Elite sport in Switzerland

Swiss Federal Institute of Sports Magglingen (SFISM)

Elite sport in Switzerland Snapshot SPLISS-CH 2011

FOSPO 2532 Magglingen

Elite sport in Switzerland Snapshot SPLISS-CH 2011 (SPLISS = Sports Policy factors Leading to International Sporting Success)

Magglingen, May 2014 Dr. Hippolyt Kempf Andreas Christoph Weber Dr. Anne Renaud Marco Stopper

Olympic Charter: Rule 57, Roll of Honour

“The IOC and the OCOG shall not draw up any global ranking per country. A roll of honour bearing the names of medal winners and those awarded diplomas in each event shall be established by the OCOG and the names of the medal winners shall be featured prominently and be on permanent display in the main stadium.” Source: International Olympic Committee (IOC) (2013a). (OCOG = Organizing Committee for the Olympic Games)

Elite sport in Switzerland 3

Contents

List of abbreviations

6

Key points

9

1. Introduction

11

2. The market for Olympic medals

12

3. Switzerland – a sporting nation: an overview

16

4. Funding Olympic success

21

5. Talent identification and development

28

6. Athletes in elite sport

32

7. Coaches, sport managers and officials

37

8. Research and development

44

9. Sports facilities and training centres

48

10. International competitions

53

11. Switzerland – a sporting nation: outlook

57

12. Study design and methods

62

Appendix

64

Bibliography

68

Acknowledgements

72

List of abbreviations

ADEC Association for the Promotion of Horse Breeding and Racing AISTS International Academy of Sports Science and Technology Approx. Approximately BMX Bicycle Motocross cat. category CST National Youth Sports Centre in Tenero CTI Commission for Technology and Innovation DCE Diploma Coach Education DDPS Federal Department of Defence, Civil Protection and Sport EO Income compensation regulations EPFL Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne ESK Swiss Federal Sports Commission ESSO Swiss Olympic panel of sports science experts ETHZ Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich EURO 08 2008 European Football Championships FIFA Fédération Internationale de Football Association Fig. Figure FIS International Ski Federation FOSPO Swiss Federal Office of Sport FSO Federal Statistical Office IDHEAP Swiss Graduate School of Public Administration IOC International Olympic Committee IF International Sports Federation KASAK Cantonal Sports Facilities Concept Min. Minimum MTB Mountain bike NASAK National Sports Facilities Concept NGB National Governing Body NKES National Committee for Elite Sport NL National League, Swiss Ice Hockey Federation since 2011 NLZ National high-performance training centre NOC National Olympic Committee

6 Elite sport in Switzerland

OCOG Organizing Committee for the Olympic Games OPET Federal Office for Professional Education and Technology, part of the State Secretariat for Education, Research and Innovation since 2013 PCE Professional Coach Education PISTE Prognostic Integrative Systematic Coaches’ (Trainer) Estimation R&D Research and development SERI State Secretariat for Education, Research and Innovation SF Swiss National Television SFISM Swiss Federal Institute of Sports Magglingen SFL Swiss Football League SFV Swiss Football Association SGS Swiss Society for Sports Science SIHA Swiss Ice Hockey Association, Swiss Ice Hockey Federation since 2011 SLF Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research SLS Swiss National Association for Sport SNSF Swiss National Science Foundation SOA Swiss Olympic Association (short form: Swiss Olympic) SOC Swiss Olympic Committee SOV Swiss Olympic Association SPLISS Sports Policy factors Leading to International Sporting Success SSH Swiss Sports Aid Foundation SSMC Swiss Sport Management Center STG Sport Toto STS SwissTopSport Tab. Table Trad. Traditional UEFA Union of European Football Associations USD US Dollar VEMZ Ordinance on the use of military resources for civilian and off-duty activities VMI Institute for Research on Management of Associations, Foundations and Co-operatives VMI Y+S Youth and Sport


Key points

The Olympic Games have a huge impact on sport. The growing number of events and increasing competition make them an ever greater challenge for the participating nations. Olympic successes are highlights in any athlete’s career and can significantly influence the development of a sport in a particular country. Switzerland is a sporting nation and supports its athletes and governing bodies and the Olympic medal targets are central benchmarks within this system. Lasting success at the Olympic Games cannot be guaranteed without efficient support. The report “Elite sport in Switzerland – Snapshot SPLISS-CH 2011” offers a fact-based presentation of the Swiss elite sport system and casts a critical eye over it in relation to the medal target. No fewer than 959 athletes, 682 coaches and 58 performance directors were interviewed as part of the study. The authors compare the survey results with findings from the academic literature, document analyses and insights from 68 interviews with experts in the field of elite sport. Finally, the report also includes findings from various workshops and international research. Essentially, the study reveals that Switzerland promotes Olympic elite sport efficiently in many areas. The major deficits were identified in four areas:

Making elite sport a more attractive career option: For athletes to reach a competitive level and achieve Olympic success, they need multi-faceted knowledge and ability. They not only require good coaches and other expert advisors, but also good equipment and outstanding management. The division of labour and specialization reap lasting benefits on the path to success. Too little is done in Switzerland to ensure systematic success, however. Locational advantages, for example in terms of research and development (R&D), are not fully exploited. A career in the working field of elite sport is not attractive enough for many highly qualified specialists. Creating added value through synergies: Combining different sports can create added value. In high-performance training centres, this knowledge can be pooled. A key requirement for successful competitions and genuine training performance centres is a good, modern and elite sport-specific infrastructure. Particular effort is needed in this area in Switzerland.

Improving funding: Money plays a crucial role in modern elite sport. This report outlines the volume and distribution of funding of elite sport in Switzerland. Athletes, coaches and heads of elite sport believe that the funding is insufficient to ensure lasting success. Simply focusing the available resources is not enough. Strengthening careers through elite sport: The journey to the podium is long. Talented individuals therefore need to be inspired by elite sport from an early age. The better the awareness of elite sport within an individual’s close entourage during adolescence, the more sustainable the talent development. Focusing on the sport in question only becomes important later on. Only 30 % of the athletes interviewed are full-time sports people. In terms of Olympic success, this figure needs to increase. Relating to an athlete’s whole life, however, it is crucial for professional athletes to be able to recognize their own vocational skills. There is work to do in this area.


1. Introduction

Sport interests people. Victories inspire people. In Switzerland, broad sections of the population traditionally watch Swiss athletes taking part in important competitions and achieving successes. The internationalization and global marketing of elite sport have led to a lasting change in its national significance and functionality. All areas of sport are becoming more professional. All of these developments are also reflected in national sports policy. Those involved in sport – primarily athletes, coaches, managers and governing body officials – face challenges. They need to act strategically and use their resources wisely. The growing demands and challenges of the Swiss elite sport system have led to a number of specific changes. In order to maintain Switzerland’s ability to compete on the international stage, various measures have been implemented nationally. The list in Appendix 1 shows a selection of the most important milestones in the Swiss elite sport system since the 1990s. This report provides a snapshot of this elite sport system, taken in 2011. The study does not cover paralympic sport. The term ’elite sport’ is used as defined in the explanatory notes to the Federal Act on the Promotion of Gymnastics and Sport (Federal Law on Sports Funding) of 17 March 1972. Elite sport is in this sense a sub-category of sport. It is characterized by a high level of competition, striving to achieve personal bests and comparison with international benchmarks. The report is based on an inventory data collection. Thanks to inputs from athletes, coaches and performance directors, we gain an in-depth insight into the state of elite sport in Switzerland. Analytical considerations and selected international comparisons at the end of each chapter help achieve a better understanding of the issues at stake. To enhance readability, the SPLISS-CH 2011 data (cf. Chapter 12) are not always quoted explicitly. The report begins by looking at the development of the market for Olympic medals and Switzerland’s medal targets. It then goes on to describe the areas of success of the Swiss elite sport system. In most cases it is helpful to carry out a separate analysis for the Olympic summer and winter sports. The report discusses how these areas are connected to and influence success. The social impact of elite sport will only be touched on briefly. The report offers an informed insight into the Swiss elite sport system and lays the foundations for future discussions on its sustainable development.


2. The market for Olympic medals

As Fig. 2.1 shows, the number of medal events at the Summer Olympic Games grew by 24 % (from 244 to 302) between 1988 and 2012. Of the 58 new medal events, around half involve new sports (badminton, beach volleyball, canoe slalom, BMX, mountain biking, taekwondo, trampolining and triathlon). The number of Olympic medal events in some sports has been reduced during this period. This applies to greco-roman wrestling, shooting and sailing. Meanwhile, other sports have seen the number of medal events increase and then fall again during this time. In order to illustrate the increase in summer medal events, they have been split into eight major traditional sports (major trad. sports), 23 remaining traditional sports (remaining trad. sports) and the eight new sports (new sports).


300 250

New sports (8)

200

Remaining trad. sports (23)

150

Major trad. sports (8)

100

London 2012

Bejing 2008

Athens 2004

Sydney 2000

0

Atlanta 1996

50

Barcelona 1992

Development of the market for Olympic medals The Olympic medal target is not a static figure and its development over the past 25 years can be easily tracked. The number of medal events at both the Summer and Winter Games has increased considerably since 1988. A number of new sports have been added to the Olympic programme and new disciplines have been added to a number of traditionally significant Olympic sports. Only a small number of medal events have been removed from the programme. Appendixes 2 and 3 feature an overview of all medal events.

Fig. 2.1: Number of medal events at the Summer Olympic Games 1988–2012

Seoul 1988

Olympic medals are in demand. In many sports, they are the most significant accolade of an athlete’s career. Even the performance of national elite sport systems is commonly measured against Olympic successes. With the nations and the athletes competing in the best available Olympic delegation, the country’s honour is at stake.

Quelle: Eigene Darstellung inbased Anlehnung an: IOC (2012) Source: Own representation on: IOC (2012).

Fig. 2.2 shows the dynamic development of the programme of the Olympic Winter Games. The number of medal events featured rose by 113 % between 1988 and 2014 (from 46 to 98). This huge growth is primarily due to the inclusion of new sports in the programme (short track, freestyle skiing, snowboarding, curling and skeleton). One third of the medal events to feature at the Winter Olympics in 2014 in Sochi will be in sports that have only been included in the Olympic programme since the Games in Calgary in 1988. Not all sports benefit to the same degree from the expansion of the Olympic programme. Among the traditional sports, biathlon and cross-country skiing have seen the strongest growth. The only traditional sport that has not seen any new Olympic disciplines since 1988 is alpine skiing. Meanwhile, the largest growth in medal events among the new sports is in freestyle skiing, snowboarding and short track. The following chart shows the growth in the number of medal events in the programme of the Olympic Winter Games. The sports are grouped in the same way as in Fig. 2.1.

New sports (5)

80

Remaining trad. sports (5)

60

Major trad. sports (5)

40

Sochi 2014

Vancouver 2010

Turin 2006

Salt Lake 2002

0

Nagano 1998

20

Lillehammer 1994

159 National Olympic Committees (NOCs) took part in the Summer Games in 1988. 52 of these went home with medals (33 %). In 2012, 204 NOCs took part at the Games, while 85 went home with at least one medal (42 %, cf. Fig. 2.3). The medals are consequently shared out among an increasing number of NOCs, meaning competition is more fierce for the medal-winning NOCs, and the medals are therefore more significant.

100

Albertville 1992

Inflation as a consequence of growth? The market for Olympic medals has grown in recent years. A growing number of medal events means the significance of an individual title is devalued. There are, however, hardly any inflationary tendencies from a sporting point of view. Winning a medal remains very difficult. Along with the number of medals, the number of participating nations also saw significant growth over the same period.

Fig. 2.2: Number of medal events at the Winter Olympic Games 1988–2014

Calgary 1988

There are differences in the density of the Olympic programme between the Winter and Summer Games. Among the winter sport disciplines, contrary to the summer ones, there is still some growth potential in terms of the number of medal events, nations participating, athletes competing, etc., while the limits of growth have been reached in the Summer Games. As there are three times more medal events in the Summer Games than in Winter Games, the relative increase in the number of medal events in the winter programme is even higher in relative terms.



Fig. 2.3: Development in the number of NOCs competing at the summer Olympic Games 1988–2012 300 250

Medal events

200

NOCs with no medals

150

NOCs with medals

100

London 2012

Bejing 2008

Athens 2004

Sydney 2000

Atlanta 1996

Barcelona 1992

0

Seoul 1988

50


Strategic development of the medal market The inclusion of new disciplines and sports means the significance of traditional sports within the medal market decreases. This is particularly marked in the Winter Games. The share in the medal market of the traditional sports alpine skiing (from 22 % [1988] to 10 % [2014]) and speed skating (from 22 % [1988] to 12 % [2014]) has declined. Meanwhile, the two new Olympic sports, freestyle skiing (from 4 % [1992] to 10 % [2014]) and snowboarding (from 6 % [1988] to 10 % [2014] have seen the biggest gains. New sports and disciplines make their way into the Olympic programme under pressure from financially influential television stations as they are attractive to the media and help increase audience figures for the Games across the world. However, the “new medals” have varying levels of appeal among the various sporting nations. There are some medals that are more significant on account of tradition and how well established the sports are in society. Not all innovations affect the national Zeitgeist in the same way and not every medal success triggers the anticipated external effects at home (enthusiasm, implications for sports funding). In this respect countries will develop different strategies.

Fig. 2.4 shows the development of NOCs taking part in the Winter Games. In 1988 57 participated and 17 won medals (30 %). At the Winter Games in 2010, 82 NOCs took part, of which 26 went home with a medal (31 %). In contrast to the Summer Games, this percentage has stayed at a comparable level over the years. While there are more medals to be won in the winter, fewer NOCs are in a position to win one, which means the value of an individual medal decreases. The IOC is less successful at integrating new NOCs able to win medals at the Winter Games than the summer ones. The barriers to entry to the Winter Games (geographical and climatic conditions, infrastructure, know-how in terms of equipment and coaching) are clearly higher for new NOCs. The battle for medals is therefore played out among the established winter sports nations.


Studies have shown that there is a global “arms race” in terms of funding and government support of elite sport (De Bosscher et al., 2008; Hogan & Norton, 2000; Houlihan & Green, 2008). France, for example, has invested 137 % more in elite sport over the past decade, Canada 89 %, Australia 86 % and Finland 65 % (De Bosscher et al., 2013a). Switzerland’s growth in total expenditure for elite sport during the same period falls significantly short of this. If Switzerland wants to continue to celebrate Olympic medal success, it has to respond to this international trend. Ultimately, funding is a decisive factor in this race.

Fig. 2.4: Development in the number of competing NOCs at Winter Olympic Games 1988–2010 100 Medal events

80

NOCs with no medals 60 NOCs with medals 40

Such discussions are increasingly being held in Switzerland too. If Switzerland wants to achieve its medal targets in international competitions, the medal market has to be strategically addressed. This requires an in-depth analysis of the objectives, specific knowledge about the entry to the medal market in the relevant discipline and an analysis of the competitive situation. Besides sporting success, other aspects also play a role in the decision to what extent a sport should be promoted. The increased focus on social significance in the categorization of sports takes this into account. Switzerland’s implicit goal is to win the medals that are important to the country.

Vancouver 2010

Turin 2006

Salt Lake 2002

Nagano 1998

Lillehammer 1994

Albertville 1992

0

Calgary 1988

20


Furthermore, new Olympic sports enjoy varying degrees of popularity internationally. Setting up a new sport can be very time consuming but a medal in the new discipline ski cross counts the same as one in alpine skiing for the overall medal tables. At the same time, the level of competition is different in new sports and traditional ones. In most cases it is more fierce in traditional sports (Weber et al., 2013). Moreover, a medal in a team sport (e.g. ice hockey) only counts as a single medal in the medal table. Each athlete in the team takes a medal home with them, however, which increases the outcome. NOCs, which until now have only taken notice of medal table rankings, are going to have to consider additional targets. Before countries enter the medal race, many of them first analyse the medal market in terms of level of impact and potential. Based on this, they attempt to work out potential market shares, similar to companies in business. In particular considering the fast-growing medal market at the Winter Olympics, they have to decide to what extent funding a traditional sport is wise and whether they want to provide targeted support for new, medal-rich sports. At the Summer Olympics, the focus is more on traditional strengths because the development of the programme is less dynamic.


3. Switzerland – a sporting nation: an overview

When sporting nations enter the medal race, a set of relevant targets are formulated. In Switzerland it is the job of the Swiss Olympic Association (hereinafter referred to as Swiss Olympic) together with the national governing bodies to pursue medal targets. To achieve these targets, the governing bodies receive subsidiary support from the Federal Office of Sport (FOSPO), as well as from other partners in the public sector. Those responsible for the sport system define their strategies in such a way to ensure the targets are achieved as far as possible.

Fig. 3.1: Switzerland’s target achievement at the Summer Olympic Games 1988–2012 10 Total medals SUI

8

Total medals Top 25 6 Gold medals SUI 4 Gold medals Top 25

Switzerland is traditionally a winter sports nation, as reflected in the number of medals won between 1988 and 2012. Swiss winter sport athletes won more medals (68 versus 37) and also more gold medals (25 versus 11) than their compatriots competing in the Summer Games (own calculation based on: IOC, 2012). The comparison between summer and winter disciplines can be explored further using the medal table. In the weighted medal table, a gold medal counts more than several silver medals put together. This medal table is typically bandied about by the media. However, the targets could also be based on the total number of medals won. In such non-weighted medal tables all medals are worth the same. Figure 3.1 shows Switzerland’s results in terms of medal target (“Top 25”) for the Summer Olympic Games between 1988 and 2012. The number of gold medals needed to reach the target has been constant since 1996 (three gold medals). The same does not hold true for the total number of medals. However, in general more medals need to be won now than in 1988 (from four to between eight and ten medals). Switzerland achieved a leap in performance at the Olympic Games in Atlanta in 1996, with the Top 25 target being exceeded in terms of number of gold medals. In Sydney 2000 Swiss athletes only reached the target concerning the total number of medals won. Since then they have failed to achieve the targets, in some cases by a significant margin.


London 2012

Bejing 2008

Athens 2004

Sydney 2000

Atlanta 1996

0

Barcelona 1992

2

Seoul 1988

A track record of the sporting nation Switzerland Switzerland’s strategic goals in elite sport are set out in the Swiss Elite Sports Strategy 2010. The targets for the Olympic Games are the following: ranking in the top 8 countries at the Winter Games and in the top 25 at the Summer Games (Swiss Olympic, 2010a). Thus, the total number of medals won is important.

Quelle: Eigene Darstellungbased in Anlehnung IOC (2012) Source: Own calculation on: IOCan:(2012).

Figure 3.2 shows Swiss athletes’ results in terms of the Top 8 target for the Winter Olympic Games between 1988 and 2010. At the Winter Games generally more gold medals have to be won now than in 1988 (from two to five gold medals) and more medals overall (from six to between eleven and fourteen). In Calgary in 1988 Switzerland was the third most successful nation (behind the USSR and GDR), with a total of 15 medals won. The “Top 8” performance target was clearly exceeded. Switzerland has never been able to match this performance since. It has, however, noticeably held its ground. Apart from the Games in Albertville in 1992 and Nagano in 1998, Swiss athletes have reached the performance targets either in terms of gold medals or in terms of total number of medals. In Lillehammer in 1994 and in Turin in 2006 both targets were achieved. The Games in Vancouver in 2010 will go down in history as the “Golden Games”. In summary it should be borne in mind that Swiss athletes have had to continually win more medals at both the Summer and Winter Games during the survey period in order to reach targets.

