Economic Values and Regional Economic Impacts ...

9 downloads 0 Views 120KB Size Report
In this study, estimates were made of both the economic im- pact and value of recreational fisheries derived from the Sardis and Grenada reservoirs. Located in ...
North American Journal of Fisheries Management 33:44–55, 2013  C American Fisheries Society 2013 ISSN: 0275-5947 print / 1548-8675 online DOI: 10.1080/02755947.2012.739986

ARTICLE

Economic Values and Regional Economic Impacts of Recreational Fisheries in Mississippi Reservoirs Clifford P. Hutt,* Kevin M. Hunt, and Susan F. Steffen1

Downloaded by [Mississippi State University Libraries] at 07:40 06 February 2013

Human Dimensions and Conservation Law Enforcement Laboratory, Department of Wildlife and Fisheries, Mississippi State University, Box 9690, Mississippi State, Mississippi 39762, USA

Stephen C. Grado Human Dimensions and Conservation Law Enforcement Laboratory, Department of Forestry, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, Mississippi 39762, USA

L. E. Miranda U.S. Geological Survey, Mississippi Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, Box 9691, Mississippi State, Mississippi 39762, USA

Abstract This study estimated the economic benefit of recreational fisheries on two trophy crappie Pomoxis spp. fisheries in Mississippi. We accomplished this by estimating economic impacts of angler expenditures and angler willingness-topay for fishing trips above current expenditures. Anglers spent 91,811 activity days on Sardis Reservoir in 2006 and 46,036 on Grenada Reservoir in 2007. The total economic impacts to the state were estimated at US$5.83 million on Sardis Reservoir and $2.15 million on Grenada Reservoir, supporting 75 and 51 full- and part-time jobs, respectively. Total consumer surplus was $5.57 million and $4.46 million on Sardis and Grenada reservoirs, respectively. Last, we used a model that predicted the effect of average spring water levels on total angling effort to estimate resulting changes in economic benefits. Spring angling effort and associated economic benefits peaked at intermediate water levels and declined at both low and high water levels. Future changes in precipitation patterns in the southeastern United States may require altering reservoir guide curves to maximize economic benefits associated with reservoir fisheries.

Recreational activities such as fishing have the potential to make important contributions to local and state economies in the USA; however, these economic contributions are often overlooked or underestimated because of their nonmarket nature. Researchers looking to determine the economic benefits of fisheries resources are faced with two options: (1) determination of the economic impacts of angling-related expenditures within a region (i.e., their effects on state income and employment), or (2) determination of the net economic value, or consumer surplus,

anglers receive from the resource (i.e., the value anglers place on fishing above their actual angling-related expenditures, their net “willingness-to-pay” (WTP) for the resource) (Connelly and Brown 1991; Edwards 1991; Criddle et al. 2003; Loomis 2006). The first, economic impact, is a measure of the monetary benefits of angling to the regional economy and is generated by angling expenditures, which are the costs of fishing to the angler. As such, economic impact does not represent benefits to the angler, only the regional economy (Connelly and Brown 1991;

*Corresponding author: [email protected] 1 Present address: Kansas Department of Wildlife, Parks, and Tourism, Emporia Research and Survey Office, Post Office Box 1525, Emporia, Kansas 66801, USA. Received June 25, 2012; accepted October 3, 2012

44

Downloaded by [Mississippi State University Libraries] at 07:40 06 February 2013

RECREATIONAL FISHERIES IN MISSISSIPPI RESERVOIRS

Edwards 1991). Net economic value, or consumer surplus, on the other hand represents the economic benefit anglers receive from fishing because it is a measure of the value they place on the activity over and above their personal costs (Connelly and Brown 1991; Edwards 1991). Respectively, these estimates represent two distinct types of economic benefits of the fishery that can be compared with the economic benefits of competing market goods and services. Despite the nonmarket nature of fisheries resources, they generate great economic impact and value as millions of Americans pursue them every year, spend billions of dollars in the process, and, in most cases, would be willing to spend even more money than they already do to pursue them (USFWS and USCB 2008). In 2005, there were 626,000 anglers in the state of Mississippi alone that spent an estimated US$264 million on fishing trips and fishing-related equipment (USFWS and USCB 2008), generating a total economic impact of approximately $490 million and supporting 3,731 jobs (Posadas 2009). During the same time period it was estimated that anglers in the southeastern USA spent $16 billion on fishing trips and fishing-related equipment generating nearly $21.4 billion in total economic impact and supporting 163,541 jobs (Munn et al. 2010). While these numbers are impressive, they are not a full measure of the total economic benefit of fishing to the region because they do not include a measure of the totality of benefits anglers derive from fishing. Knowledge about the economic benefits derived from fisheries resources is of vital importance to fisheries agencies seeking to manage these resources in the face of competing demands and expected changes in hydrological regimes due to anthropocentric climate change (Mulholland et al. 1997; Wood et al. 1997; Daugherty et al. 2011). For example, many popular freshwater fisheries in the southern USA are on flood control reservoirs operated by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) or Tennessee Valley Authority. Several studies conducted on reservoirs have demonstrated the effect of water level fluctuations on angler visitation with higher water levels generally resulting in increased angler visitation so long as they remain below flood stage (Ward et al. 1996; Platt and Munger 1999). Reductions in angling effort due to low reservoir water levels have been attributed to a variety of causes ranging from declines in reservoir aesthetics and access to increased crowding of remaining reservoir users (Ward et al. 1996; Daugherty et al. 2011; Miranda et al. 2012). Any reductions in angling activity caused by fluctuating water levels would in turn result in reductions in economic impact and recreational value due to trip reductions and related expenditures and benefits. Thus, models estimating the effect of exogenous variables (i.e., reservoir water level) on angler demand and participation could be paired with economic impact and valuation models to assess the costs of different management actions (Jakus et al. 2000; Hamel et al. 2002; Criddle et al. 2003). Jakus et al. (2000) demonstrated the effect of water level drawdowns in Tennessee flood control reservoirs and estimated

