ENCYCLOPEDIA of ESTUARIES
Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series ENCYCLOPEDIA OF ESTUARIES Volume Editor Dr. Michael J. Kennish is a world-class estuarine scientist and a research professor in the Department of Marine and Coastal Sciences at Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey (USA). In addition to his research on estuaries, Dr. Kennish has conducted biological and geological research on coastal ocean and deep-sea environments. Much of his research has involved the development and application of innovative methods to assess anthropogenic impacts and to determine the condition and health of coastal ecosystems. Dr. Kennish is the author or editor of 14 scholarly books in marine science, and he is the author or co-author of more than 170 articles in science journals and books. In addition, he has edited seven compendium science journal special issues on various topics in marine science.
Editorial Board Daniel M. Alongi Australian Institute of Marine Science Townsville, Queensland, Australia Donald F. Boesch University of Maryland Cambridge, Maryland, USA Walter R. Boynton University of Maryland Solomons, Maryland, USA Carlos M. Duarte Instituto Mediterraneo de Estudios Avanzados Esporles Mallorca, Islas Baleares, Spain Paul J. Harrison Department of Earth & Ocean Sciences University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada Robert W. Howarth Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA Lisa Levin Integrative Oceanography Division Scripps Institution of Oceanography LaJolla, California, USA Scott W. Nixon (deceased) Graduate School of Oceanography University of Rhode Island Narragansett, Rhode Island, USA
Aims of the Series The Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series provides comprehensive and authoritative coverage of all the main areas in the Earth Sciences. Each volume comprises a focused and carefully chosen collection of contributions from leading names in the subject, with copious illustrations and reference lists. These books represent one of the world’s leading resources for the Earth Sciences community. Previous volumes are being updated and new works published so that the volumes will continue to be essential reading for all professional earth scientists, geologists, geophysicists, climatologists, and oceanographers as well as for teachers and students. Go to http://link.springer.com to visit the “Encyclopedia of
Earth Sciences Series” online.
About the Series Editor Professor Charles W. Finkl has edited and/or contributed to more than eight volumes in the Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. For the past 25 years he has been the Executive Director of the Coastal Education and Research Foundation and Editor-in-Chief of the international Journal of Coastal Research. In addition to these duties, he is Professor at Florida Atlantic University in Boca Raton, Florida, USA. He is a graduate of the University of Western Australia (Perth) and previously worked for a wholly owned Australian subsidiary of the International Nickel Company of Canada (INCO). During his career, he acquired field experience in Australia, the Caribbean, South America, SW Pacific islands, Southern Africa, Western Europe, and the Pacific Northwest, Midwest, and Southeast USA.
Founding Series Editor Professor Rhodes W. Fairbridge (deceased) has edited more than 24 Encyclopedias in the Earth Sciences Series. During his career he has worked as a petroleum geologist in the Middle East, been a WW II intelligence officer in the SW Pacific, and led expeditions to the Sahara, Arctic Canada, Arctic Scandinavia, Brazil, and New Guinea. He was Emeritus Professor of Geology at Columbia University and was affiliated with the Goddard Institute for Space Studies.
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EARTH SCIENCES SERIES
ENCYCLOPEDIA of ESTUARIES edited by
MICHAEL J. KENNISH Rutgers University New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA
Library of Congress Control Number: 2015934443
ISBN: 978-94-017-8800-7 This publication is available also as: Electronic publication under ISBN 978-94-017-8801-4 Print and electronic bundle under ISBN 978-94-017-8802-1
Springer Dordrecht, Heidelberg, New York, London
Printed on acid-free paper
Cover photo: U.S. Geological Survey
Every effort has been made to contact the copyright holders of the figures and tables which have been reproduced from other sources. Anyone who has not been properly credited is requested to contact the publishers, so that due acknowledgement may be made in subsequent editions.
All rights reserved for the contributions Age; Benthic Ecology; Blue Carbon; Bulkheads; Carbon Sequestration; Climate Change; Endemic Species; Estuarine Sustainability; Estuarine Total Ecosystem Metabolism; Estuary Conservation; Estuary Conservation Zone; Extratropical Storms; Extreme Events (Hurricanes); Flushing Time; Forested Wetland Habitat; Marsh Drowning; Nutrient Dynamics; Residence Time; Revetments; Secchi Disk; Storm Surges, Tidal Freshwater Habitat; Timescale; Water Clarity; Water Quality © Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2016 No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work.
Contents
Contributors
xiii
Preface
xxvii
Acknowledgments
xxix
Anthropogenic Impacts Michael J. Kennish
29
Archaea Antje Rusch
35
Artificial Reef Stephen A. Bortone
37
Autotrophic Antje Rusch
41
Back Dune Ken Munyikwa
43
43
Adaptive Governance Kalle Matso
1
Adaptive Management Kate Buenau and Michael Anderson
1
Aerobic Environments Ayman A. Elgamal
2
Age Lisa V. Lucas
3
Airborne Laser Terrain Mapping (ALTM) Michael J. Starek
4
Backbarrier Joseph F. Donoghue
7
Bar J. Javier Diez and Efren M. Veiga
46
Algal Blooms Patricia M. Glibert
17
Barrier Island Wenyan Zhang
47
Alkalinity Evgeniy Yakushev Amphipods Alistair G. B. Poore
17
Barrier Spits Wenyan Zhang
53
Anadromous Charles A. Simenstad
18
Beach Management Mafalda Marques Carapuço
53
Anaerobic Environments Ayman A. Elgamal
19
Beach Processes Vic Semeniuk and Margaret Brocx
55
Anoxia, Hypoxia, and Dead Zones Robert J. Diaz
19
Benthic Ecology Marguerite C. Pelletier
73
vi
CONTENTS
Bioaccumulation Monica Ferreira da Costa, Helena do Amaral Kehrig and Isabel Maria Neto da Silva Moreira
74
