Ethnobotanical Survey of Useful Species in ...

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Biodiveristas 22: 9–14. Bulut G., and Tuzlaci E. (2013). An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in Turgutlu (Manisa, Turkey). Journal of Ethnopharmacology.
Human Ecology https://doi.org/10.1007/s10745-017-9962-x

Ethnobotanical Survey of Useful Species in Bustamante, Nuevo León, Mexico Eduardo Estrada-Castillón 1 & José Ángel Villarreal-Quintanilla 2 & María Magdalena Rodríguez-Salinas 1 & Juan Antonio Encinas-Domínguez 1 & Humberto González-Rodríguez 1 & Guillermo Romero Figueroa 3 & José Ramón Arévalo 4

# Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2017

Keywords Biodiversity . Cultural heritage . Medicinal plants . Mexico . Plant conservation . Wild food plants

Introduction Mexico has one of the most rugged reliefs on the planet (Rzedowski 1978), which, together with its varied climatic conditions, mean that it has a huge range of plant species comprising between 4 and 8% of the planet’s flora (MacNeish 1992). However, despite this rich plant diversity, there is little information on their ethnobotanical uses, especially in some regions, such as in the State of Nuevo León. The information currently available essentially deals with temperate and semiarid areas in central (Estrada et al. 2007) and southern regions (Estrada-Castillón et al. 2014). We present here the results of an ethnobotanical study carried out in Bustamante, a municipality located in a semiarid region 100 km north of the regional capital, Monterrey (INEGI 1986). The main livelihoods of Bustamante residents are based on growing domesticated plants such as corn and pecan nuts (Carya illinoinensis), and on pulque (regional tequila) production. There are several wild species that also contribute to the regional economy, such as Brahea dulcis in handicrafts, and Litsea pringlei, Poliomintha bustamanta,

* José Ramón Arévalo [email protected] 1

Facultad de Ciencias Forestales, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Linares, Nuevo León, Mexico

2

Departamento de Botánica, Universidad Autónoma Agraria Antonio Narro, Buenavista, Saltillo, Coahuila, Mexico

3

Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Exactas, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Rosarito, Mexico

4

Departamento de Botánica, Ecología y Fisiología Vegetal, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de La Laguna, Islas Canarias, Spain

Lippia gravelones, and Croton suaveolens, which are used as condiments and for medicinal purposes. The area is reasonably developed in terms of infrastructure; the inhabitants live in concrete houses, and electricity, piped drinking water, telephone and internet access are all available. There are also elementary, middle, and high schools. The flora of this northern region is used regularly by its population. However, most of the knowledge on cultivated and wild medicinal plants in this area has never been recorded. Therefore, the main aim of our study is to report the knowledge of local people about traditional uses of local plants and the specific patterns of use.

Methods Study Site Bustamante is located in the northern region in the State of Nuevo León (26°35′N, 100°31′W) (Fig. 1). It has a surface area of 558 km2 and its altitude ranges from 427 to 1850 m. The population consists of 3300 inhabitants, 95% of whom live in the city and the rest on ranches and in small villages (ejidos). The climate in the low plains corresponds to a desert type with cool winters; the annual mean temperature ranges from 18 to 22 °C, and the average annual rainfall reaches 400 mm. Mountains in the area show a dry steppe climate type, with lower temperatures, but higher average annual rainfall (720 mm) (INEGI 2011). Three main plant communities have been identified in the area: Tamaulipan thornscrub, piedmont scrub, and mixed forest (oak-pine) (INEGI 1986). All these plant communities are in relatively good condition, since there are no heavily degraded areas due to overuse or vegetation clearing (INEGI 1986).

Hum Ecol

Fig. 1 Study site and geographical location

Fieldwork and Interviews Eleven field trips, from March to October 2011 (three trips), March to November 2012 (three trips), March to October 2013 (three trips), May 2014 (one trip), and November 2015 (one trip) were carried out to collect plants from all the plant communities and from private and public gardens. Local residents were also interviewed about plant uses. From March 2011 to November 2015, 76 individuals (35 men and 41 women) aged 30 to 80 years old were selected for semi-structured interviews about their knowledge of plant uses (Martin 1995). The interviewees were housewives, shepherds, retirees, woodsmen, and healers who had learned the use of medicinal plants themselves or from their

parents or ancestors. The information was recorded in Spanish, since it is the only language spoken in the region. Several basic questions were asked in all interviews: 1) common names of plants and 2) their uses, 3) plant parts used, and 4) methods of preparation.

Results and Discussion Plant Diversity and Growth Forms A total of 66 families, 176 genera, and 218 useful species were recorded (Table 1), with the most common families being

Hum Ecol Table 1

Families, genera and species, common name, uses, plant part and method of use for each plant in Bustamante, Nuevo León, Mexico

Scientific name ACERCACEAE Acer negundo L. (EE 23014) ADIANTACEAE Nephrolepis exaltata (L.) Schott (JGS 165) ADOXACEAE Sambucus candensis (L.) Burm.f. (EE 23213) AMARANTHACEAE Amaranthus hypochondriacus L. (24421) Amaranthus palmeri S. Watson (EE 23018) Dysphania ambrosioides (L.) Mosyakin & Clemants (EE 23876)

AMARYLLIDACEAE Allium cepa L. (JGS 211) Allium sativum L. (JGS 212) ANACARDIACEAE Rhus virens Lindh. ex A. Gray (JGS 321) Schinus molle L. (EE 24018) APIACEAE Daucus carota L. (JGS 233) APOCYNACEAE Cascabela thevetioides (Kunth) Lippold (JGS 481) Plumeria rubra (Kunth) Lippold (JGS 24) ARAUCARIACEAE Araucaria heterophylla (Salisb.) Franco (JGS 214) ARACEAE Spatiphyllum wallisii Regel (JGS 53) ARAUCARIACEAE Araucaria heterophylla(Salisb.) Franco (JGS 112) ARECACEAE Phoenix dactylifera L. (JGS 211) Washingtonia filifera (Linden ex André) H. Wendl. ex de Bary (JGS 199) ASPARAGACEAE Agave americana L. (EE 23491)

Common name

Uses

Part used

Method of use

Maple

External wounds

Sap

Spread on the affected part

Helecho

Fever

Whole plant

Boiled, take a bath with the decoction

Sauco

Cough

Boiled, drink the infusion

Ornamental

Inflorescences and flowers Whole plant

Ornamental

Whole plant

Planted

Anemia

Stems and leaves

Raw or boiled

Epazote

Food seasoning Respiratory diseases Stomach ache Constipation Intestinal parasites

Leaves Leaves Leaves and stems Leaves and stems Leaves

Cooked with beans Boiled, drink the infusion Boiled, drink the infusion Boiled, drink the infusion Boiled, fasting drink

Ajo

Blood circulation Intestinal parasites Ceremony Food Cough Stomach ache

Cloves Cloves Whole plant Stems Stems Stems

Boiled. Drink the infusion Raw or boiled Ward off evil spirits Raw or boiled Boiled, drink the infusion Boiled, drink the infusion

Pirul

Respiratory diseases Diabetes Remove bad luck and clean the soul

Leaves and fruits Leaves Leaves

Boiled together, drink the infusion Boiled, drink the infusion Touching the body of the person (Blimpias^) with leaves and inhaling vapor from leaves

Zanahoria

Food

Roots

Raw or cooked

Jacinto

External wounds

Sap

Apply raw in the affected area

Plummeria

Ornamental

Whole plant

Planted in gardens

Araucaria (JGS Cough 034)

