elasmobranch fisheries of india

ISSN : 0972 - 2351 CMFRI SPECIAL PUBLICATION Number 71

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CENTRAL MARINE FISHERIES RESEARCH INSTITUTE ^f''jl\ (Indian Council of Agricultural Research) I ^f^fe^ S Post Box No. 1603, Tatapuram P.O. \• i t e . . ^ Ernakulam, Cochin - 682 014

CMFRI SPECIAL PUBLICATION Number 71

ELASMOBRANCH FISHERIES OF INDIA - AN APPRAISAL

Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute (Indian Council of Agricultural Research) P.B. No. 1603, Cochin- 682 014

Published by Prof. (Dr.) Mohan Joseph Modayil Director Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute Cochin - 682 014

Cover Photos Upper right

: Sharks landed at Kakinada Fisheries Harbour - Photo by Dr. Mohammad Kasim

Upper left

: Transportation of sharks at Kakinada - Photo by Prof. (Dr.) Mohan Joseph Modayil

Below

: Whale shark - Rhincodon typus Smith, 1828 stranded along Gujarat coast

CMFRI SPECIAL PUBLICATION Number 71

ELASMOBRANCH FISHERIES OF INDIA - A N APPRAISAL

by S.G.Raje, Grace Mathew, K.K.Joshi, Rekha J.Nair, C M o h a n r a j , M.Srinath, S.Gomathy and N.Rudramurthy.

Released on the occasion of the " Project Finalization meeting on Elasmobranchs on 17-18 February 2002 at CMFRL Cochin

Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute (Indian Council of Agricultural Research) P.B. No. 1603, Cochin- 682 014

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FOREWORD Elasmobranchs comprising sharks, skates, guitarfishes and rays have attracted increased attention in recent years both from research and conservation points of view. The Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute has been collecting landing statistics and making estimates of production for the past five decades. Besides, the Institute has also been collecting data on biological characteristics of some species from selected landing centres. However, the knowledge on these resources has not so far been consolidated, mainly owing to lack of adequate information on individual species contributing to the fishery and the various aspects of their biology. Globally, however, increased concerns are expressed on the sustainability of the elasmobranch fisheries while some countries have even harmed the exploitation of certain species. It was therefore felt desirable first to consolidate the data and knowledge available from the Indian EEZ on the status of elasmobranch fishery so that suitable action plans could be formulated for research, development and conservation. This process was initiated about two years ago and now we are ready with the results of the voluminous data processed and consolidated. The Government of India recently issued a notification banning capture of all species of elasmobranchs by placing them in the Schedule I of Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 (Notification in the Gazette of India Part II. Section 3 (ii) dated 11 July 2001). This resulted in considerable resentment from different sections of the fishing industry, export, trade etc, necessitating reconsideration of the ban by the Government. After careful reconsideration, the Government have notified again (Notification in Part II Section 3 Subsection (ii). Extraordinary of the Gazette of India dated 5 December 2001) relaxing the blanket ban and imposing restriction only on certain species by placing them in Schedule I of the Wild Life (Protection) Act 1972. The CMFRI, being the nodal institution for research on exploited marine living resources, realised the need for a concerted research effort into the various aspects of elasmobranchs so as to generate the type of basic data, which will facilitate advice to the Government and other interest groups. Before initiating such a project, it was also felt desirable, in view of the involvement of different interest groups, to have a consultation meeting by taking the views of all the stakeholders. I am happy that my colleagues involved in the collection of landing data and estimation of production and in research on various aspects of fishery and biology have consolidated the available information and brought out this publication. It is possible that certain relevant information has been left out of this publication in spite of our best efforts to collect and collate all the published data. We continue our effort in collection and collation of data and information on these resources in order to effectively implement the proposed research project. I congratulate everyone who has made this publication possible for the timely and effective involvement. It is hoped that this publication will serve as background information for the National Project Finalisation Meeting on Elasmobranchs. I am thankful to the Ministry of Environment and Forests for the financial support. Cochin 17-02-2002

MOHAN JOSEPH MODAYIL DIRECTOR

CONTENTS

Introduction

1

Database

2

Taxonomy

2

Biology

13

Fishery

26

Trade

53

Whale shark

55

Management measures in elasmobranchs

58

Bibliography

61

CMFRI

Elosmobranc/i Fisheries of India • An Appraisal

INTRODUCTION Elasmobranchs are among the largest of the marine fish species, which are cartilaginous, with placoid scales embedded in the skin (sharks) or naked (rays) and with gill slits. Their distribution ranges from the nearshore regions to the oceanic waters, some are known to travel long distances and are included in the category of highly migratory and straddling stocks. Some are known to move in large schools. The elasmobranchs consist of sharks including sawfishes, rays and skates. They are fished using different types of gears and in recent years, have assumed great significance in tlie export market. They are exploited by a variety of gears like gill nets, long lines and trawls along with several other fishes. Though there is no directed fishing for elasmobranchs, in certain small pockets of Tamilnadu, large meshed bottom-set gillnets called as thirukkavalai are operated for fishing the rays (thirukkai). The elasmobranchs are very useful and every part of the body (jaws, skin, liver, cartilage and flesh) is used. With the increasing demand both in the domestic and export markets and with the availability of improved technology of fishing, the landings of these fishes have been increasing and reached the level of over 70, 000 t per year. The landing statistics are collected regularly by CMFRI from 1950 from all along the cotmtry's coast, but research into taxonomy, biology and population dynamics has not been of any significance for various reasons including the large size of the animals, small numbers landed at any landing centre etc. In recent years, there is worldwide recognition that considerable caution is necessary in exploiting the elasmobranchs to avoid depletion/overfishing of the stocks. Though the landings as a whole are on the increase, the concern on the sustainability of the resources stems from the fact that the elasmobranchs are long lived, attain sexual maturity very late and produce very little offspring and, unplarmed and indiscriminate exploitation could lead to undesirable consequences. While this is the crux of the problem, it is also recognized world over that adequate scientific data are not available on a 'per species' basis and aspects of biology are not fully understood. Moreover, the methodologies adopted for stock assessment of teleosts cannot be adopted for elasmobranchs. The situation therefore warrants a close look at the database developed so far, identify the lacunae, determine the priorities for research and implement the same with all seriousness. It is under this background that an attempt has been made to bring all the knowledge available in India on elasmobranchs under one cover so that the issues relating to elasmobranch fisheries, research, development and management could be effectively addressed in future by the research workers, plarmers, and development agencies.

Elasmobranch Fisheries of India - An Ap()raisa/

CMFRI

DATABASE Data on elasmobranch landings collected from landing centers along the entire coastline of the country following the Multistage Stratified Random Sampling Design during 1961-2000 by the Fishery Resources Assessment Division of the Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute are used. Estimates of landings are made gear wise for the entire country at monthly intervals. Detailed information on species composition and length and other aspects of biology generated at major landing centers along the entire coastline are suitably weighted to obtain estimates at the state level and finally the all India picture. All attempts were made to include data from the published work on elasmobranchs of India. TAXONOMY Day (1878) reported a total of 67 species consisting of 41 sharks (including sawfishes), 19 rays and 7 skates. According to Misra (1952), 78 species of elasmobranchs are known including 51 sharks (including sawfishes), 20 rays and 7 skates in the Indian seas of which 76 are commercially important. Talwar and Kacker (1984) reported 76 species of commercially important elasmobranchs. Compagno (1984) listed 55 species of sharks from the Indian Ocean of which the presence of 10 species in the Indian EEZ is uncertain. The absence of a comprehensive taxonomic treatise on elasmobranchs, resulted in utter confusion in the nomenclature as revealed by the inconsistent usage of species names by different workers and difficulty in identifying various species of elasmobranchs exploited in the Indian seas. In the present work 110 species are listed from the Indian seas on the basis of Compagno (1984). This list includes 34 additional species over those reported by Talwar and Kacker (1984)(Plates 1-6); it is however feared that this list (Table 1.) is likely to be incomplete.

