Human Ecology https://doi.org/10.1007/s10745-017-9962-x
Ethnobotanical Survey of Useful Species in Bustamante, Nuevo León, Mexico Eduardo Estrada-Castillón 1 & José Ángel Villarreal-Quintanilla 2 & María Magdalena Rodríguez-Salinas 1 & Juan Antonio Encinas-Domínguez 1 & Humberto González-Rodríguez 1 & Guillermo Romero Figueroa 3 & José Ramón Arévalo 4
# Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2017
Keywords Biodiversity . Cultural heritage . Medicinal plants . Mexico . Plant conservation . Wild food plants
Introduction Mexico has one of the most rugged reliefs on the planet (Rzedowski 1978), which, together with its varied climatic conditions, mean that it has a huge range of plant species comprising between 4 and 8% of the planet’s flora (MacNeish 1992). However, despite this rich plant diversity, there is little information on their ethnobotanical uses, especially in some regions, such as in the State of Nuevo León. The information currently available essentially deals with temperate and semiarid areas in central (Estrada et al. 2007) and southern regions (Estrada-Castillón et al. 2014). We present here the results of an ethnobotanical study carried out in Bustamante, a municipality located in a semiarid region 100 km north of the regional capital, Monterrey (INEGI 1986). The main livelihoods of Bustamante residents are based on growing domesticated plants such as corn and pecan nuts (Carya illinoinensis), and on pulque (regional tequila) production. There are several wild species that also contribute to the regional economy, such as Brahea dulcis in handicrafts, and Litsea pringlei, Poliomintha bustamanta,
* José Ramón Arévalo
[email protected] 1
Facultad de Ciencias Forestales, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Linares, Nuevo León, Mexico
2
Departamento de Botánica, Universidad Autónoma Agraria Antonio Narro, Buenavista, Saltillo, Coahuila, Mexico
3
Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Exactas, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Rosarito, Mexico
4
Departamento de Botánica, Ecología y Fisiología Vegetal, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de La Laguna, Islas Canarias, Spain
Lippia gravelones, and Croton suaveolens, which are used as condiments and for medicinal purposes. The area is reasonably developed in terms of infrastructure; the inhabitants live in concrete houses, and electricity, piped drinking water, telephone and internet access are all available. There are also elementary, middle, and high schools. The flora of this northern region is used regularly by its population. However, most of the knowledge on cultivated and wild medicinal plants in this area has never been recorded. Therefore, the main aim of our study is to report the knowledge of local people about traditional uses of local plants and the specific patterns of use.
Methods Study Site Bustamante is located in the northern region in the State of Nuevo León (26°35′N, 100°31′W) (Fig. 1). It has a surface area of 558 km2 and its altitude ranges from 427 to 1850 m. The population consists of 3300 inhabitants, 95% of whom live in the city and the rest on ranches and in small villages (ejidos). The climate in the low plains corresponds to a desert type with cool winters; the annual mean temperature ranges from 18 to 22 °C, and the average annual rainfall reaches 400 mm. Mountains in the area show a dry steppe climate type, with lower temperatures, but higher average annual rainfall (720 mm) (INEGI 2011). Three main plant communities have been identified in the area: Tamaulipan thornscrub, piedmont scrub, and mixed forest (oak-pine) (INEGI 1986). All these plant communities are in relatively good condition, since there are no heavily degraded areas due to overuse or vegetation clearing (INEGI 1986).
Hum Ecol
Fig. 1 Study site and geographical location
Fieldwork and Interviews Eleven field trips, from March to October 2011 (three trips), March to November 2012 (three trips), March to October 2013 (three trips), May 2014 (one trip), and November 2015 (one trip) were carried out to collect plants from all the plant communities and from private and public gardens. Local residents were also interviewed about plant uses. From March 2011 to November 2015, 76 individuals (35 men and 41 women) aged 30 to 80 years old were selected for semi-structured interviews about their knowledge of plant uses (Martin 1995). The interviewees were housewives, shepherds, retirees, woodsmen, and healers who had learned the use of medicinal plants themselves or from their
parents or ancestors. The information was recorded in Spanish, since it is the only language spoken in the region. Several basic questions were asked in all interviews: 1) common names of plants and 2) their uses, 3) plant parts used, and 4) methods of preparation.
Results and Discussion Plant Diversity and Growth Forms A total of 66 families, 176 genera, and 218 useful species were recorded (Table 1), with the most common families being
Hum Ecol Table 1
Families, genera and species, common name, uses, plant part and method of use for each plant in Bustamante, Nuevo León, Mexico
Scientific name ACERCACEAE Acer negundo L. (EE 23014) ADIANTACEAE Nephrolepis exaltata (L.) Schott (JGS 165) ADOXACEAE Sambucus candensis (L.) Burm.f. (EE 23213) AMARANTHACEAE Amaranthus hypochondriacus L. (24421) Amaranthus palmeri S. Watson (EE 23018) Dysphania ambrosioides (L.) Mosyakin & Clemants (EE 23876)
AMARYLLIDACEAE Allium cepa L. (JGS 211) Allium sativum L. (JGS 212) ANACARDIACEAE Rhus virens Lindh. ex A. Gray (JGS 321) Schinus molle L. (EE 24018) APIACEAE Daucus carota L. (JGS 233) APOCYNACEAE Cascabela thevetioides (Kunth) Lippold (JGS 481) Plumeria rubra (Kunth) Lippold (JGS 24) ARAUCARIACEAE Araucaria heterophylla (Salisb.) Franco (JGS 214) ARACEAE Spatiphyllum wallisii Regel (JGS 53) ARAUCARIACEAE Araucaria heterophylla(Salisb.) Franco (JGS 112) ARECACEAE Phoenix dactylifera L. (JGS 211) Washingtonia filifera (Linden ex André) H. Wendl. ex de Bary (JGS 199) ASPARAGACEAE Agave americana L. (EE 23491)
Common name
Uses
Part used
Method of use
Maple
External wounds
Sap
Spread on the affected part
Helecho
Fever
Whole plant
Boiled, take a bath with the decoction
Sauco
Cough
Boiled, drink the infusion
Ornamental
Inflorescences and flowers Whole plant
Ornamental
Whole plant
Planted
Anemia
Stems and leaves
Raw or boiled
Epazote
Food seasoning Respiratory diseases Stomach ache Constipation Intestinal parasites
Leaves Leaves Leaves and stems Leaves and stems Leaves
Cooked with beans Boiled, drink the infusion Boiled, drink the infusion Boiled, drink the infusion Boiled, fasting drink
Ajo
Blood circulation Intestinal parasites Ceremony Food Cough Stomach ache
Cloves Cloves Whole plant Stems Stems Stems
Boiled. Drink the infusion Raw or boiled Ward off evil spirits Raw or boiled Boiled, drink the infusion Boiled, drink the infusion
Pirul
Respiratory diseases Diabetes Remove bad luck and clean the soul
Leaves and fruits Leaves Leaves
Boiled together, drink the infusion Boiled, drink the infusion Touching the body of the person (Blimpias^) with leaves and inhaling vapor from leaves
Zanahoria
Food
Roots
Raw or cooked
Jacinto
External wounds
Sap
Apply raw in the affected area
Plummeria
Ornamental
Whole plant
Planted in gardens
Araucaria (JGS Cough 034)
Leaves
Toasted, inhale the vapor