Bioavailability Monica Ferreira da Costa, Helena do Amaral Kehrig and Isabel Maria Neto da Silva Moreira
75
Biochemical Oxygen Demand Manuel Flores Montes
75
Biogenic Sedimentary Structures Luca Ragaini
76
Biogenous Sediment Lluı´s Gómez-Pujol
81
Bioindicators Stephen A. Bortone
82
Biomagnification Monica Ferreira da Costa, Helena do Amaral Kehrig and Isabel Maria Neto da Silva Moreira
82
Biomonitors Vanessa Hatje
Coastal Barriers Patrick A. Hesp
128
Coastal Bays Michael J. Kennish
130
Coastal Cliffs Nils-Axel Mörner
130
Coastal Erosion Control Mena Ciarmiello and Michele Di Natale
131
Coastal Indicators Mafalda Marques Carapuço
139
Coastal Lagoons Michael J. Kennish
140
Coastal Landforms A. C. Narayana
143
Coastal Risks: Floods J. Javier Diez
157
83
Coastal Squeeze Luciana S. Esteves
158
Bioremediation Monia El Bour
84
Coastal Wetlands Jorge R. Rey
160
Bivalve Aquaculture John N. Kraeuter
85
Cordgrass Keryn Gedan
164
Bivalve Molluscs Loren D. Coen and Raymond E. Grizzle
89
Cultural Seafood Management Islay D. Marsden
165
Blue Carbon Judith Z. Drexler
109
Cyanobacteria Monia El Bour
169
Blue Crabs Paul R. Jivoff
109
Delta Plain Colin D. Woodroffe
175
Bulkheads Harry C. Friebel
110
Deltas Vic Semeniuk and Christine Semeniuk
177
Carbon Sequestration Judith Z. Drexler
113
Density Stratification Geórgenes H. Cavalcante
187
Cheniers and Regressive Bedforms Federico Ignacio Isla and Jose Manuel Bedmar
113
Determining Geoheritage Values Margaret Brocx and Vic Semeniuk
187
Clean Water Act Michael J. Kennish
122
Detritus Food Webs Charles A. Simenstad
197
Climate Change Thomas M. Cronin
122
Diagenesis Steven Colbert
199
CONTENTS
Diffusion Murat Aksel
200
Dispersion Murat Aksel
201
Dissolved Oxygen Christopher F. Deacutis
202
Dredge and Fill Aysun Koroglu
204
Dredging Paul A. Work
204
Earthquake Disturbances Islay D. Marsden, Deirdre E. Hart, Catherine M. Reid and Christopher Gomez
207
Ecological Modeling Mark J. Brush and Lora A. Harris
vii
Estuarine Circulation Roberto F. C. Fontes, Luiz B. Miranda and Fernando Andutta
247
Estuarine Connectivity Pat Dale and Marcus Sheaves
258
Estuarine Deltaic Wetlands Vic Semeniuk and Christine Semeniuk
260
Estuarine Flocculation Dorothy Joyce D. Marquez
272
Estuarine Geomorphology David M. Kennedy
273
Estuarine Habitat Restoration Ronald M. Thom and Amy B. Borde
273
214
Estuarine Sediment Composition Vanesa Magar
285
Ecological Monitoring A. J. Underwood and M. G. Chapman
223
Estuarine Sedimentation Francisco Jose´ Lobo
289
Ecological Niche Xchel Moreno-Sa´nchez, Andre´s Abitia-Ca´rdenas, Juan M. Rodrı´guez-Baron, Mónica Lara Uc and Rafael Riosmena-Rodrı´guez
227
Estuarine Sustainability Colin Levings
299 300
Ecological Stoichiometry Patricia M. Glibert
228
Estuarine Total Ecosystem Metabolism Autumn J. Oczkowski and Brita J. Jessen
303
Ecological Succession Hai Ren
231
Estuary Conservation Colin Levings
304
Ecosystem-Based Management Kalle Matso
232
Estuary Conservation Zone Colin Levings
304
Ecotourism Monica Ferreira da Costa and Carlos Pereira da Silva
236
Eutrophication Michael J. Kennish Evaporation and Transpiration Vic Semeniuk
311
Emergent Shoreline Nils-Axel Mörner
237
Exotic Species Francisco Barros
311
Endemic Species Karen Thorne
237
Extratropical Storms Harry C. Friebel
312
Environmental Gradients Mario Barletta and David Valença Dantas
237 Extreme Events (Hurricanes) Harry C. Friebel
312
Epibiont Monia El Bour
242 Fiddler Crabs Judith S. Weis
315
Estuarine Beaches C. Scott Hardaway, Jr., Donna A. Milligan and Lyle Varnell
243 Firth J. Javier Diez and Efren M. Veiga
316
viii
CONTENTS
Fish Assemblages Mario Barletta and David Valença Dantas
317
Herbivory Carol Thornber
357
Fjord Michael A. O’Neal
326
Heterotrophic Antje Rusch
357
Flocculation Dorothy Joyce D. Marquez
327
Ichthyofauna Selene Ortiz-Burgos
359
Flushing Time Edward H. Dettmann
329
Ichthyoplankton Kenneth W. Able
360
Food Chain Mónica Lara Uc, Rafael Riosmena-Rodrı´guez and Juan M. Rodrı´guez-Baron
330
Infauna Francisco Barros
360
Food Web/Trophic Dynamics Charles A. Simenstad
331
Intertidal Zonation Brian Helmuth
361
Foredune Michael J. Kennish
334
Introduced Species Francisco Barros
361
Forested Wetland Habitat Jamie A. Duberstein and Ken W. Krauss
334
Invasive Species Judith S. Weis
362
Fringing Reef David M. Kennedy
338
Karst Processes and Estuarine Coastlines John E. Mylroie, Michael J. Lace, Patricia N. Kambesis and Joan R. Mylroie
373
Geoheritage Margaret Brocx and Vic Semeniuk
339
381
Geomorphological Mapping Michael A. O’Neal
344
Kelp Forests Gustavo Herna´ndez Carmona and Rafael Riosmena-Rodrı´guez
383
Glaciated Estuarine Systems Michael A. O’Neal
345
Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) Michael J. Starek
347
Littoral Cordon J. Javier Diez and Efren M. Veiga
384
Habitat Complexity Selene Ortiz-Burgos
385
Habitat Loss Laura Airoldi and Michael W. Beck
349
Littoral Zone Michael J. Kennish
349
Lobster Migration Jason S. Goldstein
385
Halocline Evgeniy Yakushev
387
Halogenated Hydrocarbons Michael J. Kennish
350
Macroalgae Michael J. Kennish
350
Macroalgal Blooms Michael J. Kennish
388
Headland Breakwaters C. Scott Hardaway, Jr. and James R. Gunn
355
Macrofauna Rolando Bastida-Zavala and Betzabe´ Moreno-Da´vila
388
Heavy Minerals Ilya V. Buynevich Herbivorous Grazers Carol Thornber
356
Macronutrients Manuel Flores Montes
389
CONTENTS
ix
Managed Realignment Luciana S. Esteves
390
Neural Networks M. C. Deo
453
Mangroves Daniel M. Alongi
393
Neuston Harold G. Marshall
454
Marine/Freshwater Mixing Vic Semeniuk
404
Nitrate Reduction Manuel Flores Montes
455
Marsh Drowning Judith Z. Drexler
417
Nitrification Manuel Flores Montes
455
Marsh Islands Ilya V. Buynevich
417
Nitrogen Manuel Flores Montes
456
Marsh Sediment Toxicity Judith S. Weis
418
Nonpoint Source Pollution Katherine C. Ridolfi
456
Mass Physical Sediment Properties Burghard W. Flemming and Monique T. Delafontaine
419
Nonstationary Forcing Sebastia´n Solari, Miguel A. Losada Rodrı´guez and Miguel Ortega-Sa´nchez
461
Mean Sea Level Abdullah BaMasoud
432
Nutrient Dynamics Melanie D. Harrison
462
Meiofauna Rolando Bastida-Zavala and Carmen Me´ndez-Trejo
433
Nutrient Limitation Manuel Flores Montes
463
Microbial Degradation Monia El Bour
433
Nutrients Manuel Flores Montes
464