Leaves

Toasted, inhale the vapor

Cuna de moisés Ornamental

Whole plant

Planted in gardens

Araucaria

Ornamental Cough

Whole plant Leaves

Planted in gardens Boiled, drink the infusion

Palma datilera Washingtonia

Constipation Ornamental

Fruits Planted

Eaten raw or boiled Planted in gardens

Maguey

Diabetes Ornamental Cough Kidney stones Shampoo

Sap Planted Flowers Root Root

Cough Ornamental Ornamental Ornamental

Flowers Planted Planted Planted

Raw or boiled Planted in public and private gardens Boiled, drink the infusion Boiled, drink the infusion Macerated, spread the paste on the head like a shampoo Boiled, drink the infusion Planted in public and private gardens Planted in private gardens Planted in private gardens

Lengua de suegra (mother in law tongue) Yuca

Insect bites

Leaves

Ceremony, remove the bad luck Diarrhea

Dried and toasted leaves

Palma china Palma

Food Ornamental

Flowers Planted

Yuca

Ornamental

Planted

Estafiate

Colic

Leaves and inflorescences

Lengua de dragón Quelite

Cebolla

Lantrisco

Agave lechuguilla Torr.(EE 23473)

Lechuguilla

Dasylirion texanum Scheele (EE 24951)

Sotol

Hyacinthus orientalis L. Manfreda scabra (Ortega) McVaugh (JGS 201) Sansevieria hyacinthoides (L.) Druce (JGS 097)

Yucca elata (Engelm.) Engelm. (EE 23904) Yucca filifera Chabaud (EE 23481) Yucca rostrata Engelm. ex Trel. (EE 23121) Yucca treculeana Carrière ASTERACEAE Artemisia ludoviciana Nutt. (JGS 333)

Jacinto Maguey

Fruits

Planted in private gardens

Peeled, used as a poultice on the wound Touching the body of the person (Blimpias^) with leaves and inhaling vapor from leaves Boiled, drink the infusion Cooked or boiled Planted in public and private gardens Planted in public and private gardens Boiled, drink the infusion

Hum Ecol Table 1 (continued) Scientific name

Chrysactinia mexicana A, Gray (EE 24692)

Common name

Hierba de San Nicolás

Uses

Part used

Method of use

Gastritis

Leaves and inflorescences Leaves and inflorescences Leaves and inflorescences Plants Leaves and stems

Boiled, drink the infusion

Aphrodisiac Fortificant

Flourensia cernua DC. (EE 23518)

Hojasé

Gochnatia hypoleuca (DC.) A. Gray Gymnosperma glutinosum (Spreng.) Less. (EE 21894) Heterotheca subaxillaris (Lam.) Britton & Rusby (EE 23401) Matricaria recutita L. (JGS 019)

Ocotillo Tatalecnho

Ornamental Skin diseases

Trunks and stems Stems and leaves

Árnica

Timber Veterinary, broken legs Stomach pain

Manzanilla

Stomach pain

Leaves and inflorescences Whole plant Whole plant Leaves

External wounds Blood circulation Constipation, flatulence Tea Colic Eye infection Dizziness

Parthenium hysetrophorus L. (JGS 091) Pseudognaphalium canescens DC. (EE 23343)

Mariola Gordolobo

Leaves

Boiled, drink the infusion

Dried leaves

External wounds Relaxing Muscle aches

Leaves and root

Milled, sprinkle on the food being cooked Macerated and boiled, as a poultice

Tanacetum parthenium (L.) Sch. Bip. (EE 21988)

Altamisa

Stomach pain Menstrual colic Diarrhea Cough, asthma

BORAGINACEAE Cordia boissieri A. DC. (EE 23132)

Boiled, drink the infusion, mixed also with Lippia graveolens Boiled, used as a poultice Boiled, drink daily as tea Boiled, mixed with Litsea pringlei leaves and orange peel Boiled, drink daily as tea Leaves, drink the infusion Apply as eye drops

Leaves Leaves Leaves Whole plant Leaves Whole plant Leaves

Cough

Tecoma stans (L.) Juss. ex Kunth (EE 24491)

Planted in private gardens Boiled, used as a poultice on the affected area Dried Raw, broken leg cover with leaves, bandaging Boiled, drink the infusion

Fever Internal pains Oral infection Measles, rubella Headache Ornamental Respiratory diseases Cough, sore throat Food seasoning

Yerbanís

BERBERIDACEAE Berberis trifoliolata Moric. (EE 24001) BIGNONIACEAE Jacaranda mimosifolia D. Don (JGS 271)

Leaves Leaves Leaves and inflorescences Whole plant

Boiled, drink the infusion

Boiled, mixed with Litsea pringlei leaves Boiled, drink daily as tea Boiled, drink daily as tea Boiled, gargle Take a bath in the solution Boiled, drink the infusion Planted in private gardens Boiled, drink the infusion

Tagetes lucida Cav. (JGS 41)

Thymophylla setifolia Lag. (EE 23621)

Leaves

Boiled, drink the infusion

Leaves Leaves Leaves, inflorescences and flowers Leaves Leaves Leaves

Boiled, drink the infusion Boiled, drink the infusion and also use the infusion as a poultice Boiled, drink the infusion Boiled, drink the infusion Boiled, drink the infusion Boiled, drink the infusion 4 times at daily Drink the infusion

Parraleña

Earache Ornamental Sore throat

Leaves and inflorescences Leaves Whole plant Leaves, inflorescences and flowers

Agrito

Food

Fruits

Raw or boiled, to prepare syrup.

Jacaranda

Cough Ornamental Fuel Diabetes Kidney stones

Flowers Whole plant Wood Leaves Leaves

Ornamental

Whole plant

Boiled, drink the infusion Planted in private and public gardens Dried Boiled, drink the infusion Boiled, drink the solution for several days Planted in private and public gardens

Respiratory diseases Fuel Cough Fuel Ornamental Stomach disorders Fuel

Leaves and fruit pulp

Boiled, drink the infusion

Wood Fruits Wood Whole plant Leaves

Dried Boiled, drink the infusion Dried Planted in private and public gardens Boiled, drink the infusion

Wood

Dried

Tronadora

Anacahuita

Ehretia anacua (Terán & Berland.) I.M. Johnst. (EE 24791)

Anacua

Tiquilia canescens (A. DC.) A.T. Richardson (EE 24359)

Oreja de ratón

Boiled, apply several drops into the ear Planted in private gardens Boiled, drink the infusion

Hum Ecol Table 1 (continued) Scientific name CACTACEAE Acanthocereus tetragonus (L.) Hummelinck (JGS 071) Cephalocereus senilis (Haw.) Pfeiff (JGS 325) Coryphantha sulcata (D.C.) F. M. Knuth (JGS 301) Cylindropuntia imbricata (Haw.) F. M. Knuth (JGS 256) Cylindropuntia leptocaulis (DC.) F.M. Knuth (EE 24571) Echinocactus texensis Hoppfer (EE 24562) Echinocereus enneacanthus Engelm. (EE 24764) Echinocereus longisetus (Engelm.) Lem. (JGS 23877) Echinocereus poselgieri Lem. (EE 23508)

Common name

Uses

Part used

Method of use

Jacube

Diabetes Ornamental External wound Ornamental Ornamental

Stems Whole plant Pulp Whole plant Whole plant

Raw or cooked Planted in private gardens Raw, spread on the affected area Planted in private gardens Planted in private gardens

Diabetes, cough Dandruff

Fruits (without thorns)