Fig. 3.2: Switzerland’s target achievement at the Winter Olympic Games 1988–2010 16 14

Total medals SUI

12 Total medals Top 8

10 8

Gold medals SUI

6

Gold medals Top 8

4

In both the Summer and Winter Games, athletes in a particular sport are responsible for a large percentage of the medals won. Successful sports are usually individual sports. They are often costly to practice as they require a lot of equipment and infrastructure. Triathlon, curling and snowboarding are three sports that have contributed to the successes and that only became Olympic sports during the survey period. Switzerland seems to have a competitive advantage in these sports as it is a fast adaptor when it comes to exploiting new potential in the medal table.

Vancouver 2010

Turin 2006

Salt Lake 2002

Nagano 1998

Lillehammer 1994

Albertville 1992

Calgary 1988

2 0

Core sports for international success Some sports are very important to ensure targets are reached. At the Summer Olympic Games between 1988 and 2012, athletes in the four most successful sports (cycling, equestrian, rowing and triathlon) won 68 % of the Swiss medals, with cycling in the dominant position at 30 %. Meanwhile, at the Winter Games between 1988 and 2010, athletes in the four most successful sports (alpine skiing, bobsleigh, snowboard and curling) won 73 % of Switzerland’s medals. At 37 %, alpine skiing is the clear front-runner in terms of medals won during this period. Table 3.1 shows Switzerland’s successful Olympic sports of the past 25 years.

Quelle: Eigene Darstellungbased in Anlehnung IOC (2012) Source: Own calculation on: IOCan:(2012).

Tab. 3.1. Swiss medals by sport at the Olympic Games 1988–2012 Summer Olympic Games 1988 –2012 Number Cycling (incl. MTB)

Percent 11

30 %

Equestrian

6

16 %

Rowing

4

11 %

Triathlon

4

11 %

Other

12

32 %

Total

37

100 %

Winter Olympic Games 1988 – 2010 Number

Percent

Alpine skiing

25

37 %

Bobsleigh

11

16 %

Snowboard

9

13 %

Curling

5

7 %

Other

18

27 %

Total

68

100 %

Source: Own representation based on: Stamm & Lamprecht (2012).


Fig. 3.3: Schematic overview of the players involved in making Switzerland a sporting nation

Private sector

Public sector

Swiss Olympic

Federal Government

Swiss Sports Aid Foundation

Cantons

International Sport Federations

Municipalities

Nat. Governing Bodies

Clubs

Swiss Olympic Schools (High-Performance Training Centres)

Universities/ Research Institutes

Source: SPLISS-CH 2011.

Key players in the sporting nation: an overview What exactly does the sporting nation Switzerland refer to in this report? It is worthwhile to start by mentioning the various players that are of crucial significance in the funding of elite sport. The colours anticipate the model of funding streams in Chapter 4. Distinguishing between private and public sector institutions, Swiss Olympic, the Swiss Sports Aid Foundation (SSH), national governing bodies and international sport federations and clubs appear in the private sector column. On the other side the federal government, cantons and municipalities, as well as sports schools and universities and subsidized research institutions are part of the public sport sector. These players are shown schematically in Figure 3.3.


The next section will go into the complex relationship between these players on a step by step basis. To simplify matters, some partners are only introduced in Chapter 4. Swiss Olympic, national governing bodies and clubs Swiss Olympic sets the national medal target. It is the umbrella organization of privately organized sport and is made up of 82 national governing bodies (as at 2010). The NGBs make up the Parliament of Sport which is responsible for electing the Executive Council. The Council is responsible for implementing the agreed strategies. Swiss Olympic carries out important management tasks in Swiss elite sport. It tries to ensure coordination and quality management on a national level. Swiss Olympic sets the conditions regarding the allocation of funding contributions to federations and athletes and awards various Swiss Olympic labels. In addition, Swiss Olympic funds the NGBs and, working with/via the Swiss Sports Aid Foundation, athletes. The NGBs are responsible for the national elite sport policy in their sport and disciplines. They develop and implement the elite sport concepts and talent development plans. They work together with Swiss Olympic to select talents and elite athletes (Swiss Olympic, 2009). Their autonomy is based on the organizational structure of Swiss Olympic and the private-law regulated elite sport. It relies on the assumption that each NGB is in a position to implement the specific requirements of its sport in the most efficient way possible. The NGBs ensure the connection to their international umbrella organizations. The NGBs are normally made up of individual clubs, which form the basis of the elite sport system. Switzerland has a long tradition and a high density of organized sports clubs. Club sport has a wide base, with 20,065 clubs and 1.6 million active members (no double counting), and is well established (Lamprecht et al., 2011). Swiss Olympic acts as an umbrella organization representing the interests of its members towards the general public, the authorities as well as national and international organizations. The IOC is Swiss Olympic’s most important international partner organization. A cooperation agreement between Swiss Olympic and the FOSPO regulates the collaboration between the private and public sector. Switzerland’s elite sport strategy was drawn up in 2010 under the guidance of Swiss Olympic. To ensure continuity of support, the FOSPO also played a key role in this process. The strategy was also submitted to the NGBs for consultation.

Federal government, cantons and municipalities Public sector sport is represented by the FOSPO at national level. It is made up of an administrative body (sports policy), Youth+Sport (Y+S), the Swiss Federal Institute of Sports Magglingen (SFISM), as well as the national training and sports centres in Magglingen and the national Youth Sport Centre in Tenero (CST). The FOSPO is involved in national sports policy-making based on its sports policy strategy for Switzerland (2000) and in its role in developing the Swiss Elite Sports Strategy in 2010. It assists NGBs directly via subsidies and funding regulated by the cooperation agreement with Swiss Olympic. The office provides subsidiary support to NGBs, clubs and athletes through various bodies. It promotes the NGBs both directly through service and training offerings for coaches and athletes, as well as indirectly through Swiss Olympic. It fulfils a control and quality management function through the subsidies and education programmes it offers.

schools and includes the three hours of obligatory PE during compulsory school time. As opposed to the general school system, this obligation is governed across Switzerland by the Sports Promotion Act. Furthermore, voluntary school sports are supported by Y+S. The FOSPO and Swiss Olympic partake in formal dialogue via the cantonal sports authorities and their cantonal officials for youth sports development. Cooperation and coordination: a challenge for Switzerland The ambitious medal targets of Switzerland as a sporting nation require enhanced coordination at national level. The efforts involved in Olympic success, alongside merely organizing Olympic delegations, have increased dramatically. Olympic success requires eight rather than four years of systematic development work. The sporting nation must respond to this. The above-mentioned Swiss Elite Sports Strategy 2010 is proof of this, as is the recently developed federal elite sport strategy.

The 2,551 municipalities (as at 2010) and 26 cantons and half-cantons are the most important public sports promoters in Switzerland. They support elite sport primarily by building and maintaining sports infrastructure, running sporting events and implementing youth sports promotion programmes (sports schools, performance centres and direct funding contributions). The sports schools and performance centres run by NGBs play a key role in elite sport. The funding structures of the performance centres are varied; often the relevant municipality or even canton provides some assistance. Furthermore, the cantons promote universities and other research institutions with substantial financial contributions. The federal government formulates laws and ordinances that apply at cantonal and municipal level. On this basis, the cantons draft their own sports funding legislation containing relevant implementation measures. Sports funding strategies (infrastructure, sporting events, etc.) are made available to the cantons by the federal government. However, the cantons decide independently to what extent they wish to adopt and fund these strategies and enjoy complete autonomy in the allocation of their funds (lottery and tax revenue). The statutory basis of sport is particularly evident in


Winning Olympic medals involves significant investment. The path to become an elite athlete takes ten years for talented individuals and requires 10,000 hours of training (Ericsson, 2005). If a sport wants to enjoy strategic advantages at the Olympics, these have to be prepared well in advance. This particularly applies to the development of funding structures. It can take years for measures to have an impact. While the stability of the Swiss system may be an obstacle in the short term, it is precisely because of this that long-term investment is even possible. Stability builds trust, and this trust is essential for developing athletes and entire sporting disciplines. It is no coincidence that Switzerland is among the sporting nations with the most Olympians (participants in the Games) per inhabitant (Shibli et al., 2013).

Switzerland is a country where economic freedom counts for a great deal. Players in the business world enjoy a high level of trust as do those in the field of sport. A high level of personal initiative is ascribed to athletes, event organizers and NGBs. The successful Winter Games in 1988 in particular prove that Switzerland with its almost exclusively private funded sport system was able to stand its ground against nations with more public sector sports funding. State intervention in elite sport should be justified by market failure in the areas concerned but private sector solutions should not be eliminated altogether. The prospect of a centralized claim to leadership in the political sphere does not have a strong tradition in Switzerland either. Decisions are made based on federal principles and centralized state intervention is often viewed with scepticism. The federal government has to do a great deal of persuading with cantons and municipalities. Federal government decisions always require broad support. The system is therefore characterized by a high level of consensus and stability. Media-driven elite sport is fast moving and requires a no-compromise approach, while public sector sport is based on sustainability and consensus. Private sector initiatives and federal traditions risk diluting measures due to compromise solutions at both a strategic and financial level. As a result, the support of elite sport swings between claims to leadership, intention to promote sport and passive system development suggestions. This complexity is one of the hallmarks of the Swiss system. Despite the difficult funding situation, Switzerland’s potential to perform on the Olympic stage should not be underestimated. The Swiss sporting nation may be small, but it is also very well linked up. The exchange of information within the system is well developed and the pressure from the international competition forces players to be efficient. The fact that horizontal coordination is relatively low ensures that no overly radical changes can be implemented within the elite sport system. The vertical coordination, which is admittedly not always effective, ensures a certain level of competition between the individual players. In the medium to long term our system, although often criticised, should prove effective.


4. Funding Olympic success

Medals don’t come free of charge. Since the 1980s the Olympic Games have seen huge growth in terms of budget, number of sports, number of athletes, NOCs, etc. Countries that perceive themselves as sporting nations and formulate medal targets will have to employ funding in a systematic manner to achieve their goals. How much is a nation willing to pay for a medal? Should this price be at the expense of other sports or recreational sports funding in Switzerland? To answer these questions, it is helpful to look at the 2010 funding streams.

Sponsors and the media: the partners of elite sport Modern-day sport wouldn’t exist without sponsors and television. The data available on sponsorship deals is however limited as sponsors have no interest in publishing their figures. Contracts are often based on mutual confidentiality. Data on the proportion of sports funding from the media are also very sketchy and difficult to obtain. The most important driver is Swiss National Television (SF). Media presence alone provides a basis for funding from sponsors and advertisers. SF pays between CHF 40 and 60 million a year for broadcast and copyright /media rights for sporting events. In even-numbered years, these costs are inflated due to the major sporting events, such as the Olympic Games, FIFA World Cup and UEFA European Football Championships. In 2010 the broadcast rights for the Winter Olympics in Vancouver and FIFA World Cup in South Africa alone amounted to CHF 15.3 million (SRG SSR, 2011). A portion of these funds flows back into Swiss sport (professional leagues, sporting events and NGBs).

National lotteries: a key hub Switzerland’s two national lotteries, Swisslos (German and Italian-speaking Switzerland) and Loterie Romande (French-speaking Switzerland), play a crucial role in the sporting nation. Swisslos is a cooperative of all German-speaking cantons, the canton of Ticino and Liechtenstein, set up for the purpose of running joint lotteries. The Loterie Romande is organized in a similar way as an association of the cantons in French-speaking Switzerland. The federal government allows the lotteries to have a de facto monopoly in the betting market, thereby guaranteeing an important source of funding for Swiss sport. The net profit this generates is shared out among the affiliated cantons based on a distribution ratio (population of canton and revenue) and flows into the relevant cantonal lottery funds (Basel Stadt, 2013). The cantons thus determine how the lottery profits are distributed. Around 27 % of the operating profits from Swisslos and the Loterie Romande went into sport and elite sport in 2010. The remaining profits benefited cultural and charitable projects at cantonal level. The national lotteries distribute the funds through indirect and direct channels: indirectly through Sport Toto (STG) and directly via SwissTopSport (STS). The Loterie Romande also directly funds equestrian (Association for the Promotion of Horse Breeding and Racing [ADEC]). STG passes the money on to Swiss Olympic, the Swiss Sports Aid Foundation and selected sports (football and ice hockey). In football the funding benefits elite sport (Swiss Football League [SFL]) and recreational sport (Swiss Football Association [SFV]), while in ice hockey it only benefits elite sport (National League [NL]) . Other sports are funded indirectly by the national lotteries via Swiss Olympic and the cantons.


Tab. 4.1: Sports funding from national lotteries 2010 NGBs/institutions Swiss Olympic

CHF millions 24.6

Swiss football (SFV, SFL)

4.4

Swiss ice hockey (SIHA/NL)

2.2


1.0

SwissTopSport (STS)

1.2

Equestrian (ADEC) Sub-total 1 Cantonal sports funds Swisslos economic area (excluding the Principality of Lichtenstein) Loterie Romande economic area

3.2 36.6 CHF millions 84.4 23.7

Sub-total 2

108.1

Total

144.7

Source: Own representation based on: Swisslos (2011a).

Table 4.1 shows sports funding from the two national lotteries. A distinction is drawn here between NGBs/institutions and cantonal sports funds. Sport benefited from CHF 144.7 million from the national lotteries in 2010. The majority (CHF 108.1 million) flowed into sport via the cantonal sports funds (cf. sub-total 2). The cantons fund sport directly or indirectly via municipalities. Is the amount of money available for sport growing? Between 2001 and 2010 the amount of funding allocated to NGBs/institutions and cantonal sports funds by the two national lotteries (Swisslos and Loterie Romande) grew by 61 % (Swisslos, 2011a). The funding that only benefited cantonal sports funds rose by 77 % during the same period, while the amount allocated to NGBs/institutions grew by 29 %. Between 2003 and 2010, Swisslos increased the operating profits to be distributed by 58 % and the Loterie Romande by 15 %. A much more significant increase in the Loterie Romande’s profit (29 %) already took place between 2001 and 2003 (own calculation based on Loterie Romande, 2011; Swisslos 2011b). The data show that the cantons have increased the percentage of operating profits from the national lotteries which are allocated to the relevant cantonal sports funds.


Funding of elite sport Does the money flow into general sports promotion or is elite sport the primary beneficiary? It is difficult to answer this question. The share of elite sport within sports funding is difficult to identify. Very often elite sport only benefits indirectly. It is, however, worthwhile showing elite sports funding in diagram form – based on the logic used throughout this study – and attempting to appropriate the funds. The complex model of funding streams in Swiss elite sport in Figure 4.1 is structured in the following way: • stakeholders are initially split into three groups: financial backers, subsidiary management bodies and actual funding recipients. • The key financial backers in elite sport are sponsors, the media and lotteries. They are shown on the left-hand side of the chart. Funding also flows from international umbrella organizations into Swiss sport. The Swiss Sports Aid Foundation is also listed here. • Subsidiary management of Swiss elite sports funding is carried out by Swiss Olympic and the public sector (federal government, cantons and municipalities). These are shown in the middle of the chart. • The funding recipients of are clubs and NGBs. These are shown on the right-hand side in Fig. 4.1. • Organizers of sporting events and national leagues are also key recipients. They also appear on the right-hand side. • The athletes and coaches/support staff are the final beneficiaries of the various financial support. There are major differences between the individual recipients. Top-earning coaches and athletes were excluded from the calculation to avoid distortion of the results. • Private households (including families, benefactors etc.) are not shown in this chart. The financial support they provide for elite support is essential, but almost impossible to determine. • More information on the figures listed in Fig. 4.1 is provided using qualifiers (approx., at least) in front of the figures.

Financial backers in elite sport In 2010 the total sports sponsorship funds in Switzerland amounted to around CHF 287 million, according to a study of sponsors (Sport+Markt, 2011). Expenditure for elite sport (excluding athlete sponsorship) comes to at least CHF 250 million. The most important financial backers of elite sport support at national level are sponsors and the media. Of this CHF 250 million, at least CHF 58 million goes to sports governing bodies, at least CHF 103 million to clubs (Lamprecht et al., 2011) and at least CHF 89 million to organizers of sporting events/national leagues (own calculation). The share of sponsorship funds from the national media going directly to athletes is therefore difficult to pinpoint.

International organizations (primarily FIFA, UEFA, IOC and International Ski Federation [FIS]) generate revenues from central marketing activities and the global sale of media and marketing rights. At least CHF 26.5 million of these revenues were awarded to Swiss sports organizations in 2010, with the majority being allocated to football. The level of funding awarded is performance-related and therefore fluctuating. National lotteries allocated around CHF 53 million to support elite sport in 2010. Of this, CHF 31.6 million went via Sport Toto, CHF 1.2 million via SwissTopSport and around CHF 20 million via cantonal sports funds to benefit elite sport.

Fig. 4.1: Funding streams in the Swiss elite sport system at national level (2010 figures in CHF millions) Financial Backers

Subsidiary Management Bodies

Funding Recipients

min. 58 min. 13

(min. 26,5)

0,1 6,2

Federal Government

(approx. 26)

Cantons

(approx. 42)

95–117

National Governing Bodies

18,0

1,3

International Sport Federations and Organisations

0,3 approx. 20

approx. 2,7 2,5

Sponsors

min. 58

Athletes

min. 28

Coaches/ Staff

1,2 (min. 250)

Media

0,6 Municipalities

(approx. 242)

approx. 0,3 min. 10

National Lotteries

1,1

(approx. 53)

min. 103 min. 11

400 –730

Clubs

6,7 31,6

Sport-Toto

(30,4)

24,6 0,5

Swiss Olympic

(24,1)

0,5

1,2

…

Swiss Olympic Schools (High Performance Training Centres) 1,8 2,7

4,5

Antidoping CH

approx. 1,6

Universities/Research Institutes

4,7

min. 1,6

1,0


(2,4)

3,4 1,2

min. 100

Events, Organizers, Professional Leagues

approx. 2 min. 89 Legend = cash flow unsized 18,0 = cash flow with size specification

(2,4) = cash out 4,5 = cash in

min.

= minimum/at least

Source: Own representation based on: SPLISS-CH 2011; Held (2001).


The cantons promote youth sport and elite sport through the sports funds: with around 18 % of the sport funds from German-speaking Switzerland and Ticino, shown in Figure 4.1 (cf. Tab. 4.1: Swisslos economic area). This 18 % includes a portion for infrastructure in the area of youth and elite sport. This percentage is used to calculate the funding from the two national lotteries to be awarded to the cantons for youth and elite sport. It amounts to approx. CHF 20 million. In the area of youth sport, athletes mainly receive funding from the Swiss Sports Aid Foundation. The Foundation hands out CHF 1.2 million via Swiss Olympic and CHF 1.2 million to young athletes directly (Swiss Sports Aid Foundation, 2011). Funding through subsidiary management bodies The total expenditure of Swiss Olympic amounts to CHF 43 million. As shown in Figure 4.1, Swiss Olympic provides CHF 24.1 million of direct funding for elite sport. Of this, CHF 18.0 million is paid to governing bodies (including federal contribution), CHF 2.5 million to athletes, CHF 1.8 million to Antidoping Switzerland and CHF 0.5 million to sports schools (including Motion Hess). The most important financial backers of Swiss Olympic are STG with CHF 24.6 million and the federal government with CHF 6.7 million (own calculation based on Swiss Olympic, 2011a).