45

that keeping water levels at full pool for an additional month within the summer would result in an additional 87,000 angler trips taken within the study region. Hamel et al. (2002) developed a model demonstrating the effect of catch expectations on angler participation levels and the resulting effect on the economic impact of the fishery. Criddle et al. (2003) expanded on this analysis to include the effects of catch expectations on angler consumer surplus benefits, or welfare. In this study, we sought to establish a relationship between reservoir water levels and angler participation to demonstrate the effect fluctuating water levels can have on regional economic impacts and benefits associated with recreational fishing. In this study, estimates were made of both the economic impact and value of recreational fisheries derived from the Sardis and Grenada reservoirs. Located in northwestern Mississippi, and managed by USACE for flood control, these reservoirs provide two of the best crappie Pomoxis spp. fisheries in the state of Mississippi, and they draw considerable attention from nonresident anglers and fishing tournament organizations due to their reputation for producing trophy-sized crappies. Like all flood control reservoirs operated by USACE, operation schedules for Sardis and Grenada reservoirs are dictated by federally mandated guide curves that provide seasonal targets for reservoir water levels (Miranda et al. 2012). These guide curves call for fall water releases to lower reservoir water levels to a conservation pool to provide storage capacity for winter and spring runoff. Water levels are then raised to normal pool in March– May and held constant through summer to facilitate greater reservoir use for fishing and boating activities. Temporal variability in water level deviations from the mandated guide curves result from annual variability in precipitation within a reservoir’s catchment. In recent years, fisheries in Sardis and Grenada reservoirs have been faced with the potential impacts of increased angling pressure from fishing tournaments and nonresident anglers, as well as extended periods of drought that reduced reservoir water levels, angler access, and available habitat (Hunt et al. 2008). These forces have motivated the Mississippi Department of Wildlife, Fisheries, and Parks (MDWFP) to adopt more stringent regulations on these fisheries and increased MDWFP interest in the economic impact and value of the fisheries and factors that might influence angler visitation and thus economic impact and value. This paper focused primarily on the effect of spring (March–May) water levels on recreational fishing effort and resultant economic benefits, as most (56–78%) fishing effort on these reservoirs occurs during the spring season when crappie are spawning (Hunt et al. 2008). The goal of this study was to estimate the economic benefits of recreational fisheries derived from two Mississippi reservoirs. Four objectives were identified to achieve this goal. Objective 1 was to determine angling expenditures and activity day totals on Sardis and Grenada reservoirs by resident and nonresident anglers. Objective 2 was to quantify economic impacts and multipliers of angling on Mississippi’s economy from

46

HUTT ET AL.

Downloaded by [Mississippi State University Libraries] at 07:40 06 February 2013

angling expenditures on Sardis and Grenada reservoirs by resident and nonresident anglers. Objective 3 was to determine the WTP above expenditures, or consumer surplus, of resident and nonresident anglers utilizing Sardis and Grenada reservoirs. Last, objective 4 was to use an angler demand model combined with estimates developed with objectives 1–3 to assess the effects of spring reservoir water level fluctuations on the regional economic effects of recreational fisheries on Sardis and Grenada reservoirs.

METHODS Access creel survey.—Access-point creel surveys were conducted on each reservoir to estimate angler activity days and collect angler contact information for a follow-up mail survey designed to collect data on trip expenditures, angler WTP, and angler trip characteristics. Surveys were conducted for 1 year on each reservoir (March 2006 to February 2007 on Sardis Reservoir, and March 2007 to February 2008 on Grenada Reservoir). Sampling was stratified according to four quarters (December– February, March–May, June–August, September–November). Interviews were conducted during 6-h days over 24 sampling days selected at random within each quarter (96 total per year), 12 on weekdays and 12 on weekend days, and approximately evenly over access points distributed throughout each reservoir. Interviews recorded party size, hours fished, and selected characteristics of the catch. Effort was estimated as the product of mean trip length, mean party size, and number of trips. Trip length and party size were recorded during the access creel survey. The number of trips and daily effort were estimated through instantaneous counts of boat trailers at access sites surrounding the reservoirs using methods described in Hunt et al. 2008. The number of activity days (i.e., total number of days anglers spent fishing on each reservoir over the course of the year sampled) was estimated by dividing total effort (h) by the average daily effort per angler (Sardis = 5.0 h/d; Grenada = 5.1 h/d) (Hunt et al. 2008). In addition, creel clerks asked one participant from each fishing party to be a part of a follow-up angler survey following methods described by Ditton and Hunt (2001). Specifically, creel clerks told members of the fishing party that Mississippi State University (MSU) was conducting an angler survey and needed responses from one randomly selected adult member from each group. Creel clerks then asked for the adult party member with the most recent birthday and presented that angler with an information flier with the study specifics. If the angler agreed, the creel clerk obtained name and address information as well as supplemental characteristics of their current trip. In the case of guided trips (asked at start of interview), only customers were selected. Supplemental information included trip origin, whether it was a guided trip, telephone number, and gender. To achieve a sufficient number of anglers to participate in the mail survey, 8–12 supplemental sampling days (6-h days at one randomly selected boat ramp) were conducted each quarter for

the sole purpose of recruiting participants for the mail survey. In all, 436 anglers (260 residents, 176 nonresidents) were recruited for the mail survey at Sardis Reservoir, and 481 anglers (395 residents, 86 nonresidents) were recruited for the mail survey at Grenada Reservoir. Mail survey methods.—Data for the economic assessment of recreational fishing on Sardis and Grenada reservoirs were collected via a self-administered mail survey. Mail surveys were preferred over on-site surveys for collecting expenditure data because they allow respondents to report the full expenditures of their trips and do not compromise the integrity of the creel survey (Riechers et al. 1991; Dillman 2007). The self-administered questionnaires collected data on angler characteristics, trip characteristics, activity days, trip expenditures, WTP, and trip satisfaction. Anglers that were recruited to participate in the mail survey during access site creel surveys were first sent a cover letter, questionnaire, and business reply envelope (complete packet) within 3 months of their original on-site contact (day 1), followed by a postcard reminder or thank you (day 10). Three additional complete packets were sent as necessary to nonrespondents (dependent on returns) on days 21, 35, and 49 (Dillman 2007). All questions and research procedures were approved by the MSU Institutional Review Board’s Committee for the Protection of Human Subjects (Docket No. 06-061). Nonresponse bias analysis.—The potential for nonresponse bias was examined using the method developed by Fisher (1996). Fisher’s method uses logistic regression to determine if respondents and nonrespondents differ significantly on known variables and, if so, calculates response probabilities to be used for developing nonresponse adjustment weights. A separate analysis was conducted for Sardis and Grenada reservoirs to determine if residency status or gender had a significant influence on response rate. In both cases, no significant differences were found between respondents and nonrespondents, and it was determined that no adjustment for nonresponse was needed for this study. Economic impact analysis.—Average daily expenditures related to fishing were calculated for use in an input-output (I-O) model of the state economy to determine the economic impact of fishing on Sardis and Grenada reservoirs in Mississippi. The Impact Analysis for Planning (IMPLAN) model software was used to perform these analyses. This software, originally developed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service to evaluate forest management plan impacts, consists of both national and county level data for industrial and commercial sectors (currently 440 sectors as described by the U.S. Department of Labor). The IMPLAN software and the most current data on the Mississippi economy at the time of the study (i.e., 2007) was used to build a model of the Mississippi economy and generate direct and secondary (i.e., indirect, induced) impacts resulting from in-state participant expenditures. Direct impacts are those dollars spent directly with businesses and kept in the economy, and secondary impacts include supporting businesses that resupply direct businesses. Induced impacts are the ensuing