Boiled, drink the infusion

Fruits

Abuelito (granfather) Chilitos Coyonoxtle Tasajillo Manca caballo Alicoches Pitaya

Whole plant Pulp Fruits Whole plant Whole plant

Raw Planted in private gardens Planted in private gardens

Root

Macerated, raw, used as a poultice

Whole plant Whole plant

Planted in private gardens Planted in private gardens

Epithelantha micromeris (Engelm.) F.A.C. Weber ex Britton & Rose (EE 24091) Lophophora williamsii (Lem. ex Salm-Dyck) J.M. Coult. (JGS 113) Mammillaria heyderi Muehlenpf. (EE 23802) Mammillaria plumosa F.A.C. Weber (EE 24005) Mammillaria prolifera (Mill.) Haw. (EE 24762) Opuntia engelmannii Salm-Dyck ex Engelm (EE 22972)

Chilitos

Wounds and muscle pains Ornamental Ornamental

Peyote

Arthritis

Stem and root

Biznaga

Ornamental

Whole plant

Cut into pieces, dipped in alcohol, use as a poultice Planted in private gardens

Biznaga

Ornamental

Whole plant

Planted in private gardens

Biznaga

Ornamental

Whole plant

Planted in private gardens

Nopal

Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill. (JGS 089)

Nopal

Opuntia phaeacantha Engelm. (JGS 282) CANNABACEAE Cannabis sativa L.

Nopal

Diabetes Fodder Ornamental Diabetes Ornamental Fodder Fodder

Stems Stems Whole plant Stems Whole plant Stems Stems

Raw or boiled, cut into pieces Seared Planted in private gardens Raw or cooked Planted in private gardens Seared Seared

Marihuana

Rheumatism

Leaves and inflorescences in alcohol

Poultice

Papaya

Food Intestinal parasites

Fruits Seeds

Ornamental

Whole plant

Raw Milled and mixed with water, drink the decoction Planted in private gardens

Panalero

Ornamental

Whole plant

Planted in private gardens

Correhuela

Ornamental

Whole plant

Planted in private gardens

Siempreviva Kalanchoe

Ornamental Ornamental

Whole plant Whole plant

Planted in private gardens Planted in private gardens

Kalanchoe

Ornamental

Whole plant

Planted in private gardens

Sandía

Food Fodder Ornamental External wounds Food Food Food Fodder Detergent

Fruits Whole plant Whole plant Fruits Fruits Fruits Seeds Whole plant Root

Shampoo

Fruit

Guaje

Crafts Bottles

Fruits Dried fruits

Raw Raw Planted in private gardens Raw, spread the pulp on the affected area Raw Raw or cooked Dried, eaten raw Raw Macerated, raw, to wash body or clothes as detergent substitute Macerated, raw, to wash head as shampoo substitute Dried fruits to make handicrafts Dry and empty fruits to store water

Ciprés

Cough Construction Fuel Ornamental

Resin Wood Wood Whole plant

Melt the resin and inhale the vapors Dried wood To make charcoal Planted in private and public gardens

CARICACEAE Carica papaya L. (JGS 261)

CELASTRACEAE Schaefferia cuneifolia A. Gray (EE 24654) CONVOLVULACEAE Ipomoea carnea Jacq. (EE 24003) CRASSULACEAE Echeveria strictiflora A. Gray (EE 23984) Kalanchoë daigremontiana Raym.-Hamet & H. Perrier (EE 23785) Kalanchoë verticillata Scott-Elliot (EE 23761) CUCURBITACEAE Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. & Nakai (JGS 96)

Sacasil

Ornamental Veterinary use (broken legs in animals) Food Ornamental Ornamental

Cut into pieces, put them in water for a day, use the solution as shampoo Planted in private gardens Apply and bind the broken leg

Cucumis anguria L. (EE 24213) Cucumis melo L. (EE 24971) Cucurbita moschata Duchesne (24866)

Pepinillo Melón Calabaza

Cucurbita foetidissima Kunth (EE 24216)

Calabacilla loca

Lagenaria siceraria (JGS 307) CUPRESSACEAE Cupressus arizonica Greene (JGS 213)

Hum Ecol Table 1 (continued) Scientific name Cupressus sempervirens L. (JGS 193)

Common name

Uses

Part used

Method of use

Pincel

Cough Ceremony

Resin Leaves

Construction Fuel Ornamental Construction Fuel Ornamental Construction Fuel Ornamental Construction Fuel Handicraft Ornamental Construction Fuel

Wood Wood Whole plant Wood Trunks and branches Whole plant Wood Trunks and branches Whole plant Wood Trunks and branches Branches Whole plant Wood Trunks and branches

Melt the resin and inhale the vapors Leaves and flower of other plants to make floral bouquets Dried wood To make charcoal Planted in private and public gardens Dried Dried Planted in private and public gardens Dried Dried Planted in private and public gardens Dried Dried Dried Planted in private and public gardens Dried Dried

Hair dye

Fruit

Ornamental Timber

Whole plant Wood

Boiled, spreading the decoction on the head Planted in private and public gardens Dried

Cola de caballo Kidney stones Ornamental

Stems Whole plant

Boiled, drink the infusion Planted in private gardens

Hierba dle cáncer

Leaves and inflorescences Leaves

Boiled, drink the infusion

Juniperus flaccida Schltdl. (EE 23488)

Táscate

Juniperus deppeana Steud. (EE 23472)

Táscate

Taxodium huegelii C. Lawson

Sabino

Thuja occidentalis L. (JGS 229)

Tuja

EBENACEAE Diospyros texana Scheele (EE 23187) EQUISETACEAE Equisetum hyemala L. var. affine (Engelm.) A. Eaton (JGS 213) EUPHORBIACEAE Acalypha monostachya Cav. (EE 24191)

Chapote prieto

Cancer External wounds

Acalypha phleoides Cav. (EE 24143) Bernardia myricifolia (Scheele) S. Watson (EE 24106) Cnidoscolus aconitifolius (Mill.) I. M. Johmston (JGS 401) Croton suaveolens Torr. (EE 24173)

Euphorbia antisyphilitca Zucc. (EE 24762) Euphorbia glyptosperma Engelm. (EE 24762) Euphorbia graminea Schltdl. & Cham. (EE 23916) Euphorbia golondrina L. C. Wheeler (EE 23901) Euphorbia milii Des Moul. (JGS 243) Euphrbia pulcherrima (JGS 107) Jatropha dioica Sessé (EE 24182)

Tragia ramosa Torr. (EE23871) FABACEAE Acacia amentacea (DC.) Britton & Rose (EE 23869) Acacia berlandieri Bent. (EE 23873) Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd. (EE 24906)

Boiled, use as a poultice and put the affected part in the vapor Boiled, drink the infusion

Hierba del cáncer Oreja de ratón

Cancer Ornamental

Leaves and inflorescences Whole plant

Chaya

Gastritis Ornamental Skin infections Ornamental External wounds Anemia Varicose veins Arthritis Ceremony

Leaves Whole plant Leaves and stems Whole plant Leaves Leaves Leaves and stems Leaves and stems Stems and leaves

Candelilla

Wax

Sap

Milled, mixed with water and honey Planted in private gardens Boiled, used as a poultice Planted in private gardens Boiled, used as a poultice Boiled, drink the infusion Boiled, used as a poultice Boiled, used as a poultice Leaves along with flower of other plants to make floral bouquets Boil the plant to extract wax