The federal government mainly supports elite sport via the Federal Department of Defence, Civil Protection and Sport (DDPS). Other departments also promote elite support, but only on a marginal scale. The total expenditure of the federal government amounts to around CHF 190 million (own calculation based on Swiss Confederation, 2011), approx. CHF 26 million of which goes into elite sport. The FOSPO contributes the majority, approx. CHF 20 million (own calculation based on FOSPO, 2011a). The federal government provides further funding for athletes and coaches worth around CHF 3 million (own calculation) through the elite sport promotion programme of the army and the Border Guard Corps. The federal government provides CHF 1.6 million (own calculation) for elite sport-related research via the various research funds. The DDPS supports sporting events in Switzerland by providing non-cash payments and services (Ordinance on the use of military resources for civilian and off-duty activities, [VEMZ]) worth CHF 1.3 million in addition to some marginal financial contributions by the FOSPO (VBS, 2011). A large part of the subsidiary support from the FOSPO is allocated internally between the SFISM and the national performance centres. The SFISM also offers selected governing bodies sports science services and management support. These funding flows within the federal office are not included in Figure 4.1. Contributions from municipalities and cantons are funded by the cantonal lottery funds for sport and through municipal and cantonal taxpayer money. In order to estimate how much the municipalities and cantons spend on elite sport, the same distribution ratio was used as for lottery funds from Swisslos. We assume that the distribution of lottery funds can be transferred between recreational sport and elite sport at cantonal and municipal level. Approx. 18 % of cantonal and municipal expenditure for sport therefore benefits elite sport. The projection is based on total expenditure of the cantons (CHF 232 million) and municipalities (CHF 1.346 billion) for sport in 2009. This includes the promotion and support of sporting activities, sporting events and sports facilities (excluding sports facilities that are connected to educational institutions) (Federal Statistical Office [FSO], 2011). Consequently, as shown in Figure 4.1, CHF 42 million from the cantons and CHF 242 million from municipalities go into the promotion of youth and elite sport.

Recipients of funding The NGBs and sporting event organizers (leagues and STS event organizers) are simultaneously recipients and management bodies. The more financially powerful the recipient, the more independently it is able to use its revenues to manage elite sport.

Swiss coaches’ gross income was calculated from a survey of 464 coaches and based on the resulting median, extrapolated by employment level (full time or part time) to 800 coaches in the field of elite sport. They thus earned a total of CHF 28 million in 2010 (own calculation).

The total revenues of the NGBs amounted to approx. CHF 221 million in 2010 (Lamprecht et al., 2011). Between CHF 95 million and 117 million of this amount was made available for elite sport activities (own calculation based on: Lamprecht et al., 2011). The NGBs have to make a trade-off between the funding of elite sport and recreational sports. Any attempt to attribute funding figures to these governing bodies is only approximate (Swiss Football Association (SFV), 2011; Swiss Curling, 2011; Swiss Ski, 2011; Swiss Ice Hockey Association (SIHA), 2010; Swiss Athletics, 2011; Swiss Tennis, 2011; Swiss Gymnastics Association, 2011; Swiss Equestrian Federation, 2011; KPMG, 2010). Analysis of the 2011 annual financial statements from the SFV, Swiss Ski and the SIHA with its two professional leagues shows that they receive almost 17 times more sponsorship funding than Swiss Athletics, Swiss Tennis and the Swiss Gymnastics Association.

Athletes’ gross income was calculated from a survey of 820 athletes and based on the resulting median, extrapolated by employment level (full-time athletes, part-time employee/ student and full-time employee/student) to 1,500 Swiss elite athletes. They therefore earned a total of at least CHF 58 million in 2010 (own calculation).

Clubs support Swiss elite sport. They have total income of CHF 1.1. billion. The clubs geared towards elite sports have a projected figure of between CHF 400 million and 730 million at their disposal (own calculation based on Lamprecht et al., 2011; Rütter et al., 2011). As shown in Figure 4.1, a minimum of CHF 103 million of this comes from sponsorship and media revenue.

Swiss Olympic and the FOSPO prioritize sports Increasing funding is one way of achieving success. Another way is to focus funds on the most medal-rich sports. This point is worth considering more closely. Swiss Olympic prioritizes governing bodies by classifying sports in a system of five categories (cat. 1–5) (Swiss Olympic, 2011b). On this basis it provides support to NGBs through annual subsidies. In addition the classification has an impact on other services. Specific support measures ahead of Olympic Games are agreed in collaboration with the NGBs.

The revenue of Swiss sporting eventing organizers (professional leagues and sporting events 2010) amounts to at least CHF 100 million in the model (cf. Fig. 4.1). Their key sources of income are sponsors and the media, contributing at least CHF 89 million. The two professional leagues in football (Swiss Football League) and ice hockey (National League) traditionally benefit particularly strongly from sponsorship, media and the betting business. They use money from TV, advertising and sponsorship to generate income for the participating clubs and national governing body. For example, the SFL’s annual revenue from TV rights and marketing amounts to CHF 16.7 million (SFL, 2011). The Swiss Ice Hockey National League, meanwhile, earned CHF 15.9 million from sponsorship and the media in 2011 (Swiss Ice Hockey National League, 2011). On top of this, both benefit from funding from the national lotteries, as shown in Figure 4.1. The organizers of sporting events are also financially strong partners of the Swiss elite sport system. In 2010, the budget for all STS events alone amounted to around CHF 100 million (STS, 2011). Revenues from sponsors and the media amounted to CHF 56.2 million (own calculation). They therefore make up more than half of the budget.


Fig. 4.2: Concentration of elite sport and youth sport funding from Swiss Olympic and the FOSPO in CHF millions, 2010/11 12 Other (32/7)

10 8

5– 8 major sports

6

4 major sports

4 2 0

Olymp. Summer

Olymp. Winter

Quelle: Eigene Darstellung in Anlehnung SwissOlympic Olympic (2011c); FOSPO (2012). Source: Own representation based on:an: Swiss (2011c); BASPO (2012)

Swiss Olympic (excluding the basic federal contribution) and the FOSPO provide total direct funding of CHF 20.3 million to support the various sports. Of this funding, 54 % goes into Summer Olympic sports and 33 % to Winter Olympic sports, while the remainder (13 %) benefits non-Olympic sports. Clear prioritization of either the Summer or Winter Olympic sports, as is customary in other countries, does not happen in Switzerland. Figure 4.2 shows the diversification of elite and youth sport funding from Swiss Olympic and the FOSPO, differentiating between Summer and Winter Olympic sports as well as the related disciplines. It is striking that winter sports (15 sports) are prioritized more highly than summer ones (40 sports).

70 % of the funding for winter sports goes into four sports – alpine skiing, ice hockey, snowboard and cross-country skiing – with alpine skiing alone receiving 33 %. 36 % of the funding for summer sports goes into four sports: gymnastics, swimming, tennis and athletics. In terms of financial support, they are therefore deemed “major”. If we look at the eight major sports, however, the same discrepancies become apparent: 91 % of the winter sports funding is distributed among the eight major sports, whereas for summer sports, this figure is 57 %. It should also be borne in mind that in 2010, football received an additional CHF 4.4 million from the STG for recreational and elite sport. The STG also provides CHF 2.2 million of funding for elite ice hockey (Sport Toto, 2012). This funding, paid out annually by the national lotteries, is not shown in the chart in Fig. 4.2. Focus versus diversification Switzerland’s federal structures are also evident in the way sport is funded. The system has grown organically and is characterized by subsidiary funding structures and the autonomy of private-sector sport. The breadth and variety of sports funding with regard to final beneficiary athletes and coaches are the hallmark of this system. For this reason the system is very well established. The multilayer support ensures commitment and allows a broad activation of funds within the funding system. At the same time it increases the chances of the population voting in favour in referendums on sports policy matters. Sports funding is broader based on the whole.

Whether focusing funding on a small number of sports or distributing it more widely, various strategies exist internationally. On the one hand there are nations like Australia, that have a very targeted investment strategy and are therefore highly successful. Other countries such as France successfully fund many different sports. For example, the prioritized Top 4 Olympic sports receive 22 % of the total national funding for elite sport in France, 36 % in Japan, 38 % in Finland, 42 % in Canada, 44 % in Denmark, 47 % in Australia and 33 % in Switzerland. Various strategies therefore appear successful (De Bosscher et al., 2013b).


The fundamental question to be answered is: should the financial support primarily benefit elite sport, and to what extent should recreational sport benefit, too? Elite sport requires a broad basis and vice versa. There is therefore a symbiotic relationship between elite and recreational sport. One-sided funding is not successful in either the short-term or the long-term. Private funding from sponsors and media attention supports the very top elite athletes. Private financial backers only have a limited interest in bringing outstanding young athletes up to an elite, world class level over a number of years. They would rather make a – safer – investment in successful world class athletes. An investment of this type pays dividends immediately. In order to avoid this market failure, subsidiary support is required from the public sector. The Swiss sports system manages the funds through Olympic support measures and by earmarking funds for talent development plans. These are the funds that help to tap new medal potential. The system of classifying sports to allocate funding and the prioritization of support services based on these classifications strongly weights past successes. On the basis of this classification alone, it would be difficult for new sports or sports with potential to benefit from the funding pie. Another fundamental question is: is it efficient to fund lots of different sports and disciplines or should fewer be managed in a more regimented fashion? A top-down approach in terms of management and planning, as is usual for countries preparing to host a home Olympic Games, is only advantageous in the short term. In the long term, healthy competition within the sport system is just as beneficial as competition between the various hierarchical levels. Competition creates incentives and transparency and ensures mutual control. Although the bottom-up approach may at first glance involve duplication, these systems of longterm hierarchical structures are advantageous, as shown by other economic sectors in the past. Sectors supported by private business are superior to centrally managed, staterun industries.


5. Talent identification and development

Behind every medal there’s a lifelong dream. The journey to the Olympic podium takes years. In many sports, ten years of structured top-level training are the rule rather than the exception. It is therefore crucial in relation to the medal target when and to what extent athletes are inspired by elite sport and guided towards top-level training. Selection of the talent pool (talent identification) and talent development should therefore be viewed with more attention.

Athletes rate the beginning of their sporting careers As an initial way of approaching this subject, it is helpful if the results from the current athlete surveys are considered together with information on the athletes’ funding environment when they started out. The athlete sample (and the coaches and performance directors quoted later on) is listed in Chapter 12.

Fig. 5.1: Age when athletes started out and when they decided to concentrate on a specific sport 25

20

15

The SPLISS-CH-2011 survey collected data about the age of athletes when they started their chosen sport and when they decided to focus on it. This data is shown in Figure 5.1. In winter sports, athletes begin their chosen sport on average one year earlier than in summer sports. Athletes decide to concentrate on an individual sport a little later in winter sports. However, there is a great deal of variation regarding the time when this happens within summer and winter sports. It primarily depends on the relevant sport and the athlete’s gender. Deciding to pursue elite sport Athletes were asked in-depth questions about their decision to pursue elite sport. The data show that the athletes’ close entourage (family 57 % and friends 35 %) is an absolutely critical factor in the choice of which sport to pursue. Three quarters of athletes surveyed admit being motivated by other elite athletes. This encouraged them to opt for the sport in question (39 %), to train more (84 %) and to train at a higher level to become an elite athlete themselves (92 %). Sports stars are therefore more likely to motivate people to train harder and more extensively than to encourage people to take up a particular sport in the first place. It is interesting to note that the coaches interviewed in the same study attributed much greater significance to sports stars with regard to taking up a particular sport. The impact of sports stars on the choice of sport may be overestimated.

10

5

0

Olymp. Summer

Olymp. Winter

Olymp. Summer

Start

Olymp. Winter

Concentration

N.B.: Point = median (50 % (50% of values are sind greater and Anmerkung: Punkt = Median der Werte grösser und50 % 50% smaller), kleiner), Box = 1. and 3 =Quartile values in the 25 %sind arekleiner smaller greater), Box 1. und 3.(50 % Quartil of (50% der Werte im box; Box, 25% und and 25% 25 % sind grösser), highest value (5 % greater), = 5. Percentile höchster Punkt= =95. 95.Percentile Perzentil (5% sind are grösser), tiefsterlowest Punkt =value 5. Perzentil (5%are sindsmaller). kleiner). (5 % Source: 2011, n=411 / 297 athletes. Quelle:SPLISS-CH SPLISS-CH 2011


62 % of the athletes surveyed cited their main role model. The two most often quoted were Roger Federer (8 %) and Didier Cuche (2 %). Many different names were mentioned, with a total of 357 in 555 responses. Interestingly, national sports stars did not feature very often. The role models are often in the young athletes’ close entourage .

Influencers of young and elite athletes Figure 5.2 shows the influence of individuals and organizations on young and elite athletes. The individuals who have the most positive influence on athletes are from their close entourage: parents (88 %), personal trainers (78 %), youth coaches (57 %) and national squad coaches (55 %). 38 % of athletes state that sponsors/financial backers have a strong positive influence on them.

Fig. 5.2: Influence of individuals and organizations on young and elite athletes 100% not applicable/ don’t know

80%

(very) low 60% moderate 40% (very) high

In terms of support from organizations, the club (69 %) and NGB (53 %) are at the forefront. Swiss Olympic (27 %) and Swiss Sports Aid Foundation (22 %) make up a smaller share. A strong and direct source of national financial support for athletes is lacking. Parents, personal trainers and clubs are therefore the most important influencers of Swiss talents and elite athletes. The quality of the support provided for talented young athletes by the NGBs is rated worse than support offered by clubs (NGBs: 50 % “good/satisfactory”, 24 % “inadequate/ poor”; clubs: 65 % “good/satisfactory”, 14 % “inadequate/ poor”). Both are a long way behind the results for other sources of support (particularly parents: 87 % “good/satisfactory”, 9 % “inadequate/poor”). Timing of support for talents The SPLISS-CH-2011 survey of coaches provides information on the age at which talented young athletes received special support and mentoring in their discipline for the first time. The focus is subsequently on the organizational structure in the various sports.

Individuals

Swiss Olympic

National governing body

Club

Sponsors/financial backers

National team coaches (elite)

Youth coaches

Personal trainers

0

Parents

20%

Organizations

SPLISS-CH 2011 Source:Quelle: SPLISS-CH 2011, n=857 athletes.

Compared to other countries, Switzerland has a leading and extensive system for scouting and developing talent, with data on a large number of talented individuals being recorded centrally. Internationally, the Swiss system is one of the most advanced (De Bosscher et al., 2013c). Switzerland develops talented individuals internationally in a wide range of sports. With regard to the number of NGBs receiving funding, Switzerland leads the way. The many different measures employed in talent development require a great deal of implementation expertise. Without committed parents and clubs with voluntary resources, the initiated measures could not be implemented.


Figure 5.3 shows the different paths of athletes from the club to NGBs in Olympic summer and winter sports. Different organizations (club, regional and national governing body) get involved at different stages in an athlete’s sporting life. In winter sports, the support organizations tend to “step in” earlier and there is less variation in the “intervention age” at each level of the support structure. The age variation is greater for summer sports. This is probably due to the different funding requirements in the individual sports.

Fig. 5.3: Age of talents receiving support/mentoring according to coaches 20

15

10

The point at which the NGBs select talents/ provide talents with special mentoring is assessed differently by the athletes, coaches and performance directors. Figure 5.4 shows a clear increase in satisfaction among athletes, coaches and performance directors (response “about right” at 52 %, 57 % and 82 %). According to athletes and coaches, around 29 % of young athletes are supported too late. Performance directors, on the other hand, see less need for action in this area (17 %). It should be borne in mind that athletes may be lacking the necessary time following selection to be able to make a balanced assessment. Furthermore, a distinction can be drawn between the current selection time of organizations and the selection time experienced by the athletes themselves. Nonetheless, the ideal time for selection and development to be carried out appears less clear-cut than the performance directors would like. They are overly optimistic in this regard. Talent scouting, selection and development How does our sports system actually work? The clubs form a key basis and often depend on volunteers. They receive a great deal of support from the federal government. The federal government supports sport for children and young people in Switzerland through the FOSPO’s Y+S programme for young people (10 to 20-year-olds) and the Y+S Kids programme (for 5 to 10-year-olds). As part of the Y+S programme, sports courses and camps are held in around 10,000 clubs in 70 sports and disciplines every year. They are run by 60,000 trained supervisors. The courses and camps are attended by around 700,000 children and young people every year (FOSPO, no date a). With the subsidiary support they receive from the federal government, the clubs lay the

5

0

Olymp. Summer

Olymp. Winter Club

Olymp. Summer

Olymp. Winter

Regional governing body

Olymp. Summer

Olymp. Winter

National governing body

SPLISS-CH N.B.:Quelle: cf. Fig. 5.1. 2011 Source: SPLISS-CH 2011, n=161-198 / 90-100 coaches depending on question.

Fig. 5.4: Assessment of the time when NGB selects talents/ provides special support according to athletes, coaches and performance directors 100 % don’t know

80 %

too early 60 % too late 40 % about right 20 %

0%

Athletes

Coaches

Performance directors

SPLISS-CH 2011 Source:Quelle: SPLISS-CH 2011, n=842 athletes / 371 coaches / 42 performance directors.


foundations for the scouting and selection of talented young athletes. Swiss Olympic’s Talent Eye Programme is implemented as an accompanying measure in selected municipalities. The Swiss system is based on the sport promotion pyramid model – from the club to the Olympic Games (Swiss Olympic, 2010a). The basic elements of this selection process can be found in the “12 basics for success” concept (Zahner & Babst, 2003). The talent support and the selection system are implemented by means of the Swiss Olympic Cards which are awarded by Swiss Olympic (referred to as cards). In line with the talent support system, the coordinators assign the selected talents to three support levels “local talents”, “regional talents” and “national talents”. The elite cards (cf. Chapter 6) are awarded on this basis. These cards were introduced in 2005. Since 2010 Swiss Olympic and the FOSPO have bound the NGBs to conduct their selection processes using the Prognostic Integrative Systematic Coaches’ (Trainer) Evaluation (PISTE) tool. The tool was developed by the SFISM in cooperation with Swiss Olympic (Swiss Olympic, 2008a). Consequently, funding of governing bodies is directly and indirectly dependent on talent scouting and development. The introduction of PISTE brought about a paradigm shift in talent selection in Switzerland, with the focus moving towards the potential of talents rather than their current performance. The NGBs are required by Swiss Olympic to demonstrate the use of PISTE in their talent development plan. In this way they set priorities for selection, team structure, funding structures, school and education as well as in the extent and content of trainings. The NGBs are ranked and funded, among other things, on the basis of their talent development plan. In 2011, 62 sports had a talent development plan in place recognized by Swiss Olympic and Y+S. Thanks to these plans, more funding is set to go into youth sport in the future. In 2010, Swiss Olympic recorded 8,713 individuals as “local talents”, 3,013 as “regional talents” and 2,189 as “national talents”. Swiss Olympic regional and national talent cards are valid for one year.