Downloaded by [Mississippi State University Libraries] at 07:40 06 February 2013

RECREATIONAL FISHERIES IN MISSISSIPPI RESERVOIRS

employee purchasing tied to both direct and indirect business wages. Regional purchase coefficients generated during model development determine the economy’s ability to absorb trip expenses. As a result, in-state expenditures made on behalf of angler trip activities were viewed as final demands on current state industries and businesses. Respondents were asked to itemize their expenditures for the angling trip during which they were initially recruited for the study (e.g., gas, lodging, food, bait). Respondents were instructed to only report expenditures made in the state of Mississippi. Respondents were asked to provide itemized expenditures as opposed to total expenditures so expenditures could be inserted into the appropriate economic sectors within the IMPLAN model. Trip expenditures were divided by trip length (days), percent of days spent fishing, and by number of anglers in the fishing party the respondent paid for to calculate daily trip expenditures per angler. Daily expenditures per angler (US$/angler/activity day) were then averaged for each sector in the model for resident and nonresident anglers, respectively, regardless of whether they purchased the items or not, to create expenditure profiles (i.e., US$/angler/activity day for residents and nonresidents) for economic impact analysis. As anglers were initially contacted using an on-site creel survey, all expenditure estimates were corrected for avidity bias using the method outlined by Loomis (2007). This involved weighting angler expenditure data by the inverse of the number of days they had fished in the previous 12 months on the lake on which they were contacted. Economic impact was determined using the 2007 IMPLAN I-O model for the state of Mississippi (Olson and Lindall 2000). Previous studies have utilized the IMPLAN model to estimate the economic impact of marine charter boat fisheries (Steinback 1999; Grado et al. 2005), Bluefin Tuna Thunnus thynnus fisheries (Bohnsack et al. 2002), and individual freshwater fisheries (Schorr et al. 1995; Chen et al. 2003). In this study, economic impacts of resident and nonresident anglers were determined for each reservoir in the IMPLAN model by inputting average daily expenditures (US$/angler/activity day) by economic sector, and number of activity days within the given year. From this information, the IMPLAN model was used to calculate the direct, indirect, and induced economic impacts of the recreational fisheries associated with the Sardis and Grenada reservoirs. Direct impacts constituted local income and employment generated by the immediate expenditures of anglers paid to local businesses, industries, and services within the region of interest (i.e., the state). Indirect impacts were the result of expenditures paid to local businesses, industries, and services resupplying these economic enterprises. Finally, induced impacts were the result of household expenditures made by the individuals that were employed in businesses, industries, and services resulting from direct and indirect impacts. The sum of direct, indirect, and induced impacts constituted the total economic impact of the fishery. Finally, upper and lower bound estimates of economic impact were estimated by running the IMPLAN model with both the upper and lower bound estimates of trip expenditures

47

and activity day estimates. In all, the I-O model was used to calculate the influence of the fishery on the output of goods and services and the generation of value-added, income, tax, and employment impacts on the Mississippi economy (Bohnsack et al. 2002). In addition to providing expenditure data, resident anglers were also asked to address a hypothetical question asking them to estimate what percentage of their annual expenditures for fishing on Sardis or Grenada reservoirs would have been spent out of state if they could no longer fish that reservoir. The specific wording of the question was For residents of Mississippi only, given the hypothetical situation that you would not be able to fish at Sardis [Grenada] Lake, what percent of the money you currently spend per year in Mississippi for fishing Sardis [Grenada] Lake would you spend out-of-state to fish or participate in any other activity (fishing or nonfishing related)?

The average percentage provided by the above question was used to calculate adjusted economic impacts for resident anglers to provide a more conservative estimate of resident angler economic impacts. Many economists insist that resident expenditures should be excluded from economic impact analysis as their money would still circulate in the economy in question and, therefore, would not provide an additional impact to the economy (Crompton et al. 2001; Chen et al. 2003; Stoll and Ditton 2006). However, if resident anglers were to spend their money out of state in the absence of the fisheries on Sardis and Grenada reservoirs, then these expenditures could be viewed as a leakage from the Mississippi economy and would thus legitimately count as a source of economic impact (Steinback 1999; Loomis 2006; Grado et al. 2011). Therefore, a more accurate picture of the economic impact of resident angler expenditures can be illustrated by adjusting these economic impacts by the percentage of expenditures they would spend out of state, on either fishing or other activities, if fishing on Sardis and Grenada reservoirs were no longer available (Grado et al. 2011). Estimation of consumer surplus.—To estimate net economic value, or consumer surplus, for the fisheries on Sardis and Grenada reservoirs, respondents were presented with a dichotomous-choice contingent valuation (CV) question to determine how much money anglers would be willing to pay above their current trip costs before they would have no longer been willing to make the fishing trip. Each respondent was presented with a single, noniterative CV question with a randomly selected bid value from a preselected range of values from $3 to $400 for Sardis Reservoir, and $3 to $1,200 for Grenada Reservoir. Respondents were asked if they would have still taken the fishing trip in question if their trip costs had increased by the amount of the bid due to increases in the costs of goods and services. Additional bid amounts above $400 were added in the second year of the study because of the high percentage of Sardis Reservoir anglers that responded in the affirmative to the higher bid amounts, which could lead to an underestimation of angler WTP.

Downloaded by [Mississippi State University Libraries] at 07:40 06 February 2013

48

HUTT ET AL.

Additionally, respondents were asked several questions related to trip satisfaction and their angling behavior that was hypothesized would influence their level of WTP. Respondents were asked to indicate whether fishing ranked first, second, third, or lower among their most important outdoor activities, as it was hypothesized that WTP would be higher for individuals that placed greater importance on fishing (IMPFISH; scale: 1 = most important outdoor activity, 2 = second most important, 3 = third most important, 4 = none of above). Respondents were also asked if they were a member of any fishing clubs (CLUB: 1 = yes, 0 = no) as this is considered an indicator of dedication and increased involvement to the sport (Ditton et al. 1992). Respondents were also asked if they felt the trip had been well worth the money they spent on their trip (WORTH) and if they had considered any of the fish they had caught on their trip to be trophy fish (TROPHY), with both questions being asked on a 5-point Likert type scale (1 = strongly disagree, 2 = agree, 3 = neutral, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly agree). Separate estimates of resident and nonresident angler consumer surplus were estimated for each reservoir with a logistic regression model, as the dependent variable was a binary variable (yes = 1, no = 0) (Loomis 2006). Reservoir-specific values were estimated using a probit model in SAS with dollar amount (BID), CLUB, IMPFISH, WORTH, TROPHY, INCOME (measured in $10,000 intervals ranging from $5,000 to $105,000), and SQINC (i.e., income squared, to test the assumption of marginal utility of income) serving as the independent variables. The probit model was estimated twice, first with all the independent variables included, and again with only the statistically significant (P = 0.05) independent variables from the first model. The second model was used to estimate mean WTP and the marginal effects of the significant independent variables on WTP. Total consumer surplus was estimated by multiplying mean WTP by the number of fishing trips taken on each reservoir during the surveyed year. Finally, confidence intervals for mean WTP were estimated by using a bootstrapping procedure (Bateman et al. 2002). Bootstrapping was conducted in SAS to generate 1,000 resamples of the WTP data. Probit models were then estimated for each resample and were used to estimate mean WTP for each resample. The resample estimates of mean WTP were then sorted and the 2.5 and 97.5 percentile estimates were used to define the 95% confidence interval of the original mean WTP estimates. Water level effects on angling activity, impact, and value.— The effect of water level on economic impacts and valuations was estimated for Sardis and Grenada reservoirs with models linking fishing effort to March—May water levels (Miranda et al. 2012). Those models related angling effort (h) to water levels as E = β0 + β1 (WL) − β2 (WL2 ) + β3 (Y),