Golondrina

Skin infections

Sap

Raw, apply directly in the infection

Hierba de la hormiga Hierba de la golondrina Corona de cristo Nochebuena Sangre de drago

Kidney diseases

Whole plant

Macerated, boiled, drink the infusion

Losing weight

Whole plant

Macerated, boiled, drink the infusion

Salvia

Mala mujer, ortiguilla

Planted in private gardens

Ornamental

Whole plant

Planted in private gardens

Ornamental Skin infections

Whole plant Root

Hair dye

Root

Skin diseases

Leaves and stems

Planted in private gardens Milled, the pulp used as poultice on the affected area Macerated or milled, leave it in water for several days until it changes to dark red or dark brown color, then use the decoction as hair dye Boil it (it has stinging trichomes), after that, used as a poultice

Chaparro Cancer prieto, gavia Huajillo Fodder

Leaves

Boiled, drink the infusion

Leaves

Raw

Huizache

Root Whole plant Wood Trunks and stems Whole plant Wood Trunks and stems Whole plant

Boiled, drink the infusion Planted in public and private gardens Dried Dried Planted in public and private gardens Dried Dried Planted in public and private gardens

Acacia greggii A. Gray (23871)

Uña de gato

Bauhinia purpurea L. (EE 23748)

Pata de vaca

Diarrhea Ornamental Construction Fuel Ornamental Construction Fuel Ornamental

Hum Ecol Table 1 (continued) Scientific name Caesalpinia gilliesii (Hook.) D. Dietr. (EE 23799) Caesalpinia pulcherrima (L.) Sw. (EE 23761) Calia secunndiflora (Ortega) Yakovlev (EE 23578) Dalea greggii A. Gray (EE 24005) Delonix regia (Hook.) Raf. (JGS 181) Ebenopsis ebano (Berland.) Barneby and J.W. Grimes (EE 24019) Eysenhardtia texana Scheele (EE 23164)

Common name

Uses

Part used

Method of use

Ave de paraiso

Ornamental

Whole plant

Planted in private gardens

Tabachín

Ornamental

Whole plant

Planted in private gardens

Colorín

Ornamental

Whole plant

Planted in private gardens

Engorda cabras Framboyán, flamboyán Ébano

Fodder Stomach pain Ornamental Diabetes Ornamental Construction Fuel Kidney diseases

Leaves and stems Buds (flowers) Whole plant Leaves Whole plant Wood Trunks and stems Leaves

Ornamental Fodder Food Fodder Kidney diseases Ornamental Fodder

Whole plant Leaves and stems Seeds Leaves Leaves and stems Whole plant Leaves and fruits

Raw Boiled, drink the solution Planted in private gardens Boiled, drink the solution Planted in public and private gardens Dried Dried Boiled, let stand for two days in water, drink the infusion for a week Planted in private gardens Raw Boiled Raw Boiled, drink the infusion Planted in private gardens Raw

Fodder Fodder Ornamental

Stems, leaves, and fruits Raw Stems, leaves, and fruits Raw Whole plant Planted in private gardens

Headache

Leaves

Boiled, drink the infusion

Food Fuel Construction Ornamental Ornamental Construction Fuel Stomach pain Construction Ornamental Fuel Handicrafts Ornamental Gastritis Food Ornamental

Seeds Trunks and stems Wood Whole plant Whole plant Wood Trunks and stems Inflorescences Wood Whole plant Trunks and stems Branches Whole plant Fruit pulp Fruit pulp Whole plant

Cooked Dried Dried Planted in private gardens Planted in private gardens Dried Dried Boiled, drink the infusion Dried Planted in private gardens Dried Dried Planted in private gardens (rare) Boiled Sweet beverage Planted in private gardens (rare)

Respiratory diseases Headache

Leaves

Boiled, drink the solution

Root and leaves

Encino

Construction Fodder Fuel Headache

Wood Fruits Trunks and stems Root and leaves

Encino

Construction Fodder Fuel Headache

Wood Fruits Trunks and stems Root and leaves

Construction Fodder Fuel Respiratory diseases

Wood Fruits Trunks and stems Leaves

Macerated, mixed with fat, massaging the temple for several minutes Dried Raw (to feed pigs) Dried Macerated, mixed with fat, massaging the temple for several minutes Dried Raw (to feed pigs) Dried Macerated, mixed with fat, massaging the temple for several minutes Dried Raw (to feed pigs) Dried Boiled, drink the solution

Ocotillo, albarda

Stomach disorders Construction

Inflorescences Stems

Boiled, drink the solution Dried, to make fences

Geranio

Ornamental

Whole plant

Planted in private gardens

Nogal

Skin diseases Construction Food Ornamental Ornamental

Leaves Wood Fruits Whole plant Whole plant

Boiled, used as a poultice Dried Acorns, raw Planted in private gardens Planted in private gardens

Vara dulce, palo azul añil

Glycine max (L.) Merr. (JGS 73)

Soya

Indigofera suffruticosa Mill. (EE 23658) Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit. ssp. glabrata (Rose) Zárate (EE 23766) Medicago sativa L. (EE 23695) Melilotus albus Medik. (EE 23874) Myrospermum sousanum A. Delgado & M. C. Johnston (EE 23981) Oxyrhynchus volubilis Brendegee (EE 23389) Phaseolus vulgaris L. (EE 23666) Parkinsonia aculeata L. (EE 23981)

Añil Dormilón

Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth. (EE 23938)

Guamuchil

Alfalfa Flor de canela Frijol de la punzada Frijol Retama

Prosopis glandulosa Torr. var. torreyana (L.D. Mezquite Benson) M.C. Johnston (EE 24451) Senna alata (L.) Roxb. (EE 23765) Tamarindus indica L. (EE 23769) FAGACEAE Quercus canbyi Trel. (EE 24601)

Quercus laceyi Small (EE 24621)

Quercus polymorpha Schledtl. & Cham (EE 24642)

FOUIQUIERIACEAE Fouquieria splendens Engelm. (EE 23334) GERANIACEAE Gernaium x hortorum L. H. Bailey (JGS 333) JUGLANDACEAE Carya illinoinensis (Wangenh.) K. Koch (JGS 299)

Sena Tamarindo

Encino

Nogalalillo

Hum Ecol Table 1 (continued) Scientific name

Common name

Uses

Part used

Method of use

Timber

Trunks

Dried (rare) Dried, put under the pillow, the released oils can produce relaxation and sleep Planted in private gardens Boiled, drink the infusion

Juglans microcarpa Berland. (EE 24099) LAMIACEAE Hedeoma drummondii Benth. (23892)

Poleo

Insomnia

Branches and leaves

Hedeoma palmeri Hemsl. (EE 24003)

Poleo

Ornamental Colic Good luck Insomnia

Whole plant Leaves and inflorescences Leaves, branches Branches and leaves

Ornamental Body pains Food seasoning Fever Stomach pain Ornamental Intestinal disorders Ceremony

Whole plant Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Whole plant Leaves Whole plant

Good luck Ward off bad intentions Ornamental Insect repellent Ornamental Respiratory diseases Relaxing body Food seasoning

Branches and leaves Branches and leaves

Majorana hortensis Moench (JGS 222)

Mejorana

Marrubium vulgare L. (JGS 119)

Marrubio

Ornamental Respiratory diseases Ornamental Skin diseases Nasal congestion Ornamental Fright

Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Leaves Leaves Leaves, stems and inflorescences Whole plant Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves, stems and inflorescences Whole plant Leaves Leaves Leaves, stems and inflorescences Whole plant Leaves Whole plant Leaves Leaves Whole plant Whole plant