Microbial Survivability Haruo Mimura
434
Oil Pollution Michael J. Kennish
467
Microfauna Michael J. Kennish
437
Overwash Harry Williams
468
Micronutrients Manuel Flores Montes
437
Oxygen Depletion Evgeniy Yakushev
469
Microphytobenthos Lawrence Cahoon
438
Oyster Reef Timothy M. Dellapenna
470
Mineralization Vic Semeniuk
438
Participatory Research Kalle Matso
475
Mixotrophic Plankton Jason E. Adolf
447
Pathogens Monia El Bour
475
Mosquito Ditching Keryn Gedan
448
Peat Xavier Comas
476
Mutualism Antje Rusch
449
pH Ayman A. Elgamal
480
Nekton Behavioral Ecology Dennis M. Allen
451
Pharmaceuticals Vanessa Hatje
481
x
CONTENTS
Phi Scale Joseph F. Donoghue
483
Salt Marsh Accretion Peddrick Weis
513
Phosphorus Manuel Flores Montes
484
Saltmarshes Paul Adam
515
Physiological Mechanisms Islay D. Marsden
485
Sand Mining/Beach Sand Mining Paul A. Work
535
Phytoplankton Harold G. Marshall
491
Sand Ridge Marci M. Robinson
536
Phytoplankton Blooms Edward J. Phlips
493
Sandbanks Vanesa Magar
537
Pneumatophores Luzhen Chen
494
538
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Michael J. Kennish
495
Sandflat Jorge Manuel López-Calderón, Alf Meling and Rafael Riosmena-Rodrı´guez
538
Precautionary Principle Mafalda Marques Carapuço
495
Seabirds Joanna Burger
542
Predator–Prey Relationships Judith S. Weis
496
Seagrass Production Models Jessie C. Jarvis
545
Public Trust Rights Julien Victor Monnot and J. Javier Diez
499
Sea-Level Change and Coastal Wetlands Paula Pratolongo
549
Redox Conditions Evgeniy Yakushev
501
Secchi Disk Melanie D. Harrison
549
Residence Time Lisa V. Lucas
502
Secondary Dune Patrick A. Hesp and Graziela Miot da Silva
550
Residual Circulation Geórgenes H. Cavalcante
503
Sediment Budgets Wenyan Zhang
553
Revetments Harry C. Friebel
504
Sediment Compaction Nils-Axel Mörner
504
Sediment Erosion Ayman A. Elgamal
554
Rhodolith/Maerl Rafael Riosmena-Rodrı´guez, Viviana Pen˜ a-Freire, Daniela Basso, Nestor M. Robinson and Gustavo Hinojosa-Arango
Sediment Grain Size Gautam Kumar Das
555
Ria J. Javier Diez and Efren M. Veiga
505
Sediment Resuspension Tian-Jian Hsu
558
River-Dominated Estuary David M. Kennedy
507
Sediment Sorting Michel Michaelovitch de Mahiques
560
Rocky Intertidal Shores M. G. Chapman and A. J. Underwood
507
Sediment Toxicity Steven Colbert
561
Rocky Shore David M. Kennedy
511
Sediment Transport Pedro J. M. Costa
562
CONTENTS
xi
Sedimentary Structures Gautam Kumar Das
568
Stratigraphy of Estuaries Vic Semeniuk
623
Seiche Murat Aksel
572
Structurally Dominated Estuary David M. Kennedy
648
Shannon-Weaver Diversity Index Selene Ortiz-Burgos
572
Subaqueous Soils Mark H. Stolt
649
Shell Beds Luca Ragaini
573
Sublittoral Zone Michael J. Kennish
649
Shellfish Production Islay D. Marsden
573
Submerged Coasts Lluı´s Gómez-Pujol
650
Shore Protection C. Scott Hardaway, Jr.
578
Submergent Shoreline Nils-Axel Mörner
651
Shorebirds Joanna Burger
585
Sustainable Use Mafalda Marques Carapuço
651
Shoreline Nils-Axel Mörner
589
Symbiosis Antje Rusch
660
Shoreline Changes A. C. Narayana
590
Tectonic Eustasy Nils-Axel Mörner
661
Shoreline Undulations Miguel Ortega-Sa´nchez, Alejandro López-Ruiz, Asunción Baquerizo Azofra and Miguel A. Losada Rodrı´guez
602
Thermal Biology Nicholas B. Colvard and Brian Helmuth
661
Tidal Asymmetry Geórgenes H. Cavalcante
664
Side-Scan Sonar Imaging of Sediment Bedload Juan A. Morales and Irene Delgado
602
Tidal Datum Ivan D. Haigh
664
Soft Computing M. C. Deo
605
Tidal Flat Vic Semeniuk
665
Soft Sediment Communities Francisco Barros
606
Tidal Flat Salinity Gradient Vic Semeniuk and Christine Semeniuk
678
Soldier Crabs (Mictyridae) Joy Unno and Vic Semeniuk
606
Tidal Freshwater Habitat Judith Z. Drexler
683
Species Richness Rafael Riosmena-Rodrı´guez, Gabriela Andrade-Sorcia and Nestor M. Robinson
612
Tidal Hydrodynamics Bruce Parker
686
Tidal and Nontidal Oscillations Bruce Parker
701
Species Zonation Vic Semeniuk and Ian Cresswell
613 Tidal Ranges Ivan D. Haigh
703
Spit Wenyan Zhang
622
Storm Surges Harry C. Friebel
622
Tidal Reflection 704 Manuel Dı´ez-Minguito, Asunción Baquerizo Azofra, Miguel Ortega-Sa´nchez and Miguel A. Losada Rodrı´guez
xii
CONTENTS
Tides Ivan D. Haigh
706
Water Clarity Melanie D. Harrison
727
Timescale Lisa V. Lucas
712
Water Quality Melanie D. Harrison
729
Tombolo Michel Michaelovitch de Mahiques
713
Water Resources and Climate Change Vijay P. Singh and Qiang Zhang
731
Toxic Blooms Kevin G. Sellner
714
Watershed Canan Cengiz
734
Trace Metals in Estuaries Peddrick Weis
717
Wave-Driven Sediment Resuspension Malcolm O. Green
734
Trophic Dynamics Xchel Moreno-Sa´nchez, Andre´s Abitia-Ca´rdenas, Juan M. Rodrı´guez-Baron, Mónica Lara Uc and Rafael Riosmena-Rodrı´guez
718 Well-Mixed Estuary Geórgenes H. Cavalcante
737
Turbidity Yuri Gorokhovich
720
Wetlands Jorge Manuel López-Calderón and Rafael Riosmena-Rodrı´guez
738
Tychoplankton Lawrence Cahoon
721
Wetlands Reclamation Aysun Koroglu
741
Uplifted Coasts Nils-Axel Mörner
723
Wrack Keryn Gedan
742
Vulnerability Index Aysun Koroglu
725
Zooplankton Dennis M. Allen
745
Washover Fans Davin J. Wallace
727 Author Index
747
Washovers Davin J. Wallace
727
Subject Index
749
Contributors
Andrés Abitia-Cárdenas Instituto Politécnico Nacional CICIMAR-IPN Av. IPN s/n, Playa Palo de Santa Rita La Paz, BCS 23096 Mexico
[email protected]
Kenneth W. Able Marine Field Station, Department of Marine and Coastal Sciences Rutgers University 800 Great Bay Boulevard Tuckerton, NJ 08087 USA
[email protected]
Paul Adam School of Biological Earth and Environmental Sciences University of New South Wales Sydney, NSW 2052 Australia
[email protected]
Jason E. Adolf Department of Marine Science University of Hawaii at Hilo 200 W. Kawili St. Hilo, HI 96720 USA
[email protected]
Laura Airoldi Dipartimento di Scienze Biologiche, Geologiche e Ambientali University of Bologna Via S. Alberto, 163 Ravenna Italy
[email protected]
Murat Aksel Civil Engineering Department Istanbul Kultur University Atakoy Campus 34156 Bakirkoy, Istanbul Turkey
[email protected]
Dennis M. Allen Baruch Marine Field Laboratory University of South Carolina PO Box 1630 Georgetown, SC 29442 USA
[email protected]
Daniel M. Alongi Australian Institute of Marine Science PMB 3 Townsville MC, QLD 4810 Australia
[email protected]
xiv
CONTRIBUTORS
