ESL WRITING HANDBOOK (for MYP)

ESL WRITING HANDBOOK (for MYP)

Prepared by T Turner

(ESL Coordinator)

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Background Information This booklet has been compiled to provide teachers with examples of model texts types together with writing frames for a range of curriculum subjects. The booklet is presented in three sections. The first section offers frameworks that breakdown the textual features of model text types. The genres are presented according to degrees of complexity from Recounts to Evaluative texts. Section two gives examples of graphic organizers that are useful for students when they are preparing to write texts. The final section offers model texts of the key genres. The texts presented are basic text types. In reality, students will need to produce a combination of different text types. However, if students are given a model and a writing frame, these can help in the teaching process and in the students‟ construction of texts.

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Contents Section One: Frames of key text types Recount Procedure Information Report: Descriptive Information Report: Cause and Effect Information Report: Comparison Information Report: Combination – comparative and cause and effect Explanation Persuasive Discussion – for and against Argument – expository Analysis Evaluation Problem/Solution Mathematical Investigation Science Lab Report

Section Two: Examples of Graphic Organizers Flow Chart Cluster Five Ws and H Series of Events Sequence Pattern Causes and Effects Compare and Contrast Persuasion Map Discussion – for/against Argument – expository Problem/Solution

Section Three: Model Text Types Recount – Factual recount Procedural Descriptive Information Report Information Report – Compare and Contrast Explanation Persuasive Discussion – for and against Argument – expository Analysis 3

Evaluation Problem/Solution

Section One: Frames of key text types

Text Type: Recount Subject areas: Humanities, English Purpose  What is its social purpose? 

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What are the types of recount?

Text Level  What is the schematic structure?

 Summary Frame questions 1. Who, What, When, Why, Where and How? 2. What sequence of events is being described? 3. How is the sequence or cycle revealed? Graphic organiser

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Language  Viewpoint (first or third person)  Prevailing tense  Active/Passive  Typical cohesion devices

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Flow chart

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Both first and third – first predominantly used in personal recounts Past tense Active voice is more common Connectives of Time – When, After, As, While, Before, Whenever, Afterwards, As soon as, By the time Connectives that signal the effect of an action or event: As a result, Consequently, So, Therefore,

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To retell events for the purpose of informing or entertaining a listener/reader Personal recount Historical recount Factual recount Imaginative recount Orientation – providing background information Sequence of events – covering a specified period of time. Events are organised under sub-headings Personal commentary (optional) at any stage in the sequence of events Re-orientation (optional) – usually a summary statement or comment

Text Type: Procedure Subject areas: Science, Humanities (History)English Purpose  To tell how something (a task, an  What is its social purpose? aim, a product) will be accomplished through a sequence of steps or actions  Examples of procedure texts?  Recipes  Manuals  Science practical reports  Instructions Text Level  Goal – what will be achieved by  What is the schematic structure? following the steps/process outlined;  Materials or equipment (if required) Summary Frame questions – usually listed in the order they are 1. What will be achieved by following required the steps or process?  Steps – tell the reader what to do to 2. What are the series of steps? accomplish the goal; these may be 3. How will the series of steps be numbered and should be sequenced described? in a logical order of dependency  Diagrams and/or illustrations (optional) Graphic organiser  Flow chart Language    

 Prevailing tenses Active/Passive Typical cohesion devices Specialised vocabulary

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Simple present tense and imperatives Active voice is more common Connectors of time – When, After, As, While, Before, Whenever, Afterwards, As soon as, By the time Connectors of sequence – First of all, Secondly, Next, Then, Finally,

Text Type: Information Report - Descriptive Subject areas: Humanities, Science, English Purpose  To provide accurate and relevant  What is its social purpose? information about our living and nonliving world  Examples of information reports  News reports  Parts of science reports  Parts of textbooks  Parts of social science reports Text Level  General statement – can be a  What is the schematic structure? statement of classification, often including a definition, and may also Summary Frame questions clarify what type of report the text is 1. What specific person, place, thing, event  Sequence of descriptive facts – or concept is being described? pertaining to the subject of the 2. What are the most important attributes report, grouped logically through or characteristics? paragraphing and/or sub-headings  Labelled illustrations, diagrams, figures and tables (optional) – accompany and support the written text Graphic organiser Flow Chart Language    

 Prevailing tenses Viewpoint Active/Passive Typical cohesion devices

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Simple present tense. Possible use of the past and future tenses Third person Active voice is more common Language for comparing – equally, in the same way, similarly, likewise, as with, like

Text Type: Information Report - Comparison/contrast Subject areas: Humanities, Science, English Purpose  To explain how two or more things  What is its social purpose? are alike and/or how they are different  Examples of Information reports  News reports  Parts of science reports  Parts of textbooks  Parts of social science reports Text Level  General statement – can be a  What is the schematic structure? statement of classification, often including a definition, and may also Summary Frame questions clarify what type of report the text is 1. What items are being compared?  Outline the similarities 2. What is it about them that is being  Outline the differences compared?  Conclusion – evaluation of whether 3. What characteristics of the items form or not there were more comparisons the basis of the comparison? or differences 4. What characteristics do they have in common? 5. How are these items alike? 6. In what way are these items different? Graphic organiser Venn Diagram Language    