(1)

where E is total March–May angling effort (h), WL is average March–May water level (m), Y is year, and β0-3 are regression

parameters listed by Miranda et al. (2012). Estimates of total effort were modeled for a broad range of water levels for Y = 2006 in Sardis and Y = 2007 in Grenada and converted to activity days by dividing E by average daily effort per angler for each reservoir (Sardis = 5.0 h/d, Grenada = 5.1 h/d; Hunt et al. 2008). The resulting estimates of March–May angler activity days per water level were then used to estimate percent change in activity days and resulting changes in estimated expenditures, economic impact, employment, and consumer surplus as compared with those estimated for each reservoir during their respective study year. RESULTS Response Rates and Angler Demographics Creel clerks contacted 512 fishing parties on Sardis Reservoir and succeeded in recruiting 436 anglers to participate in the mail survey as 70 parties were repeat contacts and 6 refused to participate. Creel clerks contacted 614 parties on Grenada Reservoir and recruited 481 to the mail survey, with 80 repeat anglers and 53 refusals. Nonresidents comprised 40% (n = 176) and 18% (n = 86) of the recruited anglers on Sardis and Grenada reservoirs, respectively. Seventy-four percent of nonresident anglers contacted on Sardis Reservoir were from Tennessee, while the largest portion (31%) of nonresident anglers on Grenada Reservoir was from Missouri, with another 18% from Tennessee and Illinois. Questionnaires were returned by 331 anglers from Sardis Reservoir (9 undeliverable) and 345 anglers from Grenada Reservoir (15 undeliverable) for adjusted response rates of 78% and 74%, respectively. These response rates were high by mail survey standards and were comparable to other mail surveys of anglers that recruited anglers on site for economic assessments (Chen et al. 2003; Loomis 2006). Resident and nonresident anglers on both reservoirs were almost exclusively white males with an average age ranging from 52 to 54 years old (Table 1). Median household income was $50,000–59,999 for residents and $70,000–79,999 for nonresidents on both reservoirs, respectively. The percentage of resident and nonresident anglers on Sardis Reservoir with at least some college education was 43.7% and 50.7%, respectively. The percentage of resident and nonresident anglers on Grenada Reservoir with at least some college education was 43.8% and 54.8%, respectively. Activity Days, Angler Expenditure, and Input-Output Model Results Average trip length for resident anglers was 1.2 d on Sardis Reservoir with 45,140 trips taken by resident anglers for a total estimate of 54,168 activity days (ad) (Table 2). Average trip length for nonresident anglers was 3.7 ad on Sardis Reservoir with 10,174 trips for a total estimate of 37,643 ad. Average daily expenditures for trip-related goods and services by resident anglers on Sardis Reservoir were $43.63/angler/ad and average total trip expenditures (average daily expenditures multiplied

49

RECREATIONAL FISHERIES IN MISSISSIPPI RESERVOIRS

TABLE 1. Socioeconomic characteristics of residents and nonresidents of Mississippi responding to a mail survey of anglers fishing Sardis and Grenada reservoirs in Mississippi during March 1, 2006, to February 28, 2007, and March 1, 2007, to February 29, 2008, respectively.

Reservoir Sardis

Downloaded by [Mississippi State University Libraries] at 07:40 06 February 2013

Grenada

Resident status

Average age

Gender (% male)

Race (% White)

53 54 52 54

97 95 99 98

94 92 97 100

Resident Nonresident Resident Nonresident

by average trip length) were $52.36/angler/trip (Table 3). Average daily expenditures for trip-related goods and services by nonresident anglers on Sardis Reservoir were $55.02/angler/ad and average total trip expenditures were $203.57/angler/trip. Average trip length for resident anglers was 1.2 ad on Grenada Reservoir with 31,074 trips taken by resident anglers for a total estimate of 37,289 ad by resident anglers (Table 2). Average trip length for nonresident anglers was 4.1 ad on Grenada Reservoir with 2,133 trips by nonresident anglers for a total estimate of 8,747 ad. Average daily expenditures for trip-related goods and services by resident anglers on Grenada Reservoir were $58.77/angler/ad with average total trip expenditures of $70.52/angler/trip (Table 3). Average daily expenditures for triprelated goods and services by nonresident anglers on Grenada Reservoir were $66.10/angler/ad with average total trip expenditures of $271.01/angler/trip. The IMPLAN model estimated overall economic impacts in 2007 dollars from fishing expenditures by resident and nonresident anglers fishing on Sardis and Grenada reservoirs (Table 4). Total economic impacts of nonresident anglers on Sardis Reservoir were $3.85 million and were estimated to support 38 fulland part-time jobs in the state of Mississippi. The social accounting matrix (SAM) multiplier, the total economic impacts divided by the direct economic impacts, was 1.86, meaning that for every dollar spent in Mississippi by nonresident anglers fishing Sardis Reservoir there was an economic return of $1.86 for TABLE 2. Total number (n) of fishing trips, average trip length, and total activity days (ad) of participation at Sardis (March 1, 2006, to February 28, 2007) and Grenada (March 1, 2007, to February 29, 2008) reservoirs in Mississippi.