Cuna de moisés Ornamental
Whole plant
Planted in gardens
Araucaria
Ornamental Cough
Whole plant Leaves
Planted in gardens Boiled, drink the infusion
Palma datilera Washingtonia
Constipation Ornamental
Fruits Planted
Eaten raw or boiled Planted in gardens
Maguey
Diabetes Ornamental Cough Kidney stones Shampoo
Sap Planted Flowers Root Root
Cough Ornamental Ornamental Ornamental
Flowers Planted Planted Planted
Raw or boiled Planted in public and private gardens Boiled, drink the infusion Boiled, drink the infusion Macerated, spread the paste on the head like a shampoo Boiled, drink the infusion Planted in public and private gardens Planted in private gardens Planted in private gardens
Lengua de suegra (mother in law tongue) Yuca
Insect bites
Leaves
Ceremony, remove the bad luck Diarrhea
Dried and toasted leaves
Palma china Palma
Food Ornamental
Flowers Planted
Yuca
Ornamental
Planted
Estafiate
Colic
Leaves and inflorescences
Lengua de dragón Quelite
Cebolla
Lantrisco
Agave lechuguilla Torr.(EE 23473)
Lechuguilla
Dasylirion texanum Scheele (EE 24951)
Sotol
Hyacinthus orientalis L. Manfreda scabra (Ortega) McVaugh (JGS 201) Sansevieria hyacinthoides (L.) Druce (JGS 097)
Yucca elata (Engelm.) Engelm. (EE 23904) Yucca filifera Chabaud (EE 23481) Yucca rostrata Engelm. ex Trel. (EE 23121) Yucca treculeana Carrière ASTERACEAE Artemisia ludoviciana Nutt. (JGS 333)
Jacinto Maguey
Fruits
Planted in private gardens
Peeled, used as a poultice on the wound Touching the body of the person (Blimpias^) with leaves and inhaling vapor from leaves Boiled, drink the infusion Cooked or boiled Planted in public and private gardens Planted in public and private gardens Boiled, drink the infusion
Hum Ecol Table 1 (continued) Scientific name
Chrysactinia mexicana A, Gray (EE 24692)
Common name
Hierba de San Nicolás
Uses
Part used
Method of use
Gastritis
Leaves and inflorescences Leaves and inflorescences Leaves and inflorescences Plants Leaves and stems
Boiled, drink the infusion
Aphrodisiac Fortificant
Flourensia cernua DC. (EE 23518)
Hojasé
Gochnatia hypoleuca (DC.) A. Gray Gymnosperma glutinosum (Spreng.) Less. (EE 21894) Heterotheca subaxillaris (Lam.) Britton & Rusby (EE 23401) Matricaria recutita L. (JGS 019)
Ocotillo Tatalecnho
Ornamental Skin diseases
Trunks and stems Stems and leaves
Árnica
Timber Veterinary, broken legs Stomach pain
Manzanilla
Stomach pain
Leaves and inflorescences Whole plant Whole plant Leaves
External wounds Blood circulation Constipation, flatulence Tea Colic Eye infection Dizziness
Parthenium hysetrophorus L. (JGS 091) Pseudognaphalium canescens DC. (EE 23343)
Mariola Gordolobo
Leaves
Boiled, drink the infusion
Dried leaves
External wounds Relaxing Muscle aches
Leaves and root
Milled, sprinkle on the food being cooked Macerated and boiled, as a poultice
Tanacetum parthenium (L.) Sch. Bip. (EE 21988)
Altamisa
Stomach pain Menstrual colic Diarrhea Cough, asthma
BORAGINACEAE Cordia boissieri A. DC. (EE 23132)
Boiled, drink the infusion, mixed also with Lippia graveolens Boiled, used as a poultice Boiled, drink daily as tea Boiled, mixed with Litsea pringlei leaves and orange peel Boiled, drink daily as tea Leaves, drink the infusion Apply as eye drops
Leaves Leaves Leaves Whole plant Leaves Whole plant Leaves
Cough
Tecoma stans (L.) Juss. ex Kunth (EE 24491)
Planted in private gardens Boiled, used as a poultice on the affected area Dried Raw, broken leg cover with leaves, bandaging Boiled, drink the infusion
Fever Internal pains Oral infection Measles, rubella Headache Ornamental Respiratory diseases Cough, sore throat Food seasoning
Yerbanís
BERBERIDACEAE Berberis trifoliolata Moric. (EE 24001) BIGNONIACEAE Jacaranda mimosifolia D. Don (JGS 271)
Leaves Leaves Leaves and inflorescences Whole plant
Boiled, drink the infusion
Boiled, mixed with Litsea pringlei leaves Boiled, drink daily as tea Boiled, drink daily as tea Boiled, gargle Take a bath in the solution Boiled, drink the infusion Planted in private gardens Boiled, drink the infusion
Tagetes lucida Cav. (JGS 41)
Thymophylla setifolia Lag. (EE 23621)
Leaves
Boiled, drink the infusion
Leaves Leaves Leaves, inflorescences and flowers Leaves Leaves Leaves
Boiled, drink the infusion Boiled, drink the infusion and also use the infusion as a poultice Boiled, drink the infusion Boiled, drink the infusion Boiled, drink the infusion Boiled, drink the infusion 4 times at daily Drink the infusion
Parraleña
Earache Ornamental Sore throat
Leaves and inflorescences Leaves Whole plant Leaves, inflorescences and flowers
Agrito
Food
Fruits
Raw or boiled, to prepare syrup.
Jacaranda
Cough Ornamental Fuel Diabetes Kidney stones
Flowers Whole plant Wood Leaves Leaves
Ornamental
Whole plant
Boiled, drink the infusion Planted in private and public gardens Dried Boiled, drink the infusion Boiled, drink the solution for several days Planted in private and public gardens
Respiratory diseases Fuel Cough Fuel Ornamental Stomach disorders Fuel
Leaves and fruit pulp
Boiled, drink the infusion
Wood Fruits Wood Whole plant Leaves
Dried Boiled, drink the infusion Dried Planted in private and public gardens Boiled, drink the infusion
Wood
Dried
Tronadora
Anacahuita
Ehretia anacua (Terán & Berland.) I.M. Johnst. (EE 24791)
Anacua
Tiquilia canescens (A. DC.) A.T. Richardson (EE 24359)
Oreja de ratón
Boiled, apply several drops into the ear Planted in private gardens Boiled, drink the infusion
Hum Ecol Table 1 (continued) Scientific name CACTACEAE Acanthocereus tetragonus (L.) Hummelinck (JGS 071) Cephalocereus senilis (Haw.) Pfeiff (JGS 325) Coryphantha sulcata (D.C.) F. M. Knuth (JGS 301) Cylindropuntia imbricata (Haw.) F. M. Knuth (JGS 256) Cylindropuntia leptocaulis (DC.) F.M. Knuth (EE 24571) Echinocactus texensis Hoppfer (EE 24562) Echinocereus enneacanthus Engelm. (EE 24764) Echinocereus longisetus (Engelm.) Lem. (JGS 23877) Echinocereus poselgieri Lem. (EE 23508)
Common name
Uses
Part used
Method of use
Jacube
Diabetes Ornamental External wound Ornamental Ornamental
Stems Whole plant Pulp Whole plant Whole plant
Raw or cooked Planted in private gardens Raw, spread on the affected area Planted in private gardens Planted in private gardens
Diabetes, cough Dandruff
Fruits (without thorns)
Boiled, drink the infusion
Fruits
Abuelito (granfather) Chilitos Coyonoxtle Tasajillo Manca caballo Alicoches Pitaya
Whole plant Pulp Fruits Whole plant Whole plant
Raw Planted in private gardens Planted in private gardens
Root
Macerated, raw, used as a poultice
Whole plant Whole plant
Planted in private gardens Planted in private gardens
Epithelantha micromeris (Engelm.) F.A.C. Weber ex Britton & Rose (EE 24091) Lophophora williamsii (Lem. ex Salm-Dyck) J.M. Coult. (JGS 113) Mammillaria heyderi Muehlenpf. (EE 23802) Mammillaria plumosa F.A.C. Weber (EE 24005) Mammillaria prolifera (Mill.) Haw. (EE 24762) Opuntia engelmannii Salm-Dyck ex Engelm (EE 22972)
Chilitos
Wounds and muscle pains Ornamental Ornamental
Peyote
Arthritis
Stem and root
Biznaga
Ornamental
Whole plant
Cut into pieces, dipped in alcohol, use as a poultice Planted in private gardens
Biznaga
Ornamental
Whole plant
Planted in private gardens
Biznaga
Ornamental
Whole plant
Planted in private gardens
Nopal
Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill. (JGS 089)
Nopal
Opuntia phaeacantha Engelm. (JGS 282) CANNABACEAE Cannabis sativa L.
