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Environmental Education and Natural disaster preparedness: The situation in the. 1. Rwenzori Mountains, Uganda. 2. Considered for publication in a book ...
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Environmental Education and Natural disaster preparedness: The situation in the Rwenzori Mountains, Uganda

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Considered for publication in a book “Disaster and climate resilience in Uganda: Process, Knowledge, and Practices. Edited by Dr. Bob Nakileza for UNDP.

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MOSES MUHUMUZA Mountains of the Moon University, and 2University of the Witwatersrand 1. P.O Box 837, Fort-Portal Uganda, and 2. Private Bag 3 WITS 20150 Johannesburg South Africa. 1

Email address: [email protected]

Telephone: +256772565565

ABSTRACT The occurrence of natural disasters has been increasing in Uganda especially in mountainous areas. In Uganda, disaster mitigation measures are weak and when disasters happen, various government ministries and civil society organizations swing into action with ad hoc and short term reactionary measures. In the 1990s, the government of Uganda recommended environmental education which is meant to enhance sustainable development through proper natural resource use to mitigate natural disasters. Environmental education programmes have been implemented in schools and local communities country wide. However, the persistence of human induced natural disasters necessitates an investigation into the nature of environmental education provided and how it attempts to address disaster preparedness for vulnerable categories of people such as the disabled. The content of primary and secondary syllabi was analyzed and an assessment of how it was implemented was perfomed using the Rwenzori Mountains as a reference site. In addition, 163 respondents were randomly selected from households in the Rwenzori Mountains and interviewed about informal environmental education they received. It was found that in both formal and informal education programmes, there was very little consideration of disaster risk management. Much of the content was about understanding the environment and natural resources. In the delivery of the content, there was no consideration given to people with disabilities. It is recommended that environmental education should be tailored towards specific needs of different categories of people and content on disaster training, mitigation and preparedness must be relevant to the environmental, economic and cultural context of the community. Key words: Education, Disaster, Natural, Preparedness, Rwenzori INTRODUCTION This study aimed at investigating the nature of formal environmental education in Uganda and how it attempts to assist people with disabilities to cope with disaster. With reference to communities in and around the Rwenzori Mountains, this study sought to identify gaps in disaster preparation, education and training to enable people with disabilities to be able to cope, mitigate and manage disasters.

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The paper is structured in six sections. The first section presents an overview of previous studies on natural disaster preparedness, education and training through environmental education. The second section provides the setting of the study with reference to the Rwenzori Mountains. In the third section, the methods used in data collection and analysis are presented and the choice of these methods justified. The forth section presents the results of the study and in the fifth section the results are discussed. The paper culminates in a sixth section where the conclusions and recommendations are presented. Previous studies on Natural Disaster Preparedness, Education and Training through Environmental Education There is substantial evidence suggesting that natural disasters are increasing in Uganda especially in hilly, mountainous and dry land. Various studies (such as Lokwiya, et al., 2002; Ogwang & Aanyu, 2002) have attributed these disasters to anthropogenic activities associated with rapid human population increase, land fragmentation, and unsustainable utilization of natural resources. More than 85% of the population of Uganda is dependent directly on the environmental resources for subsistence and livelihood (MAAIF, 2010). Since the early 1990s, the government of Uganda has put in place various programmes, policies and regulations to enable socio-economic development through sustainable utilization of natural resources which includes disaster risk management. Among the programmes is formal and informal environmental education which is meant to enhance sustainable development through proper natural resource use to avert or mitigate natural disasters mitigation and adaptation to the changing climate. Formal and informal environmental education programmes have been implemented in schools and various local communities respectively country wide. Environmental education programmes are intended to engage the public to think and act for the environment. Environmental education is intended to produce environmentally literate citizens (Srbinovski, Erdogan, & Ismaili, 2010) who are able to actively address environmental challenges and problems such as natural disasters (Hungerford & Peyton, 1976; Roth, 1992; UNESCO, 1980). This means that environmental literacy is a product of environmental education. Environmental literate individuals according to North American Association for Environmental Education (2004) have four characteristics: 1. Show willingness and ability to ask questions about the surrounding world, speculate, hypothesize, seek and evaluate information, and develop answers to questions. 2. Demonstrate an understanding of environmental processes and systems, including human systems. 3. Identify, investigate, and formulate potential solutions to environmental problems such as natural disasters. 4. Understand how that what they do as individuals or in groups manage environmental problems. Environmental education aims to change attitude that has negative environmental consequences and enhance positive attitudes about the environment and its resources (Gürsoy, 2010). Studies in environmental socio-psychology have found that attitudes are