Michael Anderson Coastal Ecosystem Research Marine Sciences Laboratory Pacific Northwest National Laboratory 1529 West Sequim Bay Road Sequim, WA 98382 USA
[email protected]
Gabriela Andrade-Sorcia Programa de Investigación en Botãnica Marina Departamento Académico de Biología Marina Universidad Autónoma de Baja California Sur Apdo. Postal 19-B La Paz, Baja California Sur 23080 Mexico
Fernando Andutta School of Physical, Environmental and Mathematical Sciences University of New South Wales ACT 2600 Canberra Australia
[email protected]
Abdullah BaMasoud Department of Geography and Environmental Studies Wilfrid Laurier University 75 University Avenue West Waterloo, Ontario Canada N2L 3C5
[email protected]
Asunción Baquerizo Azofra Andalusian Institute for Earth System Research University of Granada Avd. del Mediterraneo s/n (CEAMA) 18006 Granada Spain
[email protected]
Mario Barletta Laboratório de Ecologia e Gerenciamento de Ecossistemas Costeiros e Estuarinos, Departamento de Oceanografia Universidade Federal de Pernambuco Cidade Universitária Recife, PE CEP 50740-550 Brazil
[email protected]
Francisco Barros Laboratório de Ecologia Bentônica Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal da Bahia Rua Barão de Geremoabo s/n., Campus Ondina Salvador, Bahia 40170-290 Brazil
[email protected]
Daniela Basso Università degli Studi di Milano-Bicocca Milano Italy
[email protected]
Rolando Bastida-Zavala Laboratorio de Sistemática de Invertebrados Marinos Universidad del Mar Campus Puerto Angel Puerto Angel, Oaxaca Mexico
[email protected]
Michael W. Beck The Nature Conservancy, Center for Ocean Health University of California 100 Shaffer Road Santa Cruz, CA 95060 USA
[email protected]
Jose Manuel Bedmar IGCC-IIMYC CONICET Mar del Plata Argentina
[email protected]
Amy B. Borde Marine Sciences Laboratory Pacific Northwest National Laboratory 1529 West Sequim Bay Road Sequim, WA 98382 USA
[email protected]
Stephen A. Bortone Osprey Aquatic Sciences, Inc. 13550 Lake Magdalene Drive Tampa, FL 33613 USA
[email protected]
CONTRIBUTORS
Margaret Brocx Department of Environmental Science Murdoch University Murdoch, WA 6150 Australia
[email protected] Mark J. Brush Virginia Institute of Marine Science College of William and Mary P.O. Box 1346 Gloucester Point, VA 23062 USA
[email protected] Kate Buenau Coastal Ecosystem Research Marine Sciences Laboratory Pacific Northwest National Laboratory 1529 West Sequim Bay Road Sequim, WA 98382 USA
[email protected] Joanna Burger Department of Cell Biology and Neurosciences, Ecology, Evolution and Natural Resources Department of Marine and Coastal Sciences Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute Rutgers University 604 Allison Road Piscataway, NJ 08854 USA
[email protected] Ilya V. Buynevich Department of Earth and Environmental Science College of Science and Technology Temple University 1901 N. 13th Street Philadelphia, PA 19122 USA
[email protected] Lawrence Cahoon Department of Biology & Marine Biology University of North Carolina Wilmington 601 South College Road Wilmington, NC 28403-5915 USA
[email protected]
Geórgenes H. Cavalcante Institute of Atmospheric Science Federal University of Alagoas Av. Lourival Melo Mota, s/n Cidade Universitária Tabuleiro dos Martins 57072–970 Maceió, Alagoas Brazil
[email protected]
Canan Cengiz Faculty of Forestry Department of Landscape Architecture Bartın University 74100 Bartın Turkey
[email protected]
M. G. Chapman Centre for Research on Ecological Impacts of Coastal Cities, School of Biological Sciences University of Sydney Sydney, NSW 2006 Australia
[email protected]
Luzhen Chen College of the Environment and Ecology Xiamen University Xiamen 361005 China
[email protected]
Mena Ciarmiello DICDEA – Department of Civil Engineering, Design, Building and Environment Second University of Naples Via Roma, 29 81031 Aversa Italy
[email protected]
Loren D. Coen Department of Biological Sciences and Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institute Florida Atlantic University 5600 U.S. 1N., FAU-HBOI, c/o 16007 Waterleaf Lane, Ft. Myers. Fort Pierce, FL 33908 USA
[email protected]
xv
xvi
Steven Colbert Department of Marine Science University of Hawai’i at Hilo 200 W. Kawili Street Hilo, HI 96720 USA
[email protected] Nicholas B. Colvard Marine Science Center Northeastern University 430 Nahant Rd Nahant, MA 01908 USA
[email protected] Xavier Comas Department of Geosciences Florida Atlantic University Boca Raton, FL 33431 USA
[email protected] Pedro J. M. Costa Centro de Geologia, Faculdade de Ciencias Universidade de Lisboa Edificio C6 Campo Grande 1749-016 Lisbon Portugal
[email protected] Ian Cresswell Land & Water National Research Flagship CSIRO GPO Box 1538 Hobart, TAS 7001 Australia
[email protected] Thomas M. Cronin US Geological Survey 12201 Sunrise Valley Drive Reston, VA 20191 USA
[email protected] Pat Dale Environmental Futures Research Institute Griffith School of Environment, Griffith University Brisbane, QLD 4011 Australia
[email protected]
CONTRIBUTORS
Gautam Kumar Das Department of Chemical Engineering Jadavpur University 700 032 Kolkata, West Bengal India
[email protected] Christopher F. Deacutis Division of Fish & Wildlife 3 Fort Wetherill Road Jamestown, RI 02835 USA
[email protected] Monique T. Delafontaine Department of Marine Research Senckenberg Institute Suedstrand 40 26382 Wilhelmshaven Germany
[email protected] Irene Delgado Department of Geology, Excellence Campus of Marine Sciences (CEIMAR) University of Huelva Av. 3 de Marzo, s/n 21007 Huelva Spain
[email protected] Timothy M. Dellapenna Department of Marine Sciences Texas A&M University at Galveston 341 Ocean and Coastal Studies Building Galveston, TX 77553 USA
[email protected] M. C. Deo Department of Civil Engineering Indian Institute of Technology Bombay Powai 400 076 Mumbai India
[email protected] Edward H. Dettmann U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Research and Development/NHEERL Atlantic Ecology Division 27 Tarzwell Drive Narragansett, RI 02882 USA
[email protected]
CONTRIBUTORS
Michele Di Natale DICDEA – Department of Civil Engineering, Design, Building and Environment Second University of Naples Via Roma, 29 81031 Aversa Italy
[email protected]