Table 1. Shark species known from Indian seas SI. No. Scientific Name

Common name

1

Carcharhinus albimarginatus (Ruppell, 1837)

Silvertip shark

*

2

Carcharhinus altimus (Springer, 1950)

Bignose shark

*

3

Carcharhinus amblyrhynchoides (Whitley, 1934)

Graceful shark

*

4

Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos (Bleeker, 1856)

Grey reefshark

*

5

Carcharhinus amboinensis (Muller &Henle, 1839)

Pigeye shark

*

6

Carcharhinus brevipinna (Muller &Henle, 1839)

Spirmer shark

*

7

Carcharhinus dussumieri (Muller &Henle, 1841)

Whitecheek shark

*

8

Carcharhinus falciformis (Muller &Henle, 1839)

Silky shark

ipit

CMFRI

Elasmobranch Fisheries of India - An Appraisal

DATABASE Data on elasmobranch landings collected from landing centers along the entire coastline of the country following the Multistage Stratified Random Sampling Design during 1961-2000 by the Fishery Resources Assessment Division of the Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute are used. Estimates of landings are made gear wise for the entire country at monthly intervals. Detailed information on species composition and length and other aspects of biology generated at major landing centers along the entire coastline are suitably weighted to obtain estimates at the state level and finally the all India picture. All attempts were made to include data from the published work on elasmobranchs of India. TAXONOMY Day (1878) reported a total of 67 species consisting of 41 sharks (including sawfishes), 19 rays and 7 skates. According to Misra (1952), 78 species of elasmobranchs are known including 51 sharks (including sawfishes), 20 rays and 7 skates in the Indian seas of which 76 are commercially important. Talwar and Kacker (1984) reported 76 species of commercially important elasmobranchs. Compagno (1984) listed 55 species of sharks from the Indian Ocean of which the presence of 10 species in the Indian EEZ is uncertain. The absence of a comprehensive taxonomic treatise on elasmobranchs, resulted in utter confusion in the nomenclature as revealed by the inconsistent usage of species names by different workers and difficulty in identifying various species of elasmobranchs exploited in the Indian seas. In the present work 110 species are listed from the Indian seas on the basis of Compagno (1984). This list includes 34 additional species over those reported by Talwar and Kacker (1984) (Plates 1-6); it is however feared that this list (Table 1.) is likely to be incomplete.

Table 1. Shark species known from Indian seas SI. No. Scientific Name

Common name

1

Carcharhinus albimarginatus (Ruppell, 1837)

Silvertip shark

*

2

Carcharhinus altimus (Springer, 1950)

Bignose shark

*

3

Carcharhinus amblyrhynchoides (Whitley, 1934)

Graceful shark

»

4

Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos (Bleeker, 1856)

Grey reefshark

*

5

Carcharhinus amboinensis (Muller &Henle, 1839)

Pigeye shark

»

6

Carcharhinus brevipinna (Muller &Henle, 1839)

Spinner shark

»

7

Carcharhinus dussumieri (Muller &Henle, 1841)

Whitecheek shark

*

8

Carcharhinus falciformis (Muller &Henle, 1839)

Silky shark

2 -

CMFRI

Elasmobranch Fisheries of India • An .^,prcasa\

9

Carcharhinus hemiodon (Muller &Henle, 1841)

Pondicherry shark

*

10

Carcharhinus leucas (Muller &Henle, 1839)

Bull shark

»

11

Carcharhinus limbatus (Muller &Henle, 1839)

Blacktip shark

»

12

Carcharhinus longimanus (Poey, 1861)

Oceanic whitetip shark

13

Carcharhinus macloti (Muller &Henle, 1839)

Hardnose shark

14

Carcharhinus melanopterus (Quoy &Gaimard, 1824) Blackfin reef shark

15

Carcharhinus sealei (Pietschmann, 1913)

Blackspot shark

16

Carcharhinus sorrah (Muller & Henle, 1839)

Spottail shark

17

Carcharhinus obscurus (Lesueur, 1818)

Dusky shark

18

Isurus oxyrinchus Rafinesque, 1810

Shortfin mako shark

*

19

Galeocerdo cuvieri (Lesueur, 1822)

Tiger shark

*

20

Glyphis gangeticus (Muller &Henle, 1839)

Ganges shark

21

Glyphis glyphis (Muller &Henle, 1839)

Speartooth shark

22

Loxodon macrorhinus (Muller &Her\le, 1839)

Sliteye shark

*

23

Rhizoprionodon acutus (Ruppell, 1837)

Milk shark

*

24

Rhizoprionodon oligolinx Springer, 1964

Grey sharpnose shark

*

25

Scoliodon laticaudus (Muller &Henle, 1838)

Spadenose shark

*

26

Lamiopsis temminckii (Muller & Henle, 1841)

Fawn shark

*

27

Triaenodon obesus (Ruppell, 1837)

Whitetip reefshark

*

28

Negaprion acutidens (Ruppell, 1835)

Indian lemon shark

29

Prionace glauca (Linnaeus, 1758)

Blue shark

30

Alopias superciliosus (Lowe, 1841)

Big eye thresher shark

31

Alopias vulpinus (Bonnaterre, 1788)

Thresher shark

32

Alopias pelagicus Nakamura, 1936

Pelagic thresher shark

33

Rhincodon typus Smith, 1828

Whale shark

*

34

Stegostoma fasciatum (Hermann, 1783)

Zebra shark

*

35

Hemipristis elongatus (Klunzinger, 1871)

Snaggle tooth shark

*

36

Hemigaleus microstoma (Bleeker, 1852 )

Sicklefin weasel shark

37

Chiloscyllium indicum (Gmelin, 1789)

Slender bamboo shark

*

38

Chiloscyllium griseum Muller & Henle, 1838

Grey bamboo shark

*

* * *

-

CMFRI

Elasmobranch Fisheries of India - An Appraisal

39

Chiloscyllium plagiosum (Bennett, 1810)

White spot bamboo shark

40

Chiloscyllium punctatum Muller and Henle, 1839

Brown banded bamboo shark

41

Heptranchias perlo (Bonnaterre, 1788)

Sharpnose sevengill shark

42

Cephaloscyllium silasi (Talwar, 1974)

Indian swellshark

43

lago omanensis (Norman, 1939)

Bigeye houndshark

*

44

Echinorhinus brucus (Bonnaterre, 1788)

Bramble shark

*

45

Atelomycterus marmoratus (Bennett, 1830)

Coral cat shark

46

Eridacnis radcliffei Smith, 1913

Pygmy ribbon tail catshark

» *

47

Carcharodon carcharias (Linnaeus, 1758)

Great white shark

48

Mustelus mosis Klunzinger, 1871

Hardnosed smooth hound

49

Apristurus investigatoris (Misra ,1962)

Brood nose catshark

50

Halaelurus hispidius (Alcock, 1891)

Bristly catshark

51

Halaelurus quagga (Alcock, 1899)

Quagga cat shark

52

Chaenogaleus macrostoma (Bleeker, 1852)

Hook tooth shark

53

Nebriusferrugineus (Lesson, 1831)

Giant sleepy shark

54

Eugomphodus taurus (Rafinesque, 1810)

Blue nurse shark

55

Eusphyra blochii (Cuvier, 1816)

Winghead shark

»

56

Sphyma mokarran (Ruppell, 1837)

Great hammer head

*

57

Sphyrna zygaena (Linnaeus, 1758)

Smooth hammerhead

*

58

Sphyma lewini (Griffith & Smith, 1834)

Scalloped Hammerhead shark

*

59

Squalus mitsukurii (Jordan & Snyder, 1903)

Big eye dogfish

60

Squalus blainville (Risso, 1827)

Big eye dogfish

61

Pseudocarcharias kamoharai (Matsubara, 1936)

Crocodile shark

62

Centroscyllium ornatum Alcock, 1889

Ornate dogshark

63

Centroscymnus crepidater (Bocage & Capello, 1864)

Longnose velvet shark

64

Centrophorus moluccensis Bleeker, 1860

Arrow spine dog fish

4 -

1

('(inl](irhiiiiis

(inilwincnsis

C 'an harhiims

Carcliarhiiiiis liiuhalns

('an -/laiii mus in< u loll

Canliarliiiius .scali'i

(ndcdccnli)

hcmiodoi]

('anluuliiinis

ciivirri

sonah.

Rlii:y)l>rlnniiil(>u aciilus !'!.iu- I

'.r-^

RhizopnonoiUm

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Sphynm

A'

Scdiinilou

olii^olui \

kuk(ludus

•3>

Icwiiii

Ak>jnas

suponiiinsus

*

•

Ui'Jio oumncnsis

Cliik).sc\llitiiii '^iiscnii!

« a , ,-

^

.—«!»«•' ^SBSik

('hacn(>\i\ Plate -II

Rliin/ihatos (innandaU'i

Rliinnhau > s i;mini/iitux

[ill\iicliohuiu.s

Rhiiui (UK \io.\l()in(i I'l.iu- II!

dj'uidfusis

Elasmobranch Fisheries of India - An Appraisal

CMFRI

65

Centrophorus granulosus (Bloch & Schneider, 1801)

Gulper shark

66

Centrophorus uyato Rafinesque, 1810

Little gulper shark

* - Commercially important 1 - According to Eschmeyer (1988) this is a "synonym of S.tnitsukurii"(Jordan and Snyder, 1903)(Gomon et al., 1908) t - Listed on the basis of Compagno (1984) t+ - Nomenclature by Eschmeyer, W.N. 1998.

