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On-farm economics of herbicide use on durum wheat in Ada and Akaki woredas of. Ethiopia. Workneh ... Amanuel Corfu, D.G. Tanner and Asefa Taa. 338.
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The Seventh Regional Wheat Workshop For Eastern, Central and

Southern Africa

Nakuru, Kenya, September 16-19, 1991

Douglas G. Tanner

and

Wilfred Mwangi

Editors

Sponsored by:

Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA)

United States Agency for International Development (USAID)

and the Wheat and Economics Programs of the

International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT)

CIMMYT is an internationally funded, nonprofit scientific research and training organization. Headquartered in Mexico, the Center is engaged in a worldwide research program for maize, wheat, and triticale, with emphasis on improving the productivity of agricultural resources in developing countries. It is one of the nonprofit international agricultural research and training centers supported by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), which is sponsored by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank), and the United Nations Development Program (UNDP). The CGIAR consists of a combination of 40 donor countries, international and regional organizations, and private foundations. CIMMYT receives core support through the CGIAR from a number of sources, induding the international aid agencies of Australia, Austria, Brazil, Canada, Denmark, the Federal Republic of Germany, Finland, France, India, Iran, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Mexico, the Netherlands, Norway, the Philippines, Spain, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, and the USA, and from the European Economic Commission, Ford Foundation, Inter-American Development Bank, UNDP, and World Bank. CIMMYT also receives non-CGIAR extra-core support from Belgium, the Rockefeller Foundation, and many of the core donors listed above. Responsibility for this publication rests solely with CIMMYT. Correct Citation: Tanner, D.G., and W. Mwangi, eds. 1992. Seventh Regional Wheat Workshop for Eastern, Central and Southern Africa. Nakuru, Kenya: CIMMYT. ISBN 968-6127-62-3 On the cover: Large-scale wheat production near Njoro, Kenya. Photo by Maarten van Ginkel.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

viii

Acknowledgments.

ix

Countries Participating in the Seventh Regional Wheat Workshop for Eastern, Central and Southern Africa.

1

Opening address and official welcome. Mr. Thomas Tuei, Provincial Director of Agriculture, Rift VaHey Province, Nakuru, Kenya.

4

Twenty-five years of wheat research at CIMMYT: An historic assessment and future directions. G. Varughese and R.A. Fischer.

17

Current issues in wheat research and production in Eastern, Central and Southern Africa: Constraints and achievements. D.G. Tanner and W. Mangi. I. Wheat Breeding and Genetics

37

Optimizing techniques for selecting acid soil tolerant wheats: Case studies with aluminum and manganese tolerance. K.G. Briggs, G. Taylor and J.S. Moroni.

49

Elite wheat materials developed for irrigated wheat production in the middle Awash Valley of Ethiopia. Jamal Mohammed.

56

Stability of yield and harvest index of improved varieties of bread wheat in Ethiopia. Bekele Geleta, Hailu Gebre-Mariam, Tesfaye Tesemma, Getinet Gebeyehu and M. van Ginkel.

64

The effects of genotype, environment and their interaction on soft bread wheat quality in Tanzania. A.L. Katunzi, T. Maganga and A. Mrema.

73

Triticale improvement strategies at CIMMYT: Exploiting adaptive patterns and end­ use orientation. W.H. Pfeiffer.

86

Recent advances in the development of high yielding wheat varieties for the cool, moist environments of Uganda. G. Turyamureeba and B. Bungutsiki.

91

The current status of wheat seed maintenance and production in Kenya. C.M. Ndegwa.

96

Evaluation of durum wheat genotypes for naturally waterlogged highland Vertisols of Ethiopia. Tesfaye Tesemma, Getachew Belay and Demissie Mitiku.

103

Genotype x environment effects on bread wheat grown over multiple locations and years in Kenya. M.G. Kinyua.

108

Correlation and path-coefficient analysis on yield components of 't wenty spring bread wheat genotypes evaluated at two locations in Arusha Region of Tanzania. M.A. Shelembi and A.T. Wright.

115

Waterlogging in wheat: Germplasm evaluation and methodology development. M. van Ginkel, S. Rajaram and M. Thijssen. iii

125

Correlation studies to facilitate the selection of bread wheat varieties for the marginal areas of Kenya. M.G. Kinyua and P.O. Ayiecho. II. Wheat Diseases and Pests

131

Variation within indigenous durum wheat germplasm for response to stem and leaf rust races in Ethiopia. Mengistu Hulluka and Yeshi Andnew.

135

Variability in durum wheat genotypes for leaf and head infections of yellow rust in Ethiopia. Getachew Belay, Tesfaye Tesemma, Demissie Mitiku and Ayele Badebo.

142

Breeding for resistance to Fusarium head blight in wheat. C.H.A. Snijders.

148

Breeding for disease resistance in rainfed wheat in Zambia. S. Muyanga.

154

Incidence of barley yellow dwarf virus in Kenya. A. Wangai, R Plumb and S. Forde.

159

Response of barley varieties to attack by the barley shoot fly (Delia flavibasis) in Kenya. M. Macharia.

165

Virulence of yellow rust races and types of resistance in wheat cultivars in Kenya. D. Danial and RW. Stubbs.

176

Resistance to Helminthosporium sativum in bread wheat: Relationship amongst infected plant parts and association with agronomic traits. L. Gilchrist, W. Pfeiffer and C. Velazquez.

182

Survey of cereal aphid predominance and BYDV incidence in wheat and barley growing areas of Kenya. P. Muthangya, S.M. Migui, M. Macharia and I.K. Wanjama.

186

Interactive effects of a fungicide and an insecticide on yellow rust incidence and yield of wheat at West Kilimanjaro, Tanzania. A. Mgonja and L. Picning.

190

Stability of the reaction of wheat differential lines to stem and leaf rust at Debre Zeit, Ethiopia. Mengistu Hulluka and Yeshi Andnew.