Nopal
Diabetes Fodder Ornamental Diabetes Ornamental Fodder Fodder
Stems Stems Whole plant Stems Whole plant Stems Stems
Raw or boiled, cut into pieces Seared Planted in private gardens Raw or cooked Planted in private gardens Seared Seared
Marihuana
Rheumatism
Leaves and inflorescences in alcohol
Poultice
Papaya
Food Intestinal parasites
Fruits Seeds
Ornamental
Whole plant
Raw Milled and mixed with water, drink the decoction Planted in private gardens
Panalero
Ornamental
Whole plant
Planted in private gardens
Correhuela
Ornamental
Whole plant
Planted in private gardens
Siempreviva Kalanchoe
Ornamental Ornamental
Whole plant Whole plant
Planted in private gardens Planted in private gardens
Kalanchoe
Ornamental
Whole plant
Planted in private gardens
Sandía
Food Fodder Ornamental External wounds Food Food Food Fodder Detergent
Fruits Whole plant Whole plant Fruits Fruits Fruits Seeds Whole plant Root
Shampoo
Fruit
Guaje
Crafts Bottles
Fruits Dried fruits
Raw Raw Planted in private gardens Raw, spread the pulp on the affected area Raw Raw or cooked Dried, eaten raw Raw Macerated, raw, to wash body or clothes as detergent substitute Macerated, raw, to wash head as shampoo substitute Dried fruits to make handicrafts Dry and empty fruits to store water
Ciprés
Cough Construction Fuel Ornamental
Resin Wood Wood Whole plant
Melt the resin and inhale the vapors Dried wood To make charcoal Planted in private and public gardens
CARICACEAE Carica papaya L. (JGS 261)
CELASTRACEAE Schaefferia cuneifolia A. Gray (EE 24654) CONVOLVULACEAE Ipomoea carnea Jacq. (EE 24003) CRASSULACEAE Echeveria strictiflora A. Gray (EE 23984) Kalanchoë daigremontiana Raym.-Hamet & H. Perrier (EE 23785) Kalanchoë verticillata Scott-Elliot (EE 23761) CUCURBITACEAE Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. & Nakai (JGS 96)
Sacasil
Ornamental Veterinary use (broken legs in animals) Food Ornamental Ornamental
Cut into pieces, put them in water for a day, use the solution as shampoo Planted in private gardens Apply and bind the broken leg
Cucumis anguria L. (EE 24213) Cucumis melo L. (EE 24971) Cucurbita moschata Duchesne (24866)
Pepinillo Melón Calabaza
Cucurbita foetidissima Kunth (EE 24216)
Calabacilla loca
Lagenaria siceraria (JGS 307) CUPRESSACEAE Cupressus arizonica Greene (JGS 213)
Hum Ecol Table 1 (continued) Scientific name Cupressus sempervirens L. (JGS 193)
Common name
Uses
Part used
Method of use
Pincel
Cough Ceremony
Resin Leaves
Construction Fuel Ornamental Construction Fuel Ornamental Construction Fuel Ornamental Construction Fuel Handicraft Ornamental Construction Fuel
Wood Wood Whole plant Wood Trunks and branches Whole plant Wood Trunks and branches Whole plant Wood Trunks and branches Branches Whole plant Wood Trunks and branches
Melt the resin and inhale the vapors Leaves and flower of other plants to make floral bouquets Dried wood To make charcoal Planted in private and public gardens Dried Dried Planted in private and public gardens Dried Dried Planted in private and public gardens Dried Dried Dried Planted in private and public gardens Dried Dried
Hair dye
Fruit
Ornamental Timber
Whole plant Wood
Boiled, spreading the decoction on the head Planted in private and public gardens Dried
Cola de caballo Kidney stones Ornamental
Stems Whole plant
Boiled, drink the infusion Planted in private gardens
Hierba dle cáncer
Leaves and inflorescences Leaves
Boiled, drink the infusion
Juniperus flaccida Schltdl. (EE 23488)
Táscate
Juniperus deppeana Steud. (EE 23472)
Táscate
Taxodium huegelii C. Lawson
Sabino
Thuja occidentalis L. (JGS 229)
Tuja
EBENACEAE Diospyros texana Scheele (EE 23187) EQUISETACEAE Equisetum hyemala L. var. affine (Engelm.) A. Eaton (JGS 213) EUPHORBIACEAE Acalypha monostachya Cav. (EE 24191)
Chapote prieto
Cancer External wounds
Acalypha phleoides Cav. (EE 24143) Bernardia myricifolia (Scheele) S. Watson (EE 24106) Cnidoscolus aconitifolius (Mill.) I. M. Johmston (JGS 401) Croton suaveolens Torr. (EE 24173)
Euphorbia antisyphilitca Zucc. (EE 24762) Euphorbia glyptosperma Engelm. (EE 24762) Euphorbia graminea Schltdl. & Cham. (EE 23916) Euphorbia golondrina L. C. Wheeler (EE 23901) Euphorbia milii Des Moul. (JGS 243) Euphrbia pulcherrima (JGS 107) Jatropha dioica Sessé (EE 24182)
Tragia ramosa Torr. (EE23871) FABACEAE Acacia amentacea (DC.) Britton & Rose (EE 23869) Acacia berlandieri Bent. (EE 23873) Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd. (EE 24906)
Boiled, use as a poultice and put the affected part in the vapor Boiled, drink the infusion
Hierba del cáncer Oreja de ratón
Cancer Ornamental
Leaves and inflorescences Whole plant
Chaya
Gastritis Ornamental Skin infections Ornamental External wounds Anemia Varicose veins Arthritis Ceremony
Leaves Whole plant Leaves and stems Whole plant Leaves Leaves Leaves and stems Leaves and stems Stems and leaves
Candelilla
Wax
Sap
Milled, mixed with water and honey Planted in private gardens Boiled, used as a poultice Planted in private gardens Boiled, used as a poultice Boiled, drink the infusion Boiled, used as a poultice Boiled, used as a poultice Leaves along with flower of other plants to make floral bouquets Boil the plant to extract wax
Golondrina
Skin infections
Sap
Raw, apply directly in the infection
Hierba de la hormiga Hierba de la golondrina Corona de cristo Nochebuena Sangre de drago
Kidney diseases
Whole plant
Macerated, boiled, drink the infusion
Losing weight
Whole plant
Macerated, boiled, drink the infusion
Salvia
Mala mujer, ortiguilla
Planted in private gardens
Ornamental
Whole plant
Planted in private gardens
Ornamental Skin infections
Whole plant Root
Hair dye
Root
Skin diseases
Leaves and stems
Planted in private gardens Milled, the pulp used as poultice on the affected area Macerated or milled, leave it in water for several days until it changes to dark red or dark brown color, then use the decoction as hair dye Boil it (it has stinging trichomes), after that, used as a poultice
Chaparro Cancer prieto, gavia Huajillo Fodder
Leaves
Boiled, drink the infusion
Leaves
Raw
Huizache
Root Whole plant Wood Trunks and stems Whole plant Wood Trunks and stems Whole plant
Boiled, drink the infusion Planted in public and private gardens Dried Dried Planted in public and private gardens Dried Dried Planted in public and private gardens
Acacia greggii A. Gray (23871)
Uña de gato
Bauhinia purpurea L. (EE 23748)
Pata de vaca