Table 2. Sawfish species known from Indian seas No.

Scientific Name

Common name

1

Anoxypristis cuspidata (Latham, 1794)

Pointed sawfish

2

Pristis microdon Latham, 1794

Small - toothed sawfish

3

Pristis pectinata Latham,1794

Small -toothed sawfish

4

Pristis zijsron Bleeker, 1851

Green sawfish

Table 3. Guitar fishes / Skates species known from Indian seas No.

Scientific Name

Common name

1.

Rhinobatos annandalei Norman, 1926

Annandale's shovelnose ray

2.

Rhinobatos granulatus Cuvier, 1829

Granulated shovelnose ray

3.

Rhinobatos lionotus Norman, 1926

Norman's shovelnose ray

4.

Rhinobatos obtusus MuUer &Henle, 1841

Grey guitar fish

5.

Rhinobatos typus Bennett, 1830

Bennett's shovel nose guitar fish

6

Raja thouniana (Shaw, 1804)

Shaw's shovel nose guitar fish

7,

Rhina ancylostonia Bloch & Schneider, 1801

Bow mouthed guitar fish

8.

Rhynchobatus djiddensis (Forskal, 1775)

White-spotted shovelnose guitar fish

\\

:k

Hiiiianlnni hleckcri

Ampholisiiiis imhruatus

Himantum jenkinsn

Himantum inarginata Plate - IV

V i ••••^

^.-

'. I »I

I

•

I

I

•

I

I

I

I ^>> I • I • t 0

30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100105 (cm)

Ffg.3 LtngthfrequwKydMributlon of SpAjmiatoimn/Kanta In trawl catch during 1M1-1993

50

Fig. 4

Length frequency disfrlbution of Sphyma motarran

off

Kerala In gillnet catch during 1991 -1993

55 60 Length (cm)

Fig S Langthftvquaneydistribution of Seofloifen latfcaudbs off Maharaslrtn In trawl catah during 2000

Fig. 6 Length frequency distribution of HMuila tllabolua off Tamilnadu In drift gillnet catc^ during 2000

156 200 220 240 260 260 300 320 340 360 380 400 420 440 460 400 SOO S20 540 560 580 600 620 640

160

164

168

172

176

180

184

188

192

196

200

Langth (mm)

Length (mm)

17

f Table 6 Length - weight relationship of shark species from different regions along Indian coast Species

Chiloscylliurri griseum

Rhizoprionodon acutus

Scoliodon laticaudus

Scoliodon laticaudus

Carcfiaifiinus limbatus

a

b

Significance

M

-4.8674

2.739

NS

F

-4.7941

2.7205

NS

P

-4.8378

2.7314

NS

Sex

N

Length - Range (Cms)

Weight-Range (Kgs)

Locality

Source

Devadoss, SW Coast

1988

M

83

-1.9551

2.8

NS

Devadoss,

F

97

-2.146

2.95

NS

1995

P

183

-2.1007

0.9873

NS

M

-3.91366 3.2038

NS

Dakshina

Kulkarni

F

-3.63519 2.9683

NS

Kannada Coast

et a!.,

-3.72466 3.0749

NS

(Mangalore)

1988.

19.0 - 87.5

0.190-4.00

P

458

M

575

-5.1678

2.8905

S

F

578

-5.3094

2.9574

S

SW Coast

1995

P

1153

16.0-46.0

-4.78874 2.9841

NS

Dakshina

Kulkarni

F

-4.79959 2.9873

NS

Kannada Coast

et al.,

-4.92031 2.9863

NS

(Maipe)

1988.

691

36.0 • 76.0

f

Devadoss,

M

P

I

i n I 2 I »

IW

Table 7 Length - weight relationship of rays from different regions along Indian coast. Length - Range

Weight-Range

(Cms)

(Kgs)

Dasyatis imbricatus M

11.0-21.0

F

Species

N

a

b

0.060 - 0.400

-4.3903

2.9838

12.0 - 22.0

0.070 - 0.550

-6.0403

3.6907

R2

M

376

18.5-84.0

0.22-12.0

-7.5852

2.52025

0.9070

F

434

10.6-106.0

0.05 - 20.0

-7.8453

2.56310

0.9509

P

237

10.6-106.0

0.05 - 20.0

-7.7335

2.54483

0.9339

M

101

22.5 - 64.0

0.25 - 9.00

-7.2061

2.47235

0.8913

F

136

22.5 - 82.0

0.40 - 22.00

-8.1069

2.63611

0.9697

P

237

22.5 - 82.0

0.25 - 22.00

-8.0953

2.62806

0.9466

M

133

18.5-34.2

0.14-1.30

-6.4679

2.30113

0.8102

F

84

20.0 - 39.5

0.25-1.60

-7.6146

2.51247

0.8837

P

217

18.5-39.5

0.14-1.60

-7.4798

2.48397

0.8682

M

70

23.1 - 96.0

0.41 -15.00

-9.7415

2.70749

0.9185

F

126

26.5 -106.0

0.25-14.00

-10.029

2.7513

0.9415

P

196

23.1 -106.0

0.25-15.00

-9.9127

2.73408

0.9455

Rhinopterajavanica M

26

26.5-116.0

0.65-17.00

-9.5243

2.71565

0.9153

F

32

22.0-104.0

0.24 - 14.50

-8.8736

2.62521

0.7668

P

58

22.0-116.0

0.24- 17.00

-9.2426

2.67815

0.8118

D.uamak

D.sephen

T.walga

Gymnura micrura

'..":?"f •.

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CMFRI

Elasmobranch Fisheries of India - An Appraisal

and lines during the third quarter. Gill nets also exploited rays. Skates were exploited mainly during the first, second and third quarters by the trawl nets, hooks and lines, gill nets and the seines. Andhra Pradesh Approximately 12 % of the total all India elasmobranch production comes from the seas around Andhra Pradesh, which is 29 % of that caught from the east coast of India. (2000). Elasmobranch catch in the state fluctuated around 8000 t during the years 1961 2000, with a maximum of 12,0991 in 1999 (Fig 64). Sharks constitute 55 % of the elasmobranch catch in Andhra Pradesh, rays (38 %) and skates (7%). Gill nets exploited 67.3% of the catch, trawl nets 17%, hooks and lines 10.63%, and seine nets 1.91% of the total catch of elasmobranchs. Shark landings along the Andhra Pradesh coast touched 68711 in 1999; the catch in 2000 decreasing to 4912 t 10.4 % of the all India shark landings (Fig 65). Gill nets are the major gear (76.4%), exploiting sharks throughout the year, with a maximum during the first quarter (Fig. 66,67). Hooks and lines also effectively exploit sharks in the state. The important species of sharks landed along the coast of Andhra Pradesh are Carcharhinus sorrah, C. melanopterus, Carcharhinus limbatus, Rhizoprionodon acutus, Scoliodon laticaudus, Sphyrna lewini, S. zygaena and Loxodon macrorhinus. Landings of rays from Andhra Pradesh contribute to 15.7 % of the all India ray landings. In 1981, around 2000 t of rays were landed; this increased to 49261 by 1999. In the year 2000, 34071 of rays were landed in the state (Fig 68). Gill nets and trawl nets were the major gears employed in the exploitation of rays along the Andhra coast, contributing 49% and 33.4% respectively. The maximum catch from the gill nets was during the January June period. Trawl nets landed fairly good catch throughout the year (Fig. 69). Hooks and lines and seine nets landed small quantities of rays. Major species of rays landed along the coast of Andhra Pradesh are H. bleekeri, H. uarnak, A. kuhlii, D. zugei, P. sephen, Gymnura poecilura, Aetobatus narinari and Rhinoptera javanica. Skates contribute 7 % of the total elasmobranchs exploited here and 22.1 % of the all • India skate landings. Landings of skates in the state fluctuated between 2501 to 6001 during the years 1981 - 2000 with a maximum of 685 t being recorded in 1986 (Fig 71). Gill nets landed 59.3% and trawl nets 34.4% of the total catch of skates in the state. Gill nets landed skates throughout the year, with highest catch during the first quarter of the year, followed by the second quarter (Fig. 72). Catch from hook and lines also followed the same pattern. The major species landed here are Rhyncobatus djiddensis and Rhinobatos granulatus. Orissa In 2000, the contribution of elasmobranchs landed from the seas around the Orissa coast is 3.8 % of the all India catch and 8.9 % of the catch from the east coast (Fig 73). Sharks 45

CMFRl

Elasmobranch Fisheries of India - A n Appraisal

Fig.61 Elaamobranch landings In Pondlcharry during 1969-2000 Fig. 62 Landings of aharks in Pondlcharry during 1981-2000

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51

Elasmobranch Fisheries of India - An Appraisal

Fig. 82 GaanirlH and quartarwlsa landing (1985 -1998) of sharks In WestBangal

Fig. 84 Gearwise and quartewlta landing* (1085-1998) of rays in West Bengal

Fig. 86 Gearwise and quartarwise landings (1985 - 1998) of skates in West Bengal

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CMFRl

CMFRI

Elasmobranch Fisheries of India • An Appraisal

catches, trawl nets 29.6% and the hooks and lines 8.3%. The most important season for exploitation of skates along the coast of West Bengal was the first quarter, followed by fourth quarter (Fig.86).