196

The importance of stripe rust in the major bread wheat producing regions of Ethiopia during 1988-90. Ayele Badebo and Wondimu Bayu:

203

Evaluation of insecticides for the control of cereal aphids transmitting BYDV in barley. S.M. Migui, M. Macharia, P. Muthangya and I.K. Wanjama.

211

Evaluation of barley germplasm for resistance to Rhynchosporium secalis at seedling stage in Kenya. P.F. Arama, D.M. Mukunya and R Buruchara.

215

Screening of wild emmer derivatives for resistance to yellow rust in Kenya. F.L. Kiriswa, D.L. Danial, I.M. Nyachiro and P.F. Arama.

222

Incidence of Septoria nodorum on five commercial wheat varieties sown on two dates at Njombe, Tanzania. T.A. Mtui and U. Luhusa.

228

Occurrence of Pyricularia grisea on barley in Kenya. P.F. Arama.

iv

231

Studies of black point disease on durum wheat in Ethiopia. Dereje Tadesse, Y.S. Paul and Birhanu Bekele (presented by Ayele Badebo). III. Economic Studies and On-Farm Research on Wheat

239

Farmers' varietal preferences for durum wheat in Ada, Lume and Cimbichu woredas of Ethiopia. Workneh Negatu and w. Mwangi.

254

An adoption study of bread wheat technologies in Wolmera and Addis Alem areas of Ethiopia. Hailu Beyene and Chilot Virga (presented by Regassa Ensermu).

260

On-farm economics of herbicide use on durum wheat in Ada and Akaki woredas of Ethiopia. Workneh Negatu and w. Mwangi.

266

Wheat production technologies in Kenya: A diagnostic analysis of the major characteristics and constraints to productivity growth. Rashid Hassan and W. Mwangi.

281

On-farm verification of improved bread wheat varieties in Cojam Region of Ethiopia. Regassa Ensermu, Alelign Kefyalew and W. Mwangi.

290

Towards higher wheat productivity in Cezira: The role of efficient input delivery systems and appropriate technology designs. Rashid Hassan and O.A. Ageeb.

307

The effect of cultural practices on wheat yields in the Buberuka Highlands of Rwanda. L. Barasebwa.

313

Wheat production by small-scale farmers in Zambia: Reality or myth? S.P. Mooleki and H. Hill.

321

Adaptive research on bread wheat and triticale in the Mugamba Region of Burundi in 1989 and 1990. R. Baragenganaand D.C. Tanner.

330

On-farm evaluation of pre- and post-emergence grass herbicides on bread wheat in Arsi Region of Ethiopia. Amanuel Corfu, D.G. Tanner and Asefa Taa.

338

An evaluation of two small-scale implements for row-seeding and weeding of small­ holder bread wheat in Ethiopia. Amanuel Corfu, D.C. Tanner and Asefa Taa. IV. Wheat Crop Management and Physiology

345

Problems of wheat cultivation at high temperature: A research perspective. M.P. Reynolds and E. Acevedo (presented by M. van Ginkel).

353

Phenology studies of wheat in the Thailand tropics - do they offer clues about field adaptation to heat? K.G. Briggs.

365

The effects of a pre-emergence application of Igran and variable seed rates on several parameters of bread wheat in Ethiopia. Arnanuel Corfu and Asefa Taa.

369

The effect of growth regulators on lodging, development and grain yield of double dwarf spring wheats in Zimbabwe. E.K. Havazvidi.

v

376

The effects of tillage practice on bread wheat in three different cropping sequences in Ethiopia. Asefa Taa, D.G. Tanner and Amanuel Gorfu.

387

The effect of simulated pre-harvest rain on twenty-five genotypes of bread wheat in Zimbabwe. N.A. Mashiringwani.

394

Variation in the post-harvest dormancy of the commercial bread wheat cultivars of Ethiopia. Ayele Badebo.

399

The effect of different moisture regimes on the yield of seven spring wheat varieties in Zimbabwe. S. Machado.

407

Durum wheat response to improved drainage of Vertisols in the central highlands of Ethiopia. Mesfin Abebe, Tekalign Mamo, Miressa Duffera and Selamyihun Kidanu.

415

Effect of concentrations of zinc in ZnCl2 and Zn-EDTA fertilizer bands on root growth and zinc uptake by wheat. A. Nyaki and G.]. Racz.

422

The effects of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers on several crop and soil parameters of small-holder bread wheat in Ethiopia. D.G. Tanner, Asefa Taa and Amanuel Gorfu.

433

Chemical control of brome grass in barley crops in Kenya. M.G. Owino.

442

Suitability of bean (Phaseolus vulgaris> and field pea as precursor crops in a sequential rotation with wheat under simulated farmer management. A.J. Nalitolela.

450

The effect of fertilizers on the yield and quality of seed wheat in the Trans-Nzoia district of Kenya. M.N. Ngugi.

456

Evaluation of the performance of three implements for seeding wheat at the Hanang farms in northern Tanzania. P.L. Antapa.

464

Influence of lime, potassium and magnesium on the yield of wheat in pots. P. Maina Murage and H.A. Ogolla.

469

The efficacy of fenoxaprop-P-ethyl for annual grass weed control in bread wheat in northern Tanzania. M.J. Mkunga.

474

Grain yield and quality losses due to delayed harvesting of bread wheat in Kenya. P. Maina Murage.

480

Response of four wheat varieties to nitrogen on highland pellic Vertisols in Ethiopia. Miressa Duffera, Tekalign Mamo, Mesfin Abebe and Samuel Geleta.

489

The effect of zero and conventional tillage on wheat yield in northern Tanzania. W.K. Modestus.

494

The effects of nitrogen fertilizer rates and application timing on bread wheat in Bale Region of Ethiopia. Lemma Zewdie, Zewdu Yilma, D.G. Tanner and Eyasu Elias.