Fever

Whole plant

Kidney disorders Ornamental

Leaves Whole plant

Planted in private gardens Boiled, drink as a tea Planted in private gardens Boiled, use as a poultice Toasted, inhale the smoke of dried leaves Planted in private gardens Rub all over the body with the dry plant while praying Boiled, drink the solution, and take a bath into the solution Boiled, drink as a tea for several weeks Planted in private gardens

Laurel

Skin diseases Earache Flatulence Relaxing Food seasoning Ceremony

Aguacate

Blood circulation Colic Intestinal parasites Construction Food Ornamental Fuel

Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Branches and leaves Fruit Leaves Fruit Wood Fruits Whole plant Trunks and stems

Boiled, use as a poultice Put two hot drops into the ears Boiled, drink the infusion Boiled, drink the infusion Milled, dry, add to the food Dried, along with other plants to make floral bouquets Pulp, eaten raw, in salads Boiled, drink as a tea Raw Dried Acorns, raw Planted in private gardens Dried

Granada

External wounds Bleeding External grain Ornamental Food Fodder

Fruit peel Fruit peel Fruit peel Whole plant Fruits Fruits

Boiled, use as a poultice Boiled, use as a poultice Boiled, use as a poultice Planted in private gardens Eaten raw Ripened, to feed pigs

Melissa officinalis L. (JGS 339)

Toronjil

Mentha x piperita L. (JGS 013)

Mentha

Mentha spicata L. (JGS 016)

Hierbabuena, yerbabuena

Ornamental Muscle aches Respiratory diseases Relaxing body Colic Food seasoning

Ocimum basilicum L. (JGS 028)

Albahaca

Ornamental Respiratory diseases Relaxing body Food seasoning

Poliomintha bustamanta B.L. Turner (EE 23398) Rosmarinus officinalis L. (JGS 085)

Orégano Romero

Teucrium cubense Jacq. (JGS 384)

Verbena

LAURACEAE Litsea pringlei Bartlett (EE 24111)

Persea americana Mill. var. drymifolia (Cham. & Schltdtl.) S. F. Blake (JGS 299)

LYHTRACEAE Punica granatum L. (JGS 184)

Inhale the smoke of dried leaves Dried, put under the pillow, the released oils can produce relaxation and sleep Planted in private gardens Boiled, drink the infusion Milled, add to the food Boiled, drink the infusion Boiled, drink the infusion Planted in private gardens Boiled, drink the infusion Dried, along with other plants to make floral bouquets Toasted, inhale the smoke of dried leaves Toasted, inhale the smoke of dried leaves Planted in private gardens Milled, used as incense Planted in private gardens Boiled, drink as a tea Boiled, drink as a tea Milled, add to food Planted in private gardens Boiled, drink as a tea Boiled, drink as a tea Boiled, drink as a tea Boiled, drink as a tea Milled, add to food, commonly used in the beef broth Planted in private gardens Boiled, drink as a tea Boiled, drink as a tea Milled, add to food

Hum Ecol Table 1 (continued) Scientific name MALVACEAE Hibiscus elegans Standl. (JGS 306) Hibsicus martianus Zucc. (EE 24082) Hibiscus tilliaceus L. (JGS 208) Malva parviflora L. (EE 23356) Malvaviscus penduliflorus Moc. & Sessé ex DC. (JGS 026) MELIACEAE Azadirachta indica Moc. & Sessé ex DC. (EE 24084) Melia azedarach L. (JGS 201) MORACEAE Ficus carica L. (EE 23006) Ficus benjamina L. (JGS 229) Morus celtidifolia Kunth (EE 23004) MYRTACEAE Eucapyptus camaldulensis Dehnh (EE 24007) Psidium guajava L. (JGS 119)

Common name

Uses

Part used

Method of use

Hibisco rojo Hibisco silvestre Hibisco Malva Tulipán

Ornamental Ornamental

Whole plant Whole plant

Planted in private gardens Planted in private gardens

Ornamental Fodder Stomach disorders

Whole plant Fruits and seeds Flowers and leaves

Planted in private gardens Raw, to feed chickens Boiled together, drink the infusion

General malaise Ornamental Ornamental Fuel

Leaves Whole plant Whole plant Trunks and stems

Boiled, drink the infusion Planted in private gardens Planted in private gardens Dried

Ficus Mora

Constipation Ornamental Ornamental Cough, colic Ornamental

Inflorescence Whole plant Whole plant Fruits Whole plant

Eaten raw or boiled Planted in private gardens Planted in private gardens Boiled, drink as tea Planted in private and public gardens

Eucalipto

Cough, sore throat

Leaves and fruits

Boiled, drink the infusion

Guayaba

Stomach disorders (vomit, diarrhea) Ornamental

Leaves and fruits

Boiled, drink the infusion

Whole plant

Planted in private gardens

Neem Canelón Higo

NYCTAGINACEAE Bougainvillea glabra Choisy (JGS 299)

Buganvilea

Colic Ornamental External tumor

Bracts Whole plant Leaves

Boiled, drink the solution Planted in private gardens Milled, boiled, and mixed with Acalypha monostachya milled leaves, apply as a poultice

OLEACEAE Fraxinus americana L. (EE 23964)

Fresno

Ornamental

Whole plant

Jazmín Trueno

Wood Ornamental Ornamental

Trunks and branches Whole plant Whole plant

Planted in public and private gardens Dried Planted in private gardens Planted in private gardens

Hierba del golpe

External wounds

Whole plants

Boiled, use decoction as poultice

Pino piñonero

Cough

Leaves

Pino halepo

Wood Ornamental

Trunks and branches Whole plant

Boiled, drink the infusion, and inhale vapor of the infusion Dried Planted in public and private gardens

PLATANACEAE Platanus occidentalis L. (EE 24121)

Sicomoro

Ornamental

Whole plant

Planted in public and private gardens

PLUMBAGINACEAE Plumbago zeylanica L. (EE 23759) POACEAE Arundo donax L. (JGS 174)

Plúmbago

Ornamental

Whole plant

Planted in private gardens

Bambú

Ornamental

Whole plant

Fences Food Fodder Fodder Stomach disorders Relaxing Fodder Fodder Fodder Food Food Fodder Intestinal parasites

Stems Seeds Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves and roots Leaves, stems Leaves Stems and leaves Seed Seed Leaves Styles

Planted in public and private gardens Dried Boiled Raw Raw Boiled, drink the infusion Boiled, drink the infusion Raw Raw Raw Cooked Cooked Raw Boiled, drink the infusion

Verdolaga

Food Fodder

Leaves, inflorescences Cooked Leaves, fruits and seeds Chicken

Brasil Abrojo

Timber Stomach disorders, colic

Wood Leaves and fruits

Dried Boiled, drink the infusion

Níspero

Digestive disorders

Fruit

Boiled, drink the infusion

Jazminum floridum Bunge (JGS 339) Ligustrum japonicum Thumb. (JGS 97) ONAGRACEAE Oenothera rosea L’Hèr. ex Aiton (EE 23694) PINACEAE Pinus cembroides Zucc. (EE 23393) Pinus halepensis Mill. (EE 23873)

Avena sativa L. (JGS 200)

Avena

Cenchrus ciliaris (EE 23874) Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf (JGS 002) Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. (EE 24097 Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers. (EE 23793) Triticum aestivum L. (EE 23693)

Zacate buffel Zacate limón

Zaea mays L. (JGS 249)