Diarrhea Ornamental Construction Fuel Ornamental Construction Fuel Ornamental
Hum Ecol Table 1 (continued) Scientific name Caesalpinia gilliesii (Hook.) D. Dietr. (EE 23799) Caesalpinia pulcherrima (L.) Sw. (EE 23761) Calia secunndiflora (Ortega) Yakovlev (EE 23578) Dalea greggii A. Gray (EE 24005) Delonix regia (Hook.) Raf. (JGS 181) Ebenopsis ebano (Berland.) Barneby and J.W. Grimes (EE 24019) Eysenhardtia texana Scheele (EE 23164)
Common name
Uses
Part used
Method of use
Ave de paraiso
Ornamental
Whole plant
Planted in private gardens
Tabachín
Ornamental
Whole plant
Planted in private gardens
Colorín
Ornamental
Whole plant
Planted in private gardens
Engorda cabras Framboyán, flamboyán Ébano
Fodder Stomach pain Ornamental Diabetes Ornamental Construction Fuel Kidney diseases
Leaves and stems Buds (flowers) Whole plant Leaves Whole plant Wood Trunks and stems Leaves
Ornamental Fodder Food Fodder Kidney diseases Ornamental Fodder
Whole plant Leaves and stems Seeds Leaves Leaves and stems Whole plant Leaves and fruits
Raw Boiled, drink the solution Planted in private gardens Boiled, drink the solution Planted in public and private gardens Dried Dried Boiled, let stand for two days in water, drink the infusion for a week Planted in private gardens Raw Boiled Raw Boiled, drink the infusion Planted in private gardens Raw
Fodder Fodder Ornamental
Stems, leaves, and fruits Raw Stems, leaves, and fruits Raw Whole plant Planted in private gardens
Headache
Leaves
Boiled, drink the infusion
Food Fuel Construction Ornamental Ornamental Construction Fuel Stomach pain Construction Ornamental Fuel Handicrafts Ornamental Gastritis Food Ornamental
Seeds Trunks and stems Wood Whole plant Whole plant Wood Trunks and stems Inflorescences Wood Whole plant Trunks and stems Branches Whole plant Fruit pulp Fruit pulp Whole plant
Cooked Dried Dried Planted in private gardens Planted in private gardens Dried Dried Boiled, drink the infusion Dried Planted in private gardens Dried Dried Planted in private gardens (rare) Boiled Sweet beverage Planted in private gardens (rare)
Respiratory diseases Headache
Leaves
Boiled, drink the solution
Root and leaves
Encino
Construction Fodder Fuel Headache
Wood Fruits Trunks and stems Root and leaves
Encino
Construction Fodder Fuel Headache
Wood Fruits Trunks and stems Root and leaves
Construction Fodder Fuel Respiratory diseases
Wood Fruits Trunks and stems Leaves
Macerated, mixed with fat, massaging the temple for several minutes Dried Raw (to feed pigs) Dried Macerated, mixed with fat, massaging the temple for several minutes Dried Raw (to feed pigs) Dried Macerated, mixed with fat, massaging the temple for several minutes Dried Raw (to feed pigs) Dried Boiled, drink the solution
Ocotillo, albarda
Stomach disorders Construction
Inflorescences Stems
Boiled, drink the solution Dried, to make fences
Geranio
Ornamental
Whole plant
Planted in private gardens
Nogal
Skin diseases Construction Food Ornamental Ornamental
Leaves Wood Fruits Whole plant Whole plant
Boiled, used as a poultice Dried Acorns, raw Planted in private gardens Planted in private gardens
Vara dulce, palo azul añil
Glycine max (L.) Merr. (JGS 73)
Soya
Indigofera suffruticosa Mill. (EE 23658) Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit. ssp. glabrata (Rose) Zárate (EE 23766) Medicago sativa L. (EE 23695) Melilotus albus Medik. (EE 23874) Myrospermum sousanum A. Delgado & M. C. Johnston (EE 23981) Oxyrhynchus volubilis Brendegee (EE 23389) Phaseolus vulgaris L. (EE 23666) Parkinsonia aculeata L. (EE 23981)
Añil Dormilón
Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth. (EE 23938)
Guamuchil
Alfalfa Flor de canela Frijol de la punzada Frijol Retama
Prosopis glandulosa Torr. var. torreyana (L.D. Mezquite Benson) M.C. Johnston (EE 24451) Senna alata (L.) Roxb. (EE 23765) Tamarindus indica L. (EE 23769) FAGACEAE Quercus canbyi Trel. (EE 24601)
Quercus laceyi Small (EE 24621)
Quercus polymorpha Schledtl. & Cham (EE 24642)
FOUIQUIERIACEAE Fouquieria splendens Engelm. (EE 23334) GERANIACEAE Gernaium x hortorum L. H. Bailey (JGS 333) JUGLANDACEAE Carya illinoinensis (Wangenh.) K. Koch (JGS 299)
Sena Tamarindo
Encino
Nogalalillo
Hum Ecol Table 1 (continued) Scientific name
Common name
Uses
Part used
Method of use
Timber
Trunks
Dried (rare) Dried, put under the pillow, the released oils can produce relaxation and sleep Planted in private gardens Boiled, drink the infusion
Juglans microcarpa Berland. (EE 24099) LAMIACEAE Hedeoma drummondii Benth. (23892)
Poleo
Insomnia
Branches and leaves
Hedeoma palmeri Hemsl. (EE 24003)
Poleo
Ornamental Colic Good luck Insomnia
Whole plant Leaves and inflorescences Leaves, branches Branches and leaves
Ornamental Body pains Food seasoning Fever Stomach pain Ornamental Intestinal disorders Ceremony
Whole plant Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Whole plant Leaves Whole plant
Good luck Ward off bad intentions Ornamental Insect repellent Ornamental Respiratory diseases Relaxing body Food seasoning
Branches and leaves Branches and leaves
Majorana hortensis Moench (JGS 222)
Mejorana
Marrubium vulgare L. (JGS 119)
Marrubio
Ornamental Respiratory diseases Ornamental Skin diseases Nasal congestion Ornamental Fright
Whole plant Whole plant Whole plant Leaves Leaves Leaves, stems and inflorescences Whole plant Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves, stems and inflorescences Whole plant Leaves Leaves Leaves, stems and inflorescences Whole plant Leaves Whole plant Leaves Leaves Whole plant Whole plant
Fever
Whole plant
Kidney disorders Ornamental
Leaves Whole plant
Planted in private gardens Boiled, drink as a tea Planted in private gardens Boiled, use as a poultice Toasted, inhale the smoke of dried leaves Planted in private gardens Rub all over the body with the dry plant while praying Boiled, drink the solution, and take a bath into the solution Boiled, drink as a tea for several weeks Planted in private gardens
Laurel
Skin diseases Earache Flatulence Relaxing Food seasoning Ceremony
Aguacate
Blood circulation Colic Intestinal parasites Construction Food Ornamental Fuel
Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Branches and leaves Fruit Leaves Fruit Wood Fruits Whole plant Trunks and stems
Boiled, use as a poultice Put two hot drops into the ears Boiled, drink the infusion Boiled, drink the infusion Milled, dry, add to the food Dried, along with other plants to make floral bouquets Pulp, eaten raw, in salads Boiled, drink as a tea Raw Dried Acorns, raw Planted in private gardens Dried
