, 1999b) refers to whether the software provides opportunities for discovery learning and for intrinsic motivation and whether it engages and prioritizes the process rather than the product. The activities/tasks embedded in the software should be carefully designed, providing children with the opportunity to play and exercise their creativity. Researchers (Clements, Nastasi, & Swaminathan, 1993; Clements & Sarama, 1997) showed the value of programs, which allowed children to experiment, offered flexibility and control and made learning concepts more concrete and meaningful (characteristics of developmentally appropriate software). For example, when using Logo, children can direct the movements of a robot or screen ÔÔturtleÕÕ to draw different shapes and explore ÔÔturtle geometryÕÕ.
Early Childhood Educational Software Early childhood educational programs aim to promote various concepts, skills and attitudes. The concepts to be learned, the skills to be acquired/ developed and the attitudes to be cultivated should all be age appropriate. For example, an awareness of cognitive load (Kirchner, 2002) may be particularly relevant when designing software for the early years. The feedback to childrenÕs responses is a basic and important feature in early childhood educational software. The feedback to right/wrong responses and the way the ÔmistakesÕ are corrected should be provided in a pedagogically appropriate way so as to encourage children to continue on their work. As most children have absent or limited reading skills, the feedback tends to use sound, icons, animation or any combination of these. User-interface Design The user-interface design is essential as it has the potential to influence the learning outcomes. Welldesigned software gives children time to pause and reflect rather than presenting an overload of sensory stimulation. Interactive software offers children opportunities to choose from many options, with a wide range of responses and a greater control of design features (Potter, Johanson, & Hutinger, 2006). Research projects with 4- to 8-year-old children explored the links between interface design and interactivity (Plowman & Stephen, 2003), while others found gender differences regarding interface preferences. For example, Passig and Levin (2000) showed that 4- to 5-year-old boys were more attracted to the movement (e.g., animation), while similar aged girls were more attracted to the visual aspects of the software (e.g., colored buttons). Features such as animation, music, and surprise elements, grasp and hold childrenÕs interest. They can also facilitate learning, provided they are designed to support and be consistent with the pedagogic goals (Clements, 1998). Specific features relating to the user-interface design include the navigation, the commands, the sound and the icons/graphics/ symbols. Navigation According to researchers (e.g., Druin & Solomon, 1996) children become acquainted with their natural environment through play. Children should be able to manipulate the icons/objects on screen after an initial guidance by adults and the basic operations should be easily performed. Thus, children can
175 interact with the software easily and pleasantly, as they interact with other pedagogic materials. The software must be easy in entrance, exit and navigation (Henniger, 1994). For example, large buttons facilitate navigation. Segers and Verhoeven (2002) in the Netherlands, designed software programs to enhance early literacy skills for use in multicultural kindergarten classrooms. Their observations revealed that young children put a lot of effort into positioning the cursor at the right place on the screen. As motor skills of kindergartners are not completely developed, programs designed to enhance early literacy or other type of skills may also help young children improve their eye-hand coordination. Research studies explored young childrenÕs ability in controlling the mouse as well as their preferences/difficulties with other input devices (Ellis & Blashki, 2004; Romeo, Edwards, McNamara, Walker, & Ziguras, 2003). Ellis and Blashki (2004) indicated that young children aged 2.5 and 3 years old who used multimedia in a familiar context under adult guidance engaged in the beginnings of self-directed learning. Romeo et al. (2003) showed that prior learning with the mouse as an input device results in children having difficulties with the touch screens. Besides children being autonomous users of the software, they should have a sense of control over it. For example, the children should decide on the direction of the activities and they should be able to return back to the main menu whenever they wish to. LiuÕs study (1996) with interactive multimedia technology showed that 3- to 5-year-old children who were given control of the program spent more time at the computer than in other classroom activities and were able to respond correctly to questions regarding spatial relationships. The software should also provide children with opportunities of trial and error (Haugland & Wright, 1997). This process provides possibilities for exploration of alternative situations and leads to active construction of knowledge. ‘‘Software for children needs to be carefully designed by individuals who have a good understanding of the way children think. For example, an opening menu that requires reading will not work in a preschool setting’’ (Buckleitner, 1999, p. 212). Commands, Sound Support and the Use of Icons/ Graphics/Symbols The commands regarding the available options or the meaning of the icons or the next step taken should be kept simple and clear (Haugland & Wright,
176
Nikolopoulou Table I. Examples of Research Studies
Software
Researchers
Age of Children
Sample Size
Interactive multimedia
Liu (1996)
3–5
19
Jumpstart, Kidpix, Microworlds Interactive multimedia Multimedia
Romeo et al. (2003)
3–4 and 5–6
45 and 24
Ellis and Blashki (2004) Passig and Levin (2000)
2.5–3 4–5
9 90
CD-ROM with multimedia
Segers and Verhoeven (2002)
5.5 and 5
25 and 30
Kidpix
Yelland (2005)
5
Kidpix
Vasileiou and Mikropoulos (2005)
5–6
10
TableTop Junior Word processing & picture programs
Vlassa (2002) Moxley et al. (1997)
5.4 3 and 4
6 12
Logo
Clements (2002), Clements and Sarama (1997) Carlson and White (1998)
5.5–6.5
32
CD-ROMs (TradyÕs Time, Place House etc.)