503

A study of weed emergence patterns in the bread wheat producing agro-ecological zones of southeastern Ethiopia. Giref Sahile, D.G. Tanner and Lemma Zewdie.

vi

510

A study of several factors limiting wheat yields on farmers' fields and on-station in Bale Region of Ethiopia. Zewdu Yilma, Lemma Zewdie and D.C. Tanner.

517

Regional Wheat Workshop Participants and Observers.

Boldface indicates presentor.

vii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We would like to thank the following groups, organizations and individuals for their contributions in facilitating the Seventh Regional Wheat Workshop for Eastern, Central and Southern Africa: • The Government of the Republic of Kenya, and, in particular, the National Plant Breeding Research Center (NPBRC) for hosting the workshop. • The management of the Kunste Hotel, Nakuru, for providing accommodation for the participants and the conference facilities. • The Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA), the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), and the CIMMYf wheat and economics programs for meeting the travel and per diem expenses of the 61 participants and observers from 12 countries. • Jet Travel Ltd. and the Nyayo Bus Co. for providing transport to and from the Nairobi airport and between Nairobi and Nakuru. • Dr. A.F.E. Palmer (CIMMYT /Nakuru) and the support staff of the Crop Management Research Training project at Egerton University (Njoro, Kenya) for providing a minibus for use during the workshop, for preparing participants' name tags, and for providing overhead and slide projectors for the workshop. • Dr. J.K. Wanjama, Director, N.P.B.R.C., and the staff of the center who provided logistical assistance during the workshop. • Mrs. Aklilewerk Bekele, secretary, CIMMYf / Addis Ababa, for the word processing of these proceedings. • Ms. Veronicah Nderitu, secretary, CIMMYT /Nairobi, for assisting with the registration of participants and reconfirmation of their flights. • Mr. Samuel Muigai for logistical preparation and assistance before, during and after the workshop. •

Mrs. Gillian Ngola for the final editing and layout of these proceedings.

Douglas G. Tanner/Wheat Agronomist Wilfred M wangi /Regional Economist CIMMYT

vi i i

Ethiopia

Figure 1.

Countries Participating in the Seventh Regional Wheat Workshop for Eastern, Central and Southern Africa. ix

OPENING ADDRESS AND OFFICIAL WELCOME Mr. Thomas Tuei Provincial Director of Agriculture,

Rift Valley Province,

Nakuru, KENYA

The Representative of The Director General of CIMMYT, Dr. George Varughese, Workshop Organizers, Ladies and Gentlemen: First, I want to welcome you to Kenya, and, particularly, to NakuTU, which is the Provincial Headquarters for Rift Valley Province. Secondly, I wish to say how delighted I am to be able to come and share with the participants of the Seventh Regional Wheat Workshop. When I looked through the program for the four days that you are going to be here, presenting the results of your research work, I noticed that the majority of the scientists here come from countries in this region (i.e. Eastern, Central and Southern Africa). I interpret this as an indication that the work you will be presenting this week results from research to address the problems facing farmers in this region. I also notice that there are several papers by scientists from elsewhere, particularly CIMMYT staff. I appeal to you to make good use of these four days and to exchange ideas. See what common problems exist, and how we can best complement each other's work to solve the problems facing farmers in our region. Let us remember that none of the countries in the region are self-sufficient in wheat production. Each country has, to a large extent, to depend on importation of this important commodity. Ladies and Gentlemen, I am a scientist who has worked in the field for many years - by the way I am still in the field and in touch with farmers. I want to express my belief to you that in our region we have the potential to produce enough wheat to meet our demand. However, there are many obstacles which must be solved. I know you are aware of many of these, and you will be discussing them in some of the papers that will be presented in this workshop. Let me mention a few: (1)

the demand for higher yielding wheat varieties that are resistant to diseases and pests;

(2)

the demand for wheat varieties suitable for difficult environments that are (a) hot and dry, (b) dry and cold, and (c) areas with difficult soils, such as the acidic and heavy clay soils;

(3)

agronomic packages for production in marginal environments must be developed;

(4)

crop protection is an important component of crop production in our region and cannot be over emphasized;

(5)

farmers' limitations must be considered when developing appropriate technology for them;

(6)

the ever increasing cost of production inputs limits the extent to which the potential of new varieties is realized. 1

All these are important aspects that researchers of your caliber should be thinking about to ensure that wheat production in the region improves. However, I do not want to imply that it is an easy task. Research is expensive, and it is certainly difficult to provide all the requirements for research. No country in the region can boast of adequate support for research. This then calls for collaboration of scientists in the region so that they complement each other's efforts. There is a lot of research activity in each country. However, I regret to say that there is too much duplication of effort. Let me now turn to the role that CIMMYT is playing in the region in the area of wheat research. CIMMYT has been a good partner in business. When we could not obtain the necessary plant material, CIMMYT bridged that gap by facilitating the acquisition of such material; CIMMYT scientists in the region have been collaborators and not supervisors. Through CIMMYT, many projects have been established to yield results that are of direct use by our farmers. In Kenya, we have several commercial wheat varieties that were introduced through the CIMMYT program. Scientists in the region should be properly linked so that when technology is developed in one country, it is available to the others for adaptive testing and adoption by the farming community. Through collaboration in the region, some major problems have been solved. I think of the desert locust control and armyworm forecasting services which are handled on a regional basis. Without the cooperation of scientists in different countries, we would not have had the success we have achieved in the control of these pests. I am also aware of the germplasm exchange between scientists, and I am particularly pleased with the role CIMMYT has played in linking scientists in this way and availing germplasm where it is needed. Ladies and Gentlemen, let me not overemphasize the need for cooperation, because I know it is very clear to you. Wheat production is largely mechanized world-wide, and most production technology is developed for large-scale farms. I want to turn our attention to small-scale farmers. We in the region cannot afford to ignore this category of farmers. More and more small-scale farmers some with less than a hectare of land are now growing wheat. Unfortunately, the technology available to them is that developed for the large-scale farmers. You should devote some time to discussing the technology requirements for small- scale wheat production. Let me also remind you of the need for environmental conservation . The tillage systems commonly used in land preparation for wheat production encourage soil erosion. For most of us in the region, soil is an asset that we need to conserve. It is a challenge for the scientists, therefore, to develop tillage systems that minimize the loss of soil. Soil water management should also be addressed especially when considering wheat production in the drier areas. Let us not forget that wheat production consumes pesticides, which can be very dangerous to the environment. Many pesticides that are unacceptable for the- developed world find their way to this region. It is for you scientists to keep pace with pesticide research, and judiciously select those that effectively solve a given problem while at the same time reducing the hazard to the environment. Effective management of crop pests, be they weeds, diseases or insects, with minimum use of pesticide should be the prime aim of wheat scientists. It is my hope that as you discuss papers addressing these research topics, you will bear in mind the selective use of pesticides. Ladies and Gentlemen, I know that you have a heavy schedule before you, but I feel I must not stop before I remind you that although we do not have enough wheat in the region there may be alternatives. I have tasted bread baked from wheat flour blended with flour from other cereal grains or root crops such as potatoes, and, in most cases, I found the bread very acceptable. Think about this aspect of research and consider other food crops that are available to us and that could help to bridge the gap. I am pleased to note that there are papers discussing the production of triticale. I wish to see some work on the utilization of this crop to bridge the deficiency of wheat in this region. 2