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Simple present tense. Possible use of the past and future tenses Third person Active voice is more common Connectives of sequence – First of all, Secondly, Next, Then, Finally, Connectives of cause and effect – As a result, Consequently, So, Therefore, on account of, since, due to, owing to Connectives for contrast – Although, On the other hand, In contrast, However, instead of, in contrast to, Language for comparing – equally, in the same way, similarly, likewise, as with, like

Text Type: Information Report - Cause and Effect Subject areas: Humanities, Science, English Purpose  To explain the causes and the  What is its social purpose? resulting effects.  News reports  What are the types of information  Parts of science reports reports  Parts of textbooks  Parts of social science reports Text Level  General statement – outline what  What is the schematic structure? your essay will talk about  General body – list either the causes Summary Frame questions and/or effects of the topic. Each 1. What specific event (s) occurred? topic is supported with evidence 2. What was the cause (s) of the event?  Conclusion – a summary of the 3. In what ways did prior event (s) cause information contained in the essay or influence the main event? 4. What was the effect (s) of the event? 5. What were the results or outcomes caused by the event? 6. According to the text, what is the significance of the event? 7. What words or phrases did the author use to signal cause/effect? Graphic organiser Fish Diagram Language    


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Simple present tense. Possible use of the past and future tenses Third person Active voice is more common Connectives of cause and effect – As a result, Consequently, So, Therefore, on account of, since, due to, owing to, leads to, effects of, outcome, impact, influenced by, reasons why, reasons for, caused by,

Text Type: Information Report - Combination – Comparative and cause and effect. An extended piece of writing (See IB OCC MYP document for example) Subject areas: Humanities Purpose  A comparative study of two different  What is its social purpose? causes and consequences. In this case two countries were discussed and compared Text Level  What is the schematic structure?

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Summary Frame questions 1. What are the main causes of the problem and why do they occur? 2. What are the main consequences and why do they occur? 3. What are the recommendations? 4. What are the differences between the two subjects that are being compared?

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Graphic organiser

An Introduction – description of the country A number of causes are explained A number of effects/consequences are given Recommendations are given The differences are outlined

Two: fish diagram and venn diagram

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Simple present tense and past tenses; The use of modals for recommendations: should, would, could Specific vocabulary relating to recommendations: It is my opinion, I further think, it is thought that Third person Active voice is more common Connectives of cause and effect – As a result, Consequently, So, Therefore, on account of, since, due to, owing to, leads to, effects of, outcome, impact, influenced by, reasons why, reasons for, caused by, Language for comparing – equally, in the same way, similarly, likewise, as with, like

Text Type: Explanation Subject areas: Humanities, Science, English Purpose  To account for why things are as they  What is its social purpose? are or how/why something occurs    

Text Level  What is the schematic structure? Frame questions 1. What are the series of steps that explain the process or why something occurs Graphic organiser

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Linear – Articles on scientific inventions How machinery works Reports on natural phenomena Sequential explanation – explains how processes occur in a series of chronological steps Causal explanation – not only explains how processes occur in a series of chronological steps but also links the processes causally Flow chart

Language     

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Prevailing tenses Viewpoint Active/Passive Typical cohesion devices Specialised and technical vocabulary

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Simple present tense to indicate fact Past tense for sections with historical background Simple future tense to explain predicted consequences or outcomes Third person Active voice and Passive voice – passive voice is used mostly Connectives of sequence – First of all, Secondly, Next, Then, Finally, Connectives of cause and effect – As a result, Consequently, So, Therefore, on account of, since, due to, owing to Connectives for contrast – Although, On the other hand, In contrast, However, instead of, in contrast to,

Text Type : Argument - Persuasive Subject areas: Humanities, English Purpose  To present arguments on an issue  What is its social  To persuade someone of a point of view purpose? Text Level  Thesis and preview – the arguments are presented;  What is the  Background information may also be included schematic  Arguments – making points which outline and structure? strengthen the thesis; elaborating and presenting statistics/quotes/evidence/examples to support each Frame questions point; 1. What is the thesis?  Reiteration – summarises the arguments and restates 2. What is the topic the thesis in light of the evidence presented, usually sentence? including a recommendation for action/further thought 3. What examples or in ‘persuading to’ type of argument; reasons are given  The use P.E.E.L. – Point, Evidence, Explanation of how to develop the evidence makes the point, and Link back. statement 4. Are the reasons convincing and reasonable? 5. Is the conclusion reasonable? Graphic Organiser Language level    

Prevailing tenses Viewpoint Active/Passive Typical cohesion devices

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Persuasion Map- www/readwritethink.org

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Simple present tense. Possible use of the past and future tenses Modals – may, can, could, might Third person Active and passive voice Connectives of sequence – First of all, Secondly, Next, Then, Finally, Connectives of cause and effect – As a result, Consequently, So, Therefore, on account of, since, due to, owing to Connectives for contrast – Although, On the other hand, In contrast, However, instead of, in contrast to, Connectives to signal conclusion – To conclude, In conclusion, To sum up Connectives to show addition – Moreover, In addition, Furthermore, also, too, as well as Phrases to introduce opinion – In my view; It is my contention; I believe; In my opinion.