6. Athletes in elite sport

Athletes are the ones standing on the podium. They are the ones winning the medals. The success of a sporting nation can be improved either by more athletes being brought up to elite level or by existing athletes being able to dedicate more time and energy to their chosen sport. In order to fulfil Switzerland’s ambitious goals on the international stage, a constant increase in professionalism in all areas of performance must be sought. The topic of “sport as a profession” must be taken seriously.

Athletes’ employment level Are elite athletes in Switzerland professionals? The degree of professionalism of Swiss athletes can be gauged from their employment level. Just under one third of athletes surveyed are professional athletes. More than one third are part-time athletes (apprenticeship/study or employee/self-employed). And just under one third are amateur sportsmen and women (full-time student or 100 % employed/self-employed), who do sport in their spare time. The athletes in the Olympic summer and winter sports have a similar employment structure. In the non-Olympic sports, meanwhile, the structure is different, with 59 % amateur sportsmen and women and only 7 % professional athletes. Data from the SPLISS-CH-2011 survey show that athletes spend an average of over 17 ½ hours training a week. On top of this there are 5 ¾ hours of travelling time. Interestingly, the average travel time for Olympic winter and summer sports and for professional and part-time athletes is almost constant at five to six hours. This time eats into training and recovery time. The average number of hours spent training for Olympic summer sports is greater than for Olympic winter sports (over 21 hours versus 16 1/4 hours). As expected professional athletes train more than part-time athletes and amateur sportsmen and women. Professional athletes in Olympic summer sports train on average 25 1/4 hours, while amateur sportsmen and women train for 16 ¾ hours. In the Olympic winter sports, professional athletes train for 19 ½ hours, while amateurs train for over 13 hours.


Total income Athletes have to earn a living. In the study they were asked about their gross income. This total income is made up of the income from their professional activity in sport and/ or business. The majority of the Swiss athletes surveyed earn relatively little, as shown in Figure 6.1. Only 16 % of Swiss elite athletes earned a total income in excess of CHF 70,000 in 2010. It is also clear that winter athletes are in a better position than their counterparts in summer sports. Even in winter sports, however, over 70 % of athletes have to live on less than CHF 70,000. 40 % get by on less than CHF 14,000 a year.

Fig. 6.1: Total annual income of athletes 2010 100 % > CHF 100000

80 %

CHF 70 001–100000 60 % CHF 50 001–70000 40 % CHF 14 001–50000 20 %

0%

< CHF 14000

Olymp. Summer

Olymp. Winter

SPLISS-CH 2011 Source:Quelle: SPLISS-CH 2011, n=350/269 athletes.

Income from sport With regard to income generated exclusively from elite sport, the data initially show that there is a great deal of income disparity. The overwhelming majority of athletes only earn a modest income from their elite sport activities. The median for professional athletes is CHF 25,000 a year. There are, however, athletes at every employment level earning in excess of CHF 100,000 a year from their sport. Sport only makes millionaires of a very small number of top athletes. Figure 6.2 shows income from sport at the various employment levels.

Fig. 6.2: Income from sport at various employment levels in 2010 (CHF) CHF 400000 100 000

80 000

60 000

The survey data also show that 25 % of the athletes surveyed regularly receive a monthly salary for their sporting activities. The most important employer for team sports is the club. For individual and individual team sports, there are various employers (sponsors, governing body, etc.).

40 000

20 000

0

Full-time athletes

Part-time student/ employee/self-employed

Full-time student/ employee/self-employed

N.B.: cf. 5.1: highest value in the full-time category CHF 400,000 Anmerkung: vgl. A 5.1. (95th percentile). 95 Perzentil bei Kategorie Vollzeit: CHF 400000 Source: SPLISS-CH 2011, n=231 / 274 / 261 athletes Quelle: SPLISS-CH 2011

Fig. 6.3: Composition of athletes’ income from sport 100% Other

80%

Benefactors/ patrons

60%

Prize money/ entry fees

40%

Contributions from sponsors 20%

0%

If we analyse the income structure from elite sport activities as the sum of various income categories, a number of differences between Olympic winter and summer sports emerge. These are shown in Figure 6.3: “fixed salary” makes up a greater share in winter sports than in summer ones. The variable salary component “prize money/entry fees”, on the other hand, is higher for summer sports than winter ones. It can therefore be concluded that athletes have a higher degree of financial planning certainty in winter sports than in summer ones.

Fixed salary

Olymp. Summer

Olymp. Winter

N.B.: other = merchandising, Quelle: SPLISS-CH 2011 military service (EO) and other income. Source: SPLISS-CH 2011, n=369 / 281 athletes.

Services and support measures provided by subsidiary management bodies 80 % of the athletes surveyed as part of the SPLISS-CH study 2011 were in possession of a Swiss Olympic card when the survey was carried out. In 2010, Swiss Olympic awarded a Gold Card to a total of 25 athletes, a Silver Card to 341 athletes, a Bronze Card to 214 athletes and an International Talent Card to 173 athletes (Swiss Olympic, 2012a). The allocation of a card and recognition of top elite status by Swiss Olympic has an impact on support received from Swiss Olympic, the federal government and NGBs. Besides revenue, athletes also benefit from subsidized services and therefore a reduction in expenses. Swiss Olympic supports a total of 43 athletes with top elite status with a budget of over CHF 1 million and a further 542 athletes with CHF 1.4 million a year (Swiss Olympic, 2011a). 30 elite athletes receive support from the federal government (DDPS and Border Guard Corps) and Swiss Olympic to allow them to train as professional athletes. The federal government provides direct assistance to elite athletes by employing 18 athletes in the DDPS as military athletes on a 50 % basis (2010). In the future they will be able to take advantage of a generous 100 days of service/income compensation (EO) solution every year. In addition, the Swiss Border Guard Corps employs 12 full-time athletes.


Fig. 6.4: Services offered by regional and national governing bodies according to performance directors 100 % National 80 % Regional

Athletes are also offered access to services and support from other Swiss Olympic partners (career advice etc.). The allocation of a card is also used increasingly often as a recommendation for support from other private and public institutions and organizations (foundations, sports schools, cantons, etc.). The annual card reallocation is sub-optimal. This practice contradicts the long-term planning horizon of elite sport training.

60 %

40 %

20 %

Source: SPLISS-CH 2011, n=42 heads of elite sport.

Medical journal

Nutritional advice/checks

Study support

Transportation

Mental training

Career advice/planning

Additional strength/endurance training

Personal training

Physiotherapists, massage

Training/competition equipment

Functional clothing

More frequent/more intensive training

Training/competition planning

0%

Services and support from governing bodies and clubs The services offered by governing bodies and clubs focus on the training environment. According to the performance directors, over 70 % of the governing bodies surveyed offer their athletes “training and competition planning” and “more frequent/more intensive training”. The regional governing bodies focus mainly on “more frequent/more intensive training”, with 60 % offering this. Fewer than 40 % of governing bodies offer study support. This is shown in Figure 6.4. The athletes confirm this picture for the most part. The data from the SPLISS-CH 2011 study show that the services and support offered by NGBs do not filter through to regional governing bodies. There is also room for improvement concerning the diverse support services offered. Every year where support is sub-optimal, athletes waste valuable time which could be better used later on to pursue a career after their sporting career is over, or for education in order to get a step on the professional career ladder.

Quelle: SPLISS-CH 2011

Coaches rated the “quality” and “extent” of the support offered to athletes in the preceding twelve-month period in various areas. The area of training science and subarea of “strength/endurance” fared best. The sub-area of “biomechanics/performance analysis” has the most potential in terms of extending the offering. Coaches believe there is also room for improvement in the other areas included in the survey, like “sport psychology support” and “nutritional counselling”. In their view, the greatest potential for improvement exists in the area of “career advice”.


Education and sport An important aspect in the development of talents is how to combine sport and education. One third of athletes had attended special educational institutions at secondary levels I or II. These are geared towards the needs of elite athletes. 55 % of athletes received good or adequate support at secondary level I and in upper secondary vocational/general education (12–18 years). The situation with universities of applied science and universities (> 18 years of age) is more difficult. The main types of special treatment involve reduced attendance obligations and flexible exam conditions / timetables. This is shown in Figure 6.5. In comparison with the Swiss population aged between 25 and 34, athletes are less advanced in their education, often extending their education to accommodate their sporting careers. Only 25 % have completed tertiary education (compared with 40 % of the general Swiss population aged between 25 and 34) (FSO, 2012a). Tertiary education is put on the back burner to make way for a sporting career. When we consider that 63 % of the athletes surveyed plan to pursue education or training within the next five years, a major weakness of the Swiss system emerges: half of these athletes want to carry out this education at a university of applied sciences or university. It is therefore about time that progress was made at this level too. Conceivably, education in or through sport could be taken into account in this context: if, for example, an athlete develops his/her own skis and equipment independently with academic partners, these competencies should be recognized by the educational establishments. Flexible study options are a fundamental requirement in sport.

Fig. 6.5: Support with combining elite sport and education according to athletes 100 inadequate/poor

80

moderate 60 good/adequate 40

20

0

Secondary level I and University of applied sciences upper secondary vocational/ or university general education

Source: SPLISS-CH 2011, n=736/445 athletes.

Quelle: SPLISS-CH 2011

To what extent dual or parallel careers should be pursued depends on the athletes’ performance objectives. International success allows little room for compromise.


Career after sport Sport is attractive to athletes. It promises financial gains and increased social status if they are successful. The study shows that 91 % of athletes expect to quickly find a job after their sporting career has ended. This can be explained by the fact that 30 % of athletes have to combine sport and work. Without the support of employers, this is not possible and 80 % of employed athletes rate this support as “good” or “satisfactory”. It is fair to assume that these athletes can expect to find another job once their sporting careers are over. This assertion can also be explained by the situation in the Swiss jobs market, which is currently characterized by a low unemployment rate. Education offers security. The chances of entering a new job are better if you have completed the necessary education and training. The data from the study show that only 25 % of survey respondents believe that post-sport career support in Switzerland is good. These are probably the same 25 % of athletes who took advantage of the support measures available. These include developing a professional network (33 %), study plans for education and further education (23 %) and career coaching (22 %). These services are designed to facilitate adjustment to everyday life after a career in elite sport. The lost income during a career in elite sport is only one side of the coin. The implications of missed education and professional experience are more critical. Because athletes spend their time training, they will have fewer transferable skills to be used in education and will therefore have to accept further losses of income later in their job. These further (opportunity) costs may in some cases outweigh the loss of income and free time during their sporting careers. Athletes might not even realize this until they start to think about the capital in their pension fund. In order for Swiss elite sport to become more professional it is therefore crucial for the profession of elite athlete to gain better recognition in business. Whether athletes are being supported as individual entrepreneurs within a squad or even as employees in clubs, the development of skills and recognition of those skills must be consciously managed Depending on the support structure and discipline-specific know-how, other skills can be developed and must be identified. This skill helps athletes in their subsequent professional lives. Elite sport experience should be taken into account after the sporting career is over. On this point it is worth remembering that athletes with different personalities adapt differently to the structure of the support system.


The Netherlands supported 352 athletes with 120 % of the defined minimum income. Special agreements with universities to allow more effective combination of studies and career are also possible (Bake, 2013a). Finland and Denmark rely on advanced grant systems for students. Finland also awards lump sum contributions that are dependent on the athlete’s level (e.g. CHF 20,600 for elite athletes in 2013) (Lämsä, 2013). In Denmark the amount awarded is negotiated individually and adapted to the athlete’s needs (Tofft-Jørgensen, 2013). Other countries offer athletes financial and job security through the army, border patrol, police and fire brigade. In terms of direct financial support for athletes, Switzerland fares rather poorly compared to other countries. This also applies to athletes’ declared training times, with the Swiss not putting in as many training hours as many other countries (De Bosscher et al., 2013d).

7. Coaches, sport managers and officials

Training hard and good competition preparation lay the foundations for success at the Olympic Games. Coaches guarantee the quality in day-to-day training and prepare athletes for competitions, while team managers ensure a good organizational set-up ahead of competitions, and officials ensure that the entire sports system remains competitive internationally. Successes should not be left to chance and should not depend on individual exceptional athletes.

Fig. 7.1: Expertise and skills of coach according to athletes 100 %

don’t know

80 %

(very) low 60 %

moderate 40 %

Among elite athletes, ratings were mixed. As shown in Figure 7.1, ratings of “high” and “very high” exceeded the 70 % mark in all three topic areas. The highest rating was accorded to the specialist knowledge of coaches, followed by their technical skills. Interpersonal skills tended to receive the worst ratings.

0%

Interpersonal coaching skills

20 %

Technical coaching skills

Athletes were asked about their coaches’ performance. They rated the coaches of talents positively ex post. 81 % of athletes rated the specialist knowledge of the national talent coaches as “good/satisfactory”. Club coaches fared slightly less well (75 %), while 89 % of the respondents described the expertise of the “personal coach” as “good/ satisfactory”.

(very) high

Expertise at international level

Coach expertise and skills Coaches play a key role in elite sport. They have a direct influence on the fine-tuning of elements at crucial phases in athletes’ training. They set the course and provide momentum, before, during and after competitions.

Source: SPLISS-CH 2011, n=800 athletes.

Quelle: SPLISS-CH 2011, n=800 Athleten

In-depth analysis of the data shows that coaches in winter sports fared slightly less well in the first two topic areas (specialist knowledge, technical ability) than coaches in summer sports. In terms of interpersonal skills, the two coach categories performed the same. Overall, the responses give reason to be optimistic. This particularly applies to the question of whether the current coach is the most suitable in the current phase of the athlete’s elite sporting career, to which 72 % answered “agree” or “strongly agree”. An even higher percentage agreed when asked whether athletes could still learn a lot from their current coaches, with 77 % agreeing or strongly agreeing. Athletes therefore believe that coaches are doing valuable work.


Fig. 7.2: Professional situation of coaches in Switzerland according to performance directors 100%

don’t know

80%

The job of a coach There were approximately 800 full-time and part-time coaches working in elite sport in Switzerland in 2010. Despite the considerable number of coaches, one cannot help but notice when reviewing the data from the SPLISS-CH-2011 survey that over 80 % of performance directors think there is a need for action regarding the number of coaches in youth elite sport.

(strongly) disagree

60%

neither 40%

(strongly) agree

Coaches’ careers last on average between nine (youth sport level) and ten to eleven years (elite level). The median is below this, i.e. between six and eight years. The difference between the two figures suggests that the average is increased by coaches with a high level of loyalty to the job.

The recognition and status of the profession of elite coach is good

Career prospects for elite coaches/ support staff are good

Coaches' living conditions (financial situation, social security) are good

0%

The level of elite coaches is good compared to other countries

20%

Source: SPLISS-CH 2011, n=42 heads of elite sport. Quelle: SPLISS-CH 2011, n=42 Leistungssportschefs


Over half of the coaches surveyed rate the development opportunities available to them through their jobs as “good” or “very good”. At the same time, 50 % of them rate the level of recognition they experience as coaches as “inadequate”. Asked whether they agree with the statement that coaches enjoy good living conditions (financial situation, social security), 40 % “(strongly) disagree”. This leads us to conclude that the social status of the job is low and that career prospects for Swiss coaches are rather modest. Among performance directors, meanwhile, 70 % rate the level of elite coaches as good compared to other countries. 50 % of heads of elite sport rated the living conditions of coaches in Switzerland as good by international comparison. The assessment of coaches’ status and career prospects give cause for reflection. This is shown in Figure 7.2. These figures are worrying since performance directors are coaches’ employers.

Fig. 7.3: Total annual income of coaches in Switzerland, 2010 100% > CHF 100 000

80 %

CHF 70 001–100 000 60 % CHF 50 001–70 000 40 % CHF 14 001–50 000 20 %

0%

< CHF 14 000

Olymp. Summer

Olymp. Winter

SPLISS-CH 2011, n=203/119coaches. Trainer Source:Quelle: SPLISS-CH 2011, n=203/119

Total income and income from sport The total income of coaches, made up of income from sport and/or other sources of revenue, is relatively modest. The study compared gross income from employment in each category. More than half of the coaches declared income of less than CHF 70,000 a year (cf. Figure 7.3). On average the situation is more difficult in Olympic winter sports than summer ones. By way of comparison, only employees in the service and sales sector and those in unskilled labour had a lower income from employment in Switzerland in 2011 (FSO, 2013). Job profiles and income structures of coaches are many and varied. 47 % of the coaches surveyed work as fulltime coaches, while the rest work part-time. Some 20 % of coaches are employed less than 30 % in the field of sport. The data from the SPLISS-CH-2011 survey suggest that some coaches finance their sporting activity through income from a better paid job. The median income of full-time coaches from sport amounts to CHF 60,000 (for summer sports) and CHF 66,000 (for winter sports). For part-time coaches this value shifts to a very modest level (CHF 10,000 a year). Remuneration for coaches therefore fails to reflect the demands of elite performance or the duration of education required. Furthermore, it is clear that there is a great deal more variation in the pay distribution among summer sports coaches surveyed than


Fig. 7.4: Coaches’ average annual income from coaching activity in CHF 140 000 120 000

Coaches’ salaries are often paid by a number of different employers. The most important employers of the coaches surveyed are NGBs and clubs

100 000 80 000 60 000 40 000 20 000 0

among their colleagues in winter sports. 50 % of full-time coaches’ incomes in summer sports range between CHF 35,000 and CHF 87,000 according to the study data. In winter sports, meanwhile, half of full-time coaches’ incomes were between CHF 60,000 and CHF 80,000 (cf. Figure 7.4).

Full-time Part-time Olymp. Summer

Full-time Part-time Olymp. Winter

N.B.: Anmerkung: cf. Fig. 5.1.vgl. A 5.1 Source: SPLISS-CH 2011, n=84/116/81/36 coaches. Quelle: SPLISS-CH 2011, n=84/116/81/36 Trainer

Coach education In most cases, the coaches interviewed as part of the SPLISS-CH-2011 study have good qualifications under their belts. Almost 80 % have completed at least a professional coach education (PCE) with federal professional certificate. Around a third have the highest professional qualification, the diploma coach education (DCE) with federal diploma or an equivalent qualification. This high figure can be explained by the sample selection. Coach training in Switzerland is based on Y+S training and the training courses run by the NGBs. The requirements of talent coaches at various levels are regulated by the federal government, in some cases with supplements from the NGBs. Depending on the NGB, the length of coach education may therefore be longer or shorter. Y+S is responsible for most training courses at federal or cantonal level. The education programmes are designed for coaches to gradually acquire the necessary skills during their first (often voluntary) activities. A wide range of short Y+S-modules form the basis for admission to courses at the next level. It takes three to four years in the best-case scenario for a candidate to complete all modules at the various levels. If a module has to be cancelled due to lack of interest, or if the candidate is unable to attend it, the certification will last longer. Only when candidates have completed all these levels will they be considered to participate at the professional coach education PCE. This lasts about one year or maybe even longer, depending on the governing body. In order to obtain the highest coaching qualification, the DCE with federal diploma, candidates need to complete a further eighteen months of training. In the best-case scenario, it therefore takes four years (PCE) or five years (DCE) from the decision to take the first Y+S module to admission to professional coaching. As part of the revision of the Federal Act on the Promotion of Gymnastics and Sport


in 2012, training for Y+S youth coaches was standardized, meaning the training programme is now even longer for some. Considering the actual education which lasts over a year, it takes a very long time for a candidate to obtain the necessary qualifications. This qualification process is illustrated in Figure 7.5.