Maíz

PORTULACACEAE Portulaca pilosa L. (EE 24979) RHAMNACEAE Condalia hookeri M. C. Johnston (24562) Ziziphus obtusifolia (Hook. ex Torr & A. Gray) A. Gray (EE 24545) ROSACEAE Eriobotrya japonica (Thunb.) Lindl. (JGS 192)

Zacate estrella Sorgo Trigo

Hum Ecol Table 1 (continued) Scientific name Malus domestica Borkh. (EE 24587) Prunus armeniaca L. (EE 24591) Prunus domestica L. (EE 24581) Purshia plicata (D. Don) Henr. (EE 24795) Rosa gallica L. (JGS 187) RUTACEAE Amyris madrensis S. Watson (ee 24,555) Citrus limon (L.) Osbeck (JGS 190)

Common name

Part used

Method of use

Food Food Food Constipation Rosa de castilla Cough de monte Rosal Ornamental

Fruit Fruit Fruit Fruit pulp Flowers

Raw or cooked Raw or cooked Raw or cooked Cooked, drink the solution Boiled, drink the solution

Whole plant

Planted in private gardens

Barretilla Limón

Ornamental Relaxing Food Wood Relaxing Food Wood Relaxing Food Wood Construction

Whole plant Leaves Fruits Trunks and stems Leaves Fruits Trunks and stems Leaves Fruits Trunks and stems Trunks

Planted in private gardens Boiled, drink the infusion Raw Dried Boiled, drink the infusion Raw Dried Boiled, drink the infusion Raw Dried Fences and door frames

Abortive Earache Relaxing Ward off evil intentions Remove bad luck

Leaves and flowers Leaves Leaves Leaves

Boiled, drink the infusion Boiled, put drops into the ears Boiled, drink the infusion Dried, toasted, inhale smoke in a closed room Dried, toasted, inhale smoke in a closed room

Construction Ornamental Ornamental Headache

Trunks Whole plant Whole plant Leaves

Door frames and walls Planted in private gardens Planted in private gardens Raw, sucking sap and spit

Gastrointestinal disorders

Leaves

Boiled, drink infusion

Ornamental

Whole plant

Live fences

Food Construction

Fruits Trunks and branches

Raw Dried

Diabetes Hepatitis

Leaves Whole plant

Ornamental

Whole plant

Boiled, drink the infusion Drink the infusion, and also, mix branches and leaves in hot water in a tub, bathing in the infusion Live fences in private and public gardens

Kidney stones

Whole plant

Gastritis

Leaves

Chaparro amargoso

Amebiasis

Leaves

Boil 10 leaves in half liter of water, drink the infusion (bitter)

Zarzaparrila

Internal wounds

Root

Macerated and boiled, drink the infusion

Chile piquín

External wounds

Fruit

Macerated, milled, the pulp used as a poultice Cooked Cooked Boiled, drink the infusion Cooked Boiled, put the pulp in the wound Toasted, milled, mix with fat, spread on the affected part Cooked Milled, raw, drink

Manzana Durazno Ciruela

Citrus nobilis Lour. (JGS 259)

Mandarina

Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck (EE 23328)

Naranja

Helietta parvifolia A. Gray) Benth (EE 23987) Ruta graveolens L. (EE 23987)

Barreta

SALICACEAE Populus deltoides Marshall (EE 24873) Salix nigra Marshall (EE 24879)

Ruda

Álamo Sauce

SANTALACEAE Phoradendron villosum (Nutt.) Injerto Nutt. ex Engelm. (EE 24667) SAPINDACEAE Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq. Dodonea (EE 24675) SAPOTACEAE Sideroxylon lanuginosum Michx. (EE 24455) Coma SCROPHULARIACEAE Leucophyllum frutescens (Berland.) I.M. Johnston (EE 24144)

SELAGINELLACEAE Selaginella pilifera A. Br. (EE 2444) SIMAROUBACEAE Castela tortuosa Liebm. (EE 24472) SMILACACEAE Smilax bona-nox L. (24783) SOLANACEAE Capsicum annum L. var. glabriusculum (Dunal) Heiser & Pickersgill (EE 24561) Capsicum annum L. var. annum (EE 24562) Capsicum chinense Jacq. (EE24563)

Uses

Cenizo

Flor de peña

Leaves

Nicotiana glauca Graham (EE 24667)

Chile bolita Food (condiment) Chile habanero Food (condiment) Flu Tomate Food (condiment) Skin burns Gigante Swollen joins

Fruit Fruit Seed Fruit Fruit peel Leaves

Solanum tuberosum L. (JGS 169)

Papa

Food Painful gastric ulcers

Root Root

TURNERACEAE Turnera diffusa Willd. Ex Schult (EE 24196, 24,145)

Damiana

Aphrodisiac

Leaves and inflorescences Leaves and inflorescences

Lycopersicon escultentum Mill. (24821)

Fortifying the body

Boiled, drink the infusion for several days Boiled, drink the infusion

Boiled, drink the infusion Boiled, drink the infusion

Hum Ecol Table 1 (continued) Scientific name

ULMACEAE Celtis pallida Torr. (EE 23179)

Common name

Granjeno

Uses

Part used

Method of use

Ornamental

Whole plant

Planted in private gardens

Cough and sore throat Food Construction Sore throat Construction Food Construction Internal parasites Fuel

Leaves and fruits Fruits Wood Fruits Trunks and branches Fruits Trunks and branches Stone Trunks and branches

Boiled, drink the infusion Boiled, to make syrup To make fences Boiled, drink the infusion Dried Raw Fences Milled mixed with water, drink Dried

Celtis laevigata Willd. (24005)

Palo blanco

Persea americana Mill. (JGS 207)

Aguacate

VERBENACEAE Aloysia citridora Palau (EE 24487) Aloysia macrostachya (Torr.) Moldenke (EE 24772) Lippia graveolens Kunth (EE 24428)

Cedrón Vara dulce

Ornamental Ornamental

Whole plant Whole plant

Planted in private gardens Planted in private gardens

Orégano de campo

Stomach pain

Whole plant

Boiled, drink the infusion

Parra silvestre

Ornamental Food Ornamental

Whole plant Fruits Whole plant

Planted in private gardens Raw Planted in private gardens

External wounds Gastritis

Peeled leaves Leaves

Ceremony

Leaves

As a poultice on the wound Macerated, raw, drink the pulp dissolved in water Floral decorations in pilgrimages

Guayacán

Respiratory diseases

Leaves

Boiled, drink the infusion

Gobernadora

Kidney diseases

Leaves

Stomach pain

Leaves

Insect repellent

Dried plant

Increase fertility in women Mycosis (feet)

Leaves

Boil water, add few leaves (5–10) for fifteen seconds (it is very astringent), drink the infusion Boil water, add few leaves (5–10) for fifteen seconds (it is very astringent), drink the infusion Cluster of branches hanging on the walls Boiled, drink the infusion

Smelly feet

Leaves

VITACEAE Parthenocissus quinquefolia (L.) Planch. (EE 24982) Vitis berlandieri Planch (EE 25006) XANTHORRHOEACEAE Aloe vera L. (EE 24007)

ZYGOPHYLLACEAE Guaiacum angustifolium Engelm. (EE 23313) Larrea tridentata (Sessé & Moc. ex DC.) Coville (EE 23886)

Uva silvestre Sábila

Fabaceae, Asteraceae, Cactaceae and Lamiaceae. Among these plants, there are 139 native species and 79 introduced ones. Shrubs (37.6%) are the main growth form, followed by herbaceous forms (36.2%), and trees (26.1%). This high number is not surprising given that plant diversity in Nuevo León accounts for 3175 species, 1031 genera, and 158 families of vascular plants (Villarreal and Estrada 2008). In addition, plants with ethnobotanical uses in this area represent 41.7%, 17%, and 6.9% of the families, genera and species, respectively, of the total flora in Nuevo León. The families Fabaceae, Asteraceae, Cactaceae, Lamiaceae, and Euphorbiaceae stand out as the most diverse in their uses, not only in northeastern Mexico, but their uses have also been reported in China (Hong et al. 2015), Burkina Faso (Zizka et al. 2015), the Caribbean (Torres-Avilez et al. 2015), Spain (Benítez et al. 2010), Pakistan (Malik et al. 2015), and Ethiopia (Kefalew et al. 2015). Regionally, the number of species recorded in this northern area is higher than those recorded for the south-central region of Nuevo León (Estrada et al. 2012).