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important determinants of environmentally oriented behaviour (Glasman and Albarracin, 2006). People who are aware and understand disasters associated with environmental degradation are expected to have positive attitudes toward disaster mitigation, management and coping with the risk (Chhetri, Mugisha, & White, 2002; Howard et al., 2000; Hughes & Flintan, 2001; Igoe, 2002; Ite, 1996; Oonyu, 2009). Despite the implementation of environmental education programmes in Uganda, the vicious cycle of land degradation, occurrence of disasters and associated effects have persisted (Figure 1).

Figure 1 The current situation indicates that disaster mitigation measures are weak and quite often when disasters happen, various government ministries and civil society organizations swing into action with ad hoc and short term reactionary measures such as rescue of victims and temporary re-settlement of the affected people (Ministry of Lands, Housing and Urban Development, 2011). A number of studies in Uganda especially in and around refugee camps have found detrimental environmental effects associated with resettlement of displaced people. Although natural disasters affect humans in general, people with disability are more at risk of suffering the effects than the able bodied individuals. Disability can be distinguished into: Physical disability which includes the lame, the blind, the deaf and the dump and nonphysical disability which for instance includes people with mental disorders. Natural disasters affect these categories of people differently. The deaf and the blind may not be able to perceive early warnings about looming disasters. The lame might not be able to swiftly evade a disaster and those with mental disorders might not respond to disaster at all. Such categories of people have prior disadvantages because they often lag behind in socioeconomic status and their level of access to socio-services is usually limited. Their survival in

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times of disasters is highly depended on other people who might not be in position to help in cases of emergency. The setting: The Rwenzori Mountains The Rwenzori Mountains is located in western Uganda and is inhabited by over two million people (Uganda Bureau of Statistics, 2002). The area being mountainous makes it a fragile environment susceptible to landslide, erosion, and flooding. The increasing human population at a rate of 3.5% per annum has led to land fragmentation, over cultivation, deforestation, encroachment on wetlands and protected areas resources. The Rwenzori Mountains are one of the areas in Uganda that shows evidence of climate change. Also, the receding glaciers on the Rwenzori Mountains are as a result of human activities and global warming. These geographical characteristics make the people living in and around the Rwenzori Mountains vulnerable to natural disasters. Already, there have been incidents of landslides and floods in various districts of the Rwenzori region especially Kasese and Bundibugyo which are predominantly mountainous. More such incidents are expected to occur as a result of the predicted increase in rainfall and likely to have adverse effects on people unless mitigation measures and coping strategies are put in place especially for people with disabilities. DATA AND METHODS Data was collected from four sources: 1) the primary school and secondary school syllabi, 2) teachers’ lesson plans, 3) learners’ books, and 4) local people in communities in the Rwenzori Mountains. Content analysis techniques suggested by Gall et al. (1996) were used in the analysis of first three sources of data. The primary school and secondary school syllabi provided data on the formal curriculum. The primary school syllabus has two volumes which are both referred to as “The 1999 Primary School Syllabus”. The focus of the analysis was on the topics concerning environmental education and more specifically on disaster risk management. The selection of teachers and learners whose lesson plans and exercise books were analyzed respectively was done randomly based on schools that were located in and near the Rwenzori Mountains (within a distance of 5 kilometers from the Mountains because these were considered to have a better perception of the mountains and could easily refer to the mountains when teaching and learning than those at a far distance). A total of 32 primary schools were found in that area and all were visited. The selection of teachers from each school was based on the subjects in the primary school syllabus in which environmental education and disaster risk management and mitigation features. Selecting one teacher for each subject from all the primary schools resulted in a sample size of 288 teachers. Out of 288 teachers, only 199 had lesson plans. Therefore, only 199 lesson plans were analyzed and from each of these, the topic that had most recently been taught was selected. One learner was randomly selected and asked to present his or her book where the work for the lesson from the analyzed teacher’s lesson plan was written. Therefore, one

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hundred and ninety nine books of learners were analyzed. A similar procedure was used to select 49 lesson plans and learners books in secondary schools.