The qualification standards have a financial effect in Switzerland. Courses are subsidized and employees are sometimes guaranteed income compensation when they attend training courses. Depending on the level of training (e.g. for Y+S youth coaches), NGBs receive financial support for their work. Ultimately, the quality of the services coaches offer athletes should be managed with the aid of clear subsidy guidelines.

Fig. 7.5: Training content and actual length of coach training Length of training in years 6,5

Diploma coach education 12 modules over 1.5 years

5

Professional coach education 7 modules over 10 months

4

Y+S youth coaches possibly complemented by NGBs

3

Y+S youth coach continuing training 2 modules over 2 years

2

Y+S youth coach basic training

1

= 1 effective day of teaching = 1 day for preparing lessons, internships, exams, etc. = 1 practical training day N.B.: The workload was extrapolated based on information on coach training in Switzerland to a working day of 8.4 hours. Source: Own representation based on: FOSPO (no date c). Elite sport in Switzerland 41

The Swiss coach market The coach market is probably one of the most strictly regulated employment market in Switzerland. Admission is governed by the federal government (Y+S), subsidies influence salary levels and Switzerland’s coach training has a de facto monopoly in the coach education. The required internships ensure proof of experience but also make it easier for NGBs to secure cheap labour. The regulations can be justified in economic terms. Information and transaction costs are very high. The coach market is far from perfect. It is small, requires highly specialized know-how and there is only a very low level of demand in the various sports. Because of their closeness to athletes and their presence in the media, elite coaches cover a special role. If we take a closer look at the situation, there are growing signs that the logic of entirely normal market solutions has found its way into this field, too. The sports industry has recognized the fact that a trend towards professionalism is required even at the regional level. As part of the federal government’s revised rules in youth sport promotion, subsidies are therefore linked up with the level of professional coach education. The volunteer era seems to be over – at least in those NGBs that are in a position to fund their working offers through federal subsidies. Competition from other jobs is having an impact. Coaches often earn more when working outside of sport, at least this is what the data discussed above lead us to assume. Many Swiss coaches do not venture into a full time job as a coach. This means sport is missing out on valuable potential. Newcomers (moving into sport from other professions) probably never find their way into sport in the first place. It is therefore necessary to provide targeted support to talented coaches to get them to the highest training level as quickly and simply as possible.


International competition also has a role to play here. It is often easier for NGBs to hire a foreign coach or to apply for qualifications gained outside Switzerland to be taken into account in the Swiss coach education. This saves valuable time. The study data show that coaches who completed their education abroad tend to work more often as full-time coaches (approx. 70 %), than coaches who completed their training in Switzerland (approx. 45 %). 50 % of coaches who completed training overseas hold a diploma that is equivalent to the DCE. Only 18 % hold a qualification similar to the PCE. Education completed abroad is fully recognized in Switzerland. The back-up provided by the purchased skills may bring short-term relief for the NGB in question. In the long-term, however, it would be a sign of success if Switzerland could export coaches abroad – for example alpine ski coaches to Austria. If we compare the average length of a coach’s career with the duration of his or her education, another problem emerges: 51 % of coaches trained in Switzerland hold a PCE professional certificate, whereas only 34 % hold the DCE qualification. It is quite possible that professional experienced coaches change careers once they have reached the highest training level. Attractive options for coaches’ further development are urgently needed here. There is plenty of development potential in modern elite sport. Sustainable success for Switzerland as a sporting nation Modern elite sport requires multi-faceted skills. Success is ensured through the division of responsibilities, differentiation and increased professionalism at all levels. Coaches are key. For Olympic success far more than just training expertise is required. Olympic successes are the result of a complex interplay between a wide range of factors. Besides training and readiness to perform on the competition day, equipment, health and motivation are also crucial to success. Training science, performance diagnostics and biomechanics provide the basis for defining the role each of these aspects plays in success. Consequently, success is the result of a complex and subtle collaboration between a range of experts in various sub areas. This collaboration between the experts must be skilfully orchestrated.

Competitions are important in relation to the success of a sporting nation. Sending a competition delegation or organizing competitions requires a range of additional players and skills. All of these are essential factors for success. Sport managers have many of these skills. Furthermore, independent referees and sporting officials are needed to ensure fair competitions that comply with the rules. If Olympic success is simply regarded as the result of a sports development process involving many years of development work, this opens up other fields of competence. If sports facilities are to meet the specific requirements of elite sport or if training centres are to reflect the real needs of the team, a great deal of other specific know-how besides the relevant specialist knowledge will be required. To allow athletes to combine elite sport and education, didactic and political considerations are key. Sports sociologists, sports economists, sports lawyers and sports politicians ensure that all these parts of the puzzle are brought together to ensure lasting success with the right degree of sensitivity to the required levels of performance.

Education courses for sports managers and officials A successful sports system ensures good education and development opportunities in a wide range of spheres of activity. Besides coaching and sport science, this also includes sport management. Swiss sport offers various training courses related to this, such as the club management course offered by Swiss Olympic and the courses for “Y+S Coaches1”. In terms of continuing education, courses are offered by the Swiss Sport Management Center (SSMC). The SSMC is a joint project involving the four partners Swiss Olympic, SFISM, the Institute for Research on Management of Associations, Foundations and Co-operatives (VMI) and the Swiss Graduate School of Public Administration (IDHEAP), (SSMC, 2011). Executive studies for sport managers are also offered by the International Academy of Sports Science and Technology (AISTS) in Lausanne and the International Master in Management, Law and Humanities of Sport (FIFA Master in Neuchâtel). At universities of applied science and universities a wide range of institutions offer degree courses focusing on sports science and/or sports management. These include the universities of applied science in Chur and Winterthur and the Universities of Zurich, Berne and Lausanne (cf. Chapter 10). The SFISM’s Master in elite sport is a course which bridges the gap between sports and training sciences and sports management. This masters degree course is practically orientated and interdisciplinary. The SFISM and Swiss coach education mutually recognize the relevant qualifications (masters degree in elite sport and certified coach education). In this way they are taking initial steps to the academization of jobs related to elite sport.

Switzerland is home to the headquarters of 67 international sport federations and organizations, for example in the region around Lake Geneva and in Zurich. A number of Swiss sport pioneers have played a role in their decision to be based in Switzerland. This internationally-minded approach has declined in recent years. It would be a good idea to focus on this area again, perhaps with the aid of specific education aimed at sporting officials. The rules are developed in commissions of international sport federations. Sport should be staged and shown in the right light on television. Sport rules should facilitate appealing and exciting competitions. Ultimately, only those who are able to skilfully handle the international sporting arena will be good at this job. Behind all of these requirements lie additional fields of competence and job descriptions that the general public is barely aware of.

The question remains, however, whether the available education courses are able to convey the wide range of sporting fields of competence. To enable growth and to organize the high demands of the elite sport system in the interests of sport, theoretical and practical knowledge about sport is an advantage. This is why Swiss sport doesn’t need managers, economists and lawyers, but sports managers, sports economists and sports lawyers. They are familiar with the needs of elite sport and bring genuine commitment. A sports system that supports and promotes interdisciplinary knowledge can enhance the quality of performance both within and outside of competitions.

not to be confused with the Y+S youth coach education. The Y+S coach c overs administrative and coordinative roles in the club or federation and assures the information exchange with the funding authorities.

1


8. Research and development

Olympic success requires world-class performances. The aim is to get the edge over the competition. This edge or advantage can be developed in training. Superior sports equipment also plays a role. An advantage over competitors can be the result of better team management or a better national sports system. Research, development and innovation are therefore equally important factors. The sporting nation that manages to exploit new knowledge for the benefit of elite sport will be able to increase its share of the medal market in the long term.

Fig. 8.1: Opportunity for athletes and coaches to make use of research and development results in their sport 100 %

80 %

don’t know/ not applicable insufficient/ poor

60 %

moderate 40 % good/ satisfactory

Perception of research among coaches and athletes In elite sport it’s all about the moment. Concentration is key. Every training session counts. The day is highly structured. In most cases training is the focus of athletes’, coaches’ and support staff’s work. They do not usually treat scientific research as a priority, and some may not even be familiar with it. The benefits of research therefore need to be obvious so that the knowledge can feed into the athletes’ day-today lives. Research needs to be supervised, explained and made accessible. As part of the SPLISS-CH 2011 study, athletes and coaches were asked what opportunities they have to benefit from research in their respective sports. As shown in Figure 8.1, athletes mainly utilize technological developments (training/competition equipment and functional clothing), but focus less on applied research (biomechanics, physiology). It is striking that almost a third of athletes answered “don’t know/not applicable’ when asked about applied research. The picture is somewhat different for coaches: for almost 40 % both applied research and technological development are relevant to their work. Coaches were also asked about how they obtain information regarding developments in their sport. According to their responses, they spend an average of two hours a week expanding their knowledge of the respective sport. They educate themselves primarily by exchanging ideas and information with other coaches. They also read specialist magazines and attend advanced education and continuing education programmes. Reading scientific articles fared the


20 %

0%

Athletes

Coaches

Applied research

Athletes

Coaches

Technological developments

Source: SPLISS-CH 2011, n=798 athletes/374 coaches.

worst in this comparison. Fewer than half of coaches read such articles on a regular basis. There are a number of differences, however, with coaches of Olympic summer sports focusing on specialist magazines and winter sports coaches making better use of education and continuing education programmes. The details are listed in Table 8.1.

Tab. 8.1: Percentage of coaches who do some kind of infromation research on their sport

Exchanging experiences with other coaches

Olymp. Summer

Olymp. Winter

87 %

85 %

Specialist magazines

65 %

55 %

Continuing education courses

53 %

64 %

Scientific articles

46 %

49 %

Source: SPLISS-CH 2011, n=203/119 coaches.

Tab. 8.2: Percentage of coaches who are informed about R&D by their club or NGB Olymp. Summer

Olymp. Winter

Development in the area of coaching methods

65 %

78 %

Scientific R&D in own sport

53 %

68 %

General information on elite sport

52 %

67 %

Ideas for sport management

32 %

39 %

Source: SPLISS-CH 2011, n=236/133 coaches.

Coaches are also regularly informed about research and development activities by their clubs or NGBs. NGBs provide information in various fields, predominantly in the area of coaching methods. The NGBs in winter sports are ostensibly doing a better job. Table 8.2 shows this for the previous twelve-month period. Information is provided by the SFISM and Swiss Olympic among others and is circulated directly to coaches and/or via the NGB. The relevant channels in this area are the forum for performance director, the coaches’ autumn conference and the forum for youth sports coordinators. Data from the SPLISS-CH-2011 survey show that 72 % of coaches had integrated the results of scientific research into their work in the last twelve months. Swiss Olympic and the SFISM support coaches by providing information. Relevant scientific findings are already integrated in coach education programmes and later on, information is passed on in the context of continuing education programmes. Experts work in specialist groups to regularly exchange thoughts and ideas about the latest scientific results in the following areas: strength, endurance, psychological/mental strength, team sport, medicine and nutrition. Ahead of Olympic Games, task forces are put together comprising members of various specialist groups in the relevant areas (medicine, strength, endurance, psychology, nutrition etc.), in order to flesh out relevant findings. With regard to the London Games in 2012, specific Olympic Coach Programmes were held for the first time to pass on relevant findings from the specialist groups and task forces to coaches.

Switzerland as a location for research Switzerland’s excellent environment for research and development sets it apart internationally. The majority of research conducted in Switzerland is privately funded. Total expenditure in 2008 amounted to CHF 16.3 billion, with 68 % privately funded and just under 23 % coming from public sector sources. The rest was funded by foreign entities (6 %) and other sources (3 %) (FSO, 2012b). The funding of research in the area of elite sport is largely unknown. However, the portion of private funding is likely to be significant. Sports service providers and industry are involved in various fields of research. These include nutrition, health, clothing, sports equipment, products for taking care of sports equipment, the role of spectators and readers as consumers, etc. Collaborations with elite athletes in the context of sponsorship contracts in product and equipment development are common. Major racing teams and clubs (Alinghi Team, Sauber-F1 Team etc.) often conduct their own research, very frequently in cooperation with global companies. The advantages of this type of research and development are obvious. New knowledge can be kept secret and turned into a competitive advantage in the battle for medals. If the results are protected by patents, this refinances a portion of the investment costs. However, only a very small numbers of teams are able to afford this sort of research. The international sports governing bodies (e.g. FIFA/UEFA and the IOC) are interested in the results of research and fund selected projects. The major NGBs such as the SFA, the SIHA, Swiss Ski and Swiss Tennis have their own, albeit mostly modest, research budgets. Influential NGBs such as Swiss Ski look to put the research efforts of their various partners on the agenda at permanent commissions, as well as coordinate – or at least monitor – these efforts. In most cases, resources are lacking for the actual research. Consequently the governing bodies have to draft research projects and put them out to tender on the market of contract research. There are also a number of research institutes that operate as privately managed companies and conduct research on behalf of a wide range of partners from the world of sport (e.g. the Swiss Centre for Electronics and Microtechnology SA, Lamprecht & Stamm Sozialforschung AG, Rütter + Partner AG and WEMF Werbemedienforschung AG).


Publicly-funded research at universities and universities of applied sciences represents a key pillar of sports research. Several departments at Swiss universities (Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich ETHZ), Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL), the University of Berne, the University of Fribourg, the University of Geneva, the University of Lausanne, the University of Neuchâtel, the University of Zurich), universities of applied sciences (Lucerne School of Business, Zurich University of Applied Sciences) and bodies affiliated to these various institutions (International Centre for Sport Studies, VMI/SSMC, AISTS) carry out research with an (elite) sport focus. The relevant cantons and, to a certain extent, the federal government keep details of the budgets of these respective organizations. The share for elite sport research is largely unknown and difficult to quantify. The obligation to publish that is common in universities means new findings are freely accessible. Once the information has been made public, the incentive for the field of sport is reduced as anyone else can also benefit from the advantages. The SFISM is the only higher education institution in the country that focuses exclusively on research into elite sport and sport in general. It carries out department-led research on behalf of FOSPO. The research is intended to support performance-orientated youth and elite sport (FOSPO, 2011c). The research conducted by the SFISM makes up a large part of the nationally funded research into elite sport. The Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research (SLF) is an interdisciplinary research and service centre based in Davos (SLF, no date). Cooperation with winter sports has traditionally been an important feature of the SLF’s work, including, for example, snow analyses and weather forecasts on behalf of Swiss Olympic during the 2010 and 2014 Winter Olympics in Vancouver and Sochi respectively. Finally, Antidoping Switzerland conducts research related to the battle against doping (Antidoping Switzerland, 2011). The foundation receives financial support from the federal government and Swiss Olympic.

Tab. 8.3: Public sector funding of research projects in 2010 Funds

2010 (CHF millions)

Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF)

726.0

Commission for Technology and Innovation (CTI)

100.4

Swiss Federal Sports Commission (ESK)

2.4

Swiss Olympic panel of sports science experts (ESSO)

0.2

Source: Own representation based on: SNSF (2011); CTI (2011); FOSPO (2011c).


Public-sector research projects in elite sport The state provides targeted funding for research by awarding annual funding for research projects on a competitive basis. Switzerland has various national research funds via which individuals from the field of sport can apply for research funding. Two important public sector research funds are the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF) and the Commission for Technology and Innovation (CTI). Table 8.3 shows the funding awarded. Up until 2010 there was also the Federal Sports Commission (ESK) for the field of sport, but this was disbanded in 2011 and with it the related funding. The Commission has been superseded by FOSPO’s own research department. A share of the funding continues to be awarded in the open market on a competitive basis, however. Swiss Olympic assists NGBs in their research activities via the Swiss Olympic panel of sports science experts (ESSO) – a body with an annual budget of some CHF 200,000. The NGBs can submit their projects to ESSO but must allocate 5–20 % of their own funds to their budgets. As shown in Table 8.3, a large portion of the funding is awarded by the SNSF. At 65 %, universities receive the lion’s share of the funding awarded awarded by the SNSF, while 26 % goes to the ETH domain and 7 % to universities of applied science and other. The remainder cannot be attributed (SNSF, 2011).

The British sport system set up a team of project managers and coordinators in preparation for the London Olympics in 2012. The task of the UK Sport Research & Innovation Team was to facilitate between the elite sport practice, applied sports science and basic research across the various service disciplines and sports. According to S. Drawer, the team had an annual project budget of around CHF 3.1 million at its disposal in the Olympic cycle ahead of the London Games in 2012 (e-mail, 2 October 2013).

Analysis of the funded programmes and projects revealed that sport is barely considered when these funds were awarded. Furthermore, when funding is awarded, high demands are generally placed on scientific rigour. As a result, expenditure and coordination costs for NGBs and researchers are high. The CTI also has only relatively modest funds available for applied research in elite sport. In 2010 this amounted to CHF 0.7 million (CTI, 2012). If we bear in mind the needs of technology and equipment-driven sports and at the same time consider the national funding of CHF 100.4 million awarded in the area of technological developments in 2010, a huge amount of potential becomes apparent. Just think of all the equipment-intensive sports that could benefit from this technical know-how in Switzerland. The difficulty of accessing these funds is likely to be due to the required entrepreneurial funding share. This allocation criterion controls the commercial viability of subsidized research products. In other words, research results also have to have some level of commercial interest. As new knowledge in elite sport rarely leads to commercially viable products immediately, representatives from the field of sport have to devise strategies so that they can still apply for this funding. By comparison, the funds that benefit the field of sport in a targeted way are extremely low. The share of ESK funds (CHF 2.4 million) that went into elite sport amounted to around CHF 0.5 million a year (FOSPO, 2011b). The ESSO funds for applied elite sport research in collaboration with the NGBs may be practically orientated, but at CHF 0.2 million, they are minimal. And even these funds cannot be fully exploited as even ESSO’s formal obstacles are too much. In the current public-sector subsidized research landscape, representatives from the field of sport are barely able to do what is required to get their hands on these funds.

The exchange of information between participants in the field is crucial for research in elite sport. Researchers have to address the unanswered questions and requirements of athletes, coaches and support staff regarding research and to shape them in such a way as to make the topics (empirically) “researchable”, therefore generating direct benefits for sport. The scientific approach (too) often limits questions from those active in the field. Sports research is characterized by a high level of interdisciplinarity and the related cross-cutting issues. Competitive performance is determined by a mix of training, equipment, tactical and coaching knowledge. A range of experts in and specialist areas related to the various core disciplines (biology, engineering, psychology, economic sciences etc.) must be jointly coordinated and encouraged to work together. Ahead of a competition, areas such as project management and management skills come into the equation. Legal issues and regulatory topics are important when organizing youth sport systems or developing and securing new knowledge potential. The diversity of topics involved in the fields of sports research is impressive. Ultimately it is a question of linking up highly application-orientated research with knowledge gained from basic research. Application-orientated research and particularly the development of basic knowledge is far removed from the day-to-day work carried out by coaches and support staff with athletes. As one of the most innovative countries in the world, Switzerland has enormous potential here that can be exploited for the benefit of sport. The top universities and ETHZ/EPFL must therefore be won over as partners for sport. Swiss sport must utilize this opportunity. One thing is obvious: the more ambitious and long-term the goals, the more significant the role of interdisciplinary research and two-way dialogue with scientists engaged in basic research. Although coordinating the various players involved in research is complex and costly, it is an investment in the future of elite sport.