Reservoir Sardis

Grenada

Residence status Resident Nonresident Combined Resident Nonresident Combined

Trips (n)

Average trip length (ad)

Activity days (n)

45,140 10,174 55,314 31,074 2,133 33,207

1.2 3.7 1.7 1.2 4.1 1.4

54,168 37,643 91,811 37,289 8,747 46,036

Median household income ($) 50,000 – 59,999 70,000 – 79,999 50,000 – 59,999 70,000 – 79,999

Median education level High school Some college High school Some college

each dollar spent. Unadjusted total economic impacts of resident anglers on Sardis Reservoir were $4.16 million and supported 37 full- and part-time jobs in Mississippi. However, this estimate of total economic impact was adjusted to $1.98 million as resident anglers indicated that they would spend an average of 47.5% (SE = 3.8%) of their Sardis Reservoir–related angling expenditures outside of Mississippi if they could no longer fish on the reservoir. Therefore, 52.5% of resident expenditures were not considered economic impacts. The SAM multiplier for resident impacts on Sardis Reservoir was 1.76. Altogether, we estimated total economic impact of recreational fishing on Sardis Reservoir to be $5.83 million supporting 75 full- and part-time jobs with an overall SAM multiplier of 1.83. The total economic impacts of nonresident anglers on Grenada Reservoir were $1.09 million and supported 12 fulland part-time jobs in the state of Mississippi. The SAM multiplier was 1.88. Unadjusted total economic impacts of resident anglers on Grenada Reservoir were $3.99 million and supported 39 full- and part-time jobs in the state. The adjusted impact of resident anglers was $1.06 million as Grenada anglers indicated they would spend an average of 26.5% (SE = 2.8%) of their fishing-related expenditures on Grenada Reservoir out of state if they could no longer fish there. Therefore, 73.5% of resident expenditures were not considered economic impacts. The SAM multiplier was 1.81. Altogether, we estimated the total economic impact of recreational fishing on Grenada Reservoir to be $2.15 million, supporting 51 full- and part-time jobs with an overall SAM multiplier of 1.86. Contingent Valuation Estimates of WTP by Reservoir Bid amount and the angler’s evaluation of whether the trip was worth the money spent (WORTH) were significant predictors of WTP for both resident and nonresident anglers on Sardis Reservoir, while only the bid amount was a significant predictor of WTP for resident and nonresident anglers on Grenada Reservoir (Table 5). The coefficient for the bid amount was negative in all models indicating that anglers were less likely to pay for increasing trip costs, while the coefficient for WORTH was positive indicating that anglers were willing to pay more if they felt the trip had been worth the money. These results were consistent with economic theory indicating that the model is valid

50

HUTT ET AL.

TABLE 3. Average expenditures incurred for goods and services by residents and nonresidents per activity day (ad) by anglers fishing Sardis and Grenada reservoirs in Mississippi during March 1, 2006, to February 28, 2007, and March 1, 2007, to February 29, 2008, respectively, and adjusted for avidity bias (in 2007 USD).

Sardis

Downloaded by [Mississippi State University Libraries] at 07:40 06 February 2013

Expenditure items Transportation Airfare Automobile, boat gas and oil Rental vehicle Lodging Lodging at state park hotels or cabins Lodging at hotel or motel Public or private campground fees Vacation home rental Food and beverages Adult beverages Groceries, ice, and nonalcoholic beverages Restaurant or take-out meals Other shopping, services, and entertainment Bait and tackle Boat and equipment rental Boat launch and daily use fees Casinos, movies, other entertainment Fishing guide fees Fishing license Propane and cooking fuel Anything else in Mississippi Total expenditures/angler-day Total expenditures/angler trip

Grenada

Residents ($/ad)

Nonresidents ($/ad)

Residents ($/ad)

Nonresidents ($/ad)

0.00 21.50 0.00

1.49 13.44 0.07

0.00 21.91 0.00

0.00 14.72 0.00

0.48 0.24 0.10 0.09

1.20 3.13 0.49 0.04

1.32 0.80 1.95 0.02

7.01 6.71 0.50 0.15

0.49 8.60 3.46

0.50 4.49 9.27

0.79 8.49 2.06

1.08 5.88 15.82

2.93 0.04 2.16 0.21 0.00 3.34 0.01 0.00 43.63 53.36

7.52 0.00 2.02 0.00 0.00 11.35 0.01 0.02 55.02 203.57

8.42 0.01 3.77 0.08 0.00 8.80 0.02 0.31 58.77 70.52

2.86 0.00 0.68 0.16 2.67 7.77 0.10 0.00 66.10 271.01

TABLE 4. Economic impacts (direct, indirect, induced, and total) generated from resident and nonresident trip-related fishing expenditures on Sardis and Grenada reservoirs in 2006 and 2007, respectively. All economic impacts are estimated in 2009 US$. Resident economic impacts were adjusted for the average percentage of expenditures anglers anticipated spending out of state in the event they could no longer fish Sardis or Grenada. Lower and upper bound estimates were generated by rerunning the economic impact model with the lower and upper confidence intervals of the expenditure and activity day estimates.

Reservoir Grenada

Residence status Nonresident (n = 52) Resident (n = 240)

Sardis

Nonresident (n = 110) Resident (n = 163)

Expenditure level Mean Lower Upper Mean Lower Upper Mean Lower Upper Mean Lower Upper

Impacts Direct

Indirect

Induced

Total

578,264 237,932 1,005,644 580,543 322,215 931,897 2,071,871 1,107,953 3,335,444 1,123,106 594,616 1,856,534

175,453 75,166 300,428 161,634 91,204 256,349 638,408 347,629 1,017,691 314,005 168,854 514,610

334,294 120,454 605,606 314,827 144,763 552,076 1,140,454 585,477 1,865,187 539,566 253,157 954,039

1,088,011 433,552 1,911,678 1,057,003 558,181 1,740,322 3,850,732 2,041,059 6,218,322 1,976,676 1,016,626 3,325,182

51

RECREATIONAL FISHERIES IN MISSISSIPPI RESERVOIRS

TABLE 5. Final probit model summaries for willingness-to-pay (WTP) estimation of anglers utilizing Sardis and Grenada reservoirs in 2006 and 2007, respectively. Mean WTP represents angler WTP for a fishing trip on Sardis or Grenada reservoirs above their travel expenditures. Mean trip WTP was calculated by dividing the product of each variables mean and model coefficient by the bid coefficient and summing across variables. Mean daily WTP was calculated by dividing mean trip WTP by average trip length. Lower and upper bounds on all WTP estimates were calculated using a bootstrapping procedure with 1,000 iterations. All models were weighted to adjust for avidity bias as described by Loomis (2007).