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Text Type : Discussion – for and against Subject areas: Humanities, English Purpose  To present the case for more than one point of  What is its social purpose? view about an issue  To present findings from research, investigations and formal inquiries Text Level  What is the schematic structure? Frame questions 1. What is the thesis? 2. What are the advantages and disadvantages? 3. supporting details/ evidence is given? 4. What is the conclusion? Graphic organiser Language level     

Prevailing tenses Viewpoint Active/Passive Typical cohesion devices Word level – Technical and specialised vocabulary

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Statement of the issue, and a preview of the various sides of the argument Arguments for and against are explained and supported by evidence and other elaborations. (e.g. examples, statistics, quotations) Recommendation which summarises each position presented.

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Discussion for/against

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Simple present tense when raising the main point of an argument Past tense for explaining events that have taken place Modals – may, can, could, might Third person Active and passive voice Connectives of sequence – First of all, Secondly, Next, Then, Finally, Connectives of cause and effect – As a result, Consequently, So, Therefore, on account of, since, due to, owing to Connectives for contrast – Although, On the other hand, In contrast, However, instead of, in contrast to, Connectives to signal conclusion – To conclude, In conclusion, To sum up Connectives to show addition – Moreover, In addition, Furthermore, also, too, as well as

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Text Type: Argument: Expository composition Subject areas: Humanities, English Purpose  To describe, explain and interpret  What is its social purpose? facts and ideas;  To argue a point of view 


 Frame questions 1. What is the topic asking me to do? Define the key words to clarify your thinking. 2. Use question words What, Why, When, Where, What kind, How, How much, and What next to develop the topic

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An introduction that analyses the topic Develop the topic in the body of the essay Conclusion – summarise the main points Reiterate your point of view Suggest possible outcomes, consequences and solutions

Graphic organiser Language  Prevailing tenses  Viewpoint  Active/Passive  Typical cohesion devices  Specialised and technical vocabulary

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Simple present tense when raising the main point of an argument Past tenses – to explain events that have taken place Modals – may, can, might, could and Active voice and Passive voice Connectives of sequence – First of all, Secondly, Next, Then, Finally, Connectives of cause and effect – As a result, Consequently, So, Therefore, on account of, since, due to, owing to Connectives for contrast – Although, On the other hand, In contrast, However, instead of, in contrast to, Connectives to signal reason – since, because, for, in order that, in view of the fact that, so that Connectives to signal conclusion – To conclude, In conclusion, To sum up Connectives to show addition – Moreover, In addition, Furthermore, Also, too, as well as

Text Type: Analysis Subject areas: Humanities, English Purpose  What is its social purpose?

Text Level  What is the schematic structure? Frame questions 1. What is the issue? 2. What are the main points? 3. What information is given to support your main points? 4. What quotes can I use to support my points?

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To analyse a topic/question or to present a reasoned response to a text/series of texts

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The title often invites a debate Statement of the issue Preview of the main points to be made Each point is detailed Quotes used to support the points Summary/conclusion

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Graphic organiser Flow Chart Language  Prevailing tenses  Viewpoint  Active/Passive  Typical cohesion devices  Specialised and technical vocabulary

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Third person Past and Present tenses – depends on the focus Active voice Connectives of cause and effect – As a result, Consequently, So, Therefore, on account of, since, due to, owing to Connectives for contrast and comparison – Although, On the other hand, In contrast, However, instead of, in contrast to, similarly, equally, while Connectives to indicate the use of evidence e.g. I know this because.... this shows that......

Text Type: Evaluation Subject areas: Humanities, Business Studies, Economics Purpose  To evaluate or make judgments  What is its social purpose? about the ideas, works, solutions in relation to selected criteria.  To assess the implications and limitations. Text Level  Introduction – writer gives an  What is the schematic structure? overview of his or her position and briefly outlines the main topics to be Frame questions discussed in the essay  The writer presents some limitations 1. What is the writer’s position and reasons or opposing arguments thus for this position or viewpoint? providing a balanced judgment 2. What factor (s) need to be considered  More specific information is given on and why? the main topics introduced in the 3. What are the supporting details that give preceding paragraphs substance to the main ideas introduced in  Reiteration of writer’s view the preceding paragraphs? 