Interdisciplinarity and applicability as success factors In order to activate the huge pool of knowledge available in Switzerland and to make it accessible to elite sport, resources are needed on a wide range of levels: research and development activity must be supported, a broad range of research disciplines should be consolidated, and ways into basic research should be guaranteed.


9. Sports facilities and training centres

Athletes have to train hard, day in day out to become winners. By making use of training facilities and training centres, they benefit from a number of synergies. These include competition, a performance-enhancing atmosphere, pooled knowledge, dialogue between athletes, coaches and support staff, easy and affordable access to a broad range of services – all of which form the basis for lasting success. In order to achieve targets internationally, it is therefore important to ensure the existence of good facilities and sound performance centres.

Fig. 9.1: Assessment of the quality and availability of competition facilities according to athletes 100 % don’t know

80 %

(very) low 60 % moderate 40 % (very) high

Assessment of training and competition facilities Sports facilities are an important basis for success. Athletes rate the existing facilities as relatively good, with 60 % of those surveyed describing the quality as “high” or “very high”. The availability/accessibility of these facilities, on the other hand, were rated less well. Almost 20 % of the athletes surveyed rated availability/accessibility as “low/very low”. As shown in Figure 9.1, the situation is a little better for winter sports than for summer ones. The poor rating may be due to the fact that the facilities are not available to individual athletes at the desired times or that they are located a long way from where they live. One thing is clear, however: there is room for improvement in terms of satisfying the traditionally high standards of elite sport. How important are the centres to the quality of training? Coaches were asked to share their thoughts on this question. 60 % affirm a connection between availability of training centres and quality of training, saying that this applies to both Olympic summer and winter sports in equal measure. It is surprising that this figure is not higher.


20 %

0%

Olymp. Winter

Olymp. Summer Quality

Olymp. Summer

Olymp. Winter

Availability/ accessibility

Quelle: SPLISS-CH 2011n=362/276/359/273 athletes depending Source: SPLISS-CH 2011, on question.

Asked regarding accessibility to training centres, an interesting picture emerges: athletes who currently have unlimited access to a training centre rate a national training centre or regional base higher than those who do not yet have access. Nevertheless, 70 % of athletes who do not currently have access to a training centre or base would welcome it in future. Supply of Sports facilities Switzerland is characterised by a high density of recreational sport facilities. Nearly 80 % of the 2,117 municipalities surveyed have at least one sports and/or multi-purpose hall, while 50 % have an outdoor sport facility connected to the respective sport/multi-purpose hall (Balthasar, 2009). The follow-up study, conducted in 2012, confirms the impressive diversity of facilities. No less than 31,000 facility components were identified (Balthasar et al., 2013). Table 9.1 shows the breakdown by type of facility.

Tab. 9.1: Sports facilities in Switzerland in 2013 Type of facility Outdoor facility

Number 11 736

Gymnastics and sports halls

6 779

Swimming pools (indoor/outdoor etc.)

2 084

Ice rinks

411

Sport specific facilities

10 979

Total

31 989

Source: Own representation based on: Balthasar et al. (2013).

As Switzerland is a federal country, most sport facilities are set up through individual initiatives at municipal level, while sport infrastructure projects are run by private investors. Municipalities try to raise their profiles through sport facilities. Sport clubs and governing bodies also frequently turn to investors and municipalities in the hope of building their facilities. The construction of facilities is therefore managed in a bottom-up process. One frequently discussed issue is the extent to which recreational sport facilities are suitable for elite sport and whether access can be guaranteed for elite sport. Most governing bodies rely on private and particularly public sector goodwill towards elite sport when building their facilities and training centres.

Through the National Sports Facilities Concept (NASAK), the federal government aims to create a sound basis for national sport governing bodies in terms of sport facilities of national significance. It subsidizes selected infrastructure through the NASAK fund. With the Confederation’s decisions on funding for sports facilities of national importance of 1998 (NASAK 1, CHF 60 million), 2000 (NASAK 2, CHF 20 million) and 2007 (NASAK 3, CHF 14 million), Parliament approved three loans totalling CHF 94 million for investment contributions. In 2012 the Federal Council approved the dispatch regarding further financial support for sports facilities of national significance (NASAK 4) by awarding a loan totalling CHF 50 million. The Parliament subsequently increased the amount to CHF 70 million. The federal contributions range between 5 % and 25 % of the eligible construction costs for the relevant projects (FOSPO, no date b). The federal government’s aim with NASAK is to pool and structure resources. For every NASAK project an agreement for the utilization is drawn up between the NGB and the owner of the sports centre and a co-financing agreement between the sports centre operator and the federal government. Since recently, the demand for the facility has to be documented in the sport performance plans of the relevant NGBs. Many cantons apply their own sports facilities concepts (referred to as “KASAK”) as a means of managing sport facilities projects. Representatives of minor sports are normally encouraged to bundle their infrastructure in order to meet specific requirements.

The National Sports Facilities Concept Apart from the catalogue of sports facilities of national significance (NASAK catalogue), there is no reliable data on elite sport infrastructure. The catalogue features (as at 2010) 15 multi-sport sport centres, 14 multi- sport sport/single sport facilities, 11 single sport sport centres /sports halls, 9 lawn sport and athletics facilities, 10 water sports facilities, 12 ice rinks, 16 winter sports facilities and 14 various others (FOSPO, no date b).


Tab. 9.2: Training and performance centres of the most successful summer and winter sport NGBs Sport

Number of NLZ

Note on structure

(national high-performance training centres)

Swiss Cycling (MTB, track, road and BMX)

–

The NGB opened an NLZ in 2013. The existing regional centres are made up of five regional training bases and five regional squads with regular training events.

Equestrian

–

The NGB does not have its own performance centre. There are three riding centres whose training facilities are regularly used by the NGB. In order to minimize the transportation of animals, most athletes train at their local facilities.

Rowing

1

The NGB explicitly cites only one NLZ and purposely no regional centres in order to pool resources. Clubs have the option of being recognized as local training bases by the NGB.

Triathlon

1

The NGB only operates one NLZ but offers a seasonal structure, whereby a training base in Tenero is available from December to June and one in Davos from July to September. Climatic conditions appear to play an important role here. The NGB is investigating the possibility of having a single centre.

Swiss Ski (alpine and snowboard)

3

The NGB operates three NLZs (east, centre, west). Combining school and sport is important. The regional performance centres are spread out geographically and primarily built with the needs of alpine skiers in mind.

Swiss Sliding (bobsleigh, luge and skeleton)

3

The NGB offers three national training centres, each geared towards a different training requirement (athletic conditioning, push track practice, ice training). Only luge already has a local training base.

Curling

–

Curling has a strong local basis. There is currently only a permission for use contract in place for NGB training with the curling hall in Berne. A national training centre is in the pipeline.

Sources: Own representation based on: Swiss Olympic (2013).

Federal sport and education centres Sport facilities are good but comprehensive training centres are better. The FOSPO promotes elite sport through the national training centre in Magglingen and the national youth sport centre in Tenero (CST). In Magglingen the FOSPO offers training infrastructure and accommodation as well as training science and medical services. Its facilities and operations are financed by the federal government. Swiss Olympic and the NGBs also help to fund some of its infrastructure. The CST is the federal government’s national youth sports centre, providing an educational and training base for recreational practitioners and talents. Usage and service quotas have been agreed with NGBs for the sport and training centres. Selected athletes can make use of SFISM’s training science services and the services of the Swiss Olympic Medical Center Magglingen-Biel free of charge in addition to the sport and accommodation infrastructure (FOSPO, no date d).


The Andermatt army base serves as a training centre for winter sports and Y+S youth coach training and relevant competition-specific modules are conducted there. The evaluation process regarding the location of a new national winter sports centre for school sports and youth sport should be completed by the end of 2013. The centre is set to be an effective complement to the existing facilities. NGB training and performance centres The financially strong NGBs usually establish their own training and performance centres. The centres are intended to supplement the course offering and ensure supervised training all year round. These centres are primarily geared towards the needs of a particular sport and are equipped with specific infrastructure (e.g. nets, secured slopes, etc. for alpine skiing). Most training and performance centres are not directly funded by an NGB, but rather operated by a broad range of funding bodies. These offer services and infrastructure primarily to NGBs.

Fig. 9.2: National sport centres, national high-performance training centres of the most successful summer and winter sports NGBs, Swiss Olympic Medical Centers and Swiss Olympic Schools

on providing care for elite athletes and young athletes at national level. Sports medicine and laboratory research on the one hand and performance diagnostics and medical training supervision on the other represent their core areas of competency. The twelve Swiss Olympic Medical Centers (as at 2011) have to re-apply for certification every four years to retain the label. In 2011 there were an additional 23 certified Medical Bases (Swiss Olympic, 2008b).

In order to support athletes’ dual career (education and elite sport), Swiss Olympic seeks collaboration with educational establishments (schools and companies employing apprentices), that can apply for the labels “Swiss Olympic Partner School”, “Swiss Olympic Sport School” and “elite sport friendly apprenticeship programme”. Four of the five Swiss Olympic Sport Schools also receive a total of CHF 300,000 in funding every year initiated by Motion Hess (1999). The 43 Swiss Olympic Partner Schools benefit from Swiss Olympic Medical Center National sport centre a small amount of financial support. The “elite sport friendly Swiss Olympic Sport School High-performance training centres of the most apprenticeship programme” label was introduced by Swiss successful summer and winter sport NGBs Olympic in the 2009/10 season and had been awarded to Source: Own representation based on: Swiss Olympic (2010b). over 100 programmes by 2011 (Swiss Olympic, 2011d). Quelle: Eigene Darstellung in Anlehnung an: Swiss Olympic (2010b)

Synergy potential within centre systems Figure 9.2 shows the geographical distribution of education and high-performance training centres, medical centres and sport schools. It only takes into account the national and highest label categories. The range of supply is extremely broad and varies from one sport to another. To illustrate the point it is helpful to take a closer look at the winter and summer sports with the most medals won between 1988 and 2012. Table 9.2 shows a self-declared assessment from the NGBs. Do the successful sports have more effective high-performance training centres? The data are inconclusive on this point. Furthermore, a wide range of facilities are declared as high-performance training centres. Performance centres must provide athletes with customized services for training, recovery and education. Sport is the focus. NGBs make use of free accommodation, such as that provided by Swiss Olympic in their training bases and by FOSPO in Magglingen and Tenero. A pragmatic approach appears paramount for the various sports and compromises often have to be made regarding the comprehensive support on offer.

If we compare the federal sports and education centres and those of the successful NGBs with the locations featuring certified offerings, there are a number of potential synergies. While the performance centres are located in the alpine regions and central Switzerland, the medical centres are focused in urban areas in the major cities near to universities and hospitals. The same applies to the sports schools. Many interesting partners for sport in research and development (cf. Chapter 8) are also located in urban areas. Switzerland would have almost nationwide coverage of official training and high-performance centres if the NGBs’ sports facilities of national significance (NASAK catalogue) and Swiss Olympic Training Bases were added to the map.

Swiss Olympic Medical Centers and Sport Schools Healthy athletes are the basis for success. Support related to sports medicine and sports therapy is therefore important. Swiss Olympic endeavours to control these areas through certifications. The Swiss Olympic Medical Centers are major medical research centres and clinics that focus Elite sport in Switzerland 51

According to Bake (2013b), the Netherlands has a network of multi- sport training centres, each one differing in its specialisms and focus. The four “elite sport and training centres” follow a multi- sport approach, whereby young athletes from different sports train and complete their education in the same environment. The three “national training centres” usually focus on one, or sometimes several related, sports. Infrastructure and services are tailored to the specific requirements of those sports. At this level, athletes specialize in one specific sport. Highly specialized know-how is available for this purpose, and is continually being developed. The centralization of sport-specific training and educational facilities in these locations improves the quality offered.

The training centres mean shorter journey times, and therefore more time for training and recovery, while improving the quality of training. In training centres athletes benefit from a favourable environment for elite sport (know-how, competition, etc.). This also includes services related to training science, equipment technology and medicine. The needs of sport and education can be optimized when managed from a joint perspective. Performance centres would be even more valuable if they also exploited synergies for research and development. However, the pragmatic representation in Figure 9.2 reveals the problem of Swiss elite sport. The service-driven development of the federal government, the sport-specific solutions offered by the NGBs and Swiss Olympic’s certification system are not optimally coordinated. There is a lack of financial follow-through. The centres are not large enough to ensure synergies are optimally exploited and the needs of NGBs and ultimately athletes are fully satisfied. A structure that is too heavily centralized is probably not wise for Switzerland. If you consider the role model function of elite athletes who are in close contact with young athletes (cf. Chapter 5), the declared shortage of integrated sports funding at regional level and the multi-faceted needs in education (cf. Chapter 6), it is clear that only a sophisticated network of training centres can meet the real needs of Swiss athletes. The sporting nation must work towards achieving this goal. Centralizing everything would erode the regional know-how and expertise in elite sport.


10. International competitions

Olympic Games are an opportunity for athletes and NGBs. They are the ultimate sport platform. Considered on its own, athletes’ training does not hold much appeal. The marketing potential to be exploited lies in the contest, the clash with opponents and the international competition. The way in which a very broad range of sports is staged during the Olympic Games is a model for success, demonstrating the potential of sport in relation to cross-sport marketing, the development of new sports and synergies in the promotion of elite sport.

Athletes’ attitudes towards competitions Athletes spend years preparing themselves for the big day when training for the Olympic Games. Competitions are the best training for athletes as they provide benchmarks against which they can measure themselves. Competitions give athletes the opportunity to observe the competitors and learn from it. The existence of good development competitions guarantees quality with regard to major international objectives. Just under 80 % of athletes surveyed rate the frequency and level of competitions in Switzerland as “moderate” to “high/ very high” (cf. Figure 10.1). This applies to both youth and elite competitions. The level of youth competitions received the worst rating. In-depth analysis of the SPLISS-CH 2011 data shows that the frequency and level of summer sport competitions were more heavily criticized than those in winter sports. This was the case for both elite and youth competitions.

Fig. 10.1: Athletes’ assessment of youth and elite competitions in Switzerland 100 % don’t know

80 %

(very) low 60 % moderate 40 % (very) high 20 %

0%

Frequency

Level

Frequency

Youth competitions

Level

Elite competitions

Source: SPLISS-CH 2011, n=800 athletes.

Switzerland has a strong track record in hosting major sporting events. Only between 2009 and 2011, 18 international championships in Olympic sports were held at elite and youth level. Furthermore, Switzerland has over 80 established recurring major sports events that take place every year (own calculation based on: Stettler et al., 2008). Of these, 20 organized themselves within the association SwissTopSport (STS). These major sporting events bolster Switzerland’s role as a sporting nation and raise the country’s profile in the international sporting arena (STS, 2011).

Range of competitions in Switzerland A total of around 230,000 sporting events are held in Switzerland every year. This figure covers events of all types and sizes and once again shows the nationwide and diverse base of sport in Switzerland. The survey also took an in-depth look at major sporting events, which are defined as having a budget of more than CHF 1 million and are broadcasted live on Swiss Television on a dedicated channel. In addition, they need to have either 10,000 participants, 1,000 officials or 20,000 spectators in attendance (Stettler et al., 2008). “Mega events”, such as the UEFA European Championships or FIFA World Cup in football or the Olympic Games, exceed these requirements many times over.


The leagues have a special role to play in elite sport as they organize professional matches and run competitions at the highest level. The two professional leagues (SFL and NL) provide a certain counterweight to the NGBs (SFV and SIHA) that represent both elite and recreational sport. Competitions are important for athletes and NGBs as they are the springboard for an international career in the major leagues. Packed stadiums guarantee revenues and publicity. As a rule a distinction is drawn between one-off major sporting events (e.g. World and European Championships) and recurring major sporting events (e.g. World Cup). Like start-up companies in business, one-off sport events have to start from scratch and develop new fields in terms of promoting the sport and the host country. Recurring sport events, meanwhile, develop and consolidate these effects or pave the way for a successful bid to host a one-off major event (cf. Stettler et al., 2008, 2011). International collaboration in the run-up to a major sport event enhances Switzerland’s influence and status as a location for international governing bodies (Rütter et al., 2013). Bidding process for major sporting events Most Swiss sport events are well established in the international sporting arena. There are various levels of competition at which organizers can bid to host an event (national, continental and global) in an attempt to get an appointment in the competition calendar for their sport (world championships, European championships, World Cup Races etc.). In the process they have to adhere to the regulations of their international governing body which defines the organizational requirements of the various competitions as well for the different levels (format, competition design, etc.). The biggest challenge for NGBs together with organizers is to secure a slot in the international calendar. The municipal authorities are the primary point of contact for any NGB or sports event organizer considering bidding for a major sports event. In cooperation with their cantonal counterparts, municipal representatives must assess the practical viability of any bid and clarify the necessary authorization requirements (FOSPO, 2011d).


NGBs can submit formal requests for assistance to Swiss Olympic. The support from Swiss Olympic and the federal government means the coordination of major sporting events in Switzerland is supervised to a certain degree. Swiss Olympic implemented a multi-year planning instrument. Swiss sport should have an “Event calendar for international sports events” at its disposal, with a planning horizon of eight to 10 years. In line with the planning schedule of NGBs and event organizers, federal government funding has been determined in accordance with a multi-year plan since 2012. Multi-year planning is coordinated in consultation with Swiss Olympic. This process will define the funding that the federal government can afford to provide for specific events within its normal budget and the major events for which federal money must be requested via a special report. Multi-year planning means enhanced planning certainty for organizers of sports events. It also allows the federal government a medium to long-term funding policy which is incorporated in the overall financial planning process (FOSPO, 2011d). Interest in major sporting events from the sports industry There are various drivers in the process of bidding for and hosting oneoff and recurring major sport events. Sport relies on good organizers. Particularly at youth and early elite age, NGBs and clubs rely on well-attended and fair competitions. They are key milestones for athletes and facilitate talent development and selection. Such competitions are often co-financed by NGBs. The more successful and famous the athletes are who take part, the higher the chances of being able to re-finance the events. If sport event organizers manage to secure key (international) television airtime, this triggers a host of self-reinforcing effects: airtime guarantees sponsors, sponsors promote their commitment, general interest in the event increases and this attracts viewers and in turn secures airtime. The appeal of major sporting events in the sport industry can be understood in this context. The sale of media rights, sponsorship packages and ticketing secure the financing. New fields of business, for example in the area of social media or sport betting, can be developed more easily thanks to major sporting events. The power of major sporting events is based on the structure, pooling and ideally the collective marketing of shared rights from several organizers. Advertisers have the opportunity to effectively raise awareness and enhance their image on a global scale via the channels they access through sport. Since this usually occurs in association with other sponsorship partners, it generates important network effects that make the products especially appealing. This particularly applies in the case of “mega events”.

Fig. 10.2: Development of Olympic broadcast rights 1988–2012 in USD millions 2500

2000

Summer Winter

1500

1000

London 2012

Vancouver 2010

Beijing 2008

Turin 2006

Athens 2004

Salt Lake 2002

Sydney 2000

Nagano 1998

Atlanta 1996

Lillehammer 1994

0

Seoul 1988 Calgary 1988 Barcelona 1992 Albertville 1992

500

Source: OwnEigene representation on: IOC Quelle: Darstellung based in Anlehnung an:(2013b). IOC, 2013

Mega events as drivers Switzerland hosted the UEFA EURO 2008, which allowed the country to gain experience in the organization of a mega event. The effects are multi-layered (cf. Müller et al., 2010). It is interesting to consider the growth in sponsorship and advertising volume in Switzerland. There has been a shift in funding towards sport (Müller et al., 2010). New sponsors have also been acquired for sport (Sport+Markt, 2011). In addition, the Swiss sports industry has seen above-average growth in the related service segment. This can also be explained by the development of new overseas markets (cf. Rütter et al., 2011).