Robert J. Diaz College of William and Mary Virginia Institute of Marine Science 1375 Greate Road Gloucester Point, VA 23062 USA
[email protected]
J. Javier Diez Research Group on Marine, Coastal and Port Environment and Other Sensitive Areas, Department of Land and Urban Planning and Environment Universidad Politécnica de Madrid C/ Profesor Aranguren, s/n 28040 Madrid Spain
[email protected]
Manuel Díez-Minguito Andalusian Institute for Earth System Research University of Granada Avd. del Mediterraneo S/N (CEAMA) 18006 Granada Spain
[email protected]
Helena do Amaral Kehrig Laboratório de Ciências Ambientais, CBB Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense Campos dos Goytacazes Rio de Janeiro 28013-602 Brazil
[email protected]
Joseph F. Donoghue School of Geology Oklahoma State University 103 NRC Stillwater, OK 74074 USA
[email protected]
xvii
Judith Z. Drexler U.S. Geological Survey California Water Science Center 6000 J Street, Placer Hall Sacramento, CA 95819-6129 USA
[email protected]
Jamie A. Duberstein Baruch Institute of Coastal Ecology and Forest Science Clemson University 177 Hobcaw Road Georgetown, SC 29440 USA
[email protected]
Monia El Bour Marine Microbiology Unit, Department of Marine Biotechnology and Biodiversity National Institute of Sea Sciences and Technologies (INSTM) Rue du 2 mars 1934-2025 Tunis Tunisia
[email protected]
Ayman A. Elgamal Marine Geology Department Coastal Research Institute National Water Research Center 15 street, Elpharanaa, El-Shallalat 21514 Alexandria Egypt
[email protected]
Luciana S. Esteves Faculty of Science and Technology, Talbot Campus Bournemouth University Fern Barrow Poole, Dorset BH12 5BB UK
[email protected]
Monica Ferreira da Costa Oceanography Department Federal University of Pernambuco Av. Arquitetura s/n Cidade Universitária 50740-550 Recife, Pernambuco Brazil
[email protected]
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Burghard W. Flemming Department of Marine Research Senckenberg Institute Suedstrand 40 26382 Wilhelmshaven Germany
[email protected] Manuel Flores Montes Department of Oceanography Federal University of Pernambuco Av. da Arquitetura s/n Recife, Pernambuco CEP 50740-550 Brazil
[email protected] Roberto F. C. Fontes Littoral Campus/UNESP – Univ Estadual Paulista 11330-900 Pça. Infante Dom Henrique s/n São Vicente, SP Brazil
[email protected] Harry C. Friebel U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Philadelphia District CENAP-EC-EH 100 Penn Square East Philadelphia, PA 19107-3390 USA
[email protected] Keryn Gedan Department of Biology University of Maryland 4216 Biology-Psychology Building College Park, MD 20742 USA
[email protected] Patricia M. Glibert Horn Point Laboratory University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science 2020 Horns Point Road 775 Cambridge, MD 21613 USA
[email protected] Jason S. Goldstein Department of Biological Sciences University of New Hampshire 46 College Road Durham, NH 03824 USA
[email protected]
CONTRIBUTORS
Christopher Gomez Department of Geography University of Canterbury Christchurch 8020 New Zealand
[email protected] Lluís Gómez-Pujol Universitat de les Illes Baleares 07122 Palma (Balearic Islands) Spain
[email protected] Yuri Gorokhovich Department of Earth, Environmental, and Geospatial Sciences Lehman College, City University of New York (CUNY) Gillet Hall 315, 250 Bedford Park Boulevard West Bronx, NY 10468 USA
[email protected] Malcolm O. Green Coastal and Estuarine Physical Processes NIWA (National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research) 11-115 Gate 10, Silverdale Road Hamilton 3216 New Zealand
[email protected] Raymond E. Grizzle Department of Biological Sciences and Jackson Estuarine Laboratory University of New Hampshire 85 Adams Point Road Durham, NH 03824 USA
[email protected] James R. Gunn Coastal Design & Construction Gloucester, VA 23061 USA
[email protected] Ivan D. Haigh Ocean and Earth Science National Oceanography Centre University of Southampton European Way, Southampton S014 3ZH UK
[email protected]
CONTRIBUTORS
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C. Scott Hardaway, Jr. Virginia Institute of Marine Science College of William & Mary 1375 Greate Road Gloucester Point, VA 23062 USA
[email protected]
Patrick A. Hesp School of the Environment Flinders University Sturt Rd Bedford Park, SA 5042 Australia
[email protected]
Lora A. Harris Chesapeake Biological Laboratory University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science P.O. Box 38 Solomons, MD 20688 USA
[email protected]
Gustavo Hinojosa-Arango Centro para la Biodiversidad Marina y la Conservacion A.C. Calle del Pirata, #420 col. Benito Juarez CP 23050 La Paz, BCS Mexico
[email protected]
Melanie D. Harrison Water Quality Specialist National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 777 Sonoma Avenue Santa Rosa, CA 95404 USA
[email protected]
Tian-Jian Hsu Civil & Environmental Engineering University of Delaware Newark, DE 19716 USA
[email protected]
Deirdre E. Hart Department of Geography University of Canterbury Christchurch 8020 New Zealand
[email protected] Vanessa Hatje Laboratório de Oceanografia Química – CIENAm Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal da Bahia – UFBA Salvador 40170-290 BA Brazil
[email protected] Brian Helmuth Marine Science Center Northeastern University 430 Nahant Road Nahant, MA 01908 USA
[email protected] Gustavo Hernández Carmona Instituto Politécnico Nacional- Centro Interdisciplinario de Ciencias Marinas Av IPN s/n Col. Playa Palo de Santa Rita La Paz, Baja California Sur 23096 Mexico
[email protected]
Federico Ignacio Isla IGCC-IIMYC UNMDP-CONICET Mar del Plata Argentina
[email protected] Jessie C. Jarvis Centre for Tropical Water and Aquatic Ecosystem Research (TropWATER) James Cook University P.O. Box 6811 Cairns, QLD 4870 Australia
[email protected] Brita J. Jessen Graduate School of Oceanography University of Rhode Island 215 S. Ferry Rd Narragansett, RI 02882 USA
[email protected] Paul R. Jivoff Department of Biology Rider University 2083 Lawrenceville Rd Lawrenceville, NJ 08648 USA
[email protected]
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Patricia N. Kambesis Department of Geosciences Mississippi State University Mississippi State, MS 39762 USA