Graphic organiser Language  Prevailing tenses  Viewpoint  Active/Passive  Typical cohesion devices  Specialised and technical vocabulary

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Simple present tense to indicate facts Past tenses – to give an account of historical context Simple future tense to explain predicted consequences or outcomes Modals to indicate possibility, probability and recommendation Active voice and Passive voice Connectives of Addition – Moreover, In addition, Furthermore, Connectives of sequence – First of all, Secondly, Next, Then, Finally, Ultimately, Connectives of cause and effect – As a result, Consequently, So, Therefore, Connectives for contrast – Although, On the other hand, In contrast, However, instead of, in contrast to, Connectives of reason or purpose – because, since, as, because of, due to, in order to, so that, in order that Language of recommendation: I will recommend, I think….should

Text Type: Problem/Solution Subject areas: Humanities, English, Business Studies, Economics Purpose  To state a problem and offer a series  What is its social purpose? of solutions and recommendations


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What is the problem? Solutions and Results Outcome – evaluation

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Problem-Solution Frame

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Simple present tense to indicate facts Past tenses – to give an account of historical context Simple future tense to explain predicted consequences or outcomes Modals to indicate possibility, probability and recommendation Active voice and Passive voice Connectives of sequence – First of all, Secondly, Next, Then, Finally, Connectives of cause and effect – As a result, Consequently, So, Therefore, on account of, since, due to, owing to Connectives for contrast – Although, On the other hand, In contrast, However, instead of, in contrast to, Connectives of reason or purpose – because, since, as, because of, due to, in order to, so that, in order that

Frame questions 1. What is the problem? 2. Why is it a problem? 3. What are the solutions? 4. What are the results? 5. What should be the outcome? Graphic organiser Language  Prevailing tenses  Viewpoint  Active/Passive  Typical cohesion devices  Specialised and technical vocabulary

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MATHEMATICAL INVESTIGATION Purpose:

Explores a mathematical situation in order to produce a Mathematical argument

Focus:

Logical deductions from known information FRAMEWORK Stating the problem

What is to be investigated? State this clearly. (Include definitions of Mathematical words and phrases)

clearly

What would be the best way to approach the investigation? What different ways could this investigation be carried out? What data will you collect? How could data be collected? What will you look for?

Think Time

How will the data be collected? Who will collect the data? When will it be collected? How will the data be presented? Who will analyse the data?

Exploration and data collection

Can patterns be indentified in the data? Were identified patterns expected? What do the patterns suggest? How consistent are the patterns? Can these findings be applied to other cases Should the investigation be extended to Include other cases?

Finding patterns, conjectures

Testing conjectures

Does the data suggest that the original conjecture was true? Does the conjecture need to be revised or rejected? What evidence would verify the conjecture path of investigation? What proof is there?

VERIFICATION

Limitations of conjecture

What findings are highlighted? Can the findings be summarized? Could the investigation have been conducted differently? Would this have improved the investigation procedure?

Summary

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FRAMEWORK: SCIENCE LAB REPORT – Guiding questions and

key Headings Title: Purpose: What is the research question?

Variables: What (Independent) variable do you want to change? What (Dependent) variable changes as a result of your choice? What (Controlled) variables remain the same?

Background Information  Explain the scientific reasoning and knowledge to support your research question and hypothesis  Why are you doing the research?  Include, if you wish, diagrams to support your explanation Key   

language: Use of present tense for facts Use of modals such as „should‟ Use of reason connectors – because, the reason why.....since, due to

Hypothesis – Links back to the Research question What is the hypothesis? What is your prediction? What are your reasons for your prediction? Key language:  Use of „will‟ indicating prediction  Use of present tense indicating fact What apparatus will you use?

List your equipment

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Procedure  Present a series of procedural steps  Use numbers in your list for easy reference  The list must be logical  A person must be able to visualize and do the experiment  You should show HOW you are controlling your VARIABLES  You should show HOW the Variables are controlling the INDEPENDENT variable  Language use – imperative form of the verb – eg. Heat, Place, Add, Results  Data Collection – How are you going to display your data? - A table, pie chart, graph? - You should have clear headings  Data Analysis Using your data describe the trend or pattern – the similarities You should talk about the differences

Conclusion  Draw a conclusion based on your data and explain it. Your explanation should relate to the background information.  Include a comment about whether or not your experiment supports or disproves your hypothesis Evaluation  You should evaluate your Procedure  What were your main sources of error?  Could you make your experiment more reliable? That is, could you have used better (more precise) pieces of equipment?  Was the equipment valid? That is, did you control all your variables and did you collect enough (sufficient) data?

Improvements  What would you do differently?  Did you use the correct terminology? – e.g.Reducing error

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INFORMATION REPORTS EXPLANATIONS/PROCEDURES Graphic organizer: Flow chart and Cluster

Opening statement that introduces the topic Heading Paragraphs with topic sentences that summarise the paragraph

A series of facts about an aspect of the topic, presented with supporting information

Heading Paragraphs with topic sentences that summarise the paragraph

A series of facts about an aspect of the topic, presented with supporting information

Optional general comment as a conclusion

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ARGUMENT: EXPOSITORY Thesis 

Analyse and define the topic

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Explain the way you feel about the topic

Arguments – four or five paragraphs Development of argument using

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questions words as a guide – What, Why, When, Where, What kind,

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How, How much and What next Introduce each argument in a new

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paragraph – Topic Sentence Add supporting details

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Conclusion 

Summarise the main points

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Reiterate your point of view

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Suggest possible outcomes,

Argument: Discussion

consequences and solutions

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Argument: Discussion: For and Against

Statement of thesis – outline of key issues to be discussed First sentence introduces FOR topic to be argued

Arguments For the topic are given. Elaboration of the topic with evidence and examples

Introduce the arguments AGAINST the topic.

