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Effectiveness of a Social Marketing Media Campaign to Reduce Oral Cancer Racial Disparities Jennifer M. Watson, PhD; Scott L. Tomar, DMD, DrPH; Virginia Dodd, PhD; Henrietta L. Logan, PhD; Youjin Choi, PhD
Objectives: The purpose of this study was to provide a systematic evaluation of a theory-driven oral cancer awareness media campaign. Methods: We surveyed a cohort of residents in an intervention city (250) and a control city (250) immediately prior to and after the media campaign. Participants (125 black/ African American and 125 white) in each city completed surveys at baseline and follow-up. Oral cancer campaign awareness was assessed in both cities, along with 4 hypothetical health campaigns. Oral cancer awareness, oral cancer exam awareness, intent to receive an oral cancer exam, interest in exam, and receipt of exam were also assessed in both cities, both at baseline and follow-up. Results: Intervention city residents showed a significant increase in recognition of the campaign, awareness of the oral cancer exam, and interest in getting an exam, while no significant changes in those topics were found for the control city. Blacks/African Americans in the intervention city were significantly more likely than whites to demonstrate increases in awareness of the campaign, oral cancer awareness, and interest in receiving an oral cancer exam. Conclusions: A theory-driven media campaign was successful in increasing awareness of the oral cancer exam and interest in the exam among blacks/African Americans. Keywords: race/ethnicity n cancer n health disparities n mouth J Natl Med Assoc. 2009;101:774-782 Author Affiliations: Community Dentistry and Behavioral Science (Drs Watson, Tomar, and Logan), Health Education and Behavior (Dr Dodd), Public Relations (Dr Choi), University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida. Corresponding Author: Jennifer M. Watson, PhD, University of Florida, Department of Community Dentistry and Behavioral Science, PO Box 103628, Gainesville, FL 32610-3628 (
[email protected]).
Introduction
O
ral and pharyngeal cancers (oral cancer) are relatively understudied, yet it is estimated that more than 34 000 new cases of oral cancer will be diag-
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nosed in 2007 in the United States.1 Survival rates for oral cancer have not improved appreciably in decades.2 For unknown reasons, oral cancer is more likely to be fatal in black/African American males.2-4 Between 1998 and 2002, black/African American males had an age-adjusted incidence rate of oral cancer more than 20% higher than white males, and for black/African American men the 5-year survival rate was only 31% compared to 59% for white men.1,3,5 Florida bears a substantial burden from oral cancer. In 2003 Florida had the fifth-highest national age-adjusted incidence rate for males (18.8 per 100 000) and females (7.1 per 100 000),6 and ranked second in the number of new cases in 2003 among males and females.6 The overall 5-year relative survival rate for oral cancer has not improved substantially during the past 3 decades.2 The 5-year relative survival rate varies widely by stage, from 81.8% for cases diagnosed at localized stages, 52.1% for cases with regional lymph node involvement at the time of diagnosis, to just 26.5% for those with distant metastasis.2 Unfortunately, only onethird of cases in the United States are diagnosed at localized stages2 and only 29.2% of oral cancer cases in Florida were diagnosed at localized stages.7 There are substantial differences among racial groups in the stage at diagnosis of oral cancer. Among white men, 32% of cases were diagnosed at localized stages in 1996-2004, compared to just 17% of cases among black/ African American men.2 Conversely, 62% of cases among black/African American men had spread regionally at the time of diagnosis, compared to 53% among white men. While there is no consensus among researchers as to why oral cancer mortality rates among black/African American men are greater than those of their white counterparts, prominent factors in this disparity are believed to be lower cancer screening rates and a later stage of cancer presentation in blacks/African Americans.8,9 A statewide survey of adult Floridians revealed black/African Americans were significantly less likely than whites to have heard of oral cancer (66.0% vs 90.0%) or to report having had an oral cancer exam even after the exam process was described in detail (19.2% vs 38.6%).10 VOL. 101, NO. 8, AUGUST 2009
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At present, the principal method for detecting oral cancer is a comprehensive clinical examination. Therefore, Healthy People 2010 specifically included an objective to increase rates of oral cancer exams among adults.11 Healthy People 2010 set a target of 20% of adults being screened for oral cancer; just 7% of blacks/African Americans aged 40 years and older received an oral cancer exam in the preceding 12 months.11 Increasing rate of screening for oral cancer requires effective health promotion campaigns.12 Research has demonstrated the effectiveness of community media campaigns for changing health behaviors, including promoting dietary change,13 increasing immunization knowledge,14 and reducing smoking.15 Social marketing is defined as “the application of commercial marketing technologies to the analysis, planning, execution, and evaluation of programs designed to influence the voluntary behavior of target audiences in order to improve their personal welfare and that of their society.”16 This approach has shown promise in health promotion campaigns targeting the public, health professionals, and policy makers.17 At the heart of the social marketing approach is a commitment to understand and respond to consumers’ wants and needs. Marketing serves as the organizing concept of this consumer-centered approach. Social marketing examines the influence of 4 primary variables on an individual’s likelihood to engage in a successful exchange: product (commodity, idea, or health practice), price (barriers or costs associated with obtaining or using the product), place (channels of communication and distribution points for