TRADE By products A variety of sharks, rays and skates find place in the diets in many places, both in internal markets and in the other countries. Meat of elasmobranchs generally contains high levels of urea and hence has a relatively low market value. Nevertheless, shark meat is becoming popular in the markets of USA, S. America and Japan. World export of fresh, chilled and frozen shark meat has more than doubled between 1985 and 1994. The flesh of species like Isurus oxyrhinchus, Alopias spp., the grey sharks of the family Carcharinidae and Triakidae, the dogfish Squalus spp., Sphyma spp and the giant guitar fish Rhyncobatus djiddensis are highly favoured (Weber and Fordham 1997). The meat of R. djiddensis is considered world's finest quality shark meat. Shark fins provide the central ingredient in China's most favoured dish. Hong Kong, Singapore and China are the biggest shark fin processors and traders and Taiwan, the biggest producer. Shark fins are among the world's most expensive food products, although value varies according to the colour, size, thickness, fin needle content and processing quality. Dorsal, ventral, pectoral and caudal fins of large-sized edible sharks are cut along bodyline and sun dried under hygienic conditions after removing any flesh adhering on it. The moisture content of the dried product should be as low as 7-8% and should be free from fungal and insect infestations. Growing demand and relaxation of trade barriers with China has led to increased prices and trade which has resulted in more intense fishing and increased finnings of sharks. Although fins of almost all species are used, different markets favour the fins of some species like the fins of giant guitar fish, the hammerheads and the blacktip hammerheads, over the others. In Hong Kong the fins of hammerhead sharks, the tiger sharks and the Carcharhinid sharks are preferred. Sharks have large livers saturated with oil, which is a rich source of Vitamin A. Liver of Tiger shark. Hammerhead sharks, dogfish sharks and cat sharks have high content of Vitamin A. Shark liver also yields squalene, an acyclic hydrocarbon, which is used in a wide range of products from bactericides to skin moisturizers. Oil from deepwater sharks like the Gulper sharks Centrophorus spp and the basking sharks Cetorhinus sp. is rich in squalene. Oil from dogfish liver yields squalamine, which is now found to have effect against bacterial and viral infections. Shark hide, popularly known as "shagreen" is an extremely abrasive material; with derm^al denticles embedded in; used to produce a variety of leather products including handbags, watchstraps, cowboy boots and belts. An expensive product known as Boroso leather can be obtained by polishing the denticles on the sharkskin. Skin of sharks and rays are used as abrasive for sanding wooden boats, porcelain and also as bicycle handle grip covers. Tanneries in India, Thailand, and Japan process shark skin, although data are not available. 63

CMFRI

Elasmobranch Fisheries of India - An Appraisal

catches, trawl nets 29.6% and the hooks and lines 8.3%. The most important season for exploitation of skates along the coast of West Bengal was the first quarter, followed by fourth quarter (Fig.86).

TRADE By products A variety of sharks, rays and skates find place in the diets in many places, both in internal markets and in the other countries. Meat of elasmobranchs generally contains high levels of urea and hence has a relatively low market value. Nevertheless, shark meat is becoming popular in the markets of USA, S. America and Japan. World export of fresh, chilled and frozen shark meat has more than doubled between 1985 and 1994. The flesh of species like Isurus oxyrhinchus, Alopias spp., the grey sharks of the family Carcharinidae and Triakidae, the dogfish Squalus spp., Sphyma spp and the giant guitar fish Rhyncobatus djiddensis are highly favoured (Weber and Fordham 1997). The meat of R. djiddensis is considered world's finest quality shark meat. Shark fins provide the central ingredient in China's most favoured dish. Hong Kong, Singapore and China are the biggest shark fin processors and traders and Taiwan, the biggest producer. Shark fins are among the world's most expensive food products, although value varies according to the colour, size, thickness, fin needle content and processing quality. Dorsal, ventral, pectoral and caudal fins of large-sized edible sharks are cut along bodyline and sun dried under hygienic conditions after removing any flesh adhering on it. The moisture content of the dried product should be as low as 7-8% and should be free from fungal and insect infestations. Growing demand and relaxation of trade barriers with China has led to increased prices and trade which has resulted in more intense fishing and increased finnings of sharks. Although fins of almost all species are used, different markets favour the fins of some species like the fins of giant guitar fish, the hammerheads and the blacktip hammerheads, over the others. In Hong Kong the fins of hammerhead sharks, the tiger sharks and the Carcharhinid sharks are preferred. Sharks have large livers saturated with oil, which is a rich source of Vitamin A. Liver of Tiger shark. Hammerhead sharks, dogfish sharks and cat sharks have high content of Vitamin A. Shark liver also yields squalene, an acyclic hydrocarbon, which is used in a wide range of products from bactericides to skin moisturizers. Oil from deepwater sharks like the Gulper sharks Centrophorus spp and the basking sharks Cetorhinus sp. is rich in squalene. Oil from dogfish liver yields squalamine, which is now found to have effect against bacterial and viral infections. Shark hide, popularly known as "shagreen" is an extremely abrasive material; with dermal denticles embedded in; used to produce a variety of leather products including handbags, watchstraps, cowboy boots and belts. An expensive product known as Boroso leather can be obtained by polishing the denticles on the sharkskin. Skin of sharks and rays are used as abrasive for sanding wooden boats, porcelain and also as bicycle handle grip covers. Tanneries in India, Thailand, and Japan process shark skin, although data are not available. ^

CMFRl

Etasmobranch Fisheries of India - An Appraisal

na-M UpwIofdilMKlMrkllMlnmMtadiirtRgigH-IM) • Quantity in tonnes D V a i u e in Lal(hs

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54

CMFRI

ElmmobraxvJxFisheriesof India-An Appraisal

A chemical compound foimd in the cartilage of sharks is used in the effective treatment of eye fatigue and rheumatism. This chemical is also used in the development of sjmthetic skin for bum victims. Of late, it has been found that shark cartilage powder assist in the treatment of cancer, though the volume used is not definitely known. Export

Among elasmobranchs, shark products (meat, fins, fin rays and bones) have considerable export potential and export value increased by 273 % from Rs.9.5 crores in 1996 -97 to Rs. 35.49 crores in 2000-01 (MPEDA, 2000). Export of dried shark fins showed a range of 302 -112 totmes during 1995- 99 period (Fig. 89). In terms of value it was Rs. 838 lakhs to Rs. 445 lakhs during the same period. But during the years, 1998 and 1999,12 and 4 tonnes of dried shark fin rays were also exported with a value of 134 and 48 lakhs. In the years 1998 and 1999,11 and 131 tonnes of dried shark was also exported earning a value of 5 lakhs and 130 lakhs respectively. During the period 1995 - 99, the export of frozen shark meat was 583 - 617 tonnes, fetching a value of Rs.l82 - Rs. 270 lakhs respectively (Fig. 90). The major countries importing frozen shark meat from India are China (1761), Hong Kong (5861), Singapore (1071), Malaysia (47 t), Taiwan (125 t), Thailand (69 t) and Australia (60 t) (Fig. 91). Major market for dried shark fins are Hong Kong (38 t), Singapore (16 t), USA (18 t), China (311), UAE (6 t) and Japan (Fig. 92). The dried shark fin rays are marketed to Hong Kong and Singapore.