Arguments FOR the second topic and outlined. Supporting evidence and information.

Conclusion – summary of advantages and disadvantages and comment

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TEXT TYPE: RECOUNT - Factual Recount The Iceman (extract) by Natalie Jane Prior – Source: Step Ahead 3 The fabulous frozen man found Background information and series of events in chronological order. Orientation WWWWH

Connector Of Effect

On 19 September 1991, some German climbers on holiday in the Alps made an extraordinary discovery. While walking along the Similaun Glacier, Erika Simon and her husband Helmut caught sight of something sticking out of the ice. Helmut Simon thought it looked like a doll‟s head. The Simons went over to inspect it, and realised they had found the head and shoulders of a human body! The Simons reported their find to the police, who promised an investigation. Nobody realised yet just how important the body on the glacier was. A few curious people went to look at it, and later a policeman arrived in a helicopter. He tried to free the body from the ice with a jackhammer. As a result, the body was badly damaged.

The body lay on the glacier for five days. Finally, a forensic expert, Dr Rainer Henn, arrived from Innsbruck University. By this time people exploring the site had made the discovery of an ancient copper axe and a stone knife. Dr. Henn took one look and realised the body was not a modern person who had lost his way and become frozen the ice, but an ancient preserved person. This was not a job for the detectives, but for the archaeologists. Dr. Henn called in his colleague, Professor Konrad Spindler, an expert in prehistory. Professor Spindler examined the axe and the body, and confirmed that the „Iceman‟ was at least 4,000 years old. (Later, scientists at Oxford University proved that he was actually 5,300 years old.) The professor took the Iceman‟s body with him to Innsbruck University. Here it was treated for growths of fungus and stored in a special cold room at minus six degrees Celsius. While the Austrian researchers found a pet name for him, “Otzi‟ (named after the Otzaler Alps where he was found), archaeologists on the glacier excavated arrows, a cape and other artefacts belonging to the Iceman‟s climbing kit.

Connectors of Time

As soon as news of the discovery became widely known, people all over the world went Otzi crazy. Otzi‟s face appeared on television, and on the covers of newspapers and magazines. Otzi-shaped sweets started appearing in shops near the place where he was found, and someone wrote a song about him. Meanwhile, an argument developed between the Italian and Austrian authorities as to who „owned‟ Otzi‟s body. A survey revealed he had died 92.6 metres on the Italian side of the border. Italian researchers accused the Austrians of „kidnapping‟ Otzi, and demanded they give his body back

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Sequence of Events

TEXT TYPE: Procedural Text Dragonfly – by Terry Longhurst and Amanda O’Neill Starting couldn‟t be simpler just draw a long rectangle using a pencil. The outspread wings will fit into this shape.

A series of steps

Draw a long line down the centre for the insect‟s long, thin body. Draw in guidelines for the insect‟s head and upper body. The head is quite large. The long, thin body sticks out well beyond the wings. It is shaped rather like a blunt needle – in fact, dragonflies used to be called the „devil‟s darning needles‟. Within your slanting lines, draw the lower pair of wings. The wings are held out flat. They can only move up and down and cannot be folded back. Add the second pair of wings. The short legs are hunting tools, whose main job is to grab and hold insect prey. Finish off the head with a pair of short feelers. The head has strong biting jaws. The wings are hard and glassy, patterned with many tiny veins. Use a pen to ink in your dragonfly when you have finished drawing it. Extract taken from Step Ahead 4 Unit 2 Instructions

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Use of imperatives

TEXT TYPE: Descriptive Information Report: Teaching ESL Students in the Mainstream: Teacher Development Course c. the State of South Australia, Department of Education and Children’s Services

The Hong Kong Orchid Tree Classification The Hong Kong Orchid Tree (Bauhinia blakeana) belongs to the Leguminosae family and was named as a new species in 1908 after a Hong Kong governor, Sir Henry Blake, who had a keen interest in botany. It is grown widely in Hong Kong and in other parts of the world. Appearance The Hong Kong Orchid Tree is a medium-sized tree which ranges between 7 and 12 metres in height. It has a round, spreading canopy made up of large, green, heartshaped leaves and beautiful blossoms. These orchid-like blossoms have five stamens and five petals in various shades of pink and purple. In some places, these blooms can appear for most months of the year. Qualities The Hong Kong Orchid Tree is a quick-growing tree requiring water and protection from the cold. It can grow in full sun or part shade in a range of well drained soils. It is susceptible to diseases like leaf spot and leaf scorch. The wood is not particularly strong and can be damaged by storms. Cultivation The plant requires pruning to develop a strong structure and maintain its shape. It also needs pruning because the branches droop as the tree grows and may cause blockages to walkways and roadways. Propagation can be carried out by grafting, which can best be done with other kinds of Bauhinias. Uses Because it produces such a beautiful display of flowers over a long period and is easily grown, it is planted widely in parks and along streets and pedestrian malls. Another advantage is that the flowers are sterile and thus will not drop the long pods which other types of orchid trees produce and which can cause litter problems. Polias J & Dare (2006) Doing, Talking and Writing Science: How Students Are Apprenticed Into the World of Science Through Language, Adelaide SA: Lexis Education.