Downloaded by [Mississippi State University Libraries] at 07:40 06 February 2013

Model Variable

Mean

β

Sardis Resident (n = 163) CONSTANT BID WORTH

1.000

−0.1957 −0.0051 0.9449

Nonresident (n = 110) CONSTANT BID WORTH

Grenada Resident (n = 240) CONSTANT BID

Nonresident (n = 52) CONSTANT BID

0.662

1.000 0.657

1.000

0.2744 −0.0060 1.1309

0.7718 −0.0060

Bounds p

β(X)

0.354 −0.1957 < 0.001 < 0.001 0.6255 Mean Trip WTP = Mean Daily WTP =

0.877 −0.004

123.86 85.11 70.93

0.2744

45.89

0.7427

124.19 170.08 45.97

< 0.001 < 0.001

0.7718

< 0.001 0.006 Mean Trip WTP = Mean Daily WTP =

(Swanson and McCollum 1991). Whether the angler caught what they considered a trophy fish, whether they were a member of a fishing club, the level of importance they placed on fishing as an outdoor activity, their income, and their income squared (i.e., to test the assumption of marginal utility of income) proved to be insignificant in all models and were thus dropped from the final probit models. Based on the probit model results, mean WTP of Sardis Reservoir resident anglers was estimated to be $85.11 per trip with bootstrapping providing lower (LB) and upper bounds (UB) of $12.36 and $215.76 per trip, respectively (Table 5). Multiplying the average WTP by the estimated number of resident fishing trips taken to Sardis Reservoir in 2006 produced an estimated total consumer surplus of $3.84 million. Mean WTP of Sardis Reservoir nonresident anglers was estimated to be $170.08 per trip (LB = $104.05, UB = $301.12; Table 5). Multiplied by the estimated number of nonresident fishing trips taken to Sardis Reservoir in 2006, this produced a total consumer

Upper

12.36 10.30

215.76 179.80

104.05 28.12

301.12 81.38

71.37 59.48

177.65 148.04

78.10 19.05

532.82 129.97

127.99 127.99 106.66

0.877

Lower

−38.75

0.213 < 0.001 < 0.001 Mean Trip WTP = Mean Daily WTP =

Mean Trip WTP = Mean Daily WTP = 1.000

WTP

226.06 226.06 55.14

surplus of $1.73 million. Mean WTP of Grenada Reservoir resident anglers was estimated to be $127.99 per trip (LB = $71.37, UB = $177.65; Table 5). Multiplied by the estimated number of resident fishing trips taken to Grenada Reservoir in 2007, total consumer surplus was $3.98 million. Mean WTP of Grenada Reservoir nonresident anglers was estimated to be $226.06 per trip (LB = $78.10, UB = $532.82; Table 5). Multiplied by the estimated number of nonresident fishing trips taken to Grenada Reservoir in 2007, total consumer surplus was $0.48 million. Water Level Effects on Angling Activity, Impact, and Value Water levels at Sardis and Grenada reservoirs during March– May of the study years averaged 74.9 and 61.2 m, respectively. Water levels during the 1986–2007 period modeled by Miranda et al. (2012) ranged from 73.9 to 82.4 m at Sardis Reservoir and from 60.7 to 65.5 m at Grenada Reservoir. The models generated by Miranda et al. (2012) demonstrated that water level and year were strong predictors of fishing effort on both Sardis

52

HUTT ET AL.

TABLE 6. Estimated changes in March–May fishing effort, regional economic impact, and consumer surplus relative to reservoir water levels during March–May on Sardis and Grenada reservoirs in 2006 and 2007, respectively. Change was defined relative to estimates made in the study years.

Downloaded by [Mississippi State University Libraries] at 07:40 06 February 2013

Water Level (m) Sardis 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 Grenada 60 61 62 63 64 65 66

% Change in activity days

Change in angler expenditures (US$)

−32.60 −5.31 15.37 29.46 36.95 37.85 32.15 19.85 0.96 −24.53 −56.62

−499,884 −81,478 235,761 451,832 566,736 580,473 493,042 304,444 14,679 −376,253 −868,352

−911,752 −148,610 430,010 824,109 1,033,686 1,058,741 899,274 555,285 26,774 −686,258 −1,583,812

−24 −4 12 22 28 28 24 15 1 −18 −42

−871,478 −142,045 411,016 787,706 988,026 1,011,974 859,551 530,757 25,592 −655,945 −1,513,852

−42.27 8.02 35.77 41.00 23.69 −16.14 −78.50

−377,126 71,549 319,197 365,817 211,410 −144,023 −700,485

−698,090 132,443 590,859 677,157 391,338 −266,599 −1,296,654

−22 4 18 21 12 −8 −40

−1,451,476 275,378 1,228,521 1,407,953 813,674 −554,316 −2,696,017

(R2 = 0.84; P < 0.01) and Grenada reservoirs (R2 = 0.80; P = 0.06). Angling effort and associated economic benefits were found to peak at intermediate water levels and decline at both low and high water levels in a parabolic fashion (Table 6). Considering the relationship between water level and fishing effort in equation (1), we estimated percent changes in March–May angler activity days ranging from –56.6% to 37.9% (Table 6). These estimated changes in activity days could potentially produce changes in total economic impact ranging from –$1.58 to $1.06 million at Sardis Reservoir and from –$1.30 to $0.68 million at Grenada Reservoir. Similarly, consumer surplus was estimated to range from –$1.51 to $1.01 million at Sardis Reservoir and from –$2.70 to $1.41 million at Grenada Reservoir (Table 6). DISCUSSION The economic benefits of the recreational fisheries were quantified for the Sardis and Grenada reservoirs in Mississippi by estimating the economic impacts of trip-related angler expenditures and angler consumer surplus, or net economic value, over and above their current trip costs. Respectively, these estimates provided information on the effects of these fisheries on the Mississippi economy and angler welfare, and they provided a picture of the economic benefits of each fishery. Furthermore, models that predicted spring fishing effort as a function of aver-

Change in total impact (US$)

Change in employment (jobs)

Change in consumer surplus (US$)

age spring water levels on each reservoir were used to illustrate how variability in spring precipitation and alterations to reservoir guide curves could affect the economic benefits provided by these fisheries. Minimal differences in daily expenditures of resident and nonresident anglers were found on Sardis and Grenada reservoirs. While average trip expenditures were much higher for nonresidents than resident anglers, average daily expenditures for goods and services were only slightly higher for nonresident anglers than resident anglers due to nonresidents taking significantly longer trips. Given these similarities in average daily expenditures, differences in economic impacts between resident and nonresident anglers on the two reservoirs were mainly a function of the difference in number of activity days between the two groups. As such, unadjusted economic impacts of resident anglers were far greater than the impacts of nonresident anglers. However, many researchers have excluded expenditures of resident anglers from their economic impact analyses on the grounds that resident expenditures represent money that would most likely still circulate within the economy in question, and would just be spent on other substitute products or services within the economy if the fishery in question was not available for use (Crompton et al. 2001; Chen et al. 2003; Stoll and Ditton 2006). Conversely, Steinback (1999), Loomis (2006), and Grado et al. (2011) argued that it is valid to consider the economic