Granada
External wounds Bleeding External grain Ornamental Food Fodder
Fruit peel Fruit peel Fruit peel Whole plant Fruits Fruits
Boiled, use as a poultice Boiled, use as a poultice Boiled, use as a poultice Planted in private gardens Eaten raw Ripened, to feed pigs
Melissa officinalis L. (JGS 339)
Toronjil
Mentha x piperita L. (JGS 013)
Mentha
Mentha spicata L. (JGS 016)
Hierbabuena, yerbabuena
Ornamental Muscle aches Respiratory diseases Relaxing body Colic Food seasoning
Ocimum basilicum L. (JGS 028)
Albahaca
Ornamental Respiratory diseases Relaxing body Food seasoning
Poliomintha bustamanta B.L. Turner (EE 23398) Rosmarinus officinalis L. (JGS 085)
Orégano Romero
Teucrium cubense Jacq. (JGS 384)
Verbena
LAURACEAE Litsea pringlei Bartlett (EE 24111)
Persea americana Mill. var. drymifolia (Cham. & Schltdtl.) S. F. Blake (JGS 299)
LYHTRACEAE Punica granatum L. (JGS 184)
Inhale the smoke of dried leaves Dried, put under the pillow, the released oils can produce relaxation and sleep Planted in private gardens Boiled, drink the infusion Milled, add to the food Boiled, drink the infusion Boiled, drink the infusion Planted in private gardens Boiled, drink the infusion Dried, along with other plants to make floral bouquets Toasted, inhale the smoke of dried leaves Toasted, inhale the smoke of dried leaves Planted in private gardens Milled, used as incense Planted in private gardens Boiled, drink as a tea Boiled, drink as a tea Milled, add to food Planted in private gardens Boiled, drink as a tea Boiled, drink as a tea Boiled, drink as a tea Boiled, drink as a tea Milled, add to food, commonly used in the beef broth Planted in private gardens Boiled, drink as a tea Boiled, drink as a tea Milled, add to food
Hum Ecol Table 1 (continued) Scientific name MALVACEAE Hibiscus elegans Standl. (JGS 306) Hibsicus martianus Zucc. (EE 24082) Hibiscus tilliaceus L. (JGS 208) Malva parviflora L. (EE 23356) Malvaviscus penduliflorus Moc. & Sessé ex DC. (JGS 026) MELIACEAE Azadirachta indica Moc. & Sessé ex DC. (EE 24084) Melia azedarach L. (JGS 201) MORACEAE Ficus carica L. (EE 23006) Ficus benjamina L. (JGS 229) Morus celtidifolia Kunth (EE 23004) MYRTACEAE Eucapyptus camaldulensis Dehnh (EE 24007) Psidium guajava L. (JGS 119)
Common name
Uses
Part used
Method of use
Hibisco rojo Hibisco silvestre Hibisco Malva Tulipán
Ornamental Ornamental
Whole plant Whole plant
Planted in private gardens Planted in private gardens
Ornamental Fodder Stomach disorders
Whole plant Fruits and seeds Flowers and leaves
Planted in private gardens Raw, to feed chickens Boiled together, drink the infusion
General malaise Ornamental Ornamental Fuel
Leaves Whole plant Whole plant Trunks and stems
Boiled, drink the infusion Planted in private gardens Planted in private gardens Dried
Ficus Mora
Constipation Ornamental Ornamental Cough, colic Ornamental
Inflorescence Whole plant Whole plant Fruits Whole plant
Eaten raw or boiled Planted in private gardens Planted in private gardens Boiled, drink as tea Planted in private and public gardens
Eucalipto
Cough, sore throat
Leaves and fruits
Boiled, drink the infusion
Guayaba
Stomach disorders (vomit, diarrhea) Ornamental
Leaves and fruits
Boiled, drink the infusion
Whole plant
Planted in private gardens
Neem Canelón Higo
NYCTAGINACEAE Bougainvillea glabra Choisy (JGS 299)
Buganvilea
Colic Ornamental External tumor
Bracts Whole plant Leaves
Boiled, drink the solution Planted in private gardens Milled, boiled, and mixed with Acalypha monostachya milled leaves, apply as a poultice
OLEACEAE Fraxinus americana L. (EE 23964)
Fresno
Ornamental
Whole plant
Jazmín Trueno
Wood Ornamental Ornamental
Trunks and branches Whole plant Whole plant
Planted in public and private gardens Dried Planted in private gardens Planted in private gardens
Hierba del golpe
External wounds
Whole plants
Boiled, use decoction as poultice
Pino piñonero
Cough
Leaves
Pino halepo
Wood Ornamental
Trunks and branches Whole plant
Boiled, drink the infusion, and inhale vapor of the infusion Dried Planted in public and private gardens
PLATANACEAE Platanus occidentalis L. (EE 24121)
Sicomoro
Ornamental
Whole plant
Planted in public and private gardens
PLUMBAGINACEAE Plumbago zeylanica L. (EE 23759) POACEAE Arundo donax L. (JGS 174)
Plúmbago
Ornamental
Whole plant
Planted in private gardens
Bambú
Ornamental
Whole plant
Fences Food Fodder Fodder Stomach disorders Relaxing Fodder Fodder Fodder Food Food Fodder Intestinal parasites
Stems Seeds Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves and roots Leaves, stems Leaves Stems and leaves Seed Seed Leaves Styles
Planted in public and private gardens Dried Boiled Raw Raw Boiled, drink the infusion Boiled, drink the infusion Raw Raw Raw Cooked Cooked Raw Boiled, drink the infusion
Verdolaga
Food Fodder
Leaves, inflorescences Cooked Leaves, fruits and seeds Chicken
Brasil Abrojo
Timber Stomach disorders, colic
Wood Leaves and fruits
Dried Boiled, drink the infusion
Níspero
Digestive disorders
Fruit
Boiled, drink the infusion
Jazminum floridum Bunge (JGS 339) Ligustrum japonicum Thumb. (JGS 97) ONAGRACEAE Oenothera rosea L’Hèr. ex Aiton (EE 23694) PINACEAE Pinus cembroides Zucc. (EE 23393) Pinus halepensis Mill. (EE 23873)
Avena sativa L. (JGS 200)
Avena
Cenchrus ciliaris (EE 23874) Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf (JGS 002) Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. (EE 24097 Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers. (EE 23793) Triticum aestivum L. (EE 23693)
Zacate buffel Zacate limón
Zaea mays L. (JGS 249)
Maíz
PORTULACACEAE Portulaca pilosa L. (EE 24979) RHAMNACEAE Condalia hookeri M. C. Johnston (24562) Ziziphus obtusifolia (Hook. ex Torr & A. Gray) A. Gray (EE 24545) ROSACEAE Eriobotrya japonica (Thunb.) Lindl. (JGS 192)
Zacate estrella Sorgo Trigo
Hum Ecol Table 1 (continued) Scientific name Malus domestica Borkh. (EE 24587) Prunus armeniaca L. (EE 24591) Prunus domestica L. (EE 24581) Purshia plicata (D. Don) Henr. (EE 24795) Rosa gallica L. (JGS 187) RUTACEAE Amyris madrensis S. Watson (ee 24,555) Citrus limon (L.) Osbeck (JGS 190)
Common name
Part used
Method of use
Food Food Food Constipation Rosa de castilla Cough de monte Rosal Ornamental
Fruit Fruit Fruit Fruit pulp Flowers
Raw or cooked Raw or cooked Raw or cooked Cooked, drink the solution Boiled, drink the solution