The public sector also supports accompanying measures for sport. This can be measured by the development of financial support for sport provided by the FOSPO. The UEFA EURO 2008 led the FOSPO’s expenditure to see stronger growth than in previous years. Between 2000 and 2005 the FOSPO’s expenditure increased by 9.5 %, while between 2006 and 2010 it rose by 15 % (FOSPO, 2011b). More resources flowed into the sport funding system thanks to the UEFA EURO 2008, meaning sports promotion programmes can be initiated more easily and funded on a more permanent basis. Y+S Kids, for example, was launched as a project in the run-up to the UEFA EURO 2008. The project was subsequently extended to become the Y+S Kids Programme and has been enshrined in the federal law on sports funding since 2012. The appeal of the Olympic Games The impact of major sporting events is amplified with the hosting of the Olympic Games (cf. Preuss, 2007; Gratton & Preuss, 2003; Chappelet, 2002; Rütter et al., 2013). The appeal of the Olympics lies in the huge media resonance, the recognizability of the Olympic rings and the allocation of funds. Since the introduction of targeted marketing in the 1980s, an increasing level of funds has been available. The separation of the Summer and Winter Games and the continual improvements in staging the event and in the sale of marketing packages have brought about astonishing growth. The IOC’s revenues from broadcast rights have risen from USD 403 million (Seoul 1988) to USD 2,659 million (London 2012) – and from USD 325 million (Calgary 1988) to USD 1,280 million (Vancouver 2010) (IOC 2013b). This growth is illustrated in Figure 10.2. Moreover additional revenues have also been generated, for example from The Olympic Partner (TOP) Programme, which increased from USD 96 million to USD 950 million between 1988 and 2012.

Mega events have long since gone beyond the walls of the stadium, developing into a social phenomenon with a diverse range of positive and negative external effects. The federal government’s commitment to the promotion of international major sporting events in Switzerland is based on their significance to sport funding and their influence on the image and identity of Switzerland. Furthermore, mega events promote social cohesion, tourism, maintenance of infrastructure and Switzerland’s relations abroad (FOSPO, 2011d). The public sector generally provides subsidiary support to the private initiatives with its own funding. For example this funding benefited infrastructure, transport, promotion of Switzerland as a destination (tourism) and security at the UEFA EURO 2008 (public sector project organization team UEFA EURO 2008, 2008). Elite sport in Switzerland 55

The growth of the Olympic Games has an influence on elite sport in the participating nations. With the aid of and thanks to these funds, a huge marketing machine is set in motion. The media momentum releases energy, leading various national players to pool their strengths and provide additional resources to fund sport promotion and sport development programmes. Common goals of NGBs, NOCs and the public sector strengthen the incentives for collaboration across Switzerland. The growing medal market incites diversification. The fact that the Olympics feature a broad range of different sports provides a showcase for smaller sports, allowing them to raise their profiles in the media. For athletes, the Olympic Games provide an opportunity to position themselves in the market. Success at the Olympic Games can lay the foundations for lifelong income and accelerate the development of a particular sport in a country. The Olympic programme is defined through decisions made by the IOC Congress. The members who are eligible to vote often focus on opportunities in the major US television market. Political considerations may also play a role. There is a certain amount of euphoria surrounding the growth potential and refinancing opportunities at national level but the growth can only be managed if synergy and transfer effects are utilized. Growth potential or synergy effects for success in Switzerland When considering a possible bid to host the Winter Olympics in 2022 in the canton of Graubünden, a number of scenarios were developed on how the power of the Olympics could be harnessed to promote sport in Switzerland. Following rejection of the bid by the electorate in Graubünden, a number of lessons can still be drawn from this process and further developed in day-to-day sport.

The media presence at the Olympic Games is vast. During the 2012 Summer Games in London alone, 5,000 hours of sport were broadcast in 220 countries (IOC, 2013b). This global reach can only be achieved when different sports are grouped together. Only football, with the FIFA World Cup, can compete with this scale. The host nations actively exploit these platforms. Brazil, for example, is keen to cultivate its image and market itself internationally during the 2016 Games in Rio de Janeiro. “We are going to invest USD 735 billion to modernize our country,” says Brazil’s finance minister, Miguel Jorge. The funds will be invested in building new housing, expanding the extractive industry, modernizing the rail network and power supply. Brazil is investing over USD 90 billion in stadiums and infrastructure for the 2014 FIFA World Cup and the Olympic Games in 2016 (Fasse & Höpner, 2010).

Swiss sport has to learn to harness the power of recurring and one-off major sporting events more systematically. The emphasis should be on funding and marketing potential in particular. Could a collective market presence bring about improvements? Can new marketing channels be developed more effectively? By working together, the various event organizers will improve their chances of securing lucrative international television rights and advertising revenues. More effective exploitation of funds is likely to be the major challenge. It should be easier and quicker to exploit synergies in sports funding. One of the elements that underpins the Swiss funding system is the prioritization of sports carried out by Swiss Olympic. This ranking has evolved historically. The prioritization system means there is no incentive for collaboration and dialogue between the rival NGBs and disciplines. Instead of seeking common ground in terms of training science and equipment, comparable training cycles and similarities with regard to marketing, competition structure and infrastructure, there is a competitive mindset between the various sports. Talented individuals, coaches and resources are lured away. Conscious, cross-sport promotion in the context of Olympic projects would be an opportunity to enhance the exploitation of synergy potential. If the traditional strong sports and the new, medal-rich sports work together, the latter can be developed more quickly. This will provide new incentives for the traditionally strong sports, some of which may not be entirely unproblematic. On the whole, however, this will send out an important message to sponsors, event organizers, performance centres and NGBs. Competition between different sports will be taken to a new level, with groups of sports working together and the system will be more efficient in terms of the Olympic medal target.


11. Switzerland – a sporting nation: outlook

The number of Olympic medals won is a key target for the Swiss sport system. The targets set between 1988 and 2012 were not always met. On account of the increasingly strategic approach taken by nations, we should assume that winning a medal will get more and more difficult. The Swiss sporting nation would be well advised to look for areas where there is optimization potential.

Classification of funding areas by coaches, athletes and performance directors This report contains a wide range of observations, identifies potential and makes initial rudimentary proposals in this area. The report structure is based on the SPLISS model developed by De Bosscher et al. (2008). The model distinguishes ten areas of a national elite sport system that influence international success (cf. Chapter 12). When trying to prioritize the areas where action is needed, it is useful to start by gauging the opinions of those directly affected. Survey respondents were asked about the importance and optimization potential in each of these areas.

Fig. 11.1: Importance of sport policy areas influencing a nation’s international success according to athletes, coaches and performance directors Financial support 1 Elite sport research

3

Athletes

Coaching Coaches

5

Recreational sport

7

Infrastructure

9


Talent development

Athlete support

Structures and organization

(Elite) sport culture Competitions

Source: SPLISS-CH 2011, n=774 athletes/366 coaches/41 performance directors. Quelle: SPLISS-CH 2011, n=778 Athleten/366 Trainer/41 Leistungssportchefs

Figure 11.1 reveals the following: “Financial support” is the area that all respondents felt was the most important to a nation’s international success. This was followed by “coaching”, “infrastructure”, “talent development” and national “structures and organization”. The areas of “(elite) sport culture”, “athlete support” and “elite sport research” revealed the biggest differences between the three groups of respondents. Athletes, for example, consider “elite sport research” to be more important than coaches and performance directors, while “(elite) sport culture” is less important for athletes.


Fig. 11.2: Need for improvement within sport policy areas for a nation’s international success according to athletes, coaches and performance directors Financial support 1 Elite sport research

3

Athletes

Coaching Coaches

5 7

Recreational sport

Infrastructure

9


Talent development

Athlete support

Structures and organization

(Elite) sport culture Competitions

Source: SPLISS-CH2011, 2011, n=774 athletes /364 coaches/41 performance directors. Leistungssportchefs Trainer/41 Athleten/366 n=778 Quelle: SPLISS-CH

Athletes, coaches and performance directors were also asked about optimization potential. This is shown in Figure 11.2. According to athletes, the biggest potential lies in “financial support” and “talent development”. Coaches, meanwhile, consider “financial support”, “talent development” and “(elite) sport culture” to have the greatest potential for improvement. The “(elite) sport culture” polarized respondents, with over 25 % of coaches rating this as either “very important” or “not important at all”. This is a chicken and egg question: does the (elite) sport culture have a positive impact on the other areas or vice versa?


Starting points for the reconfiguration of the elite sport system The view of the key players affected by the elite sport system (athletes, coaches and performance directors) has been systematically compared with the results of other analyses in the SPLISS-CH 2011 study. The in-depth audit of elite sport, expert opinions and international comparisons allow a number of conclusions to be drawn regarding optimization potential: • The market for medals is growing and is becoming increasingly competitive. Sporting nations are required to behave like companies in business and take a strategic approach in order to secure market shares. The medal potential in selected sports have to be exploited (cf. Chapter 2). • Athletes train for 10 years, or 10,000 hours, before they can compete at international level. The stability of the support system is crucial for elite athletes. Stability means certainty, which in turn means a reduced investment risk. The NGBs jointly carry a high level of risk with their structures. The multi-layered integration – both horizontal and vertical – of the Swiss support system leads to stability. The competition between sports, institutions and the various levels of hierarchy ensure the necessary efficiency for Switzerland to hold its own on the international stage (cf. Chapter 3). • Switzerland the sporting nation pursues the following medal targets: to be among the top 8 countries in the medal table at the Winter Olympics and among the top 25 at the Olympic Summer Games. Switzerland is building on its traditionally strong disciplines. However, Switzerland won a large number of medals in new sports and disciplines between 1988 and 2012. This reveals a major strength of Swiss sport – the pro-activeness of the private sector. The subsidiary governing bodies (Swiss Olympic, FOSPO, etc.) employ various measures to optimize the market outcome. The Swiss sporting nation would be well advised to continue to develop private initiatives (cf. Chapter 4). • During childhood and adolescence, athletes’ close entourage plays a key role in their choice of sport and their decision to concentrate on it. Parents and club coaches are key supporting figures in youth sport. Raising awareness of the issues related to elite sport among athletes’ close entourage is a key requirement to ensure the lasting success of a sporting nation (cf. Chapter 5).

• The timing of support provided by regional and national governing bodies varies by sport. Initially the support on offer primarily allows the scope of training to be extended. Needless to say, this is extremely important. Modern training is very diverse. Recovery, school and training have to be well managed. If young athletes miss out on long-term support, they will not be able to fully exploit their development potential later on. They will also lose valuable time. Shortcomings in support at a young age create problems at elite level – and this also applies in Switzerland. The measures employed for young athletes therefore need to be improved (cf. Chapter 6). • The NGBs’ selection processes and the awarding of cards by Swiss Olympic have seen significant improvement. Only the annual selection process is still deficient. While it may spur athletes on and discipline them every year, it is sub-optimal in terms of long-term planning and preparation. Sports schools and the army possibly cultivate better systems based on their periodic support (cf. Chapter 6). • Athletes have to be considered as entrepreneurs and developed accordingly. Although a first attempt of a vocational education programme as an elite sport athlete has failed, the Swiss sporting nation should better demonstrate and underline the elite sport accomplishments of their athletes in relation to professional and working life. Only in this way can decision-makers in sport demand a higher professionalization of their athletes (cf. Chapter 6). • The job of the coach is key. The profession and its status in society, including the adequate level of salaries, needs to be further consolidated. The rapid growth of highly diverse elite sport requires additional interdisciplinary development measures. If sports experts work together, an increasing level of professionalism can be continually developed at all levels (cf. Chapter 7). • A long time ago, a well-known sports minister asked whether Switzerland was capable of winning medals in sports where athletes aren’t sitting down. This in turn raises the question as to why we are embarrassed about winning medals in sports where material and equipment play a major role. Research and development are important factors in international success. Switzerland’s strength as a location for research can be skilfully exploited. The knowledge must be made accessible to elite sport and that costs money (cf. Chapter 8).

• The potential of performance training centres is obvious. As genuine centres of excellence for individual sports, they are an important prerequisite for success. Comprehensive athlete support and sport development requires a sophisticated network. Harmonization of processes and stronger financial incentives could help develop an efficient network of performance centres in Switzerland (cf. Chapter 9). • Major sporting events are key pillars in the funding and promotion of elite sport. Grouping sports together not only generates additional marketing potential, it also releases synergy effects for systematic sport promotion. The individual selling of rights, the prioritization of sports and direct financial funding send out important signals to the market. The system could be strengthened in relation to the medal target if the procurement and allocation of funds were geared more towards groups of sports. (cf. Chapter 10). The one constant in Swiss elite sport is change. The progress made over the past 15 years is impressive, as illustrated in Appendix 1. This comprehensive list features starting points for optimization. Considering the rapid pace of change, additional reforms should be considered carefully. Switzerland pursues more than “just” medal targets Medal targets serve as an indicator of the international competitiveness of a national elite sport system. However, when supporting NGBs, Switzerland consciously pursues more than just the medal target. Besides international success and youth development, the social significance of the relevant sport is also taken into account.

The medal market is often approached in a highly aggressive manner. Various instruments are commonly employed internationally to help countries stand their ground in the battle for medals. These include talent scouting and development programmes, guiding children and young people towards certain sports, specific women’s development programmes in less competitive sports and the international search for emigrants and simplified routes to citizenship for elite athletes. Amendments to regulations and qualification restrictions are also possible means to securing a competitive edge for the country in question or to creating entry barriers. There are prudent reasons behind the Olympic Charter: Rule 57, IOC Roll of Honour. Every country must decide individually the value it places on pure medal success. The Swiss sporting nation must therefore decide which medals mean more than others.


Tab. 11.1: Funding from Swiss Olympic and FOSPO, delegation size and medal success – a comparison of supported sports at the Summer Olympics Funding 2010

Delegation 2012

Medal events 2012

Medals 2004

Medals 2008

Medals 2012

Gymnastics (Olymp. disciplines)

14 %

2

18

–

–

–

Swimming (Olymp. disciplines)

12 %

9

46

–

–

–

Tennis

8 %

2

5

–

1

1

Cycling (Olymp. disciplines)

8 %

11

18

2

4

1

Athletics

7 %

14

47

–

–

–

Volleyball (both Olymp. disciplines)

6 %

6

4

1

–

–

Triathlon

6 %

4

2

1

–

1

Football*

**6 %

18

2

–

–

–

Other

33 %

35

160

1

2

1

Total

100 %

102

302

5

7

4

* In 2012 only the men’s team qualified, in 2008 neither the men’s nor the women’s team qualified. ** Football receives CHF 4.4 million directly from the national lotteries. This figure surpasses the support from Swiss Olympic and the FOSPO many times over. It is excluded from Figure 11.1, however. Source: Own representation based on: Swiss Olympic (2010c, 2011c, 2012b); FOSPO (2012); Stamm & Lamprecht (2012).

Tab. 11.2: Funding from Swiss Olympic and FOSPO, delegation size and medal success – a comparison of supported sports at the Winter Olympics Funding 2010 Alpine skiing

Delegation 2010

Medal events 2012

Medals 2002

Medals 2006

Medals 2010

33 %

15

10

1

3

3

Ice hockey*

**17 %

44

2

–

–

–

Snowboard

12 %

16

6

2

4

1

Cross-country skiing

9 %

12

12

1

–

1

Curling

9 %

10

2

2

1

1

Freestyle skiing

4 %

14

6

–

1

1

Ski jumping

4 %

2

3

2

–

2

Bobsleigh

4 %

13

3

2

2

–

Other Total

9 %

20

42

1

3

–

100 %

146

86

11

14

9

* In 2010 and 2006 both the men’s and women’s team qualified. In 2002 only the men’s team qualified. ** Ice hockey receives CHF 2.2 million directly from the national lotteries. This figure surpasses the support from Swiss Olympic and the FOSPO. It is excluded from Figure 11.2, however. Source: Own representation based on: Swiss Olympic (2010c, 2011c, 2012b); FOSPO (2012); Stamm & Lamprecht (2012).


To illustrate this broad-based funding structure, let us once again compare the sports receiving the most financial support. The order in the lists corresponds to the priorities of funding awarded by Swiss Olympic and the FOSPO. The amount of funding therefore gives an indication of a sport’s level of national priority. Alongside this, the number of athletes in the Olympic delegation is shown. The delegation size shows with how many athletes the defined targets are to be achieved. The number of events in the relevant sport in the Olympic programme is also shown. Lastly, the table shows Olympic success based on the number of medals won. Three Olympic Games are taken into account. Table 11.1 first shows the summer sports. The success – measured in the number of athletes qualified (delegation composition) and in medals won – only corresponds to a limited degree with the subsidiary support from Swiss Olympic and the FOSPO. It can be assumed that the level of international competition in these sports is high and/or the available resources (for performance-determining factors) are insufficient. Efficiency-enhancing measures may also be necessary. It might be that success will only materialize in the long term. When deciding whether to fund these sports, medals cannot be the sole focus. If we compare delegation sizes with the number of events, we notice that for example in swimming and gymnastics a large number of events are contested with a small number of athletes at the Summer Olympic Games. In other words, only a small number of athletes are competing for a large percentage of the available medals. Exactly the opposite is true in cycling, where a large number of athletes qualify for a relatively small number of medal events. It is not clear from the data to what extent this is a conscious strategic decision.

The same list for winter sports (cf. Table 11.2) shows the level of financial pressure on Switzerland to win medals in alpine skiing. The same applies to snowboarding and curling. In ski jumping it is clear that a single exceptional athlete can make a relatively large contribution to the medal target. If we compare delegation size with the number of medal events in winter sports, we notice that in cross-country skiing, a small number of athletes compete for a large number of potential medals. This is even more apparent in ski jumping. Whether this will pay dividends in the long term will become clear at the Winter Olympics in Sochi in 2014. Naturally, team sports have a significant impact on delegation size. If both a men’s and women’s team are able to qualify for an Olympic tournament, this benefits all the other sports in the form of additional support. If, for example, the Swiss national ice hockey team were to win a medal, we could state the following: while a success of this type has a relatively modest impact on the medal table considering the large number of athletes involved, it would have a huge resonance with the public at large. The critical analysis of the Swiss elite sport system has revealed that much has already been done well. However, the Swiss sporting nation will have to pay more attention to ensuring it does the right things the right way. The streamlining of measures relating to success will bring improvements. The optimization of processes will also help ensure medal targets are achieved. This debate is likely to be more of a hot topic for summer sports than winter ones. More financial resources and an increased level of professionalism are essential conditions for international success – on this athletes, coaches and performance directors are in agreement. Focusing resources is usually at the expense of diversity or sustainability. The professionalism of one area is only possible thanks to the voluntary efforts of others. However, winners’ moments of joy and the collective delight experienced during Olympic Games should make it worthwhile for Switzerland.