As I conclude, Ladies and Gentlemen, I want to urge you to seriously think about the research results that you are generating, some of which you will present here. Let us not forget the clients we are developing technology for - the farmers. Lastly, Ladies and Gentlemen, let me take this opportunity to thank CIMMYT for sponsoring this workshop, and all those who have participated in planning this workshop. Of course, there would be no workshop without participants, and I want to thank all of you who are presenting papers for the effort you have put in your research and in the preparation of these papers. I have read through the abstracts, and it leaves no doubt in my mind that there is a wealth of knowledge to be shared during these four days. With those few remarks, Ladies and Gentlemen, I wish you a successful workshop. I now have the pleasure to declare your workshop officially opened.

3

TWENTY-FIVE YEARS OF WHEAT RESEARCH AT CIMMYT:

AN HISTORIC ASSESSMENT AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS

George Varughese and R. A. Fischer

CIMMYT, Lisboa 27, Apdo Postal 6-641,

Col. Juarez, Deleg. Cuauhtemoc,

06600 Mexico D.F., MEXICO

ABSTRACT

The history and evolu tion of the CIMMYT Wheat Program during the period 1966-91 is discussed. CIMMYT germplasm and improved agronomic practices were widely adopted in developing countries, and, undoubtedly, contributed to the rapid increase in wheat yields experienced during this period. This was closely associated with a rapid expansion of the CIMMYT Wheat Program, especially in outreach, and in international nursery activities, and a steady influx of trainees and visiting scientists at CIMMYT IMexico. These activities continue to evolve in response to clients' needs.

CHANGES IN WHEAT AREA, PRODUCTION AND YIELD CIMMYT was chartered 25 years ago "to promote and carry out, nationally and internationally, programs to improve maize and wheat production (in developing countries) in all aspects through research, the distribution of germplasm, training, scientific and technical meetings, and information dissemination". In 1966, world wheat production was 310 million metric tons (mt) with the contribution from developing countries being 74.2 mt (24%). In 1991, world wheat production is close to 600 mt with developing countries producing 237 mt (40%). During this 25-year period, wheat production in developed market economies almost doubled, but in the case of developing countries, production more than tripled (Table 1). However, the total increase in area devoted to wheat production during the last 25 years has been small. Wheat area increased only about 7% worldwide and 36% in developing countries. Thus, it is obvious that most production increases are attributable to yield gains, which have been especially notable in developing countries. The dramatic increase in wheat production in developing countries closely parallels the spread and adoption of high yielding varieties (HYVs) and germplasm from Mexico and CIMMYT. Almost no HYVs were grown in the developing world in 1966; however, today nearly half the wheat area is planted with HYVs of CIMMYT origin. As shown in Figure 1, with China included, HYVs make up 60% of the wheat area, but most HYVs in China are not CIMMYT-derived, although Chinese breeders have used some parents of CIMMYT origin.

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Staff number

60,-------------------------------------------~

50 40 30

20 10

1970

1980

1975

1985

1990

Fig. 1. Wheat program staff numbers during the period 1967-1991. Source : CIMMYT Wheat Program.

EVOLUTION OF HUMAN RESOURCES AND ACTIVITIES

IN THE CIMMYf WHEAT PROGRAM

CIMMYT became an official entity in 1966, but its roots can be traced back to 1943 when the Rockefeller Foundation's Office of Special Studies began activities in Mexico. Thus, most of the basic activities had already been in operation for some 20 years when CIMMYT came into existence. The appendix to this paper presents a chronology of the major events that shaped the history of the CIMMYT Wheat Program after 1966. Staff Numbers - Base and Outreach The number of staff employed by the Program at base and in its outreach operations and collaborative programs indicates the growth of resources and activities (Fig. 2). In the beginning, the Wheat Program had only eight senior staff members ~ three at base and five in outreach. All the activities in Mexico were jointly handled by Norman E. Borlaug, Charles F. Krull and William J. Roberts. Outreach staff included R. Glenn Anderson in India, John W. Gibler in Ecuador, Joseph A. Rupert in Chile, and Ignacio Narvaez and James AItifillisch in Pakistan. Dramatic increases in wheat production in India, Pakistan and Turkey culminated in the awarding of the Nobel Peace Prize to Dr. Borlaug in 1970 - as well as the UNESCO Science Prize jOintly awarded to CIMMYT and the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) that same year. This recognition paved the way for rapid expansion of the Wheat Program's resources and activities. At base, senior staff numbers grew from 3 in 1967 to 20 in 1978 and have stayed more or less at that level ever since. In outreach, starting in the late 1960s and continuing through the 1970s, most activities were centered in bilateral programs (Fig. 3). However, in the early 1970s, a shift to regional activities began slowly. By the late 1970s, staff members in bilateral and regional

5

Staff number 20,-------------------------------~~~--------,

10

1970

1975

1980

1990

1985

Fig. 2. Evolution of the placement of CIMMYT wheat outreach staff, bilateral vs regional, 1967-1991. Source: CIMMYT Wheat Program.