[email protected] David M. Kennedy Department of Resource Management & Geography The University of Melbourne Parkville, VIC 3010 Australia
[email protected] Michael J. Kennish Department of Marine and Coastal Sciences School of Environmental and Biological Sciences Rutgers University 71 Dudley Road New Brunswick, NJ 08901 USA
[email protected] Aysun Koroglu Coastal Sciences and Civil Engineering Department Istanbul Technical University Maslak 34469 Istanbul Turkey
[email protected] John N. Kraeuter Marine Science Education and Research Center, Department of Marine Science University of New England 11 Hills Beach Road Biddeford, ME 04005 USA
[email protected]
CONTRIBUTORS
Mónica Lara Uc Programa de Investigación en Botãnica Marina Departamento Académico de Biología Marina Universidad Autónoma de Baja California Sur Apdo. Postal 19-B La Paz, Baja California Sur 23080 Mexico
[email protected] Colin Levings Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Science Branch, Pacific Centre for Aquaculture and Environmental Research 4160 Marine Drive West Vancouver, British Columbia Canada V7V 1N6
[email protected] Francisco José Lobo Instituto Andaluz de Ciencias de la Tierra CSIC-Universidad de Granada Avenida de las Palmeras, No. 4 18100 Armilla/Granada Spain
[email protected] Jorge Manuel López-Calderón Programa de Investigación en Botãnica Marina Departamento Académico de Biología Marina Universidad Autónoma de Baja California Sur Apdo. Postal 19-B La Paz, Baja California Sur 23080 Mexico
[email protected] Alejandro López-Ruiz Andalusian Institute for Earth System Research University of Granada Avd. del Mediterraneo S/N (CEAMA) 18006 Granada Spain
[email protected]
Ken W. Krauss U.S. Geological Survey National Wetlands Research Center 700 Cajundome Blvd. Lafayette, LA 70506 USA
[email protected]
Miguel A. Losada Rodríguez Andalusian Institute for Earth System Research University of Granada Avd. del Mediterraneo s/n (CEAMA) 18006 Granada Spain
[email protected]
Michael J. Lace Coastal Cave Survey 313 1/2 West Main Street West Branch, IA 52358 USA
[email protected]
Lisa V. Lucas United States Geological Survey 345 Middlefield Road, MS #496 Menlo Park, CA 94025 USA
[email protected]
CONTRIBUTORS
Vanesa Magar Oceanology Division/Department of Physical Oceanography CICESE Ensenada Mexico
[email protected] Mafalda Marques Carapuço Institute Dom Luiz University of Lisbon Campo Grande 1749-016 Lisbon Portugal
[email protected] Dorothy Joyce D. Marquez Nannoworks Laboratory National Institute of Geological Sciences, University of the Philippines Diliman CP Garcia corner Velasquez St Quezon City, PH 1101 Philippines
[email protected] Islay D. Marsden School of Biological Sciences University of Canterbury Private Bag 4800 Christchurch 8140 New Zealand
[email protected] Harold G. Marshall Department of Biological Sciences Old Dominion University Norfolk, VA 34208 USA
[email protected] Kalle Matso NERRS Science Collaborative, Department of Natural Resources and the Environment University of New Hampshire 35 Colovos Road Durham, NH 03824 USA
[email protected] Alf Meling Universidad Autónoma de Sonora Blvd. Luis Donaldo Colosio Edificio 7G Hermosillo, Sonora 83000 Mexico
[email protected]
Carmen Méndez-Trejo Laboratorio de Sistemática de Invertebrados Marinos Universidad del Mar Campus Puerto Angel Puerto Angel, Oaxaca Mexico Michel Michaelovitch de Mahiques Oceanographic Institute of the University of São Paulo Praça do Oceanográfico 191 05508-120 Sao Paulo Brazil
[email protected] Donna A. Milligan Virginia Institute of Marine Science College of William & Mary 1375 Greate Road Gloucester Point, VA 23062 USA
[email protected] Haruo Mimura Graduate School of Maritime Sciences Kobe University 5-1-1, Fukae, Higashinada Kobe 658-0022 Japan
[email protected] Graziela Miot da Silva School of the Environment Flinders University Sturt Rd Bedford Park, SA 5042 Australia
[email protected] Luiz B. Miranda Oceanographic Institute of the University of São Paulo Praça do Oceanográfico, 191 05508-120 São Paulo, SP Brazil
[email protected] Julien Victor Monnot Civil Engineering: Land & Urban Management and Environment, Escuela de Caminos, Canales y Puertos Universidad Politécnica de Madrid Profesor Aranguren, S/N 28040 Madrid Spain
[email protected]
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CONTRIBUTORS
Juan A. Morales Department of Geology Excellence Campus of Marine Sciences (CEIMAR) University of Huelva Av. 3 de Marzo, s/n 21007 Huelva Spain
[email protected]
Betzabé Moreno-Dávila Laboratorio de Sistemática de Invertebrados Marinos Universidad del Mar Campus Puerto Angel Puerto Angel, Oaxaca 70902 Mexico
A. C. Narayana Centre for Earth & Space Sciences University of Hyderabad Prof. C.R Rao Road Hyderabad 500 046 Andhra Pradesh India
[email protected] Isabel Maria Neto da Silva Moreira Departamento de Química Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio de Janeiro Rua Marques de São Vicente, 225 22453-900 Rio de Janeiro Brazil
[email protected]
Xchel Moreno-Sánchez Instituto Politécnico Nacional CICIMAR-IPN Av. IPN s/n, Playa Palo de Santa Rita La Paz, BCS 23096 Mexico
[email protected]
Autumn J. Oczkowski Atlantic Ecology Division, Office of Research and Development U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 27 Tarzwell Drive Narragansett, RI 02882 USA
[email protected]
Nils-Axel Mörner Paleogeophysics and Geodynamics Rösundavägen 17 13336 Saltsjöbaden Sweden
[email protected]
Michael A. O’Neal Department of Geological Sciences University of Delaware Newark, DE 19716 USA
[email protected]
Ken Munyikwa Centre for Science Athabasca University 1 University Drive Athabasca, Alberta T9S 3A3 Canada
[email protected]
Miguel Ortega-Sánchez Andalusian Institute for Earth System Research University of Granada Avd. del Mediterraneo s/n (CEAMA) 18006 Granada Spain
[email protected]
Joan R. Mylroie Department of Geosciences Mississippi State University Mississippi State, MS 39762 USA
[email protected]
Selene Ortiz-Burgos Facultad de Estudios Superiores Zaragoza Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM) Batalla 5 de mayo s/n esquina Fuerte de Loreto, Colonia Ejército de Oriente CP 09320 Delegación Iztapalapa, DF México
[email protected]