Whole plant
Planted in private gardens
Barretilla Limón
Ornamental Relaxing Food Wood Relaxing Food Wood Relaxing Food Wood Construction
Whole plant Leaves Fruits Trunks and stems Leaves Fruits Trunks and stems Leaves Fruits Trunks and stems Trunks
Planted in private gardens Boiled, drink the infusion Raw Dried Boiled, drink the infusion Raw Dried Boiled, drink the infusion Raw Dried Fences and door frames
Abortive Earache Relaxing Ward off evil intentions Remove bad luck
Leaves and flowers Leaves Leaves Leaves
Boiled, drink the infusion Boiled, put drops into the ears Boiled, drink the infusion Dried, toasted, inhale smoke in a closed room Dried, toasted, inhale smoke in a closed room
Construction Ornamental Ornamental Headache
Trunks Whole plant Whole plant Leaves
Door frames and walls Planted in private gardens Planted in private gardens Raw, sucking sap and spit
Gastrointestinal disorders
Leaves
Boiled, drink infusion
Ornamental
Whole plant
Live fences
Food Construction
Fruits Trunks and branches
Raw Dried
Diabetes Hepatitis
Leaves Whole plant
Ornamental
Whole plant
Boiled, drink the infusion Drink the infusion, and also, mix branches and leaves in hot water in a tub, bathing in the infusion Live fences in private and public gardens
Kidney stones
Whole plant
Gastritis
Leaves
Chaparro amargoso
Amebiasis
Leaves
Boil 10 leaves in half liter of water, drink the infusion (bitter)
Zarzaparrila
Internal wounds
Root
Macerated and boiled, drink the infusion
Chile piquín
External wounds
Fruit
Macerated, milled, the pulp used as a poultice Cooked Cooked Boiled, drink the infusion Cooked Boiled, put the pulp in the wound Toasted, milled, mix with fat, spread on the affected part Cooked Milled, raw, drink
Manzana Durazno Ciruela
Citrus nobilis Lour. (JGS 259)
Mandarina
Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck (EE 23328)
Naranja
Helietta parvifolia A. Gray) Benth (EE 23987) Ruta graveolens L. (EE 23987)
Barreta
SALICACEAE Populus deltoides Marshall (EE 24873) Salix nigra Marshall (EE 24879)
Ruda
Álamo Sauce
SANTALACEAE Phoradendron villosum (Nutt.) Injerto Nutt. ex Engelm. (EE 24667) SAPINDACEAE Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq. Dodonea (EE 24675) SAPOTACEAE Sideroxylon lanuginosum Michx. (EE 24455) Coma SCROPHULARIACEAE Leucophyllum frutescens (Berland.) I.M. Johnston (EE 24144)
SELAGINELLACEAE Selaginella pilifera A. Br. (EE 2444) SIMAROUBACEAE Castela tortuosa Liebm. (EE 24472) SMILACACEAE Smilax bona-nox L. (24783) SOLANACEAE Capsicum annum L. var. glabriusculum (Dunal) Heiser & Pickersgill (EE 24561) Capsicum annum L. var. annum (EE 24562) Capsicum chinense Jacq. (EE24563)
Uses
Cenizo
Flor de peña
Leaves
Nicotiana glauca Graham (EE 24667)
Chile bolita Food (condiment) Chile habanero Food (condiment) Flu Tomate Food (condiment) Skin burns Gigante Swollen joins
Fruit Fruit Seed Fruit Fruit peel Leaves
Solanum tuberosum L. (JGS 169)
Papa
Food Painful gastric ulcers
Root Root
TURNERACEAE Turnera diffusa Willd. Ex Schult (EE 24196, 24,145)
Damiana
Aphrodisiac
Leaves and inflorescences Leaves and inflorescences
Lycopersicon escultentum Mill. (24821)
Fortifying the body
Boiled, drink the infusion for several days Boiled, drink the infusion
Boiled, drink the infusion Boiled, drink the infusion
Hum Ecol Table 1 (continued) Scientific name
ULMACEAE Celtis pallida Torr. (EE 23179)
Common name
Granjeno
Uses
Part used
Method of use
Ornamental
Whole plant
Planted in private gardens
Cough and sore throat Food Construction Sore throat Construction Food Construction Internal parasites Fuel
Leaves and fruits Fruits Wood Fruits Trunks and branches Fruits Trunks and branches Stone Trunks and branches
Boiled, drink the infusion Boiled, to make syrup To make fences Boiled, drink the infusion Dried Raw Fences Milled mixed with water, drink Dried
Celtis laevigata Willd. (24005)
Palo blanco
Persea americana Mill. (JGS 207)
Aguacate
VERBENACEAE Aloysia citridora Palau (EE 24487) Aloysia macrostachya (Torr.) Moldenke (EE 24772) Lippia graveolens Kunth (EE 24428)
Cedrón Vara dulce
Ornamental Ornamental
Whole plant Whole plant
Planted in private gardens Planted in private gardens
Orégano de campo
Stomach pain
Whole plant
Boiled, drink the infusion
Parra silvestre
Ornamental Food Ornamental
Whole plant Fruits Whole plant
Planted in private gardens Raw Planted in private gardens
External wounds Gastritis
Peeled leaves Leaves
Ceremony
Leaves
As a poultice on the wound Macerated, raw, drink the pulp dissolved in water Floral decorations in pilgrimages
Guayacán
Respiratory diseases
Leaves
Boiled, drink the infusion
Gobernadora
Kidney diseases
Leaves
Stomach pain
Leaves
Insect repellent
Dried plant
Increase fertility in women Mycosis (feet)
Leaves
Boil water, add few leaves (5–10) for fifteen seconds (it is very astringent), drink the infusion Boil water, add few leaves (5–10) for fifteen seconds (it is very astringent), drink the infusion Cluster of branches hanging on the walls Boiled, drink the infusion
Smelly feet
Leaves
VITACEAE Parthenocissus quinquefolia (L.) Planch. (EE 24982) Vitis berlandieri Planch (EE 25006) XANTHORRHOEACEAE Aloe vera L. (EE 24007)
ZYGOPHYLLACEAE Guaiacum angustifolium Engelm. (EE 23313) Larrea tridentata (Sessé & Moc. ex DC.) Coville (EE 23886)
Uva silvestre Sábila
Fabaceae, Asteraceae, Cactaceae and Lamiaceae. Among these plants, there are 139 native species and 79 introduced ones. Shrubs (37.6%) are the main growth form, followed by herbaceous forms (36.2%), and trees (26.1%). This high number is not surprising given that plant diversity in Nuevo León accounts for 3175 species, 1031 genera, and 158 families of vascular plants (Villarreal and Estrada 2008). In addition, plants with ethnobotanical uses in this area represent 41.7%, 17%, and 6.9% of the families, genera and species, respectively, of the total flora in Nuevo León. The families Fabaceae, Asteraceae, Cactaceae, Lamiaceae, and Euphorbiaceae stand out as the most diverse in their uses, not only in northeastern Mexico, but their uses have also been reported in China (Hong et al. 2015), Burkina Faso (Zizka et al. 2015), the Caribbean (Torres-Avilez et al. 2015), Spain (Benítez et al. 2010), Pakistan (Malik et al. 2015), and Ethiopia (Kefalew et al. 2015). Regionally, the number of species recorded in this northern area is higher than those recorded for the south-central region of Nuevo León (Estrada et al. 2012).