Million (ha)

70,---------------------------------------------, 60

50

40

30

20

10

O~------~------~----~~----~------~----~

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

Fig. 3. Increase in the area of high yielding varieties of wheat in developing countries including and excluding China, 1970-1990. Source: CIMMYT Economics Program.

6

Nurseries (No.)

Entries/sets (No.)

35-r-----------------_...r------__._6,ooo 30

5,000

25

4,000

20 3,000 15 2,000 10 1,000

5

O~-----.~----r_----~----~------r_----~----~O 1966

1971

1976

1981

1986

1990

Fig. 4. Numbers of nurseries, entries and sets distributed by the CIMMYT Wheat Program, 1966-90.

programs were about equal in number; by 1988, bilateral staff had diminished to one and regional staff had expanded to their maximum strength of 16 persons. The size of the Wheat Program peaked during 1985. Since then some downward adjustment has been experienced. Outreach has undergone more staff reductions than base; further reductions are ex­ pected during the coming years. Program Organization Germplasm improvement, technology and training continue to be the Wheat Program's main products. CIMMYT reoriented its activities in the late 1980s as a result of demands for more basic technology, more basic germplasm material, and the need to address germplasm requirements for specific conditions. This change in orientation is reflected in the organizational structure of the Wheat Program in 1991 (i.e. four subprograms briefly described below). Germplasm improvement This subprogram is by far the largest of the four. It is further subdivided into seven sections: bread wheat, durum wheat, triticale, barley (lCARDA-CIMMYT), international nurserie~, industrial quality and training. The basic goals are the development of germplasm for the various defined mega-environments for wheat and triticale, and to develop a better understanding of genotype by environment interactions. Training is an integral part of the germplasm improvement activity. Genetic resources This subprogram currently has two sections: the germplasm bank and wheat wide crosses. A third section related to biotechnology is on hold due to the lack of resources. Genetic resources supports germplasm improvement by:

7

• • •

maintaining collections of selected germplasm representative of all significant germplasm pools of wheat and related species and genera; identifying and documenting useful genetic variability; transferring genetic variability into useful genotypes through pre-breeding and wide crosses.

Crop protection This subprogram is concerned with reducing or eliminating losses in yield and quality caused by diseases, insects, and other pests, largely through the use of host plant resistance. Activities comprise support to germplasm improvement, disciplinary research on major diseases and pests, and training. Crop management and physiology This subprogram aims to assist breeders in selection for increased yield potential and yield under stress, and in understanding and utilizing the interactions of genotype with agronomic practices. CMP also carries out studies to maintain the natural resource base in cropping systems involving wheat (e.g. rice-wheat, soybean-wheat), while increasing productivity and achieving efficient use of agricultural inputs. Training, as in all subprograms, is an important activity. EVOLUTION OF INTERNATIONAL NURSERIES

International testing serves two basic functions: • •

exchange of germplasm; understanding genotype x environmental interactions.

International testing is the core of the Wheat Program's efforts in the development and distribution of germplasm. Today, almost all national wheat programs in developing as well as developed countries are an integral part of this global network. They not only derive benefits from the network, but also contribute towards an understanding of the nature of adaptation. The beginning of international testing can be traced to the stem rust epidemics of the USA and Canada in the early 1950s (First International Rust Nursery). Lessons learned from this experience motivated the establishment of the Inter-American Spring Wheat Yield Nursery in 1960 by the Office of Special Studies in Mexico. This was closely followed by the Near East-American Spring Wheat Yield Nursery in 1962. Data derived from these two trials were found to be extremely valuable and resulted in the establishment of additional nurseries: the International Spring Wheat Yield Nursery (ISWYN) in 1964, the International Bread W4eat Screening Nursery (IBWSN) in 1967, and the distribution of segregating populations in 1973. From this modest beginning, CIMMYT's international testing has grown to its current size of 29 diverse nurseries for bread wheat, durum wheat, triticale, and barley (a joint operation with ICARDA). All nurseries are distributed strictly on a direct-request basis. Today, 92 countries receive close to 2200 sets of these nurseries. Figure 4 illustrates the evolution of international testing at CIMMYT. The total number of entries peaked during the 1984-85 period, and the number of nurseries and sets peaked during the 1984-88 period. Since 1988, all of the numbers have declined, with the biggest decline for segregating populations. The spread of Mexican semidwarf wheats around the world, and their renowned qualities of wide adaptation and broad spectrum resistance support the validity of international testing. We expect the International Testing Program to continue serving the global wheat research community, providing benefits to individual collaborators, as well as providing collective benefits. Inter­ 8