John E. Mylroie Department of Geosciences Mississippi State University Mississippi State, MS 39762 USA
[email protected]
Bruce Parker Center for Maritime Systems/Davidson Laboratory Stevens Institute of Technology Castle Point on Hudson Hoboken, NJ 07030 USA
[email protected]
CONTRIBUTORS
Marguerite C. Pelletier U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Atlantic Ecology Division 27 Tarzwell Drive Narragansett, RI 02882 USA
[email protected]
Viviana Peña-Freire Laboratorio de Algas Marinas, Departamento de Biología Animal Biología Vegetal y Ecología Universidade da Coruña Campus de DA Zapateira, s/n 15071 A Coruña Spain
[email protected]
Carlos Pereira da Silva Faculdade de Ciências Sociais e Humanas Universidade Nova de Lisboa Av. de Berna, 26C 1069-061 Lisboa Portugal
[email protected]
Edward J. Phlips Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences Program (SFRC) University of Florida 7922 NW 71st Street Gainesville, FL 32653 USA
[email protected]
Luca Ragaini Department of Earth Sciences University of Pisa Via S. Maria, 53 56126 Pisa Italy
[email protected] Catherine M. Reid Geological Sciences University of Canterbury Christchurch 8140 New Zealand
[email protected] Hai Ren South China Botanical Garden Chinese Academy of Sciences Xingke Road 723#, Tianhe District 510650 Guangzhou China
[email protected] Jorge R. Rey Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory University of Florida – IFAS 200 9th St. S.E. Vero Beach, FL 32962 USA
[email protected] Katherine C. Ridolfi LimnoTech 1015 18th St. NW, Suite 900 Washington, DC 20036 USA
[email protected]
Alistair G. B. Poore Evolution & Ecology Research Centre, School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences University of New South Wales Sydney, NSW 2052 Australia
[email protected]
Rafael Riosmena-Rodríguez Programa de Investigación en Botãnica Marina Departamento Académico de Biología Marina Universidad Autónoma de Baja California Sur Apdo. Postal 19-B La Paz, Baja California Sur 23080 Mexico
[email protected]
Paula Pratolongo Instituto Argentino de Oceanografía CONICET-Universidad Nacional del Sur Cno. La Carrindanga km 7.5 Bahía Blanca Argentina
[email protected]
Marci M. Robinson US Geological Survey Eastern Geology and Paleoclimate Science Center 926A National Center Reston, VA 20192 USA
[email protected]
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CONTRIBUTORS
Nestor M. Robinson Programa de Investigación en Botãnica Marina Departamento Académico de Biología Marina Universidad Autónoma de Baja California Sur Apdo. Postal 19-B La Paz, Baja California Sur 23080 Mexico
Charles A. Simenstad School of Aquatic and Fishery Sciences University of Washington Postbox 355020 Seattle, WA 98195-5020 USA
[email protected]
Juan M. Rodríguez-Baron Programa de Investigación en Botãnica Marina Departamento Académico de Biología Marina Universidad Autónoma de Baja California Sur Apdo. Postal 19-B La Paz, Baja California Sur 23080 Mexico
Vijay P. Singh Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering Texas A&M University Scoates Hall, 2117 TAMU College Station, TX 77843-2117 USA
[email protected]
Antje Rusch Department of Microbiology and Center for Ecology Southern Illinois University Carbondale 1125 Lincoln Drive Carbondale, IL 62901 USA
[email protected]
Sebastián Solari Instituto de Mecánica de los Fluidos e Ingeniería Ambiental Universidad de la República Julio Herrera y Reissig 565 11300 Montevideo Uruguay
[email protected]
Kevin G. Sellner Chesapeake Research Consortium 645 Contees Wharf Road P.O. Box 28 Edgewater, MD 21037 USA
[email protected]
Michael J. Starek Harte Research Institute for Gulf of Mexico Studies Texas A&M University 6300 Ocean Dr. Corpus Christi, TX 78418 USA
[email protected]
Christine Semeniuk V & C Semeniuk Research Group 21 Glenmere Road Warwick, WA 6024 Australia
Mark H. Stolt Department of Natural Resources University of Rhode Island Kingston, RI 02881 USA
[email protected]
Vic Semeniuk V & C Semeniuk Research Group 21 Glenmere Road Warwick, WA 6024 Australia
[email protected]
Ronald M. Thom Marine Sciences Laboratory Pacific Northwest National Laboratory 1529 West Sequim Bay Road Sequim, WA 98382 USA
[email protected]
Marcus Sheaves Estuary and Tidal Wetland Ecosystems Research Group School of Marine and Tropical Biology, James Cook University Townsville, QLD 4811 Australia
[email protected]
Carol Thornber Department of Biological Sciences University of Rhode Island 120 Flagg Road Kingston, RI 02881 USA
[email protected]
CONTRIBUTORS
Karen Thorne U.S. Geological Survey Western Ecological Research Center Modoc Hall, Suite 2007, 3020 State University Dr. East Vallejo, CA 95819 USA
[email protected]
Davin J. Wallace Department of Marine Science University of Southern Mississippi 1020 Balch Blvd. Stennis Space Center, MS 39529-5005 USA
[email protected]
A. J. Underwood Centre for Research on Ecological Impacts of Coastal Cities, School of Biological Sciences University of Sydney Sydney, NSW 2006 Australia
[email protected]
Judith S. Weis Department of Biological Sciences Rutgers University Newark, NJ 07102 USA
[email protected]
Joy Unno V & C Semeniuk Research Group 21 Glenmere Road Warwick, WA 6024 Australia
[email protected]
David Valença Dantas Laboratório de Ecologia e Gerenciamento de Ecossistemas Costeiros e Estuarinos, Departamento de Oceanografia Universidade Federal de Pernambuco Cidade Universitária Recife, PE CEP 50740-550 Brazil
[email protected]
Lyle Varnell Office of Research and Advisory Services Virginia Institute of Marine Science College of William & Mary 1375 Greate Road Gloucester Point, VA 23062 USA
[email protected]
Efren M. Veiga Civil Engineering: Land & Urban Management and Environment Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Escuela de Caminos, Canales y Puertos C/ Profesor Aranguren, s/n 28040 Madrid Spain
[email protected]
Peddrick Weis Department of Radiology Rutgers – New Jersey Medical School Newark, NJ 07101-1709 USA
[email protected] Harry Williams Department of Geography University of North Texas 1155 Union Circle # 305279 Denton, TX 76203-5017 USA
[email protected] Colin D. Woodroffe School of Earth and Environmental Sciences University of Wollongong Wollongong, NSW 2522 Australia