WHALE SHARK Whale shark, the largest living fish in the oceans, enjoys a wide distribution in all tropical and temperate seas of the Atlantic, Pacific to the Indian Ocean except the Meditterranean. Though information on the biology is very scanty, they are said to have a life span of over 100 years and sexual maturity may not occur until they are 9m in length, when they are 30 years of age (Coleman, 1997). The information about sighting of whale sharks in the Indian subcontinent though dates back to the year 1883. They were considered to be commercially unimportant until the mid 1980's (Silas, 1986). Most of the published reports on whale sharks relate to either stranding or incidental catches. Until early 1980's whale shark landings in India were mainly due to incidental catches and were mostly discarded or thrown back into the sea. But since mid 1980's whale shark fishery became a regular one along the Indian coast. Along the Saurashtra coast they are commercially exploited. In the 1990's whale sharks were being targetted off Saurashtra coast and a substantive proportion of this catch comprised of specimens below 9m length, mainly the sexually immature ones. The whale shark Rhincodon typus Smith, first described by Andrew Smith in 1828, as the world's largest living fish, is characterized by a flattened head, a broad, large and terminal mouth, 5 very large gill slits, three prominent longitudinal keels or ridges on the

CMFRI

Elasmobranch Fisheries of India • An Appraisal

A chemical compound foiond in the cartilage of sharks is used in the effective treatment of eye fatigue and rheumatism. This chemical is also used in the development of synthetic skin for bum victims. Of late, it has been found that shark cartilage powder assist in the treatment of cancer, though the volume used is not definitely known. Export

Among elasmobranchs, shark products (meat, fins, fin rays and bones) have considerable export potential and export value increased by 273 % from Rs.9.5 crores in 1996 -97 to Rs. 35.49 crores in 2000-01 (MPEDA, 2000). Export of dried shark fiiis showed a range of 302 -112 tormes during 1995- 99 period (Fig. 89). In terms of value it was Rs. 838 lakhs to Rs. 445 lakhs during the same period. But during the years, 1998 and 1999,12 and 4 tormes of dried shark fin rays were also exported with a value of 134 and 48 lakhs. In the years 1998 and 1999,11 and 131 tormes of dried shark was also exported earning a value of 5 lakhs and 130 lakhs respectively. During the period 1995 - 99, the export of frozen shark meat was 583 - 617 tonnes, fetching a value of Rs.l82 - Rs. 270 lakhs respectively (Fig. 90). The major coimtries importing frozen shark meat from India are China (1761), Hong Kong (5861), Singapore (1071), Malaysia (47 t), Taiwan (1251), Thailand (69 t) and Australia (60 t) (Fig. 91). Major market for dried shark fins are Hong Kong (38 t), Singapore (16 t), USA (18 t), China (31 t), UAE (6 t) and Japan (Fig. 92). The dried shark fin rays are marketed to Hong Kong and Singapore.

WHALE SHARK Whale shark, the largest living fish in the oceans, enjoys a wide distribution in all tropical and temperate seas of the Atlantic, Pacific to the Indian Ocean except the Meditterranean. Though information on the biology is very scanty, they are said to have a life span of over 100 years and sexual maturity may not occur imtil they are 9m in length, when they are 30 years bf age (Coleman, 1997). The information about sighting of whale sharks in the Indian subcontinent though dates back to the year 1883. They were considered to be commercially unimportant until the mid 1980's (Silas, 1986). Most of the published reports on whale sharks relate to either stranding or incidental catches. Until early 1980's whale shark landings in India were mainly due to incidental catches and were mostly discarded or thrown back into the sea. But since mid 1980's whale shark fishery became a regular one along the Indian coast. Along the Saurashtra coast they are commercially exploited. In the 1990's whale sharks were being targetted off Saurashtra coast and a substantive proportion of this catch comprised of specimens below 9m length, mainly the sexually immature ones. The whale shark Rhincodon typus Smith, first described by Andrew Smith in 1828, as the world's largest living fish, is characterized by a flattened head, a broad, large and terminal mouth, 5 very large gill slits, three prominent longitudinal keels or ridges on the

Elasmobranch Fisheries of India • An Appraisal

CMFRl

dorsal surface. First dorsal fin fairly large, caudal fin asymmetrical, crescentic, with strong lower lobe, caudal peduncle depressed with strong keel on each side. Colour varies from dark grey, reddish or greenish grey dorsally, with white or yellow spots and transverse bands; white or yellowish below. The largest recorded is from the Gulf of Siam measuring approximately 18m and the smallest known is 55 cm collected from the high seas of eastern Pacific from a depth of 2600m. The smallest recorded from Indian waters is 3.15m and the largest is of length 12.18m (Silas, 1986). Whale sharks are reported to occur in all tropical and warm temperate seas except the Meditterranean; found both in coastal and oceanic waters, in a band around equator between 30°N and 35°S, distributed throughout in the Indian Ocean from Madagascar to Indonesia and Thailand (Coleman, 1997). In India whale sharks occur, off the coasts of Gujarat, Maharastra, Kamataka, and Kerala as well as the coasts of Sri Lanka during December-March (Silas, 1986); there is probably a migration from the coast of Sri Lanka, along the west coast during DecemberMarch, reaching the Gujarat coast by March-June. There appears also a seasonal migration of this species along the coastal waters, from south to north along the west coast and from north to south on the east coast of India. On the east coast, peak landings are during JulyOctober, in Tamilnadu, suggesting a pre-monsoon aggregation along both the coasts and also that whale sharks shun away from the Indian coasts during active monsoons. Prater (1941) has also tried to explain the occurrence of whale sharks, mainly along the west coast as relating to plankton outbursts as well as these being confined to the surface currents. Several reports show that both in the open seas as well as in the coastal waters whale sharks swim about in schools. Along the coast of India also such schooling behaviour is evidenced by reports of Chacko and Mathew (1954) on the capture of two specimens at Madapally on the west coast, at the same time. More recently, from 1982 onwards several instances on the aggregation of whale sharks along Gujarat coast, off Veraval have been reported. Silas (1986) suggests a probable association of whale sharks with other large schooling fishes like tuna. Wolfson (1983) reports that in oceanic waters, whale sharks are indicators of tuna schools especially so along the North West Africa. Association of whale sharks and tunas has been reported by several authors like Tubb (1948) from North Borneo, Springer (1957) from U.S and Mexican waters, Iwasaki (1970) from Japan and Cropp (1978) from Australia. Silas (1986) opines that on the west coast of India, the period from November-December to April when sardines and mackerels occur in abundance coincides with the occurrence of whale sharks in the coastal area. Occurrence of schools of whale sharks with other sharks and rays as also with shoals of other fishes like Stromateus sp.and with shoals of carangid fishes have also been reported by Chacko and Mathew, (1954) and Gudger (1932). Silas (1986) gives an exhaustive report on the known occurrences, seasons of occurrence, size of occurrence and biological features like sex ratio, mode of development, food habits, schooling behavior and association with other fishes like tuna.

CMFRI

Elasmobranch Fisheries of India • An Appraisal

Exploitation Whale shark fishery off Veraval has been reported by Vivekanandan (1994) wherein the actual mode of operation is given. Fishing season commences in March/April and in the peak season (April / May) almost all the boats capture a shark each. A total of 1974 whale sharks have been landed from the Indian waters so far, with the northwestern region especially Gujarat contributing the highest (94.6%) followed by southeast zone, mainly Tamilnadu and Andhra Pradesh (3%). Out of the whale sharks reported from the Indian coastal waters, more than 25% belong to the length group 5.1 to 6m, although data on length frequency was scanty as most of them were cut open in the open sea (Pravin, 2000), while Silas (1986) based on the evidence from landings data, states that individuals between four and nine meters are more liable to be encoimtered in the Indian coastal seas. According to Silas (1986) more than 78% of the whale sharks were captured during the period December to April. Of late, whale shark fishery has become a regular and targetted one along the coast of Gujarat. It has been found that, here, around 100-150 mechanized trawlers fish exclusively for whale sharks during the peak period of March-May. These sharks on being spotted as grayish -black patches by the fishermen, steer the boat nearer to the fish and shoot the specially made large heavy hooks/harpoon, which gets attached to the mouth or gills. The hook is attached to the winch of the boat through a nylon rope. Two PVC barrels of 200 litres capacity are tied to the ends of a pole of 5-6m long. The centre of the pole is tied to a hook with 15-20m long fishing line. The fish is towed alongside of the boat to the shore or landing center. The fish is cut into pieces while afloat in the water. Small wooden dugout or FRP canoes fitted with OBM and ranging from 7-1 Om length are used for fishing whale sharks from areas like Rupen, Okha, Jaleswar, Sutrapada etc. on the Gujarat coast (Vivekanandan, 1994, Hanfee, 2001). Prior to 1980's, though the liver alone of whale shark was in use, in the present day, liver, fins, meat, cartilage etc are being fully utilized. About 10% of the body weight is constituted by liver, which contains approximately 60-70 % oil. Around 600-700 litres of oil can be extracted from the liver of a 12m long whale shark. The fins of whale sharks are in great demand with a high content of rays. The whale shark meat is cured, semi-dried or dried and used for human consumption. It is exported either frozen or processed. Several countries like the Philippines, Taiwan, Maldives, U.S.A have banned whale shark fishery, thereby giving a high demand for supplies from India where it's fishing still goes on. There are no international control measures to protect this species, though this has been included in the lUCN Red list (2000) as vulnerable and listed as "species under threat."