national testing will diversify during the coming years to address more closely the special needs of the various mega-environments. Also, we expect that expanded efforts in the analysis of data from these trials will improve our knowledge of genotype x environment interactions, and, hence, enable wheat researchers to design better strategies for breeding and production. TRAINING AND RELATED ACTIVITIES In-Service Training Like international testing, the origin of the in-service training activity can also be traced back to the Office of Special Studies. In-service training at CIMMYT serves a unique role in that agriculturalists from the developing world, who have learned the theories of plant breeding and agronomy at university, are exposed to the realities of the farming world and the intricacies of plant breeding or agronomic research and their interrelations with other disciplines. This is done through an intensive hands-on and learning-by-doing methodology. The first course to be offered was on germplasm improvement. Even today, this continues to be the major in-service course at CIMMYT. During the past 25 years, CIMMYT has trained more than 1000 wheat scientists. As shown in Table 2, about half have been either plant breeders or plant pathologists. From the beginning, a small number of people have been trained each year in the dis­ ciplines of cereal technology and industrial quality of wheat. To date, these account for about 80 alumni (8% of the total). The rapid spread of high yielding wheat varieties in the late 1960s emphasized the importance of crop management and the crucial role it can play in enabling farmers to obtain bumper crops. Thus, crop management training was initiated in 1970. ClMMYT's crop management training emphasizes an understanding of farmers' circumstances, on-farm trials, verification of technologies in farmers' fields, and on-farm demonstrations. To date, we have trained over 360 agronomists (35% of the total). The needs of production specialists are enormous, and the training at CIMMYT alone cannot fill these needs. Thus, this year, the first decentralized regional training is presently underway in Argentina. It is for the trainees from Latin America, and is organized by the Argentine Agricultural Research Institute ONTA) in collaboration with CIMMYT, and is financially supported by the Inter­ American Development Bank (IDB). A closely related activity to crop management is experimental station management. Since 1973, we have trained 66 managers, who serve a very vital function in providing suitable conditions for agricultural researchers to efficiently generate reliable results. Conferences, Workshops and In-Country Training From the beginning, CIMMYT has actively promoted exchange of information amongst wheat research workers. This involves periodic conferences and workshops, and opportunities for scientists from developing countries to visit CIMMYT, other centers of excellence in wheat research, and neighboring countries. In-country training is another activity of which the Disease Methodology Workshops (1976-83) have produced the best results. Post-Graduate Studies During the course of its history, CIMMYT has provided assistance to hundreds of scientists from developing countries, many of them ex-trainees, to upgrade their knowledge and capacity through post-graduate training. A few years ago, CIMMYT initiated a program of research fellowships aimed at providing mid-career researchers an opportunity to visit CIMMYT for a period ranging from 6 months to 1 year in order to collaborate in a research project of mutual interest. 9

The Benefits of Training The adoption of high yielding varieties and associated production technologies in the developing countries has been and continues to be greatly facilitated by CIMMYT's training activities. There is not a single wheat growing country or national program in the developing world that has not benefitted from this activity. Today, we can find CIMMYT alumni at all levels of research and ad­ ministration, ranging from Ministers and Directors of Agriculture to national coordinators and active wheat scientists. The number of university trained agriculturalists has greatly increased in developing countries over the last 25 years, yet we believe training of the type offered by CIMMYT, and now INTA in Argentina, still remains vital to prepare national program scientists to execute effective wheat research . FUTURE DIRECTIONS CIMMYT was established 25 years ago to help developing countries improve maize and wheat production through research, distribution of germplasm, providing training, and development and promotion of new technical information. Today, wheat production in the developing countries stands at more than three times the level of 1966. A great deal of this dramatic increase can be attributed to improved germplasm linked to better production technology. Some of the well recognized characteristics of these varieties are high yield, input responsiveness and broad-based disease re­ sistance. These changes would have been impossible without the message of optimism and the understanding that thousands of trainees and visitors to CIMMYT took back with them to their horne countries. At the same time, a global network of wheat research workers evolved. The international nursery system was also critical as it facilitated free exchange of germplasm and information, and, thus, expanded our knowledge about the adaptation and availability of germplasm. This was another catalyst in the wheat revolution. Looking to the future, we anticipate that world population will most likely continue to grow unabated. The fact that potential wheat yields and farmers' yields in most of the countries are still far apart provides hope that wheat production can grow at the 3% p.a. necessary to keep up with projected population and demand growth. Success of any research program depends on how fast it can adopt emerging technologies to meet the needs of its clients. The fact that CIMMYT is a client­ driven institution and that it is a center of excellence for wheat technology will, hopefully, keep CIMMYT's activities relevant and in the forefront for many years to corne. In the past, improved germplasm was the key to gains in wheat productivity. Although this will continue to be the case, the nature of CIMMYT germplasm and its use by the NARS are likely to be different in the future. Although finished germplasm products and varieties have been extremely important as direct introductions in national programs, we exp~ct national program breeders to -use CIMMYT germplasm more and more as parental material rather than direct introductions. Also, we expect the demand for special trait populations and genetic resources to grow. Thus pre-breeding, cre­ ation of recurrent selection populations, and activities related to the conservation, dissemination, and documentation of genetic resources will be extremely important. The International Nursery System will continue to serve as the vehicle by which germplasm is distributed freely to developing countries. We expect biotechnological tools to be of common use, and CIMMYT will be a broker in making this technology available to developing countries. Notwithstanding the continuing importance of wheat germplasm improvement at CIMMYT, we also recognize that without suitable agronomic management the full potential of the germplasm cannot be realized. Thus, CIMMYT must continue to strengthen its agronomic research in order to identify and exploit new genotype x agronomic practice interactions. Also, we are expanding agronomic work to pay explicit attention to greater input use efficiency, and to the long-term impacts on natural resources of modem wheat cropping systems. 10

CIMMYT's mission was revised a few years ago to reflect the changes that are taking place in client countries and donor agencies, but, ultimately, we will continue to be judged on how successful we are in helping the poor of the developing countries by increasing the productivity of the resources committed to wheat research. APPENDIX: A CHRONOLOGY OF EVENTS THAT SHAPED

THE CIMMYf WHEAT PROGRAM

1966-67 CIMMYT was formally recognized as an international institute under the Association Civil Law of Mexico in 1966. India and Pakistan made unprecedented and bold decisions to import large quantities of wheat seed from Mexico.

1968 Winter-spring crosses were begun as a means of expanding the gene pool of spring wheat. This resulted in the move of Dr. Rupert from Chile to Davis, California. Frank Zillinsky and George Varughese joined the base staff, facilitating the expansion of activities on triticale and durum whea t. New bilateral programs were initiated in Tunisia and Morocco.