Leaves

Milled, mixed with Vaseline, spread on the feet Milled, use as talc

Plant Uses Eight major uses were recorded: ornamental, medicinal, food and seasoning, timber, fuel, fodder, handicraft, and ceremonial uses (Table 2). Quantitatively, ornamental and medicinal species are by far the most important in this area.

Ornamental Species Ornamental plants play an important role in our lives. Intuitively, people feel that contact with plants and nature is restorative and calms the spirit (Lohr et al. 1996). Today, it is recognized that green spaces in urban areas have positive effects on the quality of life and human wellbeing. Furthermore, these green spaces help preserve urban and ecological biodiversity (Benedict and McMahon 2006; Smith et al. 2006). Cultivated species (trees and shrubs) are the most diverse or-

Hum Ecol Table 2

Main categories of uses of plants in Bustamante, Nuevo León, Mexico Ornamental

Medicinal

Timber

Fuel

Food

Building

Fodder

Handicrafts

Ceremony

Native

73

83

34

32

17

22

15

4

2

Introduced

55

41

13

13

21

3

10

1

2

Wild Cultivated

59 69

72 52

29 18

27 18

8 30

19 6

16 9

4 1

2 2

Herbaceous Shrubs

31 49

53 39

0 9

0 9

20 6

0 3

13 5

0 2

0 0

Trees

48

32

38

34

12

22

7

3

4

namental species in Bustamante with the most common cultivated native species being Agave americana, Carica papaya, Euphorbia pulcherrima, Carya illinoinensis, Persea americana, and Fraxinus americana. The most common cultivated introduced species are Cascabela tevetioides, Phoenix dactylifera, Washingtonia filifera, Jacaranda mimosifolia, Cupressus sempervirens, Thuja occidentalis, Delonix regia, Punica granatum, Ficus benjamina, Prunus persica, and Citrus sinensis. At least 17 families and 19 genera of trees and shrubs recorded in Bustamante have also been found to have similar uses in other countries, such as Morocco (Focho et al. 2009). In addition, several cultivated species frequently planted as ornaments or for food in Bustamante like Citrus sinensis, Citrus limon, Carica papaya, and Persea americana are used in exactly the same way in Burundi (Bigirimana et al. 2012) and Brazil (Albuquerque et al. 2005). Moreover, these results agree partially with those obtained in Puebla (Paredes-Flores et al. 2007), where the main plant uses were similar, i.e., plants used for ornaments, fodder, food, and fuel. Interestingly, despite being a small town, Bustamante has more species recorded with ornamental and medicinal uses than the central or southern regions of this State (Estrada et al. 2007; Estrada-Castillón et al. 2014).

Medicinal Species Mexico has a diverse and deeply-rooted tradition concerning the use of medicinal plants and is second only to China in its number of medicinal plants, which total almost 4500 species (Muñetón-Pérez 2009). Indeed, almost 57% of the total species recorded in Mexico are used for medicinal purposes. Asteraeceae, Lamiaceae, Fabaceae, and Euphorbiaceae are the most important families for these purposes.These families also appear in other studies carried out in India (Panghal et al. 2010; Namsa et al. 2011), Brazil (Tribess et al. 2015), China (Zheng et al. 2013; Hong et al. 2015), Thailand (Tangjitman et al. 2015), southern Mexico (Júarez-Vázquez et al. 2013; Alonso-Castro et al. 2012), the Caribbean (Torres-Avilez et al. 2015), Pakistan (Ahmad et al. 2012), Spain (Benítez et al. 2010), and Ethiopia (Kefalew et al. 2015).

Some species are distinguished by their large number of medicinal uses such as Matricaria recutita (12), Larrea tridentata (6), Tanacetum parthenium (5), Croton suveloens (5), Litsea pringlei (4), and Pseudognaphalium canescens (4). Regarding the plant parts used for medicinal purposes, the most common are the leaves (by far the most used), stems, fruits, flowers, inflorescences, seeds, roots, and sap (Table 1). The leaves are mainly boiled, dried and milled for disease treatments. These ways of using plants have also been recorded in East Timor (Collins et al. 2007), and Kenya (Nanyingi et al. 2008). There are 13 different categories of medicinal plant use (Table 3). Most are used to treat primarily gastrointestinal and respiratory ailments or diseases. This also reflects studies in Turkey (Bulut and Tuzlaci 2013) and Italy (Leto et al. 2013). For example, Litsea pringlei is one of the most common wild species used for treatment of diarrhea, flatulence, and earache. It is also used for relaxation and food seasoning. Similar uses have been reported for other species of Litsea in Mexico (Jiménez-Pérez et al. 2011) and China (Kong et al. 2015). Turnera diffusa is another common plant with various uses such as to increase strength. This species is recognized as an aphrodisiac in Latin America and is thought to stimulate male sexual performance. It is also considered effective in treating anxiety and delayed ejaculation (Estrada-Reyes et al. 2013). With regard to the preparation of these plants for medicinal uses, there were eight main methods recorded:, 68% are used after boiling, 11% are used raw, 8% milled, 5% macerated, 4% toasted, 2% are prepared by friction, 1% cooked, and 1% melted (Table 1). Boiling is commonly used for roots, leaves, stems, inflorescences, flowers and fruits, whereas milling is used almost exclusively for leaves and roots. The prevalence of boiling for medicinal use in Bustamante is also in agreement with previous studies in countries such as Bangladesh (Kadir et al. 2012) and Tibet (Li et al. 2015). Timber and Fuel Species Unlike countries such as a number in Africa (Maundu et al. 2001; Ogunkunle and Oladele 2004) and Pakistan (Amjad and Arshad 2014; Ibrar et al. 2007), deforestation and indiscriminate use of plant resources is not a critical problem in Bustamante,

Hum Ecol Table 3 Categories of main uses of medicinal plants in Bustamante, Nuevo León, Mexico

Category

Ailment (or disease)

Number of citations

Number of species

Gastrointestinal system

43

55

Respiratory system

Constipation, colic, pain, flatulence, oral infection, headache, stomach ache, diarrhea, stomach disorders, gastritis, gum disease, vomit, worms and amoeba Cough, sore throat, asthma, nasal congestion

25

27

Wounds

External and internal

15

17

Endocrine system Dermatological

Diabetes, cancer, losing weight, hepatitis Shampoo, skin infections, dandruff, hair dye, insect repellent, mycosis (feet), smelly feet, skin burns Relaxing

13 14

15 14

Insomnia

10

10

8 8

9 6

8

9

Fever

Kidney stones or kidney pains General pain, arthritis, external tumor, swollen joins Anemia, blood circulation, measles, rubella, bleeding, varicose veins High temperature