Downloaded by [Mississippi State University Libraries] at 07:40 06 February 2013

RECREATIONAL FISHERIES IN MISSISSIPPI RESERVOIRS

impact of resident expenditures if those expenditures would be spent out of state in the event that the fishery under examination was no longer available. To address this issue, resident anglers were asked what percentage of their trip-related expenditures would have been spent out of state if they were no longer able to fish on Sardis or Grenada reservoirs (Grado et al. 2011). We used the average percentage estimated from this question to adjust resident economic impacts for each fishery. It was recognized that this method of adjustment, while purely hypothetical in nature, still offers a reasonable starting point for estimating the potential leakage to the economy that would result from the loss of a fishery, which may not be as rare an event as previously thought given recent events triggered by industrial accidents, regulations, and natural disasters. Furthermore, a much lower expenditure leakage was estimated for Grenada Reservoir than Sardis Reservoir. This was reasonable considering Sardis Reservoir is much closer to the state borders and potential substitute sites such as Lake Chicot in Arkansas and Kentucky Lake in Tennessee. Alternatively, Grenada Reservoir is located closer to central Mississippi and is close to several substitute sites located within the state. While not as conservative as studies that exclude resident impacts altogether, it was felt this study provided a moderate estimate of resident economic impact that serves as a good compromise between those factions that would exclude resident impacts altogether and those that would argue for their inclusion. In addition to representing the benefit to a state economy, expenditures also represent the cost of fishing to the anglers in question (Connelly and Brown 1991; Edwards 1991; Stoll and Ditton 2006). These costs to the angler do represent a form of value in the sense that they represent a minimum amount of money the angler is willing to forego to facilitate their participation in the activity, but they do not represent the benefit the resource provides to the angler. Consumer surplus represents the benefit, or additional utility, anglers receive from the resource that is not forfeited via expenditures (Connelly and Brown 1991; Loomis 2006). We estimated per-trip consumer surplus separately for resident and nonresident anglers on Sardis and Grenada reservoirs. Our estimates of average daily WTP were much higher than those generated by Dorr et al. (2002) for Sardis Reservoir using the travel cost method; however, their study was conducted before the two reservoirs developed national reputations as trophy crappie fisheries. Furthermore, our estimates of WTP were comparable to those generated by other studies of reservoir and other quality freshwater fisheries (Chizinski et al. 2005; Loomis 2006). A bootstrapping method was utilized to generate lower and upper bounds for our WTP estimates with a 95% confidence interval (Bateman et al. 2002). Ranges of these bounds indicated that our estimates were highly variable. It was believed this was largely the result of small sample sizes resulting from splitting the sample into resident and nonresident groups and the fact that our study was conducted on two low-water years that suffered from low fishing effort and

53

resulted in fewer angler contacts than we would have normally expected. Indeed, of the four groups for which consumer surplus estimates were generated, the estimated bounds were widest for the group with the smallest sample size and narrowest for the group with the largest sample size. While most researchers argue that nonresident economic impacts are more important than resident impacts because they represent new money within the economy (Chen et al. 2003), the exact opposite emphasis is placed on nonresident consumer surplus. Because consumer surplus represents benefits anglers receive from the resource, consumer surplus of resident anglers is of greater importance to regional fisheries managers than the consumer surplus of nonresident anglers. Specifically, if nonresident angler exploitation of the resource is such that it negatively impacts the benefits resident anglers receive from the fishery then it may negate the benefit of nonresident expenditures on the local economy (Swanson and McCollum 1991). Lastly, models that predicted the effect of reservoir water levels on angler effort during March–May were used to estimate how economic impact and consumer surplus could be affected by factors such as variation in winter and spring precipitation and reservoir operation decisions (i.e., guide curve changes). The analyses presented in this paper could be used to help guide decisions pertaining to water level targets on flood-control reservoirs like those examined in this study. Predicted gains and losses in fishery economic benefits as a result of changes in reservoir water levels could be weighed against other costs and benefits associated with water storage to identify target water levels that will optimize overall regional economic benefits. Specifically, it was found that fishing effort, and resulting economic benefits, were maximized at intermediate water levels in both reservoirs. However, the USACE’s ability to maintain the water levels assigned by the guide curve was dependent on highly variable and unpredictable precipitation patterns, which according to current climate models may change considerably in the coming decades (Mulholland et al. 1997; Sun et al. 2005). Mulholland et al. (1997) estimated the effects of a doubling of atmospheric carbon dioxide from preindustry levels on seasonal precipitation in the southeastern United States. They estimated that precipitation in northern Mississippi would decline by 10% over the winter while increasing by the same percentage in summer. While this would simply represent a redistribution of annual precipitation, such a scenario would likely delay the attainment of the summer conservation pool on Sardis and Grenada reservoirs and lead to a decrease in average March–May water levels, which would negatively affect fishing effort and associated economic benefits. Lower March–May water levels could be avoided on each reservoir by raising the water level target for each reservoir’s winter conservation pool. Additional research will be needed to determine if alterations to existing reservoir guide curves are needed to account for changes in precipitation due to anthropogenic climate change, associated costs due to temporal shifts in flooding threats, and the economic benefits of recreational angling and other reservoir uses.

Downloaded by [Mississippi State University Libraries] at 07:40 06 February 2013

54

HUTT ET AL.

While many studies choose to estimate only economic impacts or consumer surplus, this study estimated both to provide a more complete picture of the economic effects of these fisheries on the Mississippi economy and the benefits they provide to anglers that utilize them. Furthermore, it was demonstrated how economic impacts and valuation data can be used to assess reservoir management decisions by linking economic values to reservoir water levels. Future research can improve upon this analysis by considering other factors that can influence angler participation levels including angler catch expectations, travel costs, and provision of additional on-site amenities. However, our application provides an example of how economic impacts and valuation data can be used to inform reservoir management decisions.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We appreciate the funding support provided by U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Federal Assistance in Sport Fish Restoration Mississippi Grant Number F-138 through the MDWFP. We appreciate the contributions of MDWFP biologists K. Meals and A. Dunn. Also, we thank the students and technicians in the Human Dimensions and Conservation Law Enforcement Laboratory at MSU who worked on this research. Finally, we thank the anonymous reviewers for their comments and suggestions that helped to improve to this manuscript.

REFERENCES Bateman, I. J., R. T. Carson, B. Day, W. M. Hanemann, N. Hanley, T. Hett, ¨ M. Jones Lee, G. Loomes, S. Mourato, E. Ozdemiroglu, D. W. Pearce, R. Sugden, and J. Swanson. 2002. Economic valuation with stated preference techniques: a manual. Edward Elgar, Northampton, Massachusetts. Bohnsack, B. L., R. B. Ditton, J. R. Stoll, R. J. Chen, R. Novak, and L. S. Smutko. 2002. The economic impacts of the recreational Bluefin Tuna fishery in Hatteras, North Carolina. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 22:165–176. Chen, R. J., K. M. Hunt, and R. B. Ditton. 2003. Estimating the economic impacts of a trophy Largemouth Bass fishery: issues and applications. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 23:835–844. Chizinski, C. J., K. L. Pope, D. B. Willis, G. R. Wilde, and E. J. Rossman. 2005. Economic value of angling at a reservoir with low visitation. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 25:98–104. Connelly, N. A., and T. L. Brown. 1991. Net economic value of the freshwater recreational fisheries of New York. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 120:770–775. Criddle, K. R., M. Herrmann, S. T. Lee, and C. Hamel. 2003. Participation decisions, angler welfare, and the regional economic impact of sportfishing. Marine Resource Economics 18:291–312. Crompton, J. L., S. Lee, and T. J. Shuster. 2001. A guide for undertaking economic impact studies: the Springfest example. Journal of Travel Research 40:79–87. Daugherty, D. J., D. L. Buckmeier, and P. K. Kokkanti. 2011. Sensitivity of recreational access to reservoir water level variation: an approach to identify future access needs in reservoirs. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 31:63–69. Dillman, D. A. 2007. Mail and internet surveys: the tailored design method, 2nd edition. Wiley, Hoboken, New Jersey.