57

Elmmobranch Fisheries of India • An Appraisal

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MANAGEMENT MEASURES Knowledge about various aspects of biology and management of elasmobranchs is less in India. The following account deals with the elasmobranchs in general so as to help us understand the measures required for conservation and management. In India nobody has proposed any management measures; it is felt to incorporate here some of the management measures suggested from different parts of the world. World wide, very few attempts have been made to manage shark populations. Australia has had a shark fishery since the turn of the century, and it imposed restrictions on licenses and fishing methods in 1988 (Stevens, 1993). The sand tiger shark, Carcharias taurus, received protected status in the Australian state of New South Wales in 1984 (Pollard, 1996). In New Zealand, shark management started in 1986 over concerns of declining catch per imit effort (CPUE). In South Africa, the great white shark has been protected since 1991 (Compagno, 1991). In the United States, concerns about a rapidly growing fishery and over fishing led to a fishery management plan for the Atlantic coast in 1993. Protected status has been given in April 1997 to five species in the United States on the Atlantic Coast: the great white shark; the whale shark; the basking shark; the sand tiger shark; and the big eye sand tiger shark. Shark fisheries along the western coast of the United States for thresher sharks have been regulated by state agencies for many years. In 1989, the states of California, Oregon and Washington enacted an inter- jurisdictional fishery-monitoring plan for thresher sharks. (Hanan et al 1993). The elasmobranchs as a group occupy the role of top predators in the marine food web (Weber and Fordham, 1997). Overexploitation resulting in substantial reduction in population will have a long-term negative impact on their stocks and also to the marine community of which they form a part. Once depleted, they are slower to recover than other teleost species. But traditional fisheries models do not fit the biological traits of elasmobranchs, making their assessment and management difficult. The high mobility of many species especially, of large sharks involving even trans-oceanic migrations, also make their stock assessment more difficult. The need for a proper knowledge of stock delimitation and dynamics, as well as general lack of baseline information, makes fisheries assessment of this group complicated (Bonfil, 1994). Many national, regional and international management organisations have not collected even the basic information on the landings, by catch and discard of sharks (Weber and Fordham, 1997). Therefore, it is very difficult to determine the impact of current and past fishing on a particular species or a population. In a recent review, Bonfil (1994) found that, of the 26 countries reporting shark catches more than 10,000 mt, only very few countries like the United States, New Zealand and Australia have domestic research and management programmes. Elasmobranchs as a group exhibit great diversity. Some species such as Rhizoprionodon sp mature within one year (Compagno, 1984), whereas some Carcharhinus species may take 20- 25 years to mature. The soup fin shark Galeorhinus galeus can live up to 60 yrs. Many

W'

CMFRI

ElasmobranchFiiheriei of India-An Appraisal

species exhibit oviparity, viviparity as well as ovoviviparity. The guitarfishes, sawfishes and stingrays have simultaneous ovarian and uterine cycles (Devadoss et ah, 2000). Many species of sharks and rays use near shore waters, especially, the bays and estuaries as nursery for early growth of the young (Castro et al., 1999). Recent discoveries by Joung et ah, (1996) show that the whale sharks are viviparous and very prolific; one gravid female examined carried 300 young in several stages of development; embryos measuring 58-64 cm TL. Some species of sharks such as the blue sharks and the dogfish sharks gather in schools by age, sex and reproductive state and intense fishing can wipe out large segments of a particular year class, including the reproductive segment (Weber and Fordham 1997). The blue sharks, {Carcharhinus spp.), the thresher sharks (Alopias spp.), the mako sharks (Isurus spp.), the salmon sharks (Lamna spp.), the silky shark {Carcharhinus falciformis), the oceanic white tip shark (C. longimanus), the hammerheads {Sphyma spp.) the black tip shark (Cmelanopterus), the grey sharks (Rhizoprionodon spp.) and the dog shark (ScoUodon spp.) are relatively abundant and widely distributed on a worldwide scale, but are of conservation concern because of the large numbers of these being caught. Other sharks such as the large whale shark Rhyncodon typus, though caught in relatively low numbers are naturally less abimdant and so are of potential risk. These are of much commercial importance in India, Philippines and Taiwan; fished mainly for their flesh, fins and oil (Castro et al., 1999). According to Silas (1986) only a small harpoon fishery occurred in certain years, when whale sharks were abundant along the Gujarat coast but, from the early 1990's, a targeted fishery for whale sharks exist along the Gujarat coast starting in December and reaching the peak during March-Jxme period when there is maximum aggregation along this coast. Recently the International Commission for Conservation of the Atlantic Tunas has taken concern over conservation of sharks and has started monitoring the shark by-catch data from member countries. The Convention of International Trade in Endangered Species of the World Fauna and Flora (CITES) in 1994 expressed concern over the unmanaged exploitation of the cartilaginous fishes and requested the FAO and other International organisations to collect and assemble the necessary biological and trade data on sharks (Weber and Fordham 1997). The World Conservation Union (lUCN) has also prepared an action plan for the conservation of sharks. The World Wildlife Fund for Nature (WWF) presented a preliminary report on the world trade in sharks. In August 1995, the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) agreement of 1995, in Article 2, expressed views to ensure the long-term conservation and sustainable use of straddling and highly migratory fish stocks. This UN agreement is the most recent statement of management principles and measures and is binding upon the ratifying covmtries. It will also be used as a framework in evaluating several existing international regimes and also provide a framework for initiating or improving the conservation of sharks (Weber and Fordham 1997). Gap areas for future research in India The above review on the elasmobranch resources of India has brought to light certain 59

Ekumobranch Fisheries of India • An Appraisal

CMFRI

major lacunae in the knowledge on these fishes. 1. A concerted effort to study the taxonomy of the species has not been made, resulting in lack of taxonomic treatises in these, making it difficult even to identify the species. Besides in view of the large sizes attained by many of the species, the intra -specific variations in certain morphometric characters and colour also play a great role in proper identification of species. There is therefore urgent need to take up a comprehensive study on taxonomy, drawing fresh material. It has also to be realised that a study on taxonomy as basic research is necessary, for it is the absence of this knowledge that has prevented the acquisition of 'on species wise' data. 2. Due to reasons of very large size, the number of specimens landed at any one point being small and the heavy market demand prevented acquisition of adequate data on biology including length. It must be realised that without knowledge on composition of species in the catch, growth rate and age, reproduction and recruitment and rate of decline in numbers due to natural causes, it is not possible to develop management strategies. 3. It has been mentioned in several fora and meetings that the data on landings and fishing effort per area/ season are not made available by the industry. In a fishery like that of elasmobranchs which are distributed from near shore areas to oceanic waters including some species those belonging to the category of straddling stock, unless the vessels furnish the log sheets it will not be possible to assess the characteristics of the resources. A beginning is yet to be made in this direction in this country.

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Elasmobranch Fisheries of India • An Appraisal

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POPULAR ARTICLES ACHUTA RAO, V. 1997. Landing of three Whale Sharks along the Coastal Srikakulam district, Andhra Coast Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv. T&E Ser., No: 148:10. AIYAR, R.G. 1943. Shark and shark liver oil. Curr.Sci, 12: 77-78. ALLI, C. GUPTA, C. PURANDHARA AND R.APPAYYA NAIK, 1991. On the landing of Whale Shark, Rhincodon typus, Smith off Malpe, Dakshina Kannada Coast. Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv. T&E Ser., No. 110: .10 -11. ANDERSON, R.C. AND HUDA AHMED .1993. The shark fisheries of Maldives- A review. Ministry of Fisheries and Agriculture, Republic of Maldives and Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nation. P.76 ARAVINDAKSHAN, M. 1976. Killer sharks in Indian sea. Science Reporter. 13(6): 366-367. ARAVINDAKSHAN, M. 1981 .Shark attack in Indian sea. Seafood Export J., 13(1): 29 - 30. ARAVINDAKSHAN, M. 1988. Record catch of tiger shark from Maharashtra coast. Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv. T&E Ser., No.88: 20 BALASUBRAMANIAM, T. S, S.RAJAPACKIAM AND G.ARUMUGAN, 1992. An account of the disposal of deep sea Sharks and Skates at Tuticorin. Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv. T&E Ser., No. 116:10-12 BALASUBRAMANIAM, T S, S.RAJAPACKIAM, H.MOHAMMED KASIM AND K.M.S AMEER HAMSA, 1992. On the landing of Bramble shark (Echinorhinus brucus) at Tuticorin. Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv. T&E Ser., No. 121:13. BATCHA, H. 1990. On a school of Javanese cow nose ray from Palk Bay. Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv.T &E Ser.,No.WA:W. BATKAR, B, N, 1996. Turtle and Whale Shark landed along Ratnagiri coast, Maharashtra. Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv. T&E, Ser., No.l41: 20. BONFIL, R, 1994. Overview of world elasmobranchfisheries.FAO-FISH. -TECH.-PAP. ROMEITALY FAO No. 341,119 pp BURMAN, B. K, 1994. On a Zebra Shark landed along the North East Coast of India. Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv. T&E Ser., No. 131: 22 - 23. BURMAN, B. K.1994. Sharks landing at Kakwdip in West Bengal. Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv. T & E Ser., No.135: 13 -15. BURMAN, B. K, 1994. On the landing of a tiger Shark and Skate at Digha, Contai, West Bengal.Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv., T&E, Ser., No.135:16. CHACKO, P. 1,1944. Occurrence of a new variety of the skate, Urogymnus asperrimus around Krusadai Island, Gulf of Mannar. Curr. Sci., 13: 81. CHIDAMBARAM, K AND M. DEVIDAS MENON, 1946. Investigations on shark fishery of Madras presidency. Govt. Press. Madras, pp.18. 70

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Elasmobranch Fisheries of India • An Ki^mali.