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TEXT TYPE: INFORMATION REPORT – COMPARE AND CONTRAST

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TEXT TYPE: EXPLANATION

Chocolate starts on a tree called the cacao tree. This tree grows in equatorial regions, especially in places such as South America, Africa and Indonesia. The cacao tree produces a fruit about the size of a small pineapple. Inside the fruits are the tree‟s seeds. They are also known as cocoa beans. Next, the beans are fermented for about a week and dried in the sun. After that, they are shipped to the chocolate maker. The chocolate maker starts by roasting the beans to bring out the flavour. Different beans from different places have different qualities and flavour. So, they are often shortened and blended to produce a distinctive mix. The next process is winnowing. The roasted beans are winnowed to remove the meat nib of the cacao bean from its shell. Then the nibs are blended. The blended nibs are ground to make it a liquid. The liquid is called chocolate liquor and it tastes bitter.

http://understandingtext.blogspot.com/2009/05/how-chocolate-is-madeexample-of.html

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Text Type: Persuasive text The motor car has wrecked civilization A civilized society has the virtues of beauty, culture, physical and mental comfort and peace. It is my contention that the motor-car has destroyed all these virtues. A visitor from another planet viewing our cities from the air would conclude that the human race is made up of shiny metallic ‘beetles’ creeping along vast networks. He is not far wrong. The motor-car, far from being a mere vehicle for man, is determining the design and organization of whole cities. The single largest consumer of valuable city space is its roads and car parks. If there were fewer roads we could have more natural parks in which to relax, more cultural centres, more public squares where people could meet. The car has robbed our cities of these civilized pleasures. Not only does the car occupy space, it also creates noise and pollutes the environment. Psychologists have confirmed that noise causes stress, and cities are indeed very noisy places. The car is also the single largest source of air pollution. How can we say we are civilized when we live in an atmosphere full of stress and health hazards?

Thesis – Phrase to introduce opinion

A number of specific reasons are presented Reliable evidence and examples are given to support reason

The economic survival of any nation depends on its sources of energy. These days when energy is becoming a scarce and expensive commodity the car still continues gulping large amounts of petrol. Energy, which could be used to run our factories and houses, is being burnt every day on the road. Finally, the car has created a new breed of monster, the motorist. Necessity has made him forget his gentler nature. Put him into his car and he is transformed into a self-seeking, dangerous monster, honking innocent pedestrians off the road, killing dogs, swearing at and colliding into other motorists. The car is an outlet for his aggression. Is this the ultimate aim of civilization? To sum up, the motor car has been responsible for destroying the beauty and cultural life of our cities, adding to our health problems, adding to our economic problems and finally robbing humankind of their gentle nature. In short, it has wrecked civilization. Vaz, Fleur: Revision English GCE O Level (New Edition) Oxford

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Reiteration of thesis

Text Type: DISCUSSION – for and against text Security Cameras and Privacy Does the individual have a right to privacy? Security cameras have become ubiquitous in many countries. Whereas before they appeared only in banks and at high-security areas, they are now entering public places such as malls, streets, stadiums and transport. Many people feel this affects their privacy. This essay will examine whether the advantages of these cameras outweigh their negative impact. Surveillance cameras have several benefits. An obvious benefit is that the police can catch criminals in the act, thus reducing crime. This will make the streets safer for ordinary people. A more important point is that criminals, particularly young offenders or petty criminals will be deterred. They will not be tempted to carry out crimes, and thus society will be a lot safer. Cameras are also cost-effective and unobtrusive. Authorities do not need to spend large amounts of money on police. However, security cameras are from being a perfect solution. The biggest objection concerns privacy. Many people feel that they should be free to travel or move around a shop, mall, street or country without being photographed or recorded. They feel that being watched constantly is like being in a jail, and that ordinary people are losing their freedom because of these devices. Another point is that although the police say that only criminals have something to fear from the cameras, many people do not trust governments with too much information. Corrupt authorities could use information in the wrong way or twist it to victimize some groups. Thirdly, cameras and computers can make mistakes. In conclusion, although there are definite advantages to using surveillance devices such as cameras, we need to balance the need for security with respect for the individual’s privacy and freedom. If we do not trust the members of society, a situation like George Orwell’s “1984” could be the result. Source: www.writefix.com/argument

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Introduction Statement of both sides of the argument

Advantages of topic with supporting details

Disadvantages of topic with supporting details.