Leaves
Milled, mixed with Vaseline, spread on the feet Milled, use as talc
Plant Uses Eight major uses were recorded: ornamental, medicinal, food and seasoning, timber, fuel, fodder, handicraft, and ceremonial uses (Table 2). Quantitatively, ornamental and medicinal species are by far the most important in this area.
Ornamental Species Ornamental plants play an important role in our lives. Intuitively, people feel that contact with plants and nature is restorative and calms the spirit (Lohr et al. 1996). Today, it is recognized that green spaces in urban areas have positive effects on the quality of life and human wellbeing. Furthermore, these green spaces help preserve urban and ecological biodiversity (Benedict and McMahon 2006; Smith et al. 2006). Cultivated species (trees and shrubs) are the most diverse or-
Hum Ecol Table 2
Main categories of uses of plants in Bustamante, Nuevo León, Mexico Ornamental
Medicinal
Timber
Fuel
Food
Building
Fodder
Handicrafts
Ceremony
Native
73
83
34
32
17
22
15
4
2
Introduced
55
41
13
13
21
3
10
1
2
Wild Cultivated
59 69
72 52
29 18
27 18
8 30
19 6
16 9
4 1
2 2
Herbaceous Shrubs
31 49
53 39
0 9
0 9
20 6
0 3
13 5
0 2
0 0
Trees
48
32
38
34
12
22
7
3
4
namental species in Bustamante with the most common cultivated native species being Agave americana, Carica papaya, Euphorbia pulcherrima, Carya illinoinensis, Persea americana, and Fraxinus americana. The most common cultivated introduced species are Cascabela tevetioides, Phoenix dactylifera, Washingtonia filifera, Jacaranda mimosifolia, Cupressus sempervirens, Thuja occidentalis, Delonix regia, Punica granatum, Ficus benjamina, Prunus persica, and Citrus sinensis. At least 17 families and 19 genera of trees and shrubs recorded in Bustamante have also been found to have similar uses in other countries, such as Morocco (Focho et al. 2009). In addition, several cultivated species frequently planted as ornaments or for food in Bustamante like Citrus sinensis, Citrus limon, Carica papaya, and Persea americana are used in exactly the same way in Burundi (Bigirimana et al. 2012) and Brazil (Albuquerque et al. 2005). Moreover, these results agree partially with those obtained in Puebla (Paredes-Flores et al. 2007), where the main plant uses were similar, i.e., plants used for ornaments, fodder, food, and fuel. Interestingly, despite being a small town, Bustamante has more species recorded with ornamental and medicinal uses than the central or southern regions of this State (Estrada et al. 2007; Estrada-Castillón et al. 2014).
Medicinal Species Mexico has a diverse and deeply-rooted tradition concerning the use of medicinal plants and is second only to China in its number of medicinal plants, which total almost 4500 species (Muñetón-Pérez 2009). Indeed, almost 57% of the total species recorded in Mexico are used for medicinal purposes. Asteraeceae, Lamiaceae, Fabaceae, and Euphorbiaceae are the most important families for these purposes.These families also appear in other studies carried out in India (Panghal et al. 2010; Namsa et al. 2011), Brazil (Tribess et al. 2015), China (Zheng et al. 2013; Hong et al. 2015), Thailand (Tangjitman et al. 2015), southern Mexico (Júarez-Vázquez et al. 2013; Alonso-Castro et al. 2012), the Caribbean (Torres-Avilez et al. 2015), Pakistan (Ahmad et al. 2012), Spain (Benítez et al. 2010), and Ethiopia (Kefalew et al. 2015).
Some species are distinguished by their large number of medicinal uses such as Matricaria recutita (12), Larrea tridentata (6), Tanacetum parthenium (5), Croton suveloens (5), Litsea pringlei (4), and Pseudognaphalium canescens (4). Regarding the plant parts used for medicinal purposes, the most common are the leaves (by far the most used), stems, fruits, flowers, inflorescences, seeds, roots, and sap (Table 1). The leaves are mainly boiled, dried and milled for disease treatments. These ways of using plants have also been recorded in East Timor (Collins et al. 2007), and Kenya (Nanyingi et al. 2008). There are 13 different categories of medicinal plant use (Table 3). Most are used to treat primarily gastrointestinal and respiratory ailments or diseases. This also reflects studies in Turkey (Bulut and Tuzlaci 2013) and Italy (Leto et al. 2013). For example, Litsea pringlei is one of the most common wild species used for treatment of diarrhea, flatulence, and earache. It is also used for relaxation and food seasoning. Similar uses have been reported for other species of Litsea in Mexico (Jiménez-Pérez et al. 2011) and China (Kong et al. 2015). Turnera diffusa is another common plant with various uses such as to increase strength. This species is recognized as an aphrodisiac in Latin America and is thought to stimulate male sexual performance. It is also considered effective in treating anxiety and delayed ejaculation (Estrada-Reyes et al. 2013). With regard to the preparation of these plants for medicinal uses, there were eight main methods recorded:, 68% are used after boiling, 11% are used raw, 8% milled, 5% macerated, 4% toasted, 2% are prepared by friction, 1% cooked, and 1% melted (Table 1). Boiling is commonly used for roots, leaves, stems, inflorescences, flowers and fruits, whereas milling is used almost exclusively for leaves and roots. The prevalence of boiling for medicinal use in Bustamante is also in agreement with previous studies in countries such as Bangladesh (Kadir et al. 2012) and Tibet (Li et al. 2015). Timber and Fuel Species Unlike countries such as a number in Africa (Maundu et al. 2001; Ogunkunle and Oladele 2004) and Pakistan (Amjad and Arshad 2014; Ibrar et al. 2007), deforestation and indiscriminate use of plant resources is not a critical problem in Bustamante,
Hum Ecol Table 3 Categories of main uses of medicinal plants in Bustamante, Nuevo León, Mexico
Category
Ailment (or disease)
Number of citations
Number of species
Gastrointestinal system
43
55
Respiratory system
Constipation, colic, pain, flatulence, oral infection, headache, stomach ache, diarrhea, stomach disorders, gastritis, gum disease, vomit, worms and amoeba Cough, sore throat, asthma, nasal congestion
25
27
Wounds
External and internal
15
17
Endocrine system Dermatological
Diabetes, cancer, losing weight, hepatitis Shampoo, skin infections, dandruff, hair dye, insect repellent, mycosis (feet), smelly feet, skin burns Relaxing
13 14
15 14
Insomnia
10
10
8 8
9 6
8
9
Fever
Kidney stones or kidney pains General pain, arthritis, external tumor, swollen joins Anemia, blood circulation, measles, rubella, bleeding, varicose veins High temperature
4
3
Auditory system Ophthalmological Andrological
Earache Infection, eye washes Aphrodisiac
4 3 2
3 2 2
Urinary system Muscular skeletal system Circulatory system