COLEMAN, J. 1997. Whale shark interaction management with particular reference to Ningaloo Marine Park. Marine Conservation Branch. Department of Conservation and Land Management, Western Australia: 63 pp. DAHLGREN, T, 1992. Shark long lining catches on India's east coast. Bay of Bengal's News, 48:10-12. DEVADOSS, P. 1983. Further Observations On The Biology Of The Stingray Dasyatis Imbricatus (Schn.) at Porto Novo. Matsya, 9 and 10:129-134. DEVADOSS, P AND HAMEED BATCHA 1997. Sex change in Hound Shark, along Madras Coast.Mar.Fish.Infor. Serv. T&ESer.,No: 146: 9-10. DEVADOSS, P. AND HAMEED BATCHA 1992. Some observations on the rare bow-mouth guitar fish Rhina ancylostoma . Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv. T&E Ser., No.l38:10-11. DEVADOSS, P AND S. CHANDRASEKHARAN1991. Anote on the rai« single tooth Shark, Hemipristis elongatus. Mar. Fish.Infor. Serv., T&E Ser., No. 114:36. DEVADOSS, P, J.C.GNANMUTHU, S.SRINIVASARANGAN AND S.SUBRAMANIAM 1989. On the landing of a large Saw Fish at Madras. Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv., T & E Ser. No. 98:13 DEVADOSS, P, PNAMMALWAR, P.V.SREENIVASAN AND S. SRINIVASARANGAN.1989. Instances of landing of Whale Shark Rhiniodon typus in Indian Coastal Waters. Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv.,T & E Ser., No.l02:18-20 GANAPATHY, A. 1992. Unusually heavy landings of cownose ray Rhinopterajavanica along the Palk Bay Coast, near Thondi. Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv. T&E Ser., No. 117:30. GRACE MATHEW, K. THULASIDAS AND K. M VENUGOPAL, 1991. On the first record of the deep sea Shark Centrophorus granulosus (Bloch and Schneider) from India. Mar.Fish. Infor. Serv. T&E Ser., No. 113: 22 - 23. GUDGER,E.W. 1940. Twenty five years in quest of the Whale shark. Sci. Monthly, 50:225 233, 7. GUDGER,E.W. 1932. The whale shark Rhiniodon typus among the Seychelles Islands. Nature, London, 130:169 pp. GURUSAMY,R. AND TS.BALASUBRAMANIAN.1994. On two large specimens of devil ray Manta birostris (Walbaum) landed atTuticorin.Mar. Fish. Info. Serv., T&E Ser.,No.l27:15. HAMSA, K.

M. S. AMEER, H. MOHAMMED KASIM, S.RAJAPACKIAM AND T.S.BALASUBRAMANIAM 1991. On the rare landings of the dogfish Shark Species from Gulf of Mannar. Mar. Fish. Info. Serv., T&E Ser., No.l07, P 17 18.

HANFEE .F, 2001. Gentle giants of the sea, TRAFFIC -India/WWF-India

Elasmobranch Fisheries of India • An Appraisaf

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HANFEE, F. 1996. The trade in sharks and shark products in India: a preliminary survey. lRAVY\C-lndial\fm¥-lnd\a: 1-50. JAYADEV, S. HOTAGI1992. On a Whale Shark landed at Makarabagh near Malwan in Maharashtra. Mar. Fish. Infor. Ser., No. 118. P. 17. JOEL, JACOB JERALD AND LP.EBENEZER.,1993. Long lining, specially for sharks, practiced atThoothoor.Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv. T&E Ser., No. 121:5-8. JOEL, JACOB JERALD, LREBENEZER AND A.PROSPER. 1994. On a Whale Shark landed atKovalam,Kanyakumari.Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv. T&E Ser.,No. 131,22. JOHN C.C. 1943. Some aspects of shark liver oil industry in India. Curr. Sci., 12:225-226 JOSE I. CASTRO, CHRISTAM. WOODLEY AND REBECCA L.BRUDEK.,1999. A preliminary evaluation of the status of shark species. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 380:1-72 KAKATI, V.S. AND C. K. DINESH. 1995. Devil ray landed at Karwar. Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv. T& E Ser., No.l40,. 9 -10. KAMDER, L.D., M.K.KAMADER AND R. VENKATARAM, 1967. Studies on shark liver oil and its residue. Fish. Tech., Vol. IV No. 1. 21 - 27. KAMASASTRY,P.V. 1959. Chemical properties and changes during storage of some Indian ray liver oil. Curr. Sci., 28(12): 489-490. KARBHARI, J.P AND C.J. JOSEKUTTY1986. On the largest Whale Shark Rhiniodon typus Smith landed alive at Cuffe parade, Bombay.Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv. T&E Ser., No .66: 31-35. KASIM, H. MOHAMED, T.S.BALASUBRAMANIAM, K.M.S.AMEER HAMSA AND S.RAJAPACKIAM.1991. Incidence of Sharks wounded by plastic bands. Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv. T&E, Ser.,No. 114R37-38. KASINATHAN, C. AND N. RAMAMOORTHY 1995. Observation on a Whale Shark Rhiniodon typus. Smith caught at Attankarai along the Palk Bay Coast, Tamil Nadu.Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv. T&E, Ser.No: 138:15. KHAN, M. FEROZ AND K. NANDAKUMARAN. 1989. Marked "Blacktip Shark" landed at Calicut. Mar. Fish .Infor. Ser., T&E Ser. No. 95 :14 -15. KOYA, SAID K. R, Y D. SAVARIA AND J. D. VANVI. 1993.0n a giant ray Manta birostris landed at Bhidia in Veraval. Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv, T&E Ser., No.l22: 23. KRISHNA, S. PILLAI, AND JACOB JERALD JOEL. 1996. Report on juvenile of Whale Shark landed along the southern part of the west coast of India. Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv. T&E Ser.,No: 143: 27: 28. KRISHNA, S.PILLAL AND M.BADRUDEEN. 1996. Report on a Whale Shark Rhincodon typus (Smith) caught in shore - seine from the Palk Bay. Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv. T & E Ser,No. 142:15 -16.

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ElasmobnmchFisherksof India-An Appraisal

KULKARNL G.N AND S.T. SARANGDHAR. 1990. Disco net fishing off Ratnagiri coast. Fish Games, Vol.9, No.l2,37-39,41. KUNZLIK,P.A. 1988.The basking shark. Dept. of Agriculture and Fisheries for Scotland. Scottish Fisheries Information Pamphlet 14.21pp. LAZARUS, S. JACOB JERALD JOEL, K.K.PHILLIPOSE AND S.G.VINCENT. On five Whale Sharks landed along the Trivandrum-Kanyakumari Coast. Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv., T&ESer.,No.88:19-20. LIPTON, A. R AND J. R. RAMALINGAM 1994. Skin of Rays - Anew commodity for export Market.Mar. Fish. Injbr. Serv. T&E Ser., No. 127. P. 13. LIPTON, A. P, S. G. RAJE, RAVI FOTEDAR AND RANJITH SINGH 1987. Recovery of a ringed 'Dusky Shark' Carcharhinus ohscurus. Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv. T&E Ser., No. 77: 21. MAINKAR, K.P. 1992. On a whale shark landed at Makarabagh near Malwan in Maharashtra. Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv. T&E Ser., No 118:19. MICHAEL. L.WEBER AND SONJA V. FORDHAM, 1997. Managing shark fisheries: opportunities for international conservation. TRAFFIC International and the Centrefor Marine Conservation. 1- 61 MOHAMED, K. SUNIL KUMAR, Y. MUNIYAPPA, R. APPAYYA NAIK, S. KEMPURAJ AND C. PURANDHARA. 1993. An unusual catch of Sharks in a purse seine at Malpe, Kamataka.Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv., T&E Ser.,No 121,10. NAMMALWAR,R, RLIVINGSTON, K. KASINATHAN AND N. RAMAMOORTHY, 1992. Instances of Whale shark Rhincodon typus Smith caught along the Tamil Nadu coast. Mar. Infor. Serv. T&E Ser., No 116:20. PILLAL S. KRISHNAN AND C.KASINATHAN.1988.0n a large adult Zebra shark landed at Pamban. Mar.FishInfor. Serv. T&E Ser.,No.85:11. PILLAL P.P AND BIJU PARAKAL. 2000. Pelagic Sharks in the Indian Seas - Their exploitation, trade, management and conservation. CMFRI Spl. Publ. No. 70: 95 pp PILLAL PR AND M.HONMA, 1978. Seasonal and areal distribution of the pelagic sharks taken by the Tuna longliners in the Indian Ocean. Bull. Far. Seas Res. Lab., 16: 33 - 49. PRASAD, B. 1920. Branchial filament of Elasmobrach fishes . Proc Indian Sci. Cong., 83. PRASAD, R, RAGHU. 1944. A study of the succession of teeth in elasmobranch. /. Madras Univ., B, 16: 25 - 36. PRAVIN.P 2000. Whale shark in the Indian coast - Need for conservation. Curr. Sci., 79 (3): 310 - 315 RADHAKRISHNAN, M. 1996. On the landing of a Whale Shark, Rhiniodon typus of Kaveripattinam.Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv. T&E Ser.,No. 145:17. 73