1997; Henniger, 1994). The limited or absent reading skills of most kindergartners makes absolutely necessary the sound support of the software operations, as well as the extensive use of icons/graphics/symbols (Liu, 1996). The sound (music, various sound effects, voices etc.) should be pleasant, motivating and realistic. The use of icons is strongly recommended for the basic operations instead of the menu commands (Druin, 1999). Their design or selection should be aesthetically appropriate, consistent through the software screens, realistic, with appropriate color combinations (so as to facilitate connection with real world objects and situations). Technical features such as sound support and icons/graphics are part of the learning environment and constitute a means of communication, equivalent to the message sent to young children. Table I presents examples of research studies, which used specific type of software with early childhood children. These examples are not indicative and the research results cannot be generalized, due to the small size of samples. The examples listed correspond to the research studies discussed throughout this paper. ISSUES IN FAVOR OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATIONAL SOFTWARE LOCALIZATION As mentioned earlier, localization is the process of adapting a product to meet the language, cultural
Research Results Successful use of input devices, spatial relationships Difficulties in using touch screens Improvement of mouse control Gender differences in interface preferences Understanding questions, vocabulary enhancement Understanding the concept of division Critical thinking, search & selection of information skills, cooperation Classification skills Improvement in spelling, story development, pre-writing skills Understanding math concepts, problem solving, creativity Enhancement of understanding of the concepts ÔrightÕ–ÔleftÕ
and other requirements of a specific target environment or market. ‘‘The first and generally used meaning of ÔlocalizationÕ has to do with the translation of programs originally written in and for one language into intelligible and user-friendly versions in and for another language (technical localization). The second aspect (cultural localization) is the adaptation of programs written in one language by members of one culture to another language and another culture in such a way that they seem fully consistent with the assumptions, values, and outlooks of the second culture’’ (Keniston, 1997, p. 5...6). However, the above terms come mainly from engineering/marketing and by no means are standard. The term localization is used as more appropriate to the purpose of this paper and it is used as synonymous to the term adaptation. What Does Educational Software Localization Involve? Initially, software localization involves translation of the original source applications into the target language (e.g., of manuals and other documentation, screens, menus and error messages). The translation covers both semantics and syntax. During text translation, changes being made to the original application usually regard technical and cultural issues. For example, technically, screen dialogue boxes and field lengths may have to be altered, time
Early Childhood Educational Software and currency formats to be changed. Main issues to be considered when adapting an educational software product are briefly listed below (Odysseia, 2002): • Which parts of the product need to be transferred/adapted (e.g., multimedia content, printed and/or online materials); • Linguistic issues and terminology; • Content issues: these include content modification (e.g., commonly recognized symbols, currencies, conventions) and/or content enrichment (e.g., pictures, sound); • Cultural values and social context (e.g., idioms/humor, people/characters, man-made and natural environment, customs/etiquette, religion); • Creation of new or adaptation of existing educational activities to fit a specific programme of study; • Order of sorting and aesthetics.
The collection of symbols and conventions that characterize a particular cultural community (e.g., graphical symbols, language, currency) are perceived as being sufficient to adapt the software to a given cultural context (Taylor, 1992). However, within the sensitive educational environment with different curricula it might not be enough. With reference to childrenÕs software, issues in favor of its localization arise. Early Childhood Educational Software Features in Favor of its Localization Creation of new or adaptation of existing educational activities to fit a specific programme of study are included among the issues relating to educational software localization. It does not involve a high degree of difficulty (time and resources) to provide a core set of curriculum materials that will include a basis from which these issues could be directly accomplished. However, big changes such as building new target games to achieve certain objectives will usually require several person-months of work. The flexibility of the system will support the Ôcreation of new educational activitiesÕ and Ôchanges to fit the specific programme of studyÕ by curriculum specialists. Educational software targeted to 3- to 5-year-old children is heavily dependent on pictures, animation and sound, in comparison to software targeted to older children (Childress, Lee, & Sherman, 1999). The absence or the minimal text existence is a feature that favors software localization. However, any adaptation of the voices (in commands, feedback, help in navigation etc.) should be carefully done according to pedagogic approaches. Early childhood educational software is not, in general, culture-dependent, as is the case for other types of software. For example, software on business domains that deals with the
177 principles of problem understanding or decisionmaking may be heavily culture-dependent (Kersten, Kersten, & Rakowski, 2002). Early childhood educational software contains educational activities quite neutral with respect to cultural issues (e.g., people, humor, customs). Learning activities quite frequently focus on early development skills such as sorting and classifying, matching, following instructions and spatial reasoning (Stephen & Plowman, 2003). Most of the graphical, interface and story-line features are quite general/universal in nature. Due to the neutrality of such specific features, its adaptation to another countryÕs educational system is an arising issue. Due to the neutrality/universality of specific features, the localization/adaptation process could be referred to as localization of international software. As an example of an international software, ÔÔKidpixÕÕ (an open ended package with multiple applications) could be mentioned, as it has been used successfully by both English and non-English speaking children. Yelland (2005) used it with 5-year-old English speaking children and found an enrichment of their ideas on the concept of division. Vasileiou and Mikropoulos (2005) used it with 5- to 6-year-old Greek children in order to carry out specific learning activities about ÔÔanimalsÕÕ such as to observe, compare and classify animals. The software does not provide opportunity for using the Greek language, but this did not prove an obstacle. The teachers chose the use of selected parts of the software (paintingdrawing, animations, music), acted as facilitators and the results indicated that children developed skills of searching-selecting information, critical thinking and cooperation skills. Another study in Greece (Vlassa, 2002), used the program ÔÔTabletop JuniorÕÕ which was adapted in Greek. The program offers an introduction to the mathematics of data and information and provides a domain for building language skills. The researcher used it with 5.5-year-old children in order to compare their classification skills in an ICT and non-ICT environment. There was no requirement for the children to write as all functions were accomplished by using buttons (icon driven interface, direct manipulation techniques). The study found that those children who used the program classified with greater cohesion and their arguments were qualitatively better. What Type of Software is Worth Being Adapted? Early childhood educational software worth being adapted should ideally be developmentally
178
Nikolopoulou
appropriate, interactive and should meet the requirements of the specific features relating to the pedagogic and user-interface design (as reviewed earlier in the paper). Prior to the localization process it might be useful to conduct or consult software evaluations (Haugland, 2005; Haugland & Ruiz, 2002). It is also useful to include multilevel learning activities, in order to reach a broad spectrum of children with different backgrounds, interests and ability levels. Thus, children will be able to proceed to different levels and reach interestingly rich pedagogical and mathematics/language levels (Clements, 1998). It is also worth adapting software, which supports two or more languages. Children could, for example, initially work and familiarize themselves with the learning activities in their mother tongue and then they could work on the same activities in another language. In general, the localization of early childhood educational software could involve programs, which cover targets relating to: • The acquisition of early development skills including prereading and pre-arithmetic skills, so as to hinder the widespread illiteracy phenomenon observed even in developed countries. • Social, multicultural and aesthetic education, as well as the emotional and personal development of young children. It would be useful, for example, to prioritize the adaptation of software that tackles social and health issues and provides opportunities for creative expression. • The development of computer literacy skills via various tasks/activities that promote the use of computer as a tool. For example, the creative use of multimedia as cognitive, communicative and developmental tools.
The type and quality of the software is only one factor, which in combination with other factors can contribute to young childrenÕs learning and development. Literature on early childhood and ICTs (Clements & Sarama, 2003; Edwards, 2005; Plowman & Stephen, 2003; Siraj-Blatchford & Siraj-Blatchford, 2006; Stephen & Plowman, 2003; Vernadakis, Avgerinos, Tsitskari, & Zachopoulou, 2005) has indicated that computer use can be a valuable learning experience when utilized in a pedagogically appropriate manner, while a number of interrelated factors (e.g., learning activities, time of engagement with the software, teachersÕ role, curriculum guidelines) affect educational outcomes. For example, the pedagogic approaches-methods of teaching and learning are linked to the curriculum guidelines (Siu & Lam, 2005) and the learning activities to the software content. Similar issues were not discussed as they were beyond the scope of this paper.
EPILOGUE Specific features of early childhood educational software that favor its localization include the dominance of pictures, animation and sound, the cultureindependent content and the neutrality of graphical, interface and story-line features. The software to be selected or adapted for early childhood education settings needs to be developmentally appropriate and to be integrated in the classroom with appropriate pedagogic approaches. Early childhood educators need to make decisions about which software to use and how (to integrate it into early childhood practice), to ensure that potential benefits are achieved (NAEYC, 1999). TeachersÕ role is essential because, for example, they will select the appropriate for their class software, design appropriate learning activities, organize their class and intervene when needed. Sustained teacher training and substantial long-term training programmes (combining, for example, pedagogical and technical knowledge and skills) will facilitate the whole process of integrating ICTs into early childhood settings. Appropriate training for all teachers/practitioners involved in working with young children in the use of ICTs in support of learning is recommended. The computer is only a tool that has the potential to support the teaching and learning process, so even the best software needs to be used wisely.
REFERENCES Alliance for Childhood (2004). Tech tonic: Towards a new literacy of technology. Alliance for Education. Available: http:// www.allianceforchildhood.net/projects/computers/index.htm [2006, summer]. Bhargava, A., & Escobedo, T. (1997). What the children said: An analysis of the childrenÕs language during computer lessons. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago, IL, 3/1997. Buckleitner, W. (1999). The state of childrenÕs software evaluation – yesterday, today and in the 21st century. Information Technology in Childhood Education, 1999(1), 211–220. http:// www.editlib.org/index.cfm?fuseaction = Reader.ViewAbstract &paper_id=8823. Carlson, S., & White, S. (1998). The effectiveness of a computer program in helping kindergarten students learn the concepts of left and right. Journal of Computing in Childhood Education, 9(2), 133–147. Childress, M., Lee, G., & Sherman, G. (1999). Reviewing software as a means of enhancing instruction. Information Technology in Childhood Education, 255–261, ERIC EJ595785. Clements, D. (1998). Young chfldren and technology. Paper presented at the Forum on Early Childhood Science, Mathematics and Technology Education, Washington, DC, 2/1998. Clements, D. (2002). From exercises and tasks to problems and projects –unique contributions of computers to innovative
Early Childhood Educational Software mathematics education. The Journal of Mathematical Behaviour, 19(1), 9–47. Clements, D., & Sarama, J. (1997). Research on Logo: A decade of progress. Computers in the Schools, 14(1–2), 9–46. Clements, D., & Sarama, J. (2003). Strip mining for gold: Research and policy in educational technology – a response to ‘‘FoolÕs Gold’’. Educational Technology Review, 11(1), 7–69. Clements, D., Nastasi, B., & Swaminathan, S. (1993). Young children and computers: Crossroads and directions from research. Young Children, 48(2), 56–64. Cordes, C., & Miller, E. (Eds.) (2000). FoolÕs gold: A critical look at computers in childhood. Alliance for Childhood. Available: http://www.allianceforchildhood.net/projects/computers/computers_reports.htm [2006, summer]. Cox, M., & Webb, M. (Eds.) (2004). ICT and pedagogy – a review of the research literature. Coventry, London: Becta, DfES. Druin, A. (1999). The design of childrenÕs technology. San Francisco: Morgan-Kaufmann. Druin, A., & Solomon, C. (1996). Designing multimedia environments for children. New York: Wiley. Edwards, S. (2005). Identifying the factors that influence computer use in the early childhood classroom. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 21(2), 192–210. Ellis, K., & Blashki, K. (2004). Toddler techies: A study of young childrenÕs interaction with computers. Information Technology in Childhood Education, 77–96, v2004, n1, ERIC EJ723792. Haugland, S. (1992). The effect of computer software on preschool childrenÕs developmental gains. Journal of Computing in Childhood Education, 3(1), 15–30. Haugland, S. (1999). What role should technology play in young childrenÕs learning?. Young Children, 54(6), 26–31. Haugland, S. (1999). The newest software that meets the developmental needs of young children. Early Childhood Education Journal, 26(4), 245–254. Haugland, S. (2005). Selecting or upgrading software and web sites in the classroom. Early Childhood Education Journal, 32(5), 329–340. Haugland, S., & Ruiz, E. (2002). Empowering children with technology: Outstanding developmental software for 2002. Early Childhood Education Journal, 30(2), 125–132. Haugland, S., & Wright, J. (1997). Young children and technology, a world of discovery. New York: Allyn and Bacon. Henniger, M. (1994). Software for the early childhood classroom: What should it look like?. Journal of Computing in Childhood Education, 5(2), 167–175. Hohman, C. (1998). Evaluating and selecting software for children. Child Care Information Exchange, 123, 60–62. Keniston, K. (1997). Software localization: Notes on technology and culture. Available: http://www.web.mit.edu/~kken/Public/ papers1/Software%20localization.htm [2006, summer]. Kersten, G., Kersten, M., & Rakowski, M. (2002). Software and culture: Beyond the internationalization of the interface. Available: http://www.interneg.org/interneg/research/papers/ 2001/01.pdf [2007, spring]. Kirchner, P. (2002). Cognitive load theory: Implications of cognitive load theory on the design of learning. Learning and Instruction, 12, 1–10. Liu, M. (1996). An exploratory study of how pre-kindergarten children use the interactive multimedia technology: Implications for multimedia software design. Journal of Computing in Childhood Education, 7(1–2), 71–92.
179 Moxley, R., Warash, B., Coffman, G., Brinton, K., & Concannon, K. (1997). Writing development using computers in a class of three-year-olds. Journal of Computing in Childhood Education, 8(2–3), 133–164. NAEYC. (1996). NAEYC position statement: Technology and young children. Young Children, 51(6), 11–16. NAEYC (1999). NAEYC position statement: Technology and young children-ages three to eight. Information Technology in Childhood Education Annual, 281–286. Available: http:// nvweb.hwwilsonweb.com [2006, summer]. Odysseia (2002). Odysseia programme. Available: http:// www.odysseia.cti.gr [2007, spring]. Passig, D., & Levin, H. (2000). Gender preferences for multimedia interfaces. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 16(1), 64– 71. Plowman, L., & Stephen, C. (2003). A ÔbenignÕ addition? Research on ICT and pre-school children. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19(2), 149–164. Potter, J., Johanson, J., & Hutinger, P. (2006). Creative software can extend childrenÕs expressiveness. Available: http:// www.wiu.edu/users/mimacp/wiu/articles/software4.html [2006, summer]. Romeo, G., Edwards, S., McNamara, S., Walker, I., & Ziguras, C. (2003). Touching the screen: Issues related to the use of touchscreen technology in early childhood education. British Journal of Educational Technology, 34(3), 329–339. Segers, E., & Verhoeven, L. (2002). Multimedia support of early literacy learning. Computers and Education, 39(3), 207–221. Siraj-Blatchford I., & Siraj-Blatchford, J. (2006). A guide to developing the ICT curriculum for early childhood education. UK: Trentham books. Siu, K., & Lam, M. (2005). Early childhood technology education: A sociocultural perspective. Early Childhood Education Journal, 32(6), 353–358. Stephen, C., & Plowman, L. (2003). Information and communication technologies in pre-school settings: A review of the literature. International Journal of Early Years Education, 11(3), 223–234. Taylor, D. (1992). Global software. Developing applications for the international market. New York: Springer Verlag. Vasileiou, E., & Mikropoulos, A. (2005). Educational activities with the computer in kindergarten. In M. Iosifidou & N. Tzimopoulos (Eds.), ICTs in teaching and learning, proceedings of the 3rd Panhellenic teachersÕ conference (pp. 596–604). Athens: New Technologies (in Greek). Vernadakis, N., Avgerinos, A., Tsitskari, E., & Zachopoulou, E. (2005). The use of computer assisted instruction in preschool education: Making teaching meaningful. Early Childhood Education Journal, 33(2), 99–104. Vlassa, M. (2002). Early childhood children classify objects using the educational software ÔTabletop JuniorÕ. In A. Dimitrakopoulou (Ed.), ICTs in education, proceedings of the 3rd Panhellenic conference (pp. 77–86). Rhodes: Kastanioti (in Greek). Vygotsky, L. (1997). Thought and language. London: The MIT press. Yelland, N. (2005). Curriculum, pedagogies and practice with ICT in the information age. In N. Yelland (Ed.), Critical issues in early childhood education (pp. 224–242). UK: Open University Press.