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Also, interviews were conducted with 163 that were randomly selected as a representative sample of respondents from households in villages in the Rwenzori Mountains. The age of the respondents ranged from 15 years old to more than 75 years old. The highest number of the respondents (31, 19%) was between 46 and 50 years and males were the majority (107, 65.6%). The presence of male, female, young and old respondents in the selected sample addressed a common weakness in ethnographic studies of this nature (Jacobson, 1999). The diversity of this sample enabled a variety of responses to be generated about the questions asked in interviews.

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The selected respondents were asked about the following issues:

In addition various representatives of organizations that were involved in the provision of informal environmental education programmes and disaster risk management interventions were interviewed. The stakeholder organization involved included CARE international, Sustainable Agriculture Trainers Network (SATNET), PROTOS, Uganda Wildlife Authority (UWA), World Wide Fund for nature conservation (WWF), Joint Effort to Save the Environment (JESE) and Rwenzori Information Centre Network (RICNET). These were selected through a snowball process starting from Rwenzori Association of NGOs and Networks (RANNET). The representatives were asked about the nature of their programmes and interventions, their target audience, the methods they use, the timing of their interventions and their aims and objectives.

a) Whether or not they had heard, read, been told any messages about environmental management and natural disaster risk management, adaptation and mitigation. b) What exact messages they had heard, read or been told. c) What skills they had acquired for disaster preparation, mitigation and adaptation. d) Whether or not they heeded the messages they had heard, read, or been told and whether they applied the skills they acquired. e) In case they did not heed the messages or apply the skills what were the reasons? Data emerging from the interviews was coded and analyzed qualitatively and quantitatively (through descriptive statistics). RESULTS Formal environmental education Out of 10 subjects in the primary school syllabus, 6 subjects (English, Integrated Science, Social Studies, Agriculture, Integrated Production Skills, and Religious Studies) had content on environmental education, and out of the 19 subjects in the secondary school syllabus, five subjects (Geography, Biology, Agriculture, Entrepreneurship, and History) contained topics about environmental education and environmental management which partly included natural disaster risk management.

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The syllabi covered a variety of content which was classified into five content themes in the primary school syllabus and four themes in the secondary school syllabus (Tables 1 and 2).

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secondary schools were similar to what was found in the syllabus. In various lessons plans,

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many of the objectives, much of the content and the majority of the assignment questions

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were similar to what was in the syllabus (Figure 2).

Themes four and five in the primary syllabus and themes three and four in the secondary school syllabus contained information about disaster risk management and mitigation. The content covered issues such as description of natural disasters, causes of natural disasters, types of natural disasters, prevention of natural disasters and adaption or coping with natural disasters. Content themes were studied under different subjects. Integrated science had the majority of the topics in the entire primary school syllabus and Geography in the secondary school syllabus. It was found that the majority of the attributes of the teachers’ lesson plans in primary and

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Figure 2

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It was also found that the highest number of the learners’ books in primary and secondary schools had majority of the attributes similar to what was found in the teachers’ lessons plans (Figure 3).

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Figure 3 This indicated that what was found in the teachers’ lesson plans was similar to what was in the learners’ books. These results suggest that in the context of the teaching and learning of environmental education in the Rwenzori Mountains, there is virtually no difference between what is in the syllabus and what is in the learners’ books. Informal environmental education and disaster risk management interventions

The nature of messages communicated and received The results indicated that the messages delivered by organizations in informal environmental education programmes focused on four themes: 1) understanding the importance of the environment and natural resources, 2) indicators of environmental degradation, 3) poor agricultural activities that people should not engage in, and 4) ways how to adapt to climate change. It was only in one theme (theme 4) where information about disaster risk management was provided. In this theme, communities were sensitized about the indicators of climate change and its effects. In attempt to describe the effects of climate change it is when the audience was informed about drought, floods, landslides, hailstone, and crop and animal pests as examples of disasters. In order to prevent such effects, the audiences was informed to plant trees (some organizations provided tree seedlings), avoid deforestation, avoid encroachment on wetlands, engage in terracing, and to avoid cultivation on steep slopes.

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Interviews with the local people about what they had either heard, read, or had been told about disaster risk management in environmental education programmes revealed various responses. The responses were categorized into three groups: 1) rules and regulations governing protected areas, 2) advice on farming practices, and 3) mitigation and adaptation to climate change and its effects. It was only under number 3 (mitigation and adaptation to climate change that the local people received messages about disaster risk management (Figure 4).