Key language markers

Conclusion – a summary of each side of the argument

Text Type : Argument: Expository - Logging of Rainforests Introduction – Thesis and outline of arguments The logging of rainforests is a major problem around the world. It destroys the traditional way of life of indigenous people who live in rainforests. It also causes irreversible damage to the land. (First paragraph introduces the main points to be discussed in the essay). Arguments Firstly, because many indigenous people rely on the forests for food and shelter, they are being forced to move to cities. Governments are allowing companies to log the forests. The logging companies justify their actions by claiming that they need to cut down trees in rainforests so there is enough timber for building. But is it right to destroy the traditional homes of indigenous people so that homes for other people can be built? In addition, logging also destroys the land, leading to the extinction of life-forms that rely on the rainforests to survive. Without the trees, the nutrients in the topsoil are washed out by heavy rainfall. This causes the extinction of animals and plants that rely on the nutrients in the soil for their existence. Scientists estimate that the rainforest is losing 50 life-forms, both plant and animal, every day. Even if logging companies replant trees to try and return rainforests to their original state, the extinct life-forms cannot be replaced. Conclusion In summary, it is clear when looking at land degradation and the loss of homelands that the logging of rainforests has an irreversible impact on the lifestyles of indigenous people and life-forms that the rainforest environment sustains. It is time for governments to stop focusing on short-term gains and to consider the long-term effects of logging instead. Adapted from Department of Education, Training and Employment (2002) Module 3: Logging of Rainforests. Reading Machine Series: For Learners in the Middle Years. Open Access College, Adelaide: Access Media. P.1

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Text Type : ANALYSIS Why did the Normans win the Battle of Hastings? The Battle of Hastings took place in 1066 when Edward the Confessor died, leaving no heir. Harold Godwinson took his place, but he had two rivals, Harald Hadraada, the King of Norway, and William, Duke of Normandy. William eventually won, and this piece of writing explores the reasons why. (Introduction – statement of issue) William was a very determined and ambitious leader. He claimed that Harold had promised to help him to become king, and so, when Harold claimed the throne, he did all he could to conquer England. He left Normandy undefended, and took 3000 ships with horses and soldiers across the English channel. He must have been very determined to do this, as the channel was very dangerous. His bravery is shown again during the battle, when he took off his helmet and said to his soldiers, „Look at me well. I am still alive and, by the grace of God, I shall yet prove victor.‟ William also had a strong army, and a good strategy. For example, he put the archers in the front, then infantry, and behind the men on horse-back. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle says, „All the English were on foot. The Normans had foot-soldiers, archers and cavalry with horses. „ This would have been a great advantage. Also he pretended to retreat, and then the English broke the shield wall, so when the Normans turned back, the English were not very well protected. Therefore William chose a good time to invade, before Harold had established his position as King. Harold‟s bad luck also helped William to win. Harold Godwinson was fighting Harald Hadraada at Stamford Bridge when William invaded in the south. Harold had to march 300 km, having lost many of his best men in the previous battle. If the wind had not changed just then Harold would have had more men, and he would have had more time to set his army up. There is a picture in the Bayeux Tapestry of Harold being killed with an arrow through his eye. When he died, the English were frightened, and deserted. William won the battle for many reasons. It was a mixture of good leadership, planning and luck. If the wind hadn‟t changed, or if Harald Hadraada hadn‟t invaded, I think that Harold could have won, and England would be a different place. Source: taken from a pamphlet entitled Analytical and discursive writing in History at Key Stage 3, by Christine Counsell (1997). Reproduced

in KS3 National Strategy: Literacy in History by kind permission of the author and the publishers, the Historical Association.

TEXT TYPE: PROBLEM/SOLUTION

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Third person use when giving summary of views Topic sentences lead reader into paragraph. Use of past and present tenses

Use of supporting comment and detail. Use of quotes to support points

Use of connectives

Text type: Evaluation essay

Evaluate Acme Oil’s decision to announce a change in its dumping policy at the press conference. In this situation, I think the firm should announce a change in its dumping policy publicly, because it is a good publicity move. It will be „free‟ advertising for the company. Moreover, consumers may be more likely to buy its products, leading to increased sales and profitability in the long run. The extra revenue could help to pay for the additional costs resulting from the change of policy. In addition, workers may prefer to work for an environmentally friendly business. The government may be positively affected, as it may seem that they had some power to influence the company in protecting the environment and controlling polluting business activity.

Writer’s general overview of key judgments

Connectives and use of modals

However, given that Acme Oil has just replaced its CEO suddenly, it should not announce publicly the new dumping policy as share prices might plunge if shareholders lose confidence in the company, with important implications for gearing and future financing. To implement changes will take time and resources and there may be short-term good will losses to the firm such as unexpected customer resentment and possible dissatisfaction from the local community. Decisions will also need to be made as to how to communicate the details to the various stakeholders. Some managers who supported the former CEO may leave as well, and difficult workforce planning decisions may arise. The process of change could run more smoothly with a reduction in the magnitude of internal and external conflicts.

More details are given to support the judgments introduced in first paragraph

Furthermore, the extra costs of making the change could reduce profits and reduce the chances of the business expanding. The management might decide not to expand the business if profits fall to low. Shareholders may not be happy as that means dividends may be reduced.