[email protected] Paul A. Work School of Civil and Environmental Engineering Georgia Institute of Technology Savannah 210 Technology Circle Atlanta, GA 30332-0355 USA
[email protected] Evgeniy Yakushev Section of Oceanography and Remote Sensing Norwegian Institute for Water Research (NIVA) Gaustadalleen 21 Oslo 0349 Norway
[email protected]
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Qiang Zhang Department of Water Resources and Environment Sun Yat-sen University No. 135 Xingangxi Road Guangzhou 510275 China
[email protected]
CONTRIBUTORS
Wenyan Zhang MARUM - Center for Marine Environmental Sciences University of Bremen Leobener Str. 1 D-28359 Bremen, Bremen Germany
[email protected]
Preface
Estuaries are coastal environments with exceptional ecological, recreational, and commercial value. Their diverse habitats provide vital nursery, feeding, and refuge areas for numerous estuarine, marine, and terrestrial organisms. The rich food supply in estuaries supports a multitude of aquatic plant and animal communities. Many marine species of recreational and commercial importance utilize estuaries during at least part of their life history, and therefore these coastal ecosystems play a significant role in the production of marine fisheries. Adjoining wetland habitats are particularly important in the life cycles of fish, shellfish, migratory birds, and other wildlife. Aside from fisheries, businesses and industries depend on estuaries for successful operation. Most notable in this regard are businesses and industries involving aquaculture, electric power generation, oil and gas recovery, marine biotechnology, tourism, transportation, and shipping. Together, these operations inject hundreds of billions of dollars into the world economy each year. They also employ millions of people worldwide. Within the land-river-coastal-shelf continuum, estuaries serve a number of critical functions involving the filtering of contaminants, transformation of nutrients, and the biogeochemical cycling of substances. Consequently, they strongly influence the environmental quality of coastal waters. Estuaries also protect coastal watersheds, buffering infrastructure from the damaging effects of storms, floods, waves, and erosion. Because billions of people inhabit coastal areas, these buffering effects are extremely important for the sustainability of coastal communities. Estuaries and adjoining coastal areas are more vulnerable than ever to climate change effects, notably major storms and storm surges, sea-level rise, inundation and flooding, and other hazardous conditions.
Estuaries rank among the most heavily impacted aquatic ecosystems on earth, being affected by a wide range of anthropogenic activities both in adjoining coastal watersheds and on the water bodies themselves. Most of these activities can be linked to rapid population growth and overdevelopment of the coastal zone. While anthropogenic stressors have received the greatest attention of estuarine and marine scientists, some natural stochastic events (e.g., earthquakes, major storms, severe winds, and upwelling) also cause environmental perturbations that can have profound consequences. However, some natural events often occur less frequently than many anthropogenic stressors that affect estuarine environments persistently over more protracted time periods. In addition, multiple anthropogenic disturbances create both acute and insidious problems for many estuarine biotic communities and habitats. Major anthropogenic impacts on estuaries that can pose a threat to their ecological integrity and long-term viability include habitat loss and alteration, eutrophication, sewage, overfishing, chemical contaminants, human-altered hydrological regimes, introduced/ invasive species, sea-level rise, subsidence, and floatables/debris. These impacts, together with the other subject areas discussed above, are addressed in the Encyclopedia of Estuaries. The Encyclopedia of Estuaries is a volume in Springer’s Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. It provides thorough and authoritative coverage of the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of estuaries. As such, it is a major reference work for estuarine and marine scientists, educators, and students. Highly respected authors from around the world have contributed to the encyclopedia on such diverse subjects as biotic
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communities, essential habitats, food webs, fisheries, hydrology, pollution, conservation, and many more. With a total of more than 260 topic entries, the Encyclopedia of Estuaries covers a broad range of estuarine science and also includes additional information on contiguous environments. It is designed to fulfill the multidisciplinary interests of contemporary estuarine
scientists. Although the coverage is not exhaustive on all subject areas of estuaries, the encyclopedia contains detailed information on the topic entries comprising the volume. January 2015
Michael J. Kennish
Acknowledgments
My special thanks go to the authors of the 269 topic entries comprising the Encyclopedia of Estuaries. These contributions constitute a tremendous amount of work by many outstanding scientists from around the world. I also acknowledge the Editorial Board assembled for this work consisting of world-class scientists, notably Drs. Daniel Alongi, Donald Boesch, Walter Boynton, Carlos Duarte, Paul Harrison, Robert Howarth, Lisa Levin, and the late Scott Nixon. I am grateful to the Springer personnel who were critical to the production of this volume, including Sylvia Blago, Johanna Klute, and Petra van Steenbergen. They were involved with the work from its inception.
Dr. Charles Finkl, Series Editor for the Encyclopedia of Earth Science Series, was instrumental in ensuring the successful completion of the encyclopedia. He continually provided the essential guidance to deal with the many pitfalls encountered during the road to publication. I cannot overemphasize Charlie’s important role in the process. Finally, I thank my colleagues in the Department of Marine and Coastal Sciences at Rutgers University who provided a great source of information during the development of the topic entries for the Encyclopedia of Estuaries.