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Figure 4

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These messages were virtually similar to what was pointed out by the representatives of the organizations.

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Results (Figure 5) indicated that the audience received information on informal environmental education and disaster risk management interventions through the following channels: training of trainers workshops, onsite training and sensitization meetings, Music Dance and Drama, Radio programmes, School programmes, Learning/ field exchange visits, Demonstrations, Special events, Manuals/books, Video shows, News papers and the Church. Also, these channels were not specific for particular categories of people in the audience. There were no particular channels that were tailored toward acquisition of information on disaster risk management by people with disabilities.

Ways of channeling information to the local people

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The highest number of respondents said they obtained the messages through onsite training and sensitization meetings. Such meetings according to the respondents were conducted by environmental officers, park rangers and some people from community based organizations.

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Figure 5

Not heeding the messages received and the reasons why Some respondents only heeded environmental education messages under certain circumstances, and other respondents did not heed environmental education messages at all. This was due to reasons associated with environmental factors (such as unpredictable seasons), economic factors, and cultural factors (Table 3). Sometimes respondents received information on weather forecasts and disaster predictions which does not turn out to be true. Therefore, they are often skeptical about other information they receive and hence do not often take it serious. DISCUSSION Formal environmental education The findings show that teachers followed what was stipulated in the syllabus without much modification. What teachers taught was virtually the same as what was in the formal curriculum. There was no evidence that what teachers teach is based on teachers’ interests, values, experiences and concerns as suggested by Goodson (1985). In this case therefore, if the syllabi had a weakness, the teachers would transfer the weakness to the classroom and potentially to the learners.

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It was found that much of the content was about understanding and describing the environment and its resources. It is necessary that learners understand the environment and its resources, and important that they know that they are part of a bigger environment if natural disaster is to be mitigated and managed holistically. However, Srbinovski et al. (2010) argue that understanding of the environment and its resources is not a guarantee that people’s attitudes towards the environment shall change. People do not necessarily develop environmentally responsible behaviour when they receive environmental education messages. Although knowledge is a prerequisite for appropriate environmental management, it does not guarantee that appropriate conservation behaviors will be performed by individuals who have that knowledge (Kuhar et al., 2010). Also, Agriculture subject constituted the least and the second least number of topics in the primary school syllabus and secondary school syllabus respectively. In both primary and secondary school syllabi, there was only 1 topic on the “environmental degradation” content theme. This was construed as a shortcoming in the syllabi because agricultural practices account for more than 70% of the environmental degradation in Uganda (Lokwiya, et al., 2002; Ogwang & Aanyu, 2002). Agriculture should have had more topics on indicators, causes and impacts of environmental degradation. According to Bekalo and Bangay (2002), if environmental education is to go beyond a taxonomic appreciation of the environment, it must begin by exploring the causes of environmental degradation. Although it is often a useful strategy when teaching to illustrate a point using examples, in the case of the syllabi reviewed (especially the secondary school syllabus), the examples in some topics were from outside the Uganda context. For example, the Geography syllabus of Senior 1, term 2, topic 9 required learners to study the utilization of natural resources in British Colombia. It would have been appropriate to use examples from the local situation in the Rwenzori Mountains and the neighbouring areas with these learners, or at least from Uganda. This could enable the learners realize that the problems associated with environmental degradation are local and potentially affect them. Also, the content delivered and the methods used by the teachers (as evidenced from the lesson plans) did not take into context the existence of learners with disabilities. This means that the achievement of learners with disabilities would be lower compared to those without disabilities. It would have been appropriate to tailor the content towards the different needs of the learners with disabilities by using methods recommended in special needs education. Even though learners with disability are able to access education, they may be at a disadvantage in terms of attainment of knowledge and skills required for disaster risk management. Informal environmental education and disaster risk management interventions Although some organizations equipped local people especially smallholder farmers with skills on how to irrigate crops in times of drought and on how to harvest and store rain water, generally the environmental education programmes were lacking based on the criteria by North American Association for Environmental Education (2004). Environmental education programmes should encourage people to understand and forge connections with the environment and manage the likely problems such as disasters that might result from