products), and promotion (messages that are memorable and persuasive). A careful analysis of each variable and their interactions is necessary to design programs that reflect what consumers truly want and will influence positive behavior change.15 We utilize the principles of social marketing to provide an important framework in which to design a community-based awareness campaign to increase receipt of oral cancer screenings. In addition, we utilize the transtheoretical model (TTM) to evaluate the efficacy of the social marketing campaign. Findings from our previous studies indicate large racial disparities in Florida regarding knowledge of oral cancer, receipt of oral cancer examinations, stage of disease at diagnosis, treatment provided, and survival rates.10 This project seeks to begin closing some of those gaps by focusing on an area of the state—greater Jacksonville—that suffers a disproportionate burden of disease, exhibits substantial racial disparities, and is home to a large proportion of Florida’s black/African American community. Utilizing the principles of social marketing, formative and consumer-driven research was conducted to create a culturally sensitive media campaign that would not only increase awareness of oral cancer among the general public but specifically increase awareness in the high-risk target population of blacks/ African Americans.18 JOURNAL OF THE NATIONAL MEDICAL ASSOCIATION
Objectives The objectives were to (1) assess the impact of a social marketing media campaign designed to increase awareness of oral cancer exams in the intervention area of Jacksonville, Florida; and (2) assess campaign efficacy in our target population (blacks/African Americans).
Methods Campaign Based on the results of several focus groups conducted with blacks/African Americans, printed media materials and radio public service announcements were created.19 Focus groups findings evidenced that lack of awareness regarding oral cancer was a major factor for low rates of receipt of an oral cancer exam; therefore, campaign messages focused on increasing awareness of oral cancer and its exam. After these materials were created, they were pretested via focus groups and brief intercept interviews (n = 40) with blacks/African Americans. Printed campaign materials showed a black/African American male, and the campaign tagline became “Oral Cancer: It spreads faster than you think,” and individuals were asked to “Contact a dentist to make an appointment for a simple, fast, and painless exam.” Additional information was offered through a toll-free phone number (number of calls, 69) and Web site (www. ocspreads.com; number of hits, 11 244). Brochures and direct mailings contained general statistics on oral cancer and the exam, as well as statistics specific to the black/African American community. Direct mailings were sent to zip codes within the intervention city that had a high density of black/African American residents, and brochures were distributed to all dental practices located in the intervention city. Billboard posters, bus posters, and bus wraps with the same tagline were displayed between June and October, 2006. In addition, two 30-second radio spots were run on 2 stations identified as popular among black/African Americans by our focus group participants and Arbitron radio rating data in the intervention city. The first spot focused on general statistics regarding oral cancer and the utility of the oral cancer exam and the other was a black/African American oral cancer survivor discussing consequences of his treatment and urging people to get an oral cancer exam.
Campaign Assessment To assess the impact of the social marketing media campaign, we surveyed a cohort of residents in our intervention city (Jacksonville) and also a control city (Tampa) immediately prior to the campaign (baseline) and immediately after the media campaign (follow-up). Tampa is located on Florida’s central gulf coast and Jacksonville is located in the northeast portion of the state, fewer than 50 miles from the Georgia border. The cities are far enough apart (about 200 miles) that Tampa-area residents are unlikely to have VOL. 101, NO. 8, AUGUST 2009 775
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been exposed to the media campaign. Baseline data were initially collected for 2000 participants (1000 in each city) in January to June 2006. The media campaign was implemented immediately after baseline data collection and was completed in October 2006. In both the Jacksonville and the Tampa areas, we oversampled predominantly black/ African American areas to ensure that half of the participants in each city were black/African American, to ensure adequate sample size for comparisons by race. This sampling strategy was utilized successfully in our prior surveys of adults in Duval and Miami-Dade counties.19 The telephone-based surveys were conducted by Independent Data Collection Center in Gainesville. Interviews were conducted 7 days per week from 10 AM to 9 PM. About 80% of the interviews were conducted from 5 to 9 PM. The sample was randomly selected from a commercial listing of household telephone numbers in the target areas. Trained staff interviewed participants using standardized procedures. Data were captured with Voxco version 4.7 computer-assisted telephone interviewing software (Voxco, Montreal, Quebec, Canada). Up to 7 contact attempts were made before a phone number was finalized as unproductive. Refusals were called 3 times. For both the baseline and follow-up surveys our refusal rates were lower and our cooperation rates were higher than other states’ surveys.20
Baseline Telephone numbers were randomly selected within census blocks in the Jacksonville and Tampa metropolitan statistical areas (MSAs). The sample included participants aged 35 years and older living in those MSAs. To ensure an adequate sample size for blacks/African Americans, the sampling design oversampled within census blocks in those MSAs with a large proportion of black/African American residents. To complete our targeted 2000 interviews, 10 054 numbers and 31 710 dials were made in Jacksonville, and 17 171 numbers and 47 668 dials were made in Tampa. There were 273 refusals in Jacksonville and 613 in Tampa.