since gas and not wood is the main source of energy used for cooking. In addition, the high diversity of native shrub (69 species) and native tree species (31 species) complemented with introduced species (64 species) allow a wide selection to be used for timber. The plant families most frequently used for timber and fuel are Fabaceae, Cupressaceae, Fagaceae, Juglandaceae, Rhamnaceae, Rutaceae, Salicaceae, and Ulmaceae. The main uses of these timber species are for the construction of corrals and fences (most commonly four species: Acacia farnesiana, Prosopis glandulosa, Havardia pallens and Helietta parvifolia) and the manufacture of hand tools and rustic furniture (most commonly Havardia pallens, Condalia hookeri and Ziziphus obtusifolia for hand tools such as machetes, hoes, and sickle handles, and the trunks of Taxodium huegelii, Populus deltoides and Salix nigra for water troughs for cattle. Owing to its durability when lit, wood from several species of Quercus, Pinus spp., Cupressus, Juniperus, Prosopis glandulosa, Ebenopsis ebano, Acacia farnesiana, Parkinsonia aculeata is considered valuable for charcoal and used as fuel to heat houses. Again, these uses are found elsewhere, for example, in Pakistan (Shah et al. 2007; Muhammad and Muhammad 2014), Argentina (Hunziker et al. 1986), and Cameroon (Focho et al. 2009). Food and Seasoning Species The staple diet of Bustamante residents includes the daily consumption of cultivated species such as Allium cepa and A. sativa (as condiments), Phaseolus vulgaris, Persea americana, Daucus carota, Zea mays, Triticum aestivum, Citrus limon, Solanum tuberosum, Lycopersicon esculentum, and
Capsicum annum. Several wild plant species are also consumed as part of the daily diet, such as Amaranthus palmeri, Yucca filifera, Opuntia phaeacantha, and Portulaca pilosa. Plants are often used for seasoning food and the most commonly used species in this region belong to just three families, Lamiaceae, Lauraceae, and Verbenaceae (Table 1) with Poliomintha bustamanta. The latter is an endemic species in Bustamante especially gathered for this purpose. Lippia graveolens is also frequently used for seasoning certain foods. Fodder Species Several plant species, most commonly Fabaceae and Poaceae because of their abundance in the region, are used to improve the diet of domestic livestock. In fact, legumes are the main source of food for domestic livestock and the main wild species used are Acacia berlandieri, A. farnesiana, A. greggii, Dalea greggii, Eysenhardtia texana, Leucaena leucocephala, Prosopis glandulosa and Parkinsonia aculeata. In most cases, forage for cattle consists entirely of dried corn and oat leaves, two of the most common crops in Bustamante. Owing to its efficiency in converting water to dry matter, and thus to digestible energy (Nobel 1995), Opuntia is also considered valuable as livestock feed. In particular, during the dry season, Opuntia ficus-indica is one of the main forage species used in Bustamante. Handicraft and Ceremonial Species Of the at least 541 plant species that have been documented as used to manufacture handicrafts in Mexico (Bravo and López
Hum Ecol
1999), three - Brahea dulcis, Prosopis glandulosa, and Helietta parvifolia - are used for this purpose in Bustamante. Brahea dulcis is by far the most commonly used; artisans collect and dry leaves of this species to make various craft products. Helietta parvifolia and Prosopis glandulosa are also used as the main source of wood for rustic furniture. Furthermore, nine species were recorded with different uses in ceremonial rites and religious beliefs. Most are used in funerals as floral bouquets such as Sansevieria hyacinthoides, Cupressus sempervirens, Croton suaveolens, Citrus spp., Marrubium vulgare and Litsea pringlei. Several of these species, such as Citrus, have also been recorded as involved in funeral ceremonies in Indonesia (Widjaja 1988).
Economic Botany The economy of Bustamante is based on pecan nut cultivation (Carya illinionensis), which is one of the main sources of income for regional producers who also harvest several wild species such as Brahea dulcis, Helietta parvifolia Prosopis glandulosa, Poliomintha bustamanta, Croton suaveolens, Lippia graveolens, and Litsea pringlei. At present, there are at least 15 nuclear families engaged in pecan nut growing in Bustamante. To supplement their incomes, these families also dry and braid palm fibers to produce different handicrafts for sale, such as bedrolls, tablecloths, and the backs for chairs, rocking chairs, and benches. This use of palm fibers is common in other countries too; for example, the palm Bactris setosa is used to make baskets in Brazil (Sato-Duarte et al. 2012), and fibers from the young leaves of the Astrocaryum chambira are extracted to be woven into hammocks, bags, and nets in Ecuador (Holm Jensen and Balslev 1995). Additionally, the dried and/or ground leaves of Poliomintha bustamanta, Croton suaveolens, Lippia graveolens and Litsea pringlei are sold by some Bustamante residents. The leaves are packed in bags of 100 g or 200 g and sold at $1.00 or $2.00 USD, respectively. Another commercial plant use is the stems of Opuntia ficus-indica, which are cut into pieces and sold as fresh vegetables: a bag of 1 kg sells at $1.50 (USD). This plant is abundant in many private gardens in the region. Finally, the inflorescences (with immature flowers) of Yucca filifera are cut and sold at $2.50 (USD); the sale of this product generally lasts only from April to May.
Conclusions The inhabitants of Bustamante depend on plants for many of their everyday needs. Indeed, the local flora plays an important role in the lives of residents by providing ornaments, medicines, food/seasoning, and timber among other uses. Trees and shrubs are the main ornamental species, but many of them are also used for timber, medicine, and food.
Regarding medicinal uses, we conclude that leaves and fruits are the main plant parts used and boiling is the most common method of preparation. These plants are then used to treat a range of ailments including gastrointestinal and respiratory illnesses and for healing wounds. Additionally, some species are used for timber, though timber extraction is not intensive in this area. The most common timber species recorded are the legumes such as Acacia farnesiana, Prosopis glandulosa, Havardia pallens, Ebenopsis ebano, and Parkinsonia aculeata. As for generating income, Carya illinoinensis (pecan) and Brahea dulcis (fibers) are the most economically important cultivated and wild species, respectively, in Bustamante. The sale of the dried leaves of four medicinal and seasoning species also supplements some residents’ incomes (Poliomintha bustamanta, Lippia graveolens, Litsea pringlei and Croton suaveolens). It is worth highlighting how the combination of empirical and scientific knowledge of plants encourages and expands the basis for the sustainable use and conservation of plant diversity. For example, there has been recent interest shown by pharmaceutical companies in the conservation of plant communities where Turnera diffusa Willd is found due to its aphrodisiac properties, which were already well known by local populations. Thus, these plants can be an important economic alternative. Moreover, with greater education and awareness of their uses, they may serve to encourage local authorities to increase plant conservation efforts in these areas. Acknowledgments We are very grateful to the residents of Bustamante for sharing their knowledge about useful plants. We thank PAICYT (Programa de Apoyo a la Investigación Científica y Tecnológica) of the Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León for the economic support to conduct this study. Compliance with Ethical Standards The manuscript complies with the Ethical Rules applicable for the Human Ecology journal. As indicated in acknowledgments, this study was funded by PAICYT (Programa de Apoyo a la Investigación Científica y Tecnológica) of the Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León. Conflict with Interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
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