If the football team qualifies for the Summer Games as in 2012, a comparatively large number of athletes will be competing for a single medal. The target-resource relationship shown here has a different priority given the significance of the Olympic Games in relation to the FIFA World Cup and UEFA European Championships as the world’s best players do not compete in the Olympic football tournament.


12. Study design and methods

The snapshot of the Swiss elite sport system 2011 is a product of an international comparative study of national elite sport systems (SPLISS 2011–2012). SPLISS stands for Sports Policy factors Leading to International Sporting Success. This inter national study investigates the Factors that create favourable conditions in national elite sport systems to ensure the success of athletes and teams.

Objective of the study in Switzerland The aim of the SPLISS-CH 2011 study (SPLISS-CH 2011) is to increase transparency in the Swiss elite sport system and to better understand how it works by means of a systematic inventory. This study can be used by the public sector (federal government, cantons and municipalities) and private sector decision-makers (Swiss Olympic, NGBs and clubs) as a basis on which to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the funding system. The study is designed as an international comparative study. A total of 15 countries took part, so results can be compared between the participating nations. Project organization A SPLISS research consortium supervised the international comparative study. It comprises the following members: Prof. V. De Bosscher (Vrije Universiteit Brussel), Prof. S. Shibli (Sheffield Hallam University), Prof. H. Westerbeek (Victoria University Melbourne) and Prof. M. van Bottenburg, (Universiteit Utrecht). The Sport and Society Division of the SFISM carried out the data collection, analysis and interpretation in Switzerland in 2011– 2012. A national support team assisted the data collection and validation process. It was made up of Dr. A. Bürgi (Swiss coach education), C. Hollenstein (Swiss Olympic), Dr. H.P. Stamm (Swiss Observatory for Sport and Physical Activity) and P.A. Weber (FOSPO). This report presents selected results from the inventory data collection on the Swiss elite sport system in 2011 and summarizes findings from this comprehensive data set. Initial findings from the international study are incorporated in the comments.


The SPLISS-CH 2011 study model The SPLISS-CH-2011 study is built on the model by De Bosscher at al. (2008). It is based on an input-throughput-output model. Input refers to financial resources at national level, while output is measured by Olympic medals won. It does not cover paralympic sport. Throughput covers various stages in an athlete’s career as well as key support measures. The model establishes a relationship between funding (input), support measures for athletes (throughput) and international success (output). The model represents the sport policy factors of a national elite sport system that determine international success. The responsible decision-makers at national levels can control these factors. This report incorporates the model and discusses it in the various chapters. The areas of the elite sport system were evaluated based on a total of 136 critical success factors. The evaluation involved 219 main questions and numerous sub-questions. The international SPLISS consortium devised the questions while the national research partners collected the relevant data and fleshed them out. Data collection Two instruments were employed to collect data on the Swiss elite sport system: an inventory list (219 main questions) and surveys (60 –70 questions) for athletes, coaches and performance directors working for NGBs. Documents and publications of the key national stakeholders in the Swiss elite sport system served as a basis for the inventory. In addition, basic literature (cf. Digel et al., 2006; Emrich & Güllich, 2005; Houlihan & Green, 2008; Kempf, 2004) and scientific studies on sub-areas of the Swiss sport system (cf. Heinzman, 2007; Schafer, 2011) were also included. Semi-structured interviews were also held with a total of 68 experts: 52 of whom were asked about their relevant area of expertise, while 16 were asked about the strengths and weaknesses of the Swiss elite sport system in one of the relevant areas. Appendix 4 lists all experts who took part in the study. In selected areas (e.g. infrastructure), the questions went into more depth and were elaborated upon.

Tab. 12.1: Sample and respondent structure Sample

Respondent structure

Contacted Performance directors

Respondents 58

48

Coaches

682

Athletes

*959

Response rate

Olymp. Summer Olymp. Winter

83 %

26

464

68 %

237

897

94 %

411

non-Olympic

11

non classifiable 9

2

135

55

37

297

189

–

*approximate Source: SPLISS-CH 2011

Tab. 12.2: Descriptive information about athletes and coaches respondents Mean

Percentage

Age

Women

Team sports

Foreigners

Swiss Olympic Ranking (cat.) 1

Elite level

Coaches

43 years old

15 %

24 %

20 %

56 %

40 %

Athletes

25 years old

42 %

0 %

22 %

43 %

88 %

Source: SPLISS-CH 2011.

The survey devised by the SPLISS Consortium was adapted to the Swiss system, translated and a number of specific questions were added. The athlete survey comprised 63 questions with sub-questions. It was completed locally on iPads or online. The coach survey comprised 70 questions with sub-questions, while the survey for performance directors comprised 60 questions with sub-questions. Both were conducted online. The athlete sample was based on holders of Swiss Olympic Gold, Silver, Bronze and International Talents Cards in 2010. As some NGBs did not have any athletes of this standard, their athletes were added anyway (handball, basketball etc.) to accurately reflect Swiss elite sport. The coach sample was based on Swiss Olympic Card coaches in 2010 and coaches at youth development levels 2–3 (FOSPO, 2011e). The performance directors sample comprised those from the prioritized NGBs (Swiss Olympic ranking 1–3). The discipline-specific performance directors from selected NGBs also answered the questions. Figure 12.1 shows the scope and high response rate of the surveys. Figure 12.2 includes further information on the athletes and coaches surveyed.

No differentiated weighting was used when analysing the data. The data allow robust conclusions to be drawn about Swiss elite sport from the perspective of those directly affected. Validation The survey design and the results of the expert interviews were discussed at two national workshops, each involving 21 participants, on account of the sometimes contradictory assessments of the experts. In order to understand the international results, an international comparative workshop was also held involving scientific representatives from comparable countries (Denmark, Finland, France and the Netherlands). The participants are also listed in Appendix 4. The various workshops showed how complex and challenging it is to achieve a structured representation and common understanding of elite sport systems. On top of this, Switzerland’s complex elite sport system is also subject to constant changes.


Appendix

Appendix 1: Milestones in the support of the Swiss elite sport system 1996

Approval of the National Sports Facilities Concept (NASAK) by the Federal Council.

1997

Merger of the Swiss Olympic Committee (SOC), the National Committee for Elite Sport (NKES) and the Swiss National A ssociation for Sports (SLS) to become the Schweizerischen Olympischen Verband (SOV), known as the Swiss Olympic A ssociation (SOA) from 2001. Adoption of the “Ordinance on the use of military resources for civilian and off-duty activities” (VEMZ).

1998

Development and integration of the Federal Office of Sport (FOSPO) through restructuring of the Federal Department of Defence, Civil Protection and Sport (DDPS). The Swiss Federal Sports School Magglingen is renamed the Swiss Federal Institute of Sports Magglingen (nowadays referred to as EHSM Magglingen) and integrated into the FOSPO.

1999

The SOA publishes the “12 basics for success” – the key to youth sports development in Switzerland”.

2000

The Federal Council approves the “Concept of the Federal Council for Swiss Sports Policy”. The SOA implements its sports prioritization instrument. SwissTopSport (STS), an association of Switzerland’s most important recurring sports events, is founded.

2001

Work is carried out on out how the sports policy concept and the associated financial measures are to be implemented in concrete terms. Introduction of “3 T Talent Treff Tenero” as a measure in the promotion of youth sport.

2002 – 2003

Introduction and training of 10,000 Youth+Sport coaches in clubs.

2003

St. Moritz hosts the World Ski Championships. Implementation of the Y+S youth development programme and successive increase in contributions to NGBs and clubs. The contributions are linked up with the level of coach qualification. Recognition of coaching as a profession based on a professional certificate by the Office for Professional Education and Technology OPET. Increase in FOSPO’s budget allocation as part of its research strategy 2004–2007.

2004

Swiss Olympic introduces a uniform accounting method for NGBs (in accordance with the Swiss Sport GAAPs), The first Swiss Olympic labels are awarded to schools.

2005

ESwiss Olympic and FOSPO organize a conference under the slogan “Bormio-never again” addressing the issue of youth development in Switzerland. Roll-out of the national and regional Swiss Olympic Talents Cards.

2006

Roll-out of the “Swiss Olympic Top Athletes” support programme. First-ever staging of Olympic/World Championship (Swiss Army) refresher courses of the Swiss Army and pilot project involving 14 contracted military elite places (2006 –2010), rising to 18 places from 2010 onwards.

2007

FOSPO and Swiss Olympic sign a cooperation and performance agreement. Pilot tests for Y+S Kids (five to fifteen year-olds) as part of EURO 08

2008

Hosting of EURO 08 in Switzerland and Austria. Inaugural meeting of the Swiss Society for Sports Science (SGS).

2009

Introduction of the new “Sport in the armed forces” regulations, creating the basis for obtaining sports qualifications in the army.

2010

The “Swiss Elite Sports Strategy – continued support for young elite athletes” enters into force. The Federal Council publicly backs Switzerland’s bid to host the 2022 Winter Olympics. The Federal Council approves the direct counter-proposal to a people’s initiative from 2009 entitled “Gambling and gaming for the common good” to secure lottery funds for sport. The PISTE selection process is implemented for talent scouting, selection and development.

2010 – 2011

The federal government draws up a strategy for international sports events in Switzerland.

2011

NGBs are required by Swiss Olympic to draw up talent development plans in addition to the elite sport concepts. Parliament approves the revised Federal Act on the Promotion of Sport and Physical Activity (Sports Promotion Act).

2012

Swiss Olympic amends its sport ranking system, to give greater weight to the social significance of the sports in question. The new Sport Promotion Act including the corresponding ordinances from the Federal Council come into effect. The FOSPO initiates a national elite sport strategy.


Appendix 2: Development of Summer Olympic medal events, 1988 –2012 (without demonstration events)

Major trad. sports

Seoul 1988

Atlanta 1996

Sydney 2000

Beijing 2008

London 2012

Total

Athletics

42

43

44

46

46

47

47

315

31

31

32

32

32

34

34

226

Shooting

13

13

15

17

17

15

15

105

Gymnastics

14

14

14

14

14

14

14

98

Rowing

14

14

14

14

14

14

14

98

7

14

14

14

14

14

14

91

10

10

10

15

15

15

15

90

Judo Weightlifting Canoe, regatta

12

12

12

12

12

12

12

84

Boxing

12

12

12

12

11

11

13

83

Wrestling, freestyle wrestling

10

10

10

8

11

11

11

71

Sailing

8

10

10

11

11

11

10

71

Fencing

8

8

10

10

10

10

10

66 65

6

7

8

12

12

10

10

10

10

10

8

7

7

7

59

Diving

4

4

4

8

8

8

8

44

Tennis

4

4

4

4

4

4

5

29

Archery

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

28

Table tennis

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

28

Cycling, road race

3

3

4

4

4

4

4

26

Basketball

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

14

Equestrian, dressage

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

14

Equestrian, eventing

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

14

Equestrian, show jumping

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

14

Handball

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

14

Hockey

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

14

Volleyball

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

14

Modern pentathlon

2

2

1

2

2

2

2

13

Synchronized swimming

2

2

1

2

2

2

2

13

Football

1

1

2

2

2

2

2

12

Rhythmic gymnastics

1

1

2

2

2

2

2

12

Water polo

1

1

1

2

2

2

2

11

8

8

8

8

32

Greco-roman wrestling

Taekwondo

New sports

Athens 2004

Swimming

Cycling, track

Remaining trad. sports

Barcelona 1992

Badminton

4

5

5

5

5

5

29

Canoe, slalom

4

4

4

4

4

4

24

Beach volleyball

2

2

2

2

2

10

Cycling, MTB

2

2

2

2

2

10

Trampolining

2

2

2

2

8

Triathlon

2

2

2

2

8

2

2

4

300

302

Cycling, BMX Total *

237

256

269

298

299

* Additionally 1992–2008: 1 event baseball; 1996–2008: 1 event soft-ball.


Appendix 3: Development of Winter Olympic medal events, 1988– 2014 Calgary 1988

Albertville 1992

Lillehammer 1994

8

10

10

10

12

12

12

12

86

Speed skating

10

10

10

10

10

12

12

12

86

Alpine skiing

10

10

10

10

10

10

10

10

80

Biathlon

3

6

6

6

8

10

10

11

60

Figure skating

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

5

33

Luge

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

4

25

Ski jumping

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

4

25

Bobsleigh

2

2

2

2

3

3

3

3

20

Nordic combination

2

2

2

2

3

3

3

3

20

Ice hockey

1

1

1

2

2

2

2

2

13

Speed skating – short track

4

6

6

8

8

8

8

48

Freestyle skiing

2

4

4

4

4

6

10

34

Snowboard

4

4

6

6

10

30

Curling

2

2

2

2

2

10

2

2

2

2

8

78

84

86

98

New sports

Remaining trad. sports

Major trad. sports

Cross-country skiing

Nagano 1998

Salt Lake 2002

Bobsleigh skeleton Total


46

57

61

68

Turin 2006

Vancouver 2010

Sochi 2014

TOTAL

Appendix 4: List of experts and workshop participants Experts Balthasar, A. (Interface), Bär, P. (conference of cantonal sports coordinators), Baumberger, M. (Swiss Olympic), Belz, Ch. (FOSPO), Berwert, A. (KTI), Birrer, H.J. (FOSPO), Brogle, J. (SRG SSR), Burch, T. (Swiss Olympic), Conrad, J. (Swiss Olympic), Conz, C. (FOSPO), Edmond, I. (SFV), Egli, D. (FOSPO), Fischer, A. (Swiss Tennis), Fischer, F. (FOSPO), Fuchslocher, J. (FOSPO), Gmür, E. (Swiss Customs Administration), Gogoll, A. (FOSPO), Gygax, M. (FOSPO), Heer, Ch. (VBS), Heini, R. (Swiss Olympic), Hollenstein, C. (Swiss Olympic), Kempf, H. (FOSPO), Kindle, A. (ETHZ), Lamprecht, M. (Lamprecht und Stamm), Lütolf, A. (FOSPO), Mäder, U. (FOSPO), Mahler, N. (FOSPO), Nützi, Ch. (FOSPO), Raemy, H. (FOSPO), Rauber, K. (Swiss Olympic), Rauch, W. (FOSPO), Ray, J.-C. (Swiss Olympic), Rechsteiner, D. (Swiss Olympic), Romann, M. (FOSPO), Rüdisüli, R. (FOSPO), Schneider, Ch. (RUAG), Schwendimann, M. (FOSPO), Schwizgebel, St. (FOSPO), Sottas, G. (Federal Social Insurance Office), Stopper, M. (FOSPO), Ulrich, W. (FOSPO), Ursprung, L. (FOSPO), Walther, U. (VBS), Weber, P.-A. (FOSPO), Wernli, B. (VBS), Werthmüller, L. (Swiss Olympic), Wiedmer, R. (Swisslos), Wiegand, D. (Lamprecht und Stamm), Wolf, M. (FOSPO), Wolfsperger, F. (SLF), Zahnd, S. (VBS), Zehr, S. (VBS) Senior experts Babst, H. (Swiss Olympic), Conzelmann, A. (University of Berne), Feller, M. (FOSPO/Olympic bid 2022), Gilli, G. (Swiss Olympic), Hanselmann, E. (Ex-FOSPO), Hoppeler, H. (Federal Sports Commission Forsch.Gr.), Junod, T. (UEFA), Lichtsteiner, H. (VMI/SSMC), Marti, B. (FOSPO), Mengisen, W. (FOSPO), Müller, H.R. (University of Berne), Nagel, S. (University of Berne), Rütter, H. (Rütter+Partner), Stettler, J. (Univeristy of Lucerne), von Mühlenen, T. (Ex-FOSPO), Winkler, U. (Sport-Gymnasium Davos) Participants at the national methods workshop held in March 2010 in Magglingen Belz, Ch. (FOSPO), Bürgi, A. (FOSPO), De Bosscher, V. (Vrije Universiteit Brussel), Fuchslocher, J. (FOSPO), Gnädinger, J. (FOSPO), Stamm, H. (Lamprecht und Stamm), Heyer, L. (Swiss Athletics), Hollenstein, C. (Swiss Olympic), Kempf, H. (FOSPO), Läuppi, P. (Swiss Olympic), Liess, S. (Swiss Olympic), Mahler, N. (FOSPO), Marti, B. (FOSPO), Romann, M. (FOSPO), Rüdisüli, R. (Swiss Olympic), Schafer, J. (VMI), Shibli, S. (Sheffield Hallam University), Stopper, M. (FOSPO), van Bottenburg, M. (Universiteit Utrecht), Weber, P.-A. (FOSPO), Wolf, M. (FOSPO) Participants at the national workshop held in February/March 2012 in Magglingen Bürgi, A. (FOSPO), De Bosscher, V. (Vrije Universiteit Brussel), Egli, D. (FOSPO), Fuchslocher, J. (FOSPO), Hässig, Ch. (FOSPO), Held, L. (FOSPO), Hollenstein, C. (Swiss Olympic), Jeanneret, T. (Office for public schooling and sport Graubünden), Kempf, H. (FOSPO), Knäbel, P. (SFV), Lambert, T. (Swiss Olympic athletes commission), Läuppi, P. (Swiss Ski), Mäder, U. (FOSPO), Mengisen, W. (FOSPO), Müller, L. (Swiss Olympic), Stöckli, R. (Swiss Olympic), Stopper, M. (FOSPO), van Bottenburg, M. (Universiteit Utrecht), Weber, A.Ch. (FOSPO), Weber, P.-A. (FOSPO), Wegmann, U. (House of Sport Uster) Participants at the international comparative workshop held in February 2013 in Magglingen Bagdasarjanz, V. (FOSPO), Bürgi, A. (FOSPO), Dijk, B. (Universiteit Utrecht), Fuchslocher, J. (FOSPO), Hollenstein, C. (Swiss Olympic), Kempf, H. (FOSPO), Lämsä, J. (KIHU-Research Institute for Olympic Sports), Müller, L. (Swiss Olympic), Renaud, A. (FOSPO), Salmi, J. (Finnish Orienteering Federation), Stopper, M. (FOSPO), Tofft-Jørgensen, L. (Idrættens Analyseinstitut), Weber, A.Ch. (FOSPO), Weber, P.-A. (FOSPO)


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Acknowledgements

The survey's high response rate ensures a reliable data set: a big thank you to all the athletes, coaches and performance directors who took part in the study. We would especially like to thank the experts and support group, particularly Dr. Adrian Bürgi, Pierre-André Weber (Federal Office of Sport), Cornell Hollenstein (Swiss Olympic) and Dr. Hanspeter Stamm (Lamprecht und Stamm Sozialforschung und Beratung AG) for their valuable input and suggestions that helped make this project a success. Finally we would like to thank the staff at the “Sport and society” and “Media centre and teaching media” divisions at the SFISM for their active support. Without their committed involvement, the report would not have been completed on time.


Produced by the Swiss Federal Institute of Sport Magglingen SFISM Authors: Dr. Hippolyt Kempf, Andreas Ch. Weber, Dr. Anne Renaud, Marco Stopper Translation: BMP Translations AG, Basel Photo: Patrick B. Krämer Edition: 2014 Published by: Swiss Federal Office of Sport (FOSPO) Internet: www.baspo.ch, www.ehsm.ch E-mail: [email protected] All rights reserved. Reproduction of all or any part of this publication is subject to the written consent of the publisher and to acknowledgement of the source.