Evidence of Concurrent Validity of SII Scores for Asian ...

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evidence of validity for interest inventory scores for college students has been lim- ... 71% hit rate for college men for college major during a 3½ year interval.
Evidence of Concurrent Validity of SII Scores for Asian American College Students Jo-Ida C. Hansen W. Vanessa Lee University of Minnesota The validity of scores on the Strong Interest Inventory (SII) for Asian American college students has not been thoroughly investigated. This study examined the evidence of validity of the SII Occupational Scale scores for predicting college major choices of Asian American women and men and White women and men. The sample included 186 female and 133 male college students. Forty-six percent of the sample was Asian American and 54% was White. Acculturation also was tested for its moderating effect on predictive accuracy of the SII scores for Asian American participants. In aggregate the results support the use of the SII with Asian American college students. Keywords: Asian American college students, concurrent validity, interest measurement, Strong Interest Inventory

Asian American students are among the fastest growing ethnic group on college and university campuses, and increasingly they are taking advantage of career counseling services that include assessment of interests (Leong, 1991). Yet evidence of validity for interest inventory scores for college students has been limited to data gathered primarily from White students (Hansen & Neuman, 1999; Hansen & Tan, 1992). The current study, which included Asian American and White college students, was designed to address this shortcoming with the Strong Interest Inventory (SII; Hansen & Campbell, 1985; Harmon, Hansen, Borgen, & Hammer, 1994). Survey research has shown that the SII is one of the most frequently used instruments in college counseling (Watkins, 1993). Thus, the importance of investigating the validity of SII scores for Asian American college students is evident. The intention was to test the extent to which Occupational Scale scores (OSs) concurrently predicted the participants’ declared college majors. In addition, the extent to which acculturation moderated the predictive accuracy of the SII scores was examined.

JOURNAL OF CAREER ASSESSMENT, Vol. 15 No. 1, February 2007 DOI: 10.1177/1069072706294514 © 2007 Sage Publications

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Historically, one of the strengths of the Strong Interest Inventory (SII) has been the evidence of validity available to test users to aid them in judging the SII’s usefulness with various client cohorts. Studies dating back to the 1950s have examined the extent to which the scale scores predict occupational and college major choice. For example, in 1954, McArthur found that 75% of public school college students were in occupations that matched a high OS score on the SII score from 14 years earlier; in 1972, Dolliver, Irvin, and Bigley found that 54% of a sample of men entered occupations that matched OSs on which they scored in the “similar” range 12 years earlier, and in 1979, Spokane found a 59% hit rate for college women and 71% hit rate for college men for college major during a 3½ year interval. In addition to evidence of predictive validity for SII scores, concurrent validity studies usually have found predictive accuracy between OS scores and chosen college major at about the 65% level or higher. Hansen and Swanson (1983) found a hit rate of 75% for women and 84% for men during their senior year for the match between declared college majors and the OS representing the major. Hansen and Tan (1992) also reported a high hit rate for declared college major—80% for college women and 83% for college men. Hansen and Neuman (1999) found slightly lower hit rates: 64.5% for college women and 72.7% for college men. However, the samples used in these and other concurrent validity studies were predominantly (i.e., at least 85%) White. Only a small number of studies have examined the evidence of concurrent validity with ethnically diverse samples. For example, Fouad and Hansen (1987) assessed the criterion-related validity of SII scores for Mexican college students who were majoring in engineering and law. They hypothesized that engineering was a less culture-bound occupation than law. Therefore, they expected stronger evidence of validity for Engineer Scale scores to predict the choice of an engineering college major than for Lawyer Scale scores to predict choice of law as a major. The results of the study supported their hypotheses. However, scores on the Engineer and Lawyer Scales predicted choice of college major at a rate significantly higher than chance. Another study assessing evidence of concurrent validity for SII scores, conducted by Haviland and Hansen (1987), focused on a sample of female and male American Indians. They found that 64% of the women and 44% of the men scored at least 40 or higher on the OS that matched their declared college major. In addition, a few studies have used scores on the SII General Occupational Themes (GOT) to explore the extent to which Holland’s (1990) hexagonal model of the structure of interests generalizes to the interests of ethnic minorities. For example, Fouad, Harmon, and Borgen (1997) concluded, in a study that used the SII GOT to operationalize Holland’s six types, that the interest structure of ethnic minorities is similar to that of their nonminority counterparts. Moreover, Lattimore and Borgen (1999) examined the GOT and found evidence to support the use of these SII scales with ethnic minority students that received college educations. Fouad (2002) also studied the same topic using the GOT from the SII and found similar results.

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Nevertheless, previous research on career development and decision-making processes suggests some variations between Asian Americans and European Americans that may have implications for the usefulness of interest inventories for predicting college major selection and career choices for Asian Americans. A study by Leong (1991) pointed out that Asian Americans have career development patterns that are distinct from Whites. He suggested that when choosing a career, Asian Americans are more likely to choose an occupation that would fulfill extrinsic needs such as prestige, earning power, and job security. Betz (2004) argued that instead of seeking jobs that match their interests, Asian American women settle for jobs that seem more culturally acceptable or gender-role appropriate. Moreover, some researchers proposed that the role of family should be taken into account when examining Asian Americans’ career decision-making process (Leong, Kao, & Lee, 2004). Another factor that may have an impact on the career assessment and counseling process is acculturation. Acculturation is defined by Leong (1985) and others (e.g., Park & Harrison, 1995) as an individual’s level of assimilation and adaptation into the mainstream culture. Some researchers have argued that a better understanding of the way in which acculