Ecological and Ethnomedicinal Survey of Plants ...

JFS

Regular Article pISSN: 2287-2396, eISSN: 2287-240X Journal of Forest Science Vol. 29, No. 4, pp. 257-274, November, 2013 http://dx.doi.org/10.7747/JFS.2013.29.4.257

Journal of Forest Science

Ecological and Ethnomedicinal Survey of Plants within Homesteads in Abia State, Nigeria Uzoma Darlington Chima*, Adekunle Tajudeen Oladele and Maureen Chiamaka Funmilayo Okorie Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management, University of Port Harcourt 500001, Nigeria

Abstract Ecological and ethnomedicinal survey of plants was conducted in one hundred and twenty homesteads in Mbala, Amuda, Umuaku, and Nneato communities of Nneochi Local Governement Area, Abia State-Nigeria. A total of ninety-one medicinal plant species belonging to seventy-eight genera and forty-eight families, used in the treatment of malaria, yellow fever, fibroid, hepatitis, convulsion, hypertension, diabetes, insomnia, ulcer, rashes, low sperm count, snake bite, among others, were documented. Plant remedies were prepared mostly as infusions or decoctions from different plant parts with mainly water, and palm wine/gin sometimes. The highest number of medicinal plant species (73) was recorded in Mbala, followed by Amuda (71), Umuaku (68) and Nneato (61). Medicinal plant species diversity was highest in Amuda (Simpson 1-D=0.9621; H=3.663), followed by Umuaku (Simpson 1-D=0.9481; H=3.471), Mbala (Simpson 1-D=0.9345; H=3.341), and Nneato (Simpson 1-D=0.9307; H=3.277), respectively. Similarity in medicinal plant species was highest between Umuaku and Nneato (76.71%), followed by Amuda and Umuaku (75.95%), Mbala and Amuda (71.43%), while Mbala and Nneato had the lowest similarity (59.52%). The results of the study showed that traditional medicine is pivotal in the treatment of ailments in the study area, and that the indigenous people of Nneochi have recognized the need to conserve medicinal plants of importance ex situ within homesteads due to threats from unsustainable exploitation and deforestation. Key Words: homesteads, medicinal plants, diversity, similarity, Nneochi

Introduction Medicinal plants are of immense economic importance and are widely consumed globally, particularly by rural populations in developing tropical regions. Most of the world’s poor people live in rural areas. In Nigeria, over 75% of her population falls into this category and are mainly farmers (World Bank 1998). The burgeoning world population and the concomitant increase in anthropogenic activities are rapidly eroding natural ecosystems; resulting to loss of natural habitat for a great number of medicinal herbs and trees (Zahoor et al. 2012), which play important role in the primary health care of rural populations globally.

In different cultures medicinal plants are preserved by various means such as sacred groves, on-farm cultivation, home garden or compound farm, and community forests, to meet their health care needs. Specific plantations of medicinal plants are of rare occurrence in sub- Saharan Africa; however, they are produced in association with other food and cash crops in different agro-ecosystems and forests. Medicinal plants are also produced in compound farms or home gardens alongside fruits and vegetables in the eastern part of Nigeria. Plants such as Milicia excelsa, Bombax sp., Newbouldia laevis, kola accuminata, Garcinia kola, and Chrysophyllum albidum have been reported to be widely preserved in rural villages of Edo State, Nigeria for their me-

Received: October 18, 2012. Revised: July 26, 2013. Accepted: August 7, 2013. Corresponding author: Uzoma Darlington Chima Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management, University of Port Harcourt 500001, Nigeria Tel: 234-803-812-1887, E-mail: [email protected], [email protected]

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dicinal and cultural values (Azeez et al. 2010). This study focused on inventory, utilization, and ecological diversity of medicinal plants at homesteads in Nneochi Local Government Area of Abia State, Nigeria.

Materials and Methods Data collection Data for the study were collected through oral interview and field inventory. Multistage sampling procedure as described by Oloyo (2001) was used in selecting the homesteads used for the study. In the first stage of sampling, four communities (representing 40%) of the communities in the local government area were randomly selected. In the second stage of sampling, three villages were randomly selected from each of the communities. In the third stage of sampling, ten homesteads were randomly selected from each village for medicinal plant enumeration. This gave a sample size of one hundred and twenty homesteads. In each homestead visited, information was sought on the ailment(s) a particular medicinal plant species is used to treat, the local name, parts of the plant used as medicine, and the form of administration, from the head of the compound. Populations of all medicinal plant species encountered at the homesteads and their habits were recorded. Data from homesteads and villages were pooled for each of the communities.

Data analysis Medicinal plant species richness was computed for each community as the number of medicinal plant species encountered in each community. Alpha (within community) diversity was measured using Simpson’s diversity index (Simpson 1949) and Shannon’s diversity index (Odum 1971).

  Simpson’s diversity index (D)=     

eqn. 1

Where: ni=the number of individual in the ith species N=the total number of individuals counted. Since Simpson’s diversity index (D) as expressed in the formula above has an indirect relationship with diversity (i.e. the lower the index, the higher the diversity), the result was expressed as below to allow for a direct relationship.

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 Simpson (1-D)=1-     

  

eqn. 2

Shannon’s diversity index (H)=     pi log pi eqn. 3 Where: pi=the proportion of individuals in the ith species s=the total number of species. Sorensen’s similarity index was used to ascertain the extent of similarity in medicinal plant species between each pair of the communities. In this study, Sorensen’s index was computed after Ojo (2004), Ogunleye et al. (2004), Ihenyen et al. (2010), Ihuma et al. (2011), and Chima and Omoemu (2012) as expressed below.    

SI=  ×

eqn. 4

Where: a=number of species present in both communities under consideration. b=number of species present in the first community but absent in the second. c=number of species present in the second community but absent in the first.

RESULTS Medicinal plant species of the study area The methods of preparation, mode of administration, disease remedies and plant parts used for enumerated medicinal plant species are presented in Table 1. A total of 91 medicinal plant species belonging to 78 genera and 48 families were enumerated. The ailments treated with the plant species include malaria, yellow fever, fibroid, hepatitis, anaemia, convulsion, snake bite, among others. The common names and populations of the medicinal plant species are shown in Table 2.

Distribution of medicinal plant species among plant families Distribution by families of medicinal plants encountered is shown in (Fig. 1-4) for Mbala, Amuda, Umuaku, and Nneato respectively. In all the enumerated communities, Euphorbiaceae family has the highest occurrence followed by Leguminosae (in Mbala and Amuda), while Asclepiadaceae, Piperaceae, Musaceae, Asteraceae, Rutaceae, Curcubitaceae, Crassulaceae and Arecaceae occurred

Leaf Stem, Leaf, Bark

Stomach cleanser

Stomach cleanser, catarrh Anaemia

Stomach ache

Yellow fever, typhoid

Yellow fever

Body weakness, anaemia

Malaria, catarrh, toothache, skin decay

6 Albizia ferruginea (Guill& Per) Benth 7 Amaranthus viridus L

8 Anacardium occidentale L

9 Ananas comosus Merr.

10 Annona muricata L

11 Antiaris africana C.C. Berg 12 Azadirachta indica A.Juss

Sore/wound and general body weakness

Leaf

Body pain

4 Afzelia africana Sm. Ex Pers 5 Ageratum conyzoides L

13 Baphia nitida Lodd.

Seed

Asthma, elephantiasis, low blood pressure

3 Aframomum melegueta K. Schum

The leaves are blanched and steamed or used to prepare soup. A handful of the young leaves is plucked and washed with a pinch of salt. The unripe fruit is cut into pieces and cooked with 1 litre of water. The leaves are boiled together with pawpaw leaves. The leaves are blanched and boiled

The leaves are squeezed and extracted with water or gin. The leaves are blanched

The seed is chewed. Also for elephantiasis it is ground and cooked with onions (Allium cepa) and squeezed The seeds are boiled

A hand full is blanched (washed with salt)

The leaves are heated on fire

Preparation

The leaves are boiled, squeezed and wrapped in a piece of cloth or handkerchief in the case of catarrh. The stem is harvested and cut into desired lengths. Also the leaves and the stem are ground and formed into paste. Leaf, stem, root The leaves are squeezed while the stem and root are boiled.

Leaf

Unripe fruit

Young leaf

Leaf

Leaf

Seed

Leaf

Cough, stomach ache

Part(s) used Leaf

Ailment(s) cured

Whitlow

Species

1 Abelmoschus esculentus (L) Moench. 2 Abrus precatorious L

S/N

Table 1. Medicinal plants, ailments cured, part(s) used, method(s) of preparation and administration

The squeezed leaves and juice are placed on the sore. About 40-50 cl of decoction from the root and stem is taken twice daily to relieve weakness of the body.

Patient is placed over the steam from the boiled leaves and covered with a piece of cloth for 2-3 minutes. The squeezed leaves wrapped in handkerchief are inhaled at intervals against catarrh. The paste is used to cover the decaying body part. Cut stems are carried in the mouth in the case of toothache.

The water is taken as tea with a spoonful of soybean or milk. 1 tea cup twice daily.

About 20 cl is taken 2 times daily for 1 week. However, a new decoction is prepared after two days. 20 cl of the water from the boiled leaves is taken twice daily for 3 days.

A handful of the leaf is chewed daily for 2 days.

The steamed leave or soup is eaten on daily basis until the situation improves.

A handful is chewed daily

About 10 cl (shot) is taken twice daily

The water is taken 1 cup daily.

About 5 leaves are given to children to chew while a handful is chewed by an adult twice daily till ailment is cured. 10 seed is chewed twice daily against asthma and low blood pressure, while the extract is taken 1 cup 3 times daily for elephantiasis.

The heated leaf is used to wrap the affected finger on daily basis till it dries up.

Administration

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Root Root

Malaria, ring-worm, stomach ache, abortion

Stomach ache, worm Sore, ageing

Stomach - ache

Miscarriage

Cut

22 Citrus limon Burn.f 23 Citrus sinensis Osbeck

24 Cleome ciliata Schumach

25 Cnestis feruginea Vahl ex DC 26 Cochlospermum planchonii Hook. f.

Root

Fruit Fruit

Root

The root is pounded and squeezed.

The roots are cut into pieces and boiled with water. The fruit is cut and the juice is squeezed. It is also mixed with a locally made soap (nchankota). The fruit can also be soaked in gin. The fruit is squeezed and the juice extracted The juice is squeezed out from the fruit and the rind with the flesh is cut into pieces. The roots are cut into pieces and soaked in alcohol. The root is cut into pieces and boiled.

Leave decoction. They are also squeezed to extract the juice.

Leaf

Pod

Infections

Womb cleansing after delivery Blood booster, malaria, bleeding.

The leaves are squeezed. The leaves are squeezed and the juice extracted with alcohol. The pod is prepared as pepper soup

Decoctions from unripe fruit with a small table salt, leaves and seeds are prepared. Also the leaves are squeezed and the juice extracted with water or alcohol.

The leaves are squeezed, and blanched in some cases.

Preparation

Leaf Leaf

Unripe fruit, leaf, seed

Leaf

Part(s) used

20 Chrysophyllum albidum G.Don 21 Citrus aurantifolia Swingle

16 Cassia singuiana Delile 17 Ceiba pentandra (L) Gaerth 18 Centrosema pubescens Benth 19 Chromolaena odorata (L.) King & H.E. Robins.

Menstrual pain, snake poison, bleeding, wound, malaria, typhoid fever, catarrh, cough. Eczema Typhoid and malaria

15 Carica papaya L

Ailment(s) cured

Hypertension, stroke, umbilical cord healing

Species

14 Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lam) Oken

S/N

Table 1. Continued

The squeezed juice is applied to the cut to stop bleeding and infection.

The boiled water (10 cl) is taken to stabilise pregnancy.

The extracted juice (10 cl) is taken twice daily. The juice is drank and placed on the sore for some time for healing. The rind with flesh is eaten daily against ageing. About 5 cl is taken daily for stomach ache.

Decoction taken as tea 1 cup twice daily, and used to bath by the malaria patient. Also little milk is added to the tea and taken as blood booster. The juice from the squeezed leaves is applied to a cut to stop bleeding. The water (10 cl) from the boiled root is taken as an antidote against microbial infections. The juice is taken to stop stomach ache. The paste formed with the juice and "nchankota"is used to wash the area affected by ring-worm. The gin concoction (20 cl) taken 3 times daily to aid abortion.

The soup is taken twice daily by the woman who just delivered.

The squeezed leave is used to scrub the affected area. About 10 cl to be taken twice daily by adults.

Juice from the squeezed leaves is applied to umbilical cord daily for five days and on the parts of the body affected by stroke. Also five blanched leaves are chewed twice daily to reduce and balance the blood pressure. Fruit decoction (20 cl) is taken against malaria and typhoid 2 times daily. About a litre of the leaf extract/water is taken against menstrual pain and poisonous snake bite. Also squeezed leaves are used to dress a deep wound. The seeds are chewed daily for cough and catarrh.

Administration


Immature baby head, fibroid, infertility, insomnia. Anaemia

Toothache, cleaning of wound Malaria, catarrh

30 Commelina africana L

32 Costus afer Ker Gawl

Stomach ache, cough

Eczema, Inflammation Anaemia

38 Diodeasa mentosa Sw. 39 Discoglypremna caloneura Prain

High fever, Anaemia

Stomach upset

37 Dialium guineense Wild

35 Dennettia tripetala Baker f. Rank 36 Desmodium scandens Blume ex Mig.

33 Cymbopogon citrates DC Stapf. 34 Dacryodes edulis H.J.Lam

Chest pain

Diabetes

29 Colocasia esculentum (L) Schott

31 Corchorus olitorius L

Abortion, cough

28 Cola nitida (Vent.) Schott &Endl.

Ailment(s) cured

Food poisoning, poor erection

Species

27 Cocus nucifera

S/N

Table 1. Continued Preparation

The leaves are squeezed while the seed is chewed together with fruit of Dennettia tripetala. Tuber The tuber is boiled and peeled or pounded to be eaten with soup or Gongronema latifolia sauce. The whole The plant juice is extracted by squeezing or plant pounding the leaves/roots. The plant parts can also be boiled in water. Leaf The leaves are boiled as tea and filtered into a bottle. Stem, leaf The stem is pounded and the leaves squeezed Leaf The leaves are boiled in water together with leaves of Azadirachta indica. Leaf The leaves are ground and formed into paste. Also the leaves are boiled in water. Seed The fruits are plucked, de-pulped, and seeds soaked in alcohol for 2 days. Leaf The leaves together with the leaves of Baphia nitida are blanched and squeezed in water. The leaves alone are also boiled in water. Leaf, fruit, The leaves and bark are boiled together in bark water. Leaf The leaves are squeezed Leaf, stem The leaves and stem are harvested in large quantity and blanched.

Seed, leaf

Water, The coconut is cracked and the water is edible part collected, while the immature flesh is of the nut scooped with spoon.

Part(s) used

About 20 cl of the water is taken 3 times daily for cough in five days and a handful of the fruit is taken for stomach ache. The squeezed leaves are applied on the affected part of the body. The leaves are chewed raw or taken with ‘African salad’ or rice.

10 cl of the extract is taken twice daily as blood booster. Decoction used to bath the child daily against high fever.

The juice from the stem is dropped on the teeth twice daily against toothache. The squeezed leaves are used to clean the wound before dressing. The extract is taken (40 cl) daily for four days. The squeezed leaf is inhaled at intervals to dry up catarrh. The paste is applied daily around the chest area. About 50 cl of the leaf decoction is taken once daily. The decoction is taken 10 cl daily.

The squeezed plant juice is applied on the baby’s immature head to harden it. The leaves are chewed to activate sleep while the decoction is drunk for fertility in women. 1 tea cup with milk added is taken twice daily

The boiled tuber is eaten once daily to manage diabetes.

The squeezed leaves are inserted into the vagina for abortion while the seed and that of Dennettia tripetala are chewed once a day for cough.

The water of the coconut is drunk as soon as the poison is ingested. For poor erection, the man eats the flesh for improved erection before intercourse.

Administration

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262 Leaf Leaf, stem

Eczema

Pregnancy

Stomach ache Constipation

Bleeding Placenta delivery, ulcer

Inability to produce breast milk

Mental illness, Sour-breast- milk

Cough Diabetes, hepatitis, stomach ache, malaria, low-sperm count

Anaemia, body cleanser

Rashes, swollen-body

42 Emilia coccinea (Sims) G.Don 43 Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC. ex Wight 44 Erythrina senegalensis DC 45 Euphorbia heterophyla L


46 Euphorbia hirta L 47 Euphorbia kamerunica Pax

48 Ficus exasparata Vahl

49 Ficus thonningii Blume

50 Garcinia kola Heckel 51 Gongronema latifolium Benth

52 Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L

53 Hilleria latifolia Vell.

Leaf, stem

Leaf

Seed Leaf, stem

Root, leaf

Leaf

Leaf Leaf

Leaf Leaf

Leaf

Stomach ache, abortion, constipation

Spadix, root

Part(s) used

41 Eleusine indica (L) Gaertn.

Ailment(s) cured

Miscarriage

Species

40 Elaeis guineensis Jacq.

S/N

Table 1. Continued

The leaves and stem are boiled in water or soaked in alcohol. The leaves are boiled with water. The leaves are either ground or boiled with 100 cl of water. The leaves are squeezed The leaves are squeezed and the juice extracted with water The leaves are squeezed and the juice extracted with palm-wine after soaking for an hour. The root and leaves are boiled together in water. The leaves are cut into pieces and soaked in about 2 litres of palm-wine. The leaves are pounded and prepared as soup without cooking oil. They can also be squeezed and the juice extracted with water. The leaves are prepared as soup or as porridge with yam. The leaves are ground together with camphor into a paste. Also the inner stem (white part) is ground and formed into paste.

The fresh spadix is cut into pieces and cooked together with the root. The leaves are boiled with water and the water used to make ‘eba’ (Garri from cassava soaked in hot water). The leaves are squeezed.

Preparation

The paste is applied topically on the affected area at bed time.

It is eaten on daily basis or whenever we feel the body system needs cleansing.

About 20 cl of the decoction (roots/leaves) is drunk by the mad patient daily and used to bath for 3 weeks. The palm wine decoction of leaves (20-40 cl) is drunk daily for 2 weeks in the case of sour breast milk. About 2 seeds are chewed daily. The soup is taken daily for one week in the case of hepatitis, while the extracted juice is taken (40 cl) twice daily for the ailments.

The squeezed leaves are placed on the wound to stop bleeding. 10 cl of the extract is given to the woman who delivers immediately for the removal of placenta while 5 cl of the extract is taken daily against ulcer. 50 cl of the decoction is taken 3 times daily every 3 days.

The boiled water or alcoholic extract (5 cl) is given to a woman to confirm if she is pregnant. 10 cl of the water is taken daily till pain stops. The water from the leaves is taken 20 cl daily to clean the bowel system.

The squeezed leaves are used to scrub the affected area until the eczema disappears.

The water (20 cl) from the cooked flower and root is taken daily from conception to the day of delivery. The ‘eba’ is eaten with soup.

Administration


Species

Worm, sore

Infertility

Malaria, yellow fever

Bleeding, dip cut

Ulcer, Anaemia, insomnia, low blood pressure, diabetes,

Vomiting, fever, bruises, Diarrhea

57 Kigelia africana (Lam) Benth.

58 Leea guineensis

59 Mallotus oppositifolius (Geiseler) Müll.Arg

60 Mangifera indica L

61 Manihot utilisima Crantz

62 Moringa oleifera Lam

63 Murraya koenigii Koenig

High fever, wound, whitlow, cough

Dizziness

Ailment(s) cured

Softness of the head in babies, wound, cut, placenta removal Fibroid, infertility in women, pain

56 Jatropha gossypifolia L

54 Irvingia gabonensis (Aubry-LeComte ex O’Rorke) Baill. var. excels (Mildbr.) 55 Jatropha curcas L

S/N

Table 1. Continued Preparation

The leaves are boiled in water (with leaves of Baphia nitida) in the case of cough. Also the leaves are heated on fire. The leaves are squeezed

The root is cut into pieces and boiled in water. Also the leaves of Newbouldia laevis is boiled with the roots for conception. Leaf, root The leaves are squeezed and the juice extracted with water or alcohol while the roots are pounded and boiled in water. Leaf, root Leaves/roots ground, cooked in water and filtered, or cut into pieces and soaked in gin. Stem bark, The stem, bark and leaves are boiled in leaf water. Tuber The tuber is peeled and the white tuber is scrapped in quantum. Leaf, pod and The leaves are air-dried and ground into flower powdered form. Also they are used to prepare soup and porridge yam/plantain. The pod is boiled in water. Stem, leaf The leaves are chewed raw most times. It is prepared as soup sometimes, and can also be squeezed for the juice to be extracted.

Root

Leaf

Leaf

Leaves, twigs The leaves and twigs are boiled in water.

Part(s) used

The leaves are chewed to stop vomiting. The soup is taken to stop fever and bleeding caused by bruises. The extracted juice is taken against diarrhea

The scrapped tuber is used immediately to cover the bleeding area and left until the wound heals. The pod decoction is taken 10-20 cl daily by a diabetic patient and the patient suffering insomnia. The powder is scooped on every meal eaten daily against Anaemia, ulcer and low blood pressure.

About 25 cl of the mixture is taken twice daily for 1 week.

Taken 10-20 cl daily.

25 cl of leave extract is taken twice daily to expel worm. The boiled root water is taken (25 cl) daily for sore.

The water from the leaves is used to bath the child with high fever for 2 days while the heated leaves are placed on the wound and is believed to kill germs and whitlow. For cough, about 25 cl of the decoction is taken twice daily. The leaf-juice is rubbed on the soft part of the baby’s head and it hardens after 7 days. It is applied on wound and cut to heal faster and avoid infection. About 10 cl juice is also drunk by the woman having difficulty in delivery of placenta. It is taken 10 cl twice daily.

The water mixed with little quantity of milk is taken 20 cl twice daily.

Administration

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Stomach ache

Headache, mental illness

Ulcer, diabetes

Rashes, cleanses the body system, arthritis

Hypertension, diabetes, typhoid. Typhoid, malaria

Dysentery

70 Ocimum gratissimum L

71 Pentaclethra macrophylla Benth

72 Persea Americana Mill

73 Piper guineense Schum & Thonn

74 Plukenetia conophorum Mull-Arg 75 Psidium guajava L

76 Pterocarpus santalinoides (L) Her. ex DC

68 Newbouldia laevis (P. Beauv.) Seem. ex Bureau. 69 Ocimum canum L

Stomach ache

66 Nauclea diderrichii (De Wild) Merr. 67 Nauclea latifolia Blanco

Stomach ache, weakness, cough, sore-throat High fever, constipation, convulsion, abdominal pain. Cataract, malaria

Convulsion, rib pain

65 Musa sapientum L

Ailment(s) cured

Ulcer, diabetes

Species

64 Musa paradisiaca L

S/N

Table 1. Continued

Leaf

Leaf, bark

Seed

Leaf, stem, root

Seed

Leaf, bark, root

Leaf

Root

Leaf, root, seed

Leaf, root

Leaf

Stem, fruit

Seed, root

Part(s) used

The leaves are squeezed and the juice extracted with water. Lime juice is also added. The bark together with stem of Musa paradisiaca is boiled together in water. The root is sundried and ground into powder. The seed is cut into pieces, sundried and ground into powdered form. The leaves are used to prepare soup. The leaves and stem are pounded into sponge, and the root ground. The fruit is harvested, de-pulped, washed and cooked overnight. The leaves and bark are boiled in water together with unripe pineapple fruit. The leaves are squeezed or prepared as soup.

The unripe seeds are cut and dark-spotted central area removed, dried and ground into powdered form while the root is cut into pieces and boiled. The stem is cut, heated and squeezed while the fruit is cut into pieces and cooked. The leaves are squeezed and extracted with little water. The leaves are harvested a hand full and blanched. The leaves and root are cut into pieces and soaked in alcohol or water. The root is pounded and juice squeezed. The root is pounded or boiled in water

Preparation

About 20 cl extract is drunk or soup taken to soften the bowel.

The decoction is taken 20-25 cl twice daily for 7 days.

The soup is taken hot to cleanse and stimulate the system. The sponge is used to scrub the areas affected by rashes, and the root paste is used to massage the area affected by arthritis. 4-5 seeds chewed daily by people affected bythese ailments.

The powder is scooped two tablespoon-full into pap, meals, soup, and daily.

The water is taken 10-20 cl daily and used to wash the head, while the powdery-root is inhaled through the nose by the patient.

About 5 cl is taken twice daily against constipation, fever, convulsion and abdominal pain while the juice from the root is applied on the convulsing child’s head and eyes. The pounded root juice is squeezed into the eye while the boiled root water is taken 10 cl twice daily against malaria for three days. The portion is taken 5 cl twice daily.

The blanched leaves are chewed raw daily.

The juice from the stem is robbed on the child having convulsion while the porridge from the fruit is eaten to relieve rib pain. 25 cl is taken before bed time daily.

The powder is scooped two spoon-full into any meal but preferably pap on daily basis while the water of the root is taken 25 cl daily.

Administration


Womb cleansing

Leaf

Anaemia

85 Tetrapleura tetraptera Taub.

Leaf

Anaemia, hypertension

83 Solanum melongena (DC) Hiern 84 Telfairia occidentalis Hook. f. Pod

Root Leaf

Skin rashes Inability to produce breast milk

81 Senna alata (L) Roxb. 82 Senna occidentalis (L) Link

Leaf, seed, root

Constipation, abdominal pain.

Leaf, root

Wine

Leaf

Part(s) used

80 Ricinus communis L

Insanity, stroke, haemorhoid, softness of the central part of the head in babies

Viral conjunctivitis

78 Raphia hookeri G.Mann & H.Wendl 79 Rauvolfia vomitoria Afzel

Ailment(s) cured

Goiter, loss of appetite, wound

Species

77 Pterocarpus soyauxii Taub.

S/N

Table 1. Continued

The leaves are blanched, cut into pieces and steamed, or squeezed and the juice mixed with alcohol. The pod is cooked with leaves of Ocimmum gratissimum, Piper guineense and salt.

The leaves are used to prepare soup. The bark is ground together with leaves of Ocimum gratissimum and formed into paste. The wine is tapped fresh from the standing tree. The leaves with those of Ocimum gratissimum are squeezedand the juice extracted with water for hemorrhoid while the leaves and the roots are crushed and formed into paste for massaging the areas of the body affected by stroke; or boiled in water for the insane patient. The leaves are ground together with the seed and extracted with water while the root is cut into pieces and boiled. The root is ground and formed into paste. The leaves are pounded and a pinch of salt is added to it with pepper. It is then moulded into small balls and sundried. The leaves are blanched and cooked.

Preparation

A small portion of the soup is taken twice daily for a month to cleanse and set the womb.

The blanched and cooked leaves are eaten in a large quantity with palm oil and fresh pepper sauce. The steamed leaves are eaten with rice or alone while the decoction is taken 1 cup full twice daily.

The paste is used to cover the rashes till it heals and starts falling off on its own. The balls (with roasted groundnut) are eaten by a breastfeeding mother having difficulty in milk production.

The leaf or root extract is taken 15 cl twice daily till the patient is relieved.

The extract is taken 10 cl daily while the paste is applied on the body twice daily at the early stage of stroke and the newly born baby’s head. Also the extract from the boiled leaves/roots is filtered and given to the insane patient 20 cl daily.

2 drops of palm wine are applied to the eye twice daily.

The soup is taken daily against loss of appetite and goiter. The paste is used to cover the wound for 4 days.

Administration

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90 Vitellaria paradoxa (Gaertn f.) Hepper 91 Xylopia aethiopica (Dunal) A. Rich.

89 Viscum album L

Cleanses the womb

Breast lump

Diabetes, stomach-upset, malaria, pile. Menstrual pain

Fibroid

87 Uvaria chamae P. Beauvois 88 Vernonia amygdalina Delile

Ailment(s) cured

Weakness, diabetes, epilepsy

Species

86 Treculia africana Decne

S/N

Table 1. Continued

Fruit Pod

Seed

Leaf

Leaf, stem, twig, root.

Root

Leaf, fruit, bark

Part(s) used

The pod is slashed with a cutlass and cooked with other spices in form of soup.

The leaves and bark are boiled together with the roots of Elaeis guineensis and the water is filtered. The fruit is cooked with local spices. The roots are cut into pieces and boiled with 8 cups of water. The leaves are squeezed and the juice extracted with water. The stem and root are ground into paste. The leaves are squeezed and juice extracted with 1 cup of water. The seed is heated on fire.

Preparation

The soup is taken twice daily.

The heated seed is placed on the lump on daily bases till the lump dissolves.

The water extract is taken 20-25 cl three times daily by the Diabetic. About 5 cl is taken with lime juice for stomach upset. The paste is applied daily at the anus where the pile is for 2 months. 10 cl of the extract is taken 3 times before or on menstruation day.

The decoction is taken 10-20 cl twice daily.

The water is taken 10-20 cl twice daily against body weakness and epilepsy while the prepared fruit is eaten every other day for the management of diabetes.

Administration


Afzelia africana Ageratum conyzoides Albizia ferruginea Amaramthus viridus Anacardium occidentale Ananas cosmosus Annona muricata Antiaris Africana Azardirachta indica Baphia nitida Bryophyllum pinnatum Carica papaya Cassia singuiana Ceiba pentandra Centrosemia pubescens Chromalaena odorata Chrysophyllum albidum Citrus aurantifolia Citrus lemon Citrus sinensis

Abelmoschus esculentus Abrus precatoriuos Aframomum melegueta

Botanical name

Okra, lady’s finger Crab’s eye Alligator pepper, grains of paradise Goat weed False thorn Green Cashew Pineapple Sour - sop False iroko/black mulberry Neem Cam wood Africa never die plant Pawpaw Beans Siam weed African apple Lime Lemon Orange

Common name Malvaceae Leguminosae - Papilinionaceae Zingiberaceae Leguminosae-Caesalpinaceae Asteraceae Leguminosae - Mimosaceae Amaranthaceae Anarcadiaceae Bromeliaceae Annonaceae Moraceae Meliciaceae Leguminosae - Papilinionaceae Crassulaceae Caricaceae Leguminosae-Caesalpinaceae Bombacaceae Leguminosae - Papilinionaceae Asteraceae Sapotaceae Rutaceae Rutaceae Rutaceae

Aruocha Mbeleweehi Agbangu Akwukwogirin Canshu Akwuchukwu Oburucha/chop-chop Ojiagu Dogwoyaro Abosi Odunduafuoweya/oda-opuo Okwurubekee Dinchi Apu Akidi ObiaraOhuru Udara Uyirinta Ujiribom UjiriOroma

Family

Okwuru Nkalensiko/utoberebere Oseoji

Igbo name

Table 2. Medicinal plant species and number of individuals encountered in the homesteads of the selected communities

Tree Herb Tree Herb Tree Shrub Tree Tree Tree Tree Herb Tree Tree Tree Herb Shrub Tree Tree Tree Tree

Shrub Climber Herb

Habit

0 0 0 10 7 7 1 6 3 2 26 30 0 1 270 35 0 7 1 20

0 2 0 0 10 6 15 2 12 2 2 2 2 52 32 0 0 20 23 7 5 7 50

40 10 6

5 2 10 6 7 30 1 0 1 2 18 26 0 0 0 24 2 6 2 10

40 2 1

12 0 2 15 4 28 1 3 6 1 10 17 0 0 0 41 2 1 1 4

15 2 2

No. of individuals encountered Mbala Amuda Umuaku Nneato

Chima et al.

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268 Uvurilu Amunkita Uruocha Akieke Oji Edenkiiti Mboagu Ogwuobara Opete Atabekee Ube Mmimi Mgbansioku Icheku Oseala Akwukwoagba Nkwu, Akwu Ichite Obulezie Ntiele Ichikere Nsafo/Ohiume

African plum Pepper fruit Desmodium Velvet Palm tree Wire grass, fowl foot Tassel flower Parrot tree -

Dacryodes edulis Dennettia tripetala Desmodium scandens Dialium guineense Diodeasa mentosa Discoglypremna caloneura Elaeis guineensis Eleusine indica Emilia coccinea Emilia sonchifolia Erythrina senegalensis Euphorbia heterophyla

Igbo name

Coconut palm Kolanut Cocoyam Lions claw Jew fiber Ginger lily Lemon grass

Common name

Cleome ciliata Cnestis feruginae Cochlosspernium planchoni Cocus nucifera Cola nitida Colocasia esculentum Commelina africana Corchorus olitorius Costus afer Cymbopogon citratus

Botanical name

Table 2. Continued


Burseraceae Annonaceae Leguminoseae Leguminosae-Caesalpinaceae Euphorbiaceae Euphorbiaceae Arecaceae Poaceae Asteraceae Asteraceae Leguminosae - Papilinionaceae Euphorbiaceae

Cleomaceae Connaraceae Cochlospermaceae Arecaceae Sterculiaceae Araceae Commelinaceae Tiliaceae Costaceae Poaceae

Family Herb Shrub Shrub Tree Tree Shrub Herb Herb Shrub Herb/ Grass Tree Tree Herb Tree Herb Tree Tree Herb Herb Herb Tree Herb

Habit

1 6 30 1 0 4 21 0 10 2 1 2

3 0 0 14 7 50 7 8 2 23 3 5 28 2 10 0 11 15 0 4 3 0

6 4 2 10 7 50 0 0 2 15

2 3 0 2 6 0 35 0 0 4 3 4

0 0 4 11 6 25 0 0 2 2

7 2 0 8 4 0 14 0 0 6 0 6

0 0 10 8 10 42 0 0 0 8



Euphorbia hirta Euphorbia kamerunica Ficus exasperata Ficus thonningii Garcina kola Gongronema latifolium Hibiscus rosasinensis Hilleria latifolia Irvingia gabonensis Jatropha curcas Jatropha gossypiilofia Kigelia africana Leea guineensis Mallotus oppositifolius Mangifera indica Manihot utilisima Moringa oleifera Musa paradisiaca Murraya koenigii Musa sapientum Newbouldia laevis Nauclea diderrichii Nauclea latifolia Ocimum canum

Botanical name

Table 2. Continued

Asthma weed Sandpaper Bitter kola Sodom apple Hisbiscus Bush tarzan Bush mango Jatropha Wild cassava Sausage tree Leea Indian kamila Mango Cassava Miracle tree Plantain Curry leaf Banana Newbouldia -

Common name Ahihiaobuogu Udo-ogwu Wagiriwa Obu, okpoto Akilu Utazi Akisi Mpaito/Akaito Ugiri Udenekpu Mboogwu Udaagu Uliagbankita Kpokoko Mangoro Akpuji Moringa Unere Curry Une Ogirisi Uhi-ilu Nchichangele Ahihianshi

Igbo name Euphorbiaceae Euphorbiaceae Moraceae Moraceae Gutiferae Asclepiadaceae Malvaceae Phytolaccaceae Irvingiaceae Euphorbiaceae Euphorbiaceae Bignoniaceae Leeaceae Euphorbiaceae Anarcadiaceae Euphorbiaceae Moringaceae Musaceae Rutaceae Musaceae Bignoniaceae Rubiaceae Rubiaceae Lamiaceae

Family Herb Shrub Tree Tree Tree Climber Shrub Herb Tree Shrub Shrub Tree Shrub Tree Tree Shrub Tree Shrub Tree Shrub Tree Tree Shrub Herb

Habit 0 48 4 4 6 52 0 22 2 10 8 1 1 2 1 205 17 33 0 25 15 2 0 12

0 12 0 2 2 64 0 0 4 30 15 3 4 0 4 140 5 32 0 35 16 0 7 0

3 12 0 0 4 113 7 0 0 8 4 3 4 0 2 140 3 28 10 12 16 0 2 2

0 0 1 0 3 47 4 0 1 34 0 0 0 0 1 200 1 16 20 18 4 0 0 0


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270

Ocimum gratissimum Pentaclethra macrophylla Persea americana Piper guineense Plukenetia conophorum Psidium guajava Pterocapus santalinoides Pterocapus soyauxii Raphia hookeri Rauvolfia vomitoria Riccinus communis Senna alata Senna occidentialis Solanum melongena Telfairia occidentalis Tetrapleura tetraptera Treculia africana Uvaria chamae Vernonia amygdalina Viscum albvm Vitelleria paradoxa Xylopia aethiopica

Botanical name

Table 2. Continued

Scent leaf Oil bean Avacado pear Black pepper Walnut Guava Raphia palm Serpent wood Castor oil Garden egg Fluted pumpkin African bread fruit Bush pepper Bitter leaf Mistletoe Sheabutter Guinea pepper

Common name Osigbuo/Nchanwu Akpaka Ubekee Uziza Ukpa Gorova Nturukpa Ohara Ngwo Akata Ogiri Ugaku Nchummuo Anara Ugu Ohiohio Ukwa Mmimiohia Olugbu Awuruse Oguma Uda

Igbo name Lamiaceae Leguminosae -Mimosaceae Lauraceae Piperaceae Euphorbiaceae Myrtaceae Leguminosae - Papilinionaceae Leguminosae - Papilinionaceae Arecaceae Apocynaceae Euphorbiaceae Leguminosae-Caesalpinaceae Leguminosae-Caesalpinaceae Solanaceae Cucurbitaceae Leguminosae - Mimosaceae Moraceae Annonaceae Asteraceae Viscaceae Sapotaceae Annonaceae

Family Shrub Tree Tree Climber Climber Tree Tree Tree Tree Tree Shrub Shrub Herb Shrub Climber Tree Tree Shrub Shrub Climber Tree Tree

Habit 39 8 8 60 2 28 2 30 12 4 140 12 7 30 30 0 8 0 91 0 1 2

14 10 3 54 1 21 4 40 13 4 40 0 5 35 60 0 1 1 37 0 0 1

30 10 10 69 2 15 2 20 24 1 45 0 0 18 25 4 0 1 47 10 0 0

6 9 2 74 0 10 4 45 12 1 30 0 1 12 45 2 2 0 68 12 0 0




Chima et al.

averagely. Medicinal plant species in the families -Gutiferae, Apocynaceae, irvingiaceae, Leeaceae, Lauraceae, Annoceae, Costaceae, Tiliaceae, and Sterculiaceae, were represented by few species.

Fig. 1. Distribution of medicinal plant species among plant families in Mbala Community.

Fig. 2. Distribution of medicinal plant species among plant families in Amuda Community.

Diversity of medicinal plant species in various communities The Alpha diversity indices for the various communities are presented in Table 3. The highest number of medicinal plant species was recorded in Mbala, followed by Amuda, Umuaku, and Nneato respectively. Both Shannon and Simpson diversity indices showed that Amuda community

Fig. 3. Distribution of medicinal plant species among plant families in Umuaku Community.

Fig. 4. Distribution of medicinal plant species among plant families in Nneato Community.

Table 3. Alpha diversity indices for the four communities

No. of species Individuals Shannon H Simpson 1-D

Mbala

Amuda

Umuaku

Nneato

73 1,604 3.341 0.9345

71 1,201 3.663 0.9621

68 1,010 3.471 0.9481

61 977 3.277 0.9307

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Table 4. Sorensen’s similarity indices for the communities Mbala

Amuda

Umuaku

Nneato

*

71.43 *

60.23 75.95 *

59.52 69.23 76.71 *

Mbala Amuda Umuaku Nneato

has the highest medicinal plant species diversity, followed by Umuaku, Mbala, and Nneato, respectively.

Similarity of medicinal plant species among the four communities Medicinal plant species compositional similarity between each pair of the communities is shown in Table 4. Medicinal plant species similarity was highest between Umuaku & Nneato communities, followed by Amuda & Umuaku, and Mbala & Amuda, respectively. The least similarity was observed between Mbala & Nneato.

Discussion The medicinal use of plants in the management and treatment of diseases has been an age long practice worldwide (Sofowara 1982). The results of the study have shown that herbal medicine is pivotal in the treatment of ailments by the indigenous people of Nneochi Local Government Area. Among all methods of treatment in traditional medicine systems, medicinal herbs are the most widely applied (Willow 2011). Medicinal plants recorded during the study and numerous ailments they are used to treat, manage and cure further underscores the indispensable role traditional medicines play in health care system of indigenous people of developing tropical Africa. Plant species like Carica papaya, Mangifera indica, Ceiba pentandra and Psidium guajava were found to be effective in the treatment of malaria. Some of these species have also been reported to be useful in the treatment of malaria in other parts of Nigeria by other workers (e.g. Ajibade et al. 2005; Aiyeloja and Bello 2006). Plants such as Dialium guineense, Ricinus communis, Ocimum gratissimum and Gongronema latifolia are notable among those used in the treatment of stomach ache in children. This is a very common paediatrics ailment in the study area. Eleusine indica decoction is

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used in the treatment of stomach ache while the decocted leaves of Pterocarpus santalinoides are used to treat dysentery. Diabetes and Hypertension (arising from improperly managed high blood pressures) have become very common ailments among the rural poor and the elites in the society especially among the aged. Locally, such diseases are controlled with Piper guineense, Vernonia amygdalina, Bryophyllum pinnatum and Persea americana. The ability of B. pinnatum leaves to lower high blood pressure has been validated with animal studies (Ghasi et al. 2011). Leaves of G. latifolia are used for the treatment of reproductive challenges in men (poor erectile function and low sperm count). Baphia nitida and Chlomolaena odorata are used by the people in the treatment of bleeding resulting from injuries. The seeds of P. americana when processed into powdered form and mixed with pap are also used in the treatment of ulcer. The leaves of C. papaya when decocted are used to regulate menstrual pain among females and also used to remove the venom of snake bite from the affected victim by vomiting. Poultice prepared from the pod of Tetrapluera tetraptera is used in womb cleansing. Plant remedies were prepared mostly as infusions or decoctions from the different plant parts with mainly water, and gin sometimes. The local extractions in most cases do not alter the active chemical compounds in the plant parts, thus preserving almost all their properties (George and Pamplona 2000). In some cases, the medicines were administered with milk and non-alcoholic beverages to make them more palatable. The plant parts used include fruits, leaves, flowers, barks and roots; with the leaves being the most used. This may be attributed to the lesser harm done to the plants when leaves are used. Poffenberger et al. (1992) observed that the use of bark and roots is dangerous to the existence of individual plants as compared to leaves. Trees dominated the populations of medicinal plants in the study area. These were followed by shrubs while the herbs had the lowest populations in the various communities. Analysis on the distribution of medicinal plant species among plant families showed that the family Euphorbiaceae has the highest occurrence followed by Leguminosae (in Mbala and Amuda), while Asclepiadaceae, Piperaceae, Musaceae, Asteraceae, Rutaceae, Curcubitaceae, Crassulaceae and Arecaceae occurred averagely. Medicinal plant species in the families -Gutiferae,

Chima et al.

Apocynaceae, irvingiaceae, Leeaceae, Lauraceae, Annoceae, Costaceae, Tiliaceae, and Sterculiaceae, were represented by few species. The four communities were appreciably similar in terms of their medicinal plants species composition, though similarity was higher for closer communities with respect to distance. Medicinal plant species richness and within-community (alpha) diversity were high in all the communities. Mbala Community had the highest number of species and individuals followed by Amuda, Umuaku and Nneato, respectively. Although, Mbala Community had the highest number of species and individuals, diversity indices for Amuda Community and Umuaku Community were higher than that of Mbala. This indicates a more evenly distribution of the individuals encountered among medicinal plant species in the two communities than in Mbala. The high species richness and alpha diversity of medicinal plants in these communities underscores their importance in traditional healthcare system. WHO (2002) reported that up to 80% of the population in Africa, uses traditional medicine for primary healthcare. It appears that the indigenous people of Nneochi have recognized the need to conserve these medicinal plant species ex situ within their homes probably due to the threat mounted on them in the wild as a result of unsustainable exploitation and habitat destruction. Despite the fact that the people of Nneochi now seem to be cultivating their medicinal plants around their homes, there is also the need for the conservation of forests as they may harbor unknown plants of medicinal importance that can have the cure to some ailments whose cure has not yet been discovered. Okafor (1989) warned that lack of conservation measures will increase the number of endangered species resulting in gradual extinction of numerous plant taxa that are useful as herbal remedies.

Conclusions The study has confirmed the fact that ethnomedicine presents an alternative source of healthcare for most rural dwellers. It has succeeded in documenting over ninety plant species (ranging from trees, shrubs and herbs) having medicinal values and used in traditional medicine by the indigenous people of Nneochi Local Government Area. The

high number of individuals and diversity of these medicinal plant species recorded within homesteads in the various communities underscore their importance in traditional health care system. It was evident from the study that the local people have good knowledge of medicinal plants used by them. Since such knowledge is still mostly taught orally without written records, there is need to conduct a similar survey in as many rural areas as possible. Government should encourage the local people generally to embark on ex situ conservation of plants of medicinal importance around their homes, while also embarking on the conservation of the remaining forests to ensure the in situ conservation of useful and potential medicinal plants which they harbor.

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