Ditton, R. B., and K. M. Hunt. 2001. Combining creel intercept and mail survey methods to understand the human dimensions of local freshwater fisheries. Fisheries Management and Ecology 8:295–301. Ditton, R. B., D. K. Loomis, and S. Choi. 1992. Recreation specialization: re-conceptualization from a social worlds perspective. Journal of Leisure Research 24:33–51. Dorr, B., I. A. Munn, and K. O. Meals. 2002. A socioeconomic and biological evaluation of current and hypothetical crappie regulations in Sardis Lake, Mississippi: an integrated approach. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 22:1376–1384. Edwards, S. F. 1991. A critique of three “economics” arguments commonly used to influence fishery allocations. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 11:121–130. Fisher, M. R. 1996. Estimating the effect of nonresponse bias on angler surveys. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 125:118–126. Grado, S. C., K. M. Hunt, C. P. Hutt, X. T. Santos, and R. M. Kaminski. 2011. Economic impacts of waterfowl hunting in Mississippi derived from a state-based mail survey. Human Dimensions of Wildlife 16:100–113. Grado, S. C., J. C. Jones, S. T. Earles, and W. D. Jones. 2005. Fishing activities and economic impacts of charter boat businesses on the Mississippi Gulf Coast. Proceedings of the Annual Conference Southeastern Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies 57(2003):112–123. Hamel, C., M. Herrmann, S. T. Lee, K. R. Criddle, and H. T. Geier. 2002. Linking sportfishing trip attributes, participation decisions, and regional economic impacts in lower and central Cook Inlet, Alaska. Annals of Regional Science 36:247–264. Hunt, K., S. Grado, L. E. Miranda, and S. F. Baker. 2008. A social and economic analysis of the recreational fisheries in Mississippi flood control reservoirs. Mississippi Department of Wildlife, Fisheries and Parks, Freshwater Fisheries Report 250, Jackson. Jakus, P. M., P. Dowell, and M. N. Murray. 2000. The effect of fluctuating water levels on reservoir fishing. Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics 25:520–532. Loomis, J. 2006. Use of survey data to estimate economic value and regional economic effects of fishery improvements. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 26:301–307. Loomis, J. 2007. Correcting for on-site visitor sampling bias when estimating the regional economic effects of tourism. Tourism Economics 13:41–47. Miranda, L. E., J. D. Dagel, L. Kaczka, E. B. Mower, S. L. Wigen, and K. O. Meals. 2012. Promoting crappie recruitment in northwest Mississippi reservoirs. Mississippi Department of Wildlife, Fisheries and Parks, Jackson. Mulholland, P. J., G. R. Best, C. C. Coutant, G. M. Hornberger, J. L. Meyer, P. J. Robinson, J. R. Stenberg, R. E. Turner, F. Vera-Herrera, and R. G. Wetzel. 1997. Effects of climate change on freshwater ecosystems of the south-eastern United States and the Gulf Coast of Mexico. Hydrological Processes 11:949– 970. Munn, I. A., A. Hussain, S. Spurlock, and J. E. Henderson. 2010. Economic impact of fishing, hunting, and wildlife-associated recreation expenditures on the southeast U.S. regional economy: an input–output analysis. Human Dimensions of Wildlife 15:433–449. R Olson, D., and S. Lindall. 2000. IMPLAN professional , 2nd edition. Minnesota IMPLAN Group, Stillwater. Platt, J., and D. Munger. 1999. Impact of fluctuating reservoir elevation on recreational use and value. U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Technical Memorandum EC-1999-1, Denver. Posadas, B. C. 2009. Economic impact of the Mississippi recreational fishing industry at the year 2006. Coastal Research and Extension Center, Mississippi State University, Biloxi. Riechers, R. K., G. C. Matlock, and R. B. Ditton. 1991. A dual-survey approach for estimating the economic aspects of fishing. Pages 344–355 in D. Guthrie, J. M. Hoenig, M. Holliday, C. M. Jones, M. J. Mills, S. A. Moberly, K. H. Pollock, and D. R. Talhelm, editors. Creel and angler surveys in fisheries management. American Fisheries Society, Symposium 12, Bethesda, Maryland.

RECREATIONAL FISHERIES IN MISSISSIPPI RESERVOIRS

Downloaded by [Mississippi State University Libraries] at 07:40 06 February 2013

Schorr, M. S., J. Sah, D. F. Schreiner, M. R. Meador, and L. G. Hill. 1995. Regional economic impact of the Lake Texoma (Oklahoma-Texas) Striped Bass fishery. Fisheries 20(5):14–18. Steinback, S. R. 1999. Regional economic impact assessments of recreational fisheries: an application of the IMPLAN modeling system to marine party and charter boat fishing in Maine. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 19:724–736. Stoll, J. R., and R. B. Ditton. 2006. Understanding anglers’ willingness to pay under alternative management regimes. Human Dimensions of Wildlife 11:27–42. Sun, G., S. G. McNulty, J. Lu, D. M. Amatya, Y. Liang, and R. K. Kolka. 2005. Regional annual water yield from forest lands and its response to potential deforestation across the southeastern United States. Journal of Hydrology 308:258–268. Swanson, C. S., and D. W. McCollum. 1991. Application of economics to recreational fisheries management: an overview. Pages 299–315 in D. Guthrie, J.

55

M. Hoenig, M. Holliday, C. M. Jones, M. J. Mills, S. A. Moberly, K. H. Pollock, and D. R. Talhelm, editors. Creel and angler surveys in fisheries management. American Fisheries Society, Symposium 12, Bethesda, Maryland. USFWS (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service) and USCB (U.S. Census Bureau). 2008. 2006 national survey of fishing, hunting, and wildlife-associated recreation: Mississippi. USFWS and USCB, FHW/06-MS, Washington, D.C. Ward, F. A., B. A. Roach, J. B. Loomis, R. C. Ready, and J. E. Henderson. 1996. Regional recreation demand models for large reservoirs: database development, model estimation, and management applications. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Technical Report R-96-2, Washington, D.C. Wood, A. W., D. P. Lettenmaier, and R. N. Palmer. 1997. Assessing climate change implications for water resources planning. Climatic Change 37: 203–228.