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environmental degradation in their own neighborhoods and communities (Carter and Simmons, 2010). Through environmental education, people should not only gain the knowledge but also have skills to engage in proper disaster risk management. Acquisition of knowledge about the environment is not a guarantee that people will adequately cope with environmental disasters (Levin, 1993), knowledge must be coupled with skills. It emerged that the messages (including those about disaster risk mitigation) provided to the people were in general without reference to people with special needs such as those with disability, and the elderly. There were no messages given to the people on how to identify and report looming disasters such as an impending landslide and how to evade a disaster. The finding that some environmental education messages were channeled through the church it underscores the point of view that nature and religion are inextricably linked (Reichel-Dokmatoff, 1976). Environmental education messages bode well for environmental educators who form partnerships with religious communities (Reichel-Dokmatoff, 1976). The issue of unreliability of the weather forecasts and predictions about the occurrence of disasters was previously reported by Protos-DWRM (2012) in a study conducted among the communities neighbouring River Mpanga about the likely flooding of the river. Some respondents could not engage in the recommended adaptive measures such as migration, change in livelihoods due to economic factors. They pointed out irrigation and rain water harvesting and storage as expensive adaptation measures which they could not afford. Also, some respondents believed that certain mountains gods were furious about human activities and that was the reason for the occurrence of some environmental disasters such as floods. They believed that the only solution was to appease the gods by performing traditional rituals. The above reasons for none compliance to environmental messages should be taken seriously especially in the Rwenzori Mountains. Environmental disasters in the Rwenzori region are likely to intensity in future. Simulation studies based on rainfall, temperature and land use data for the Rwenzori region (Liersch & Reinhardt, 2012) show that the region is likely to be vulnerable to drought because of anticipated increase in evapotranspiration which will affect water availability. The increasing temperatures might have an impact on vegetation with regard to shifts in altitude because drier conditions and erratic seasons are predicted. These conditions are likely to make productive land less available which will result into lack of alternative economic activities and alternative sources of resources. Lack of productive land, alternative economic activities and alternative sources of resources are common factors which compel local people in rural areas in Africa to engage activities that are detrimental to the environment (Archabald & Naughton-Treves, 2001; Vodouhê, Coulibaly, Adégbidi, & Sinsin, 2010). Such factors could be addressed through community based conservation interventions such as Integrated Conservation and Development that aim to provide local people with socio-economic incentives in order to mitigate environmental degradation and the associated consequence of disaster occurrence. Such could easily be proposed for vulnerable groups of people such as the disabled.

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However, Integrated Conservation and Development Projects need to take into account the negative implications of providing socio-economic incentives to local people as a means of motivating them to engage in adaptive environmental practices. The use of financial incentives has been found to undermine the intrinsic motives that help people to engage in pro-environmental management practices (De-Young, 1993; Zuckerman, Lazzaro & Waldgeir, 1979). Failure to engage in environmental friendly practices is not always a matter of lack of socio-economic incentives. In such a situation, it is necessary to implement environmental education that takes into account factors that underlie non compliance to environmental messages. Environmental education efforts tend to be more successful when they begin with a needs assessment of the audience (Kuhar, Lehnhardt, Townsend, Cox & Bettinger, 2007). For instance environmental education messages could be linked to the provision of socio-economic incentives. According to Archabald and Naughton-Treves (2001) and Igoe (2002), good environmental education is the one that adequately reflects the environmental problems and issues of society in the local and regional contexts. Informal environmental education that considers the local context of the people paying attention to the socio-economic needs of the people may be more helpful for local communities. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS Although attempts have been made in Uganda for natural disaster preparation, education and training through environmental education, problems have persisted. This is due to inadequate content of formal education which focuses more on understanding the environment and its resources while little content is given to disaster preparation and mitigation. Also given that the information that people receive concerning weather forecast is unreliable, they are less likely to heed messages that require them to put in place coping strategies for disasters risk management. In addition, socio-economic, environmental and cultural factors hinder compliance to information. Environmental education messages targeting these factors are recommended. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I acknowledge the financial contribution from Mountains of the Moon University towards the execution of a wider study on which this paper is based. I am indebted to all the individuals that participated in this study by providing valuable information. The manuscript of this paper benefited from peer review. I am grateful to two anonymous reviewers that provided constructive comments that helped to improve this paper. REFERENCES Archabald, K. & Naughton-Treves, L. (2001). Tourism revenue-sharing around national parks in Western Uganda: Early efforts to identify and reward local communities. Environmental Conservation, 28(2), 135–149.

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