4

3

Auditory system Ophthalmological Andrological

Earache Infection, eye washes Aphrodisiac

4 3 2

3 2 2

Urinary system Muscular skeletal system Circulatory system

since gas and not wood is the main source of energy used for cooking. In addition, the high diversity of native shrub (69 species) and native tree species (31 species) complemented with introduced species (64 species) allow a wide selection to be used for timber. The plant families most frequently used for timber and fuel are Fabaceae, Cupressaceae, Fagaceae, Juglandaceae, Rhamnaceae, Rutaceae, Salicaceae, and Ulmaceae. The main uses of these timber species are for the construction of corrals and fences (most commonly four species: Acacia farnesiana, Prosopis glandulosa, Havardia pallens and Helietta parvifolia) and the manufacture of hand tools and rustic furniture (most commonly Havardia pallens, Condalia hookeri and Ziziphus obtusifolia for hand tools such as machetes, hoes, and sickle handles, and the trunks of Taxodium huegelii, Populus deltoides and Salix nigra for water troughs for cattle. Owing to its durability when lit, wood from several species of Quercus, Pinus spp., Cupressus, Juniperus, Prosopis glandulosa, Ebenopsis ebano, Acacia farnesiana, Parkinsonia aculeata is considered valuable for charcoal and used as fuel to heat houses. Again, these uses are found elsewhere, for example, in Pakistan (Shah et al. 2007; Muhammad and Muhammad 2014), Argentina (Hunziker et al. 1986), and Cameroon (Focho et al. 2009). Food and Seasoning Species The staple diet of Bustamante residents includes the daily consumption of cultivated species such as Allium cepa and A. sativa (as condiments), Phaseolus vulgaris, Persea americana, Daucus carota, Zea mays, Triticum aestivum, Citrus limon, Solanum tuberosum, Lycopersicon esculentum, and

Capsicum annum. Several wild plant species are also consumed as part of the daily diet, such as Amaranthus palmeri, Yucca filifera, Opuntia phaeacantha, and Portulaca pilosa. Plants are often used for seasoning food and the most commonly used species in this region belong to just three families, Lamiaceae, Lauraceae, and Verbenaceae (Table 1) with Poliomintha bustamanta. The latter is an endemic species in Bustamante especially gathered for this purpose. Lippia graveolens is also frequently used for seasoning certain foods. Fodder Species Several plant species, most commonly Fabaceae and Poaceae because of their abundance in the region, are used to improve the diet of domestic livestock. In fact, legumes are the main source of food for domestic livestock and the main wild species used are Acacia berlandieri, A. farnesiana, A. greggii, Dalea greggii, Eysenhardtia texana, Leucaena leucocephala, Prosopis glandulosa and Parkinsonia aculeata. In most cases, forage for cattle consists entirely of dried corn and oat leaves, two of the most common crops in Bustamante. Owing to its efficiency in converting water to dry matter, and thus to digestible energy (Nobel 1995), Opuntia is also considered valuable as livestock feed. In particular, during the dry season, Opuntia ficus-indica is one of the main forage species used in Bustamante. Handicraft and Ceremonial Species Of the at least 541 plant species that have been documented as used to manufacture handicrafts in Mexico (Bravo and López

Hum Ecol

1999), three - Brahea dulcis, Prosopis glandulosa, and Helietta parvifolia - are used for this purpose in Bustamante. Brahea dulcis is by far the most commonly used; artisans collect and dry leaves of this species to make various craft products. Helietta parvifolia and Prosopis glandulosa are also used as the main source of wood for rustic furniture. Furthermore, nine species were recorded with different uses in ceremonial rites and religious beliefs. Most are used in funerals as floral bouquets such as Sansevieria hyacinthoides, Cupressus sempervirens, Croton suaveolens, Citrus spp., Marrubium vulgare and Litsea pringlei. Several of these species, such as Citrus, have also been recorded as involved in funeral ceremonies in Indonesia (Widjaja 1988).

Economic Botany The economy of Bustamante is based on pecan nut cultivation (Carya illinionensis), which is one of the main sources of income for regional producers who also harvest several wild species such as Brahea dulcis, Helietta parvifolia Prosopis glandulosa, Poliomintha bustamanta, Croton suaveolens, Lippia graveolens, and Litsea pringlei. At present, there are at least 15 nuclear families engaged in pecan nut growing in Bustamante. To supplement their incomes, these families also dry and braid palm fibers to produce different handicrafts for sale, such as bedrolls, tablecloths, and the backs for chairs, rocking chairs, and benches. This use of palm fibers is common in other countries too; for example, the palm Bactris setosa is used to make baskets in Brazil (Sato-Duarte et al. 2012), and fibers from the young leaves of the Astrocaryum chambira are extracted to be woven into hammocks, bags, and nets in Ecuador (Holm Jensen and Balslev 1995). Additionally, the dried and/or ground leaves of Poliomintha bustamanta, Croton suaveolens, Lippia graveolens and Litsea pringlei are sold by some Bustamante residents. The leaves are packed in bags of 100 g or 200 g and sold at $1.00 or $2.00 USD, respectively. Another commercial plant use is the stems of Opuntia ficus-indica, which are cut into pieces and sold as fresh vegetables: a bag of 1 kg sells at $1.50 (USD). This plant is abundant in many private gardens in the region. Finally, the inflorescences (with immature flowers) of Yucca filifera are cut and sold at $2.50 (USD); the sale of this product generally lasts only from April to May.

Conclusions The inhabitants of Bustamante depend on plants for many of their everyday needs. Indeed, the local flora plays an important role in the lives of residents by providing ornaments, medicines, food/seasoning, and timber among other uses. Trees and shrubs are the main ornamental species, but many of them are also used for timber, medicine, and food.

Regarding medicinal uses, we conclude that leaves and fruits are the main plant parts used and boiling is the most common method of preparation. These plants are then used to treat a range of ailments including gastrointestinal and respiratory illnesses and for healing wounds. Additionally, some species are used for timber, though timber extraction is not intensive in this area. The most common timber species recorded are the legumes such as Acacia farnesiana, Prosopis glandulosa, Havardia pallens, Ebenopsis ebano, and Parkinsonia aculeata. As for generating income, Carya illinoinensis (pecan) and Brahea dulcis (fibers) are the most economically important cultivated and wild species, respectively, in Bustamante. The sale of the dried leaves of four medicinal and seasoning species also supplements some residents’ incomes (Poliomintha bustamanta, Lippia graveolens, Litsea pringlei and Croton suaveolens). It is worth highlighting how the combination of empirical and scientific knowledge of plants encourages and expands the basis for the sustainable use and conservation of plant diversity. For example, there has been recent interest shown by pharmaceutical companies in the conservation of plant communities where Turnera diffusa Willd is found due to its aphrodisiac properties, which were already well known by local populations. Thus, these plants can be an important economic alternative. Moreover, with greater education and awareness of their uses, they may serve to encourage local authorities to increase plant conservation efforts in these areas. Acknowledgments We are very grateful to the residents of Bustamante for sharing their knowledge about useful plants. We thank PAICYT (Programa de Apoyo a la Investigación Científica y Tecnológica) of the Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León for the economic support to conduct this study. Compliance with Ethical Standards The manuscript complies with the Ethical Rules applicable for the Human Ecology journal. As indicated in acknowledgments, this study was funded by PAICYT (Programa de Apoyo a la Investigación Científica y Tecnológica) of the Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León. Conflict with Interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

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