Follow-Up A cohort of 500 respondents from the initial sample (Jacksonville, 250; Tampa, 250) was randomly selected to complete the follow-up survey and equal number of blacks/African Americans and whites were surveyed in each city. That sample size provided 80% power to detect an increase in receipt of oral cancer exam from 7% to 20%. Those numbers were based on our prior research that demonstrates low oral cancer screening rates, especially among blacks/African Americans10,19 but also specifically on Healthy People 2010 objectives. Typically, several months in the field are required to obtain high response rates in cohort phone interviews.
Table 1. Survey Questions Used in Study Questions Do you remember any media campaigns such as billboard ads, radio ads, or TV ads regarding oral cancer or oral cancer screening.
Possible Responses Yes, no
Do you remember any media campaigns (billboard ads, radio, TV ads) regarding Yes, no breast cancer or breast cancer screening? Do you remember any media campaigns (billboard ads, radio, TV ads) regarding Yes, no prostate cancer or prostate cancer screening? Do you remember any media campaigns (billboard ads, radio, TV ads) regarding Yes, no quitting smoking? Do you remember any media campaigns (billboard ads, radio, TV ads) regarding Yes, no help with alcohol abuse? Have you ever heard about Oral Cancer, that is, cancer of the throat or mouth?
Yes, no
Have you ever heard of a test or exam for oral or mouth cancer?
Yes, no
Are you seriously considering receiving an oral cancer exam in the next 12 months?
Yes, no
Overall on a scale from 1 to 10 where 1 is not at all interested and 10 is extremely interested, how interested are you in receiving an oral cancer exam?
1-10
Have you ever had an exam for oral or mouth cancer in which the doctor or dentist pulls on your tongue, sometimes with gauze wrapped around it, and feels under the tongue and inside the cheeks?
Yes, no
When did this most recently occur?
LT 12 months to 5 years
Do you regularly get an oral cancer exam?
Every 6 months—do not regularly get exams
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However, to ensure that respondents were contacted immediately after the media campaign, all data were collected over a 1-month period. Even with this shorter time frame our response rates were similar or better than typical surveys21 with response rates in Jacksonville ranging from 0.283 for whites and 0.287 for blacks/African Americans, and in Tampa response rates ranged from 0.300 for whites and 0.320 for blacks/African Americans.
response biases (eg, indicating yes or no for all campaigns regardless of content). In addition, asking about other hypothetical health campaigns allowed us to identify differences in reporting patterns between the 2 cities. Several questions assessing oral cancer, oral cancer exam awareness, and the impact of the campaign on selfreported screening behavior were asked at baseline and follow-up to assess the impact of the media campaign on overall oral cancer awareness and awareness of the exam. We utilized the TTM22 to assess whether our campaign influenced the stage of change. The TTM was originally developed in the area of addiction treatment22 and has been widely applied to health promotion areas (eg, cancer screening, physical activity).23,24 The TTM considers behavior change as occurring on a continuum of stages, and views behavior change as a process rather than as a single event. Several questions were used in an algorithm to classify individuals into the appropriate stage of the TTM. Participants were classified as being in the precontemplation stage if they replied that they had never received an oral cancer exam and were not seriously considering getting one in the next 12 months. Participants were classified as being in the combined contemplation/preparation stage if they responded they had never received an oral cancer exam but
Questionnaire The questions related to this study were asked as part of a larger telephone survey that assessed respondents’ knowledge of oral cancer signs, symptoms, risk factors, and perceived susceptibility. The survey instrument was based on the instrument used for our statewide survey of adults but was modified to assess specific components of the mass media campaign.10,19 General awareness of the campaign was assessed (Table 1). Participants were also asked to report whether they had seen or heard any messages from 4 hypothetical health campaigns: breast cancer, prostate cancer screening, smoking cessation, or alcohol abuse. These additional items allowed us to assess the specificity of the effect of the oral cancer campaign and identify potential
Table 2. Selected Demographic Characteristics Collected at Baseline for the Baseline-Only Sample (n = 1500) and Cohort Participants (n = 500) Who Completed Both Baseline and Follow-Up Interviews in the Cities of Jacksonville and Tampa, Florida Baseline Onlya Jacksonville
Tampa
Jacksonville
Tampa
N = 750 n (%)
N = 750 n (%)
N = 250 n (%)
N = 250b n (%)
Characteristics Sexc Female Age Years
Education < High school High school graduate Some college ≥ College grad Annual household income