1969 Pakistan became self-sufficient in wheat by producing about 7 mt of wheat (2.4 mt more than the previous all-time high in 1968). India harvested between 17 and 18 mt (5.5 mt more than ever har­ ve~;ted before).

Septaria epidemics in North Africa reminded us of areas of weakness in the CIMMYT wheat

gennplasm.

Sanjaya Rajaram joined the staff at base.

1970

A memorable year: Norman E. Borlaug received the No~el Peace Prize for providing leadership and

inspiration for increased food production in the developing world; CIMMYT and IRRI shared the

UNESCO Science Prize.

A second year of Septaria epidemics in North Africa and Turkey demonstrated the urgency of

incorporating resistance to this disease.

Plant pathology at base was strengthened. Crop management training was initiated .

R.A. Fischer joined the Wheat Program as a plant physiologist. The headquarters building at El Batan was dedicated.

11

1971 R. Glenn Anderson transferred to Mexico in his new capacity as the Associate Director of the Wheat Program.

The first regional nursery for the Near and Middle East was assembled and distributed by

FAO/ALAD/CIMMYT. This was the precursor of CIMMYT regional activities.

New bilateral programs in Algeria and Turkey were initiated.

CIMMYT joined the Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research (CGIAR).

1972

A barley breeding program was started at base in Mexico. Hybrid wheat work was suspended.

Informal shuttle breeding was initiated between Brazil and CIMMYT to combine yield, aluminum

tolerance and disease resistance.

Sanjaya Rajaram was named head of the bread wheat breeding program.

1973

To increase the efficient use of exotic germplasm in wheat breeding, a pre-breeding activity called

Germplasm Development began.

CIMMYT's first Regional Program on Disease Surveillance was launched, headed by E.E. Saari in

Lebanon and J.M. Prescott in Turkey.

1974

The need to screen material for warmer environments was recognized. Thus, work on

Helminthosporium resistance and head scab tolerance was initiated at the Poza Rica Station in

Mexico.

1975

The Wheat Wide Cross Program was initiated.

The East African Regional Wheat Program based in Kenya was launched to strengthen the capacity

to screen for rust resistance.

Bangladesh initiated an expansion of wheat production.

1976 The first Disease Methodology Workshops were held in India and Pakistan as a joint venture between CIMMYT and IPO of Holland.

The Andean Regional Program based in Quito, Ecuador, a "hot spot" for stripe rust and many other

diseases, was launched.

12

1977 The International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) began its work in Aleppo, Syria. A serious leaf rust epidemic occurred in Mexico. A CIMMYT delegation visited the Peoples Republic of China for the first time.

1978 The first multiline varieties based on Kalyansona were released in India. Leaf rust and stripe rust in Pakistan and stripe rust in Spain caused dramatic crop losses.

1979 Norman Borlaug retired from the Wheat Program Directorship and R. Glenn Anderson assumed the position.

Arthur Klatt was named Associate Director.

The Southern Cone Regional Program, based in Chile, was initiated and the first regional

agronomist was posted to that region.

A CIMMYT wheat breeder was assigned to ICARDA.

Slow rusting for leaf rust was confirmed in the varieties Pavon and Torim.

1980

Two new regional programs were created: one to address the needs of North and West Africa and the

Iberian Peninsula (based in PortugaI), and the other to address the needs of warmer areas (based in

Thailand) .

1981

Glenn Anderson died early in the year, and Byrd C. Curtis was appointed Director.

The Germplasm Bank building was completed and the position of curator was created .

1982

Virology research was initiated.

The importance of the seed-borne disease Kamal bunt increased, and research was initiated.

The bilateral program between CIMMYT and Bangladesh was initiated .

1983

A major disease methodology workshop was held in China.

13

1984 CIMMYT and ICARDA signed a formal agreement defining the role of each.

1985 The South Asia Regional Program was initiated (based in Nepal). The CIMMYT fCIDA East African Cereals Project was launched, including a wheat agronomy component for seven countries: Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Rwanda, Burundi, Uganda and Somalia. The North and West Africa and Iberian Program was suspended to strengthen ICARDAfCIMMYT operations.

1986 A Winter Wheat Breeding Program was initiated in Turkey as a joint project between Turkey and CIMMYT. CIMMYT developed a strategic plan, and the concept of mega-environments was recognized as the basic criterion for organizing CIMMYT research activities. Major disease networks were initiated as partnerships between CIMMYT and developed and developing country institutions.

1987 CIMMYT and the Peoples Republic of China entered into a collaborative agreement to enhance the adaptability of CIMMYT germplasm in the PRC and the level of Fusarium head blight resistance.

1988 R.A. Fischer assumed the leadership of the Wheat Program, and George Varughese became the Associate Director.

CIMMYT accepted base collection responsibility for bread wheat and triticale as part of the revised

CIMMYffICARDA agreement.

The King Baudouin Award was presented to CIMMYT for its development of the Veery wheats.

1989 A collaborative project with Cornell University was established to develop a wheat genome map for utilization of RFLPs. Physiology research and analytical capacity in the International Nursery System were strengthened . A new organizational structure for the Wheat Program was introduced in order to recognize the importance of disciplinary research.

14

1990 Research on the Rice-Wheat Cropping System in South Asia was strengthened. Plans to devolve wheat crop management training were initiated. An advanced course for wheat crop management researchers was offered at CIMMYT for the first time. 1991 A regional wheat crop management course, jointly sponsored by INT AI Argentina and CIMMYT, for Latin American agronomists was initiated. The regional program for the Andean Region was suspended for the time being.

Table 1. Components of world wheat area, production and yield (1966-67 and 1990-91) and rate of growth.