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RAJAPACKIAM, S, T.S BALASUBRAMANIAM AND G. ARUMUGAM. 1990. On a large devil ray Manta birostris landed at Tuticorin. Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv., T &E Ser., No: 106:11. RAJAPACKIAM, S., T.S.BALASUBRAMANIAM, K.M.S.AMEER HAMSA AND H.MOHAMMED KASIM 1993. On the landing of giant sized white spotted shovel nose ray from Tuticorin waters. Gulf of Maruiar. Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv., T&E, Ser., No. 121:14. RAJAPACKIAM, S., T.S.BALASUBRAMNIAM, K.M.S.AMEER HAMSA AND H. MOHAMMED KASIM .1994. On the landing of large sized hammerhead shark Sphyrna lewini at Tuticorin. Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv., T&E, Ser., No.l27: P. 13 -14. RAJAPACKIAM, S., K. M. S. AMEER HAMSA, T. S. BALASUBRAMANIAN AND H. MOHAMED KASIM 1994. On the unusual landing of lesser devil ray Mobula diabolus (Shaw) from Gulf of Marmar. Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv. T&E Ser., No. 129 :20-21. RAJAPACKIAM, S., K. M. S., AMEER HAMSA, T. S. BALASUBRAMANIAN AND. MOHAMED KASIM 1994. On a juvenile Whale Shark Rhiniodon typus caught off Kayalpatanam (Gulf Of Marmar). Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv. T&E Ser., 127:14 -15. RAMALINGAM, K., R SOMAYAJULU, K.DHANRAJ, N.BURAYYA, V.A. ELLITHATHAYYA AND T. NAGESWARA RAO 1993. On the occurrence of Whale Shark off south Andhra coast. Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv. T&E, Ser., Ill: 12. RAMA, R.S.V., RG.MATHAL V.C.GEORGE, K.K.KUNJIPALU, M.D. VARGHESE AND A.C. KUTTAPPAN.1989. Shark long line gear of India. Fish. Technol. Soc. Cochin, Vol. 26(2): 73 - 80. RAO, C. V. SESHAGIRI 1992. On the occurrence of Whale Shark Rhiniodon typus along the Kakinada Coast. Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv.,T & E Ser., No.116 :19. RAO, G.SUDHAKARA, 1986. Anote on an imusual occurrence of the whale shark Rhincodon typus (Smith) off Veraval. Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv.,T & E Ser., 66 : 30. REED, H.1997. World trade in sharks. A TRAFFIC Overview, TRAFFIC, USA, Vol. 16(1): 1 - 5. SAM,RBENNET,G. ARUMUGAM AND TS.BALSUBRAMANIAM. 1990.Tagged tiger shark {Galeocerdo cuvieri) landed at Tuticotin. Mar.Fish.Infor. Serv. T&E Ser., No.l04: 14-15 SHRIRAM, M., 1986. On the whale shark Rhincodon typus Smith landed at Cuffe Parade Bombay.Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv. T&E Ser., 66.37. SHRIRAM, M.,C.J.JOSEKUTTY AND JAYADEV S.HOTAGI. 1994. A note on a Whale Shark Rhiniodon typus landed at Cooperage landing centre,Bombay. Mar. Fish. Infor Serv. T&E Ser.,No.l26:16.

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SILAS, E.G. 1986. The Whale shark {Rhiniodon typus Smith) in Indian coastal waters. Is this species endangered or vulnerable? Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv. T&E Ser., No.66:119. SILAS, E.G., G.S.D.SELVARAJ AND A.REGUNATHAN 1969. Rare chimaeroid and elasmobranch fishes from the continental slope off the west coast of India. Cum Sci., 38 (5): 105-106. SILAS, E.G. AND PRASAD, 1969. On the occurrence of the deep water squaloid shark Squalus femandinus Molina from the continental slope off West coast of India. Curr. Sci., 38(20): 484 - 486. SrVADAS, M. 1991. Note on a Whale Shark Rhincodon typus landed at Beypore, Calicut. Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv., T&E Ser.,No. 110: 11. SIVASUBRAMANIAM, K. 1992. Pelagic sharks in the Indian Ocean. BOBP News, 48:2 -7 SUBRAMANI, S . 1988. On a Whale Shark Rhiniodon typus Smith landed at Pudumanai Kuppam Madras.Mar.Fish. Infor. Serv., T&E Ser., No.81:16. SUDARSAN, D , V.S. SOMVANSHI AND M.E. JOHN.1988. Atlas, of Tuna, Billfishes and ^ Sharks in EEZ and adjacent oceanic region. FSI/FC (FA)/2/88. SUKUMARAN, K. K., K.SUNILKUMAR MOHAMED, K.CHANDRAN, ALLI.C.GUPTA, UMA,S.BHATANDS.KEMPURAJ. 1989. Long lining for deep sea Sharks at Malpe - a lucrative fisheries.Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv., T&E Ser.,No. 98:10 -13. TALWAR, P.K. 1973. The Hammerhead shark, Sphyrna lewini (Griffith and Smith) from the East coast of India, with remarks on its taxonomy. Curr. Sci., Vol.43 (1) 15 -16. TELANG, K. Y. AND T. B. HARIKANTRA 1988. On a large Devil ray landed at Karwar. Mar. Fish. Infor.Serv. T&E Ser., No.85:11. THATHYYA, CH. E. 1996. Landing a Whale Shark Rhiniodon typus at Kakinada Coast. Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv., T&E Ser., No: 143: 27. VARGHESE, A.1969. The present status and scope of elasmobranch fisheries in India. Seafood Export J. 3:9-13. VARGHESE, G.1974. Shark resources of the Laccadive waters. Seafood Export ]., 6(1); 65-68. VIJAYAKUMARAN, K.AND K.P PHILIP1994. On a pelagic thresher Alopias pelagicus caught off North of Kakinada. Mar. Fish. Infor. Serv., T&E Ser.,No. 133:19. WEBER, M AND S.V. FORDHAM. 1997. Managing shark fisheries; Opportunities for international conservation.TRAFFIC International Centrefor Marine conservation, pp: 61. BOOKS CROPP, B., 1978. Shark Hunters. Harroivood Books, New York.

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DAY, F. 1878. The fishes of India being a natural history of the fishes known to inhabit the seas and fresh waters of India, Burma and Ceylon. Vol I: xx, 778 pp vol II pis. Reprinted William Dawson & Sons Ltd., London. DAY, F, 1889. The fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma. Fishes - Vol. I and II. Taylor & Francis, London. DEVADOSS, P, E. VIVEKANANDAN, S.G.RAJE, GRACE MATHEW AND S. CHANDRASEKAR. 2000. Elasmobranch resources of India In: Marine Fisheries Research and Management.VN Pillai and N.G Menon(Eds.), CMFRI, Cochin. Pp: 563 - 578. HOLDEN, M.J. ,1979. Elasmobranchs, In Fish population Dynamics, Ed: J.A.GuIland (Ed.), J. Wiley & Sons, London. 187-215 SMITH, M.M. AND RC. HEEMSTRA, 1986. Smith's Sea Fishes, Springer-Verlag London, pp.1047. TALWAR, R K AND KACKER, R.K., 1984. Commercial Sea Fishes of India. (Ed.) The Director, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, 997 pp. * All the References pertaining to Taxonomy, Biology, Distribution and Fishery of Elasmobranchs from the seas around India eventhough they are not cited in the text, are included.

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