Ultimately, to a big organisation like Acme Oil, senior management has to be aware of their responsibilities in a highly competitive global market. If it is a publicly traded company, the shareholders represent the key shareholder, hence I will recommend they do not announce the new dumping policy unless communication of change has been handled effectively beforehand. Kang, Siew Hoon Veronica

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Conclusion summing up recommendation

The Economist The future of food

Crisis prevention What is causing food prices to soar and what can be done about it? Feb 24th 2011 | from the print edition

AROUND the world, the food system is in crisis. Prices have rocketed; they are now higher in real terms than at any time since 1984. They could rise further still if drought lays waste to China’s wheat harvest, as is feared. Food has played some role (how large is hard to tell) in the uprisings in the Middle East. High prices are adding millions to the number who go to bed hungry each night. This is the second price spike in less than four years. Companies are sounding the alarm and the G20 grouping of the world’s largest economies has put “food security” top of its 2011 to-do list. Outline of Problem/Situation This attention is welcome. But today‟s spike is only part of a broader set of worries. As countries focus on food, they need to distinguish between three classes of problem: structural, temporary and irrelevant. Unfortunately, policymakers have so far paid too much attention to the last of these and not enough to the first. Comment and introduction of three problems. Idle speculation  Feb 24th 2011The main reasons for high prices are temporary: drought in Russia and Argentina; floods in Canada and Pakistan; export bans by countries determined to maintain their own supplies, whatever the cost to others; panic buying by importers spooked into restocking their grain reserves. Influences outside agriculture make matters worse: a weaker dollar makes restocking cheaper in local currencies; and dearer

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oil pushes up the cost of inputs (it takes vast amounts of energy to make nitrogen fertiliser, so fertiliser prices track oil prices). Some people mistakenly blame yet another factor: speculation. True, increased financial trading might make prices more volatile, though the evidence is weak. But trading cannot drive prices up in the long term since for every buy, there is a sell. That has not stopped Nicolas Sarkozy, the current head of the G20, from trying to persuade the world’s premier economic club to crack down on evil speculators. At the moment big structural shifts, such as the growth of China and India, are influencing prices less than one might think. The two Asian giants are demanding more food (and more types of food), but so far their own farmers have largely satisfied that, so they have not needed to trade much (though that would change dramatically if China were to import wheat this year). Over coming decades, though, such fundamental factors will matter more. A good guess is that food production will have to rise by 70% by 2050 to keep pace with population growth, the explosion of developing countries’ megacities and the changes in diet that wealth and urbanisation bring. Big increases will be harder to achieve than in the past because there is little unfarmed land to bring into production, no more water and, in some places, little to be gained by heaping on more fertiliser. Climate change may well exacerbate these problems. For the first time since the 1960s the yields of the world’s most important crops, wheat and rice, are rising more slowly than the global population (see special report). The world cannot feed today’s 7 billion people properly. How on earth can it feed the expected 9 billion in 2050? The starting point may sound paradoxical: high prices. If 9 billion people are to be fed in 2050, countries that produce a miserable one tonne per hectare will have to produce two; the vast amount of food wasted on poor countries’ farms—a third or more of the total— must be saved; and plant breeders will have to reverse the long decline in yield growth. All these things require higher returns to farmers, which will attract higher investment. Without these, there will not just be a billion hungry people (the equivalent of India) but 2 billion extra (two Indias) in 2050. Somehow, returns to farmers must rise without inflicting untold misery on the poor. Solution – use of future Let them eat research It can be done. Targeting help to the poorest is part of the solution. Conditional cashtransfer programmes, such as Mexico’s Oportunidades and Brazil’s Bolsa Família (in which the mother gets a small stipend on condition her children attend school and get a health check-up), can work well: 70% of the Bolsa payments go on food. As for boosting farm output, it will come as no surprise that this newspaper believes that a big part of the answer is removing trade barriers and cutting subsidies. Lowering tariff walls round rich countries would increase poor farmers’ exports. An agreement to limit trade bans might make exporters think twice before disrupting world markets. Countries should scrap targets for biofuels which favour an expensive, environmentally damaging business that needlessly distorts food markets. America’s ethanol subsidy is a particularly egregious offender. Even opening up retailing to foreigners can help: companies such as Wal-Mart are good at getting food onto supermarket shelves rather than leaving it to rot in the fields. Although governments can help a lot by getting out of the way in what has been a woefully distorted market, in one respect they need to do more, by reversing the decline in public spending on agricultural research. Unlike other farm subsidies, basic research works. The Green Revolution began with public research. So did Brazil’s recent farming successes. Western countries have not learned the lesson.

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They have complacently cut back on the work done in universities and international institutions. It was a huge mistake. Basic farm research helps the whole world—and is a bargain. One billion dollars would provide many billions of benefits in terms of people fed and food riots forestalled. Rich countries should therefore properly finance the “CG system”, a network of government-backed institutes, carrying out research into rice, wheat, maize and livestock. And the emerging giants should chip in, too. China, India, Brazil and Russia complain that they do not get the respect they deserve. Here is a chance for them to earn it by helping underwrite a global public good. They should contribute to the CG system (as Mexico, to its credit, is doing) and make their national research available more widely. Few things matter to human happiness more than the yields of staple crops. Recommendation and Evaluation: Use of ‘should’ from the print edition | Leaders www.economist.com/node/18229412/print

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