Growth rate per annum (%) Area (m hal

U:x:1 DMEC EEUR World

1 LDC

1966-7 1990-1 1966-7 1990-1 1966-7 1990-1 1966-7 1990-1

75.3 102.3 59.9 72.0 80.2 57.2 215.4 231.4

Production (m t)

Yield (t/ha)

74.2 237.0 112.6 215.3 123.2 146.4 310.0 598.6

0.99 2.23 1.88 2.99 1.54 2.56 1.44 2.59

Production

Yield

1.28%

4.96%

3.56%

0.77%

2.74%

1.93%

-1.40%

0.72%

2.12%

0.30%

2.78%

2.45%

Area

= Less developed countries; DMEC = Developed market economies; EEUR = Eastern Europe.

15

Table 2. Number of participants in wheat in-service training courses at CIMMYTIMexico (1967-90).

Asia

Africa

Latin America

Others

Germplasm Improvement

235

122

144

23

524

50.7

Crop Management

120

141

97

5

363

35.1

Experimental Station Management

33

11

21

1

66

6.4

Industrial Quality

32

15

30

3

80

7.7

Total

420

289

292

32

1033

100

Percent for Region

40.7

28.0

28.3

3.1

Course subject

16

Total

100

%by subject

CURRENT ISSUES IN WHEAT RESEARCH AND PRODUCTION IN

EASTERN, CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN AFRICA:

CONSTRAINTS AND ACHIEVEMENTS

Douglas G. Tanner and

Wilfred Mwangi

CIMMYT, P.O.Box 5689,

Addis Ababa, ETHIOPIA

ABSTRACT

This paper presents an overview of issues related to the current status of wheat research, production and consumption in 10 countries of Eastern, Central and Southern Africa with the intention of keeping regional wheat researchers abreast of the relevant issues and activities in neighboring countries. The analysis is based to a large extent on data provided by wheat researchers from the region. In general, the region is confronted by rapidly increasing wheat consumption and importation, the latter implying low levels of domestic wheat production. If this situation is to be reversed, policies may be required to restrict wheat consumption, in addition to those that promote wheat production. Wheat production in the region is constrained by low levels of wheat crop management as exemplified by the limited usage of high yielding, semidwarf varieties, fertilizer and other modem inputs as well as irrigation. Developing disease resistant varieties and appropriate wheat production technologies for the highlands and mid-altitude environments, respectively, represent the major challenges to wheat researchers in the region. Wheat breeders in the region released 82 varieties over the past decade, but the pattern of successful adoption of these varieties varied conSiderably, depending on each country's climatic, technological and socio-economic circumstances. The national wheat programs in the region have relied heavily on introduced CIMMYT germplasm, and are not generating a large proportion of their varieties from their own germplasm.

INTRODUCTION During the preparation for the Fifth and Sixth Regional Wheat Workshops for Eastern, Central and Southern Africa, held in Antsirabe, Madagascar (Oct. 5-10, 1987) and Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (Oct. 2-6, 1989), the respective organizing committees shifted the emphasis away from country reports, which had tended to dominate previous workshops, towards high caliber scientific presentations. This, we believe, was reflected in the quality of the corresponding proceedings. However, some of our wheat research colleagues expressed an opinion that a valuable source of information had been sacrificed in the process. Therefore, to help keep regional wheat researchers abreast of the relevant

17

issues and activities in neighboring countries, we distributed a comprehensive questionnaire on wheat-related issues to national wheat research program representatives in 17 countries of Eastern, Central and Southern Africa (ECSA) during December 1990. Where two or more institutions were known to share responsibility for the national wheat research mandate (i.e. Ethiopia and Tanzania), each program received a survey form. As of June 1991, 13 questionnaires representing 10 countries had been returned; the cooperating informants are listed in the acknowledgments section of this paper. The principal objective of this paper is to present an overview of issues pertaining to wheat research, production and consumption in the ECSA region. WHEAT PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION Total wheat importation and production in the 10 countries represented in this survey were 1.55 and 1.87 million t, respectively, with a corresponding total wheat area of 1.23 million ha . These ten countries include the 5 nations producing the largest areas of wheat in the ECSA region, namely Ethiopia, Sudan, Kenya, Tanzania and Zimbabwe. National wheat production totals ranged from 3200 t in Rwanda to 840000 t in Ethiopia; national wheat areas ranged from 3000 ha in Madagascar to 700000 ha in Ethiopia (Tables 1 and 2). National mean wheat yields reflect both agro-ecological conditions and characteristic production systems. The mean regional wheat grain yield of 1.5 t/ha conceals wide disparities in production potential and performance: on a national basis, mean yields ranged from 0.7 t/ha in Rwanda to 5.9 t/ha in Zimbabwe (Table 2). It is important to note that Zimbabwe has the highest wheat yield in the developing world, and also has one of the highest rates of growth for wheat yield (CIMMYT 1989). Only four countries report mean yields in excess of 2 t/ha: Kenya, where high levels of crop management and input usage are the norm; Madagascar, where 60% of the wheat crop is grown under irrigation in small-holder paddy fields during the cool season; and Zambia and Zimbabwe, where the majority of the wheat crop is produced during the winter season, receiving high levels of inputs under sprinkler irrigation. Mean yields are low in small-holder, hoe production systems (e.g. Burundi, Rwanda and southern Tanzania) and in ox-plow systems (e.g. Ethiopia) where essential inputs at affordable prices are often limited in availability for small-scale farmers (Hailu et al. 1990). In specific areas, such as the Hanang Complex of Tanzania and the Gezira irrigated wheat scheme in Sudan, mean yields are limited by low rainfall and high temperatures, respectively, during the crop's growing cycle. As observed elsewhere (CIMMYT 1989), variation in moisture availability is strongly linked with differences in yield levels amongst developing countries. The proportion of the wheat area under irrigation in the ECSA region is only 26% compared to 54% in sub­ Saharan Africa as a whole. Per capita wheat consumption in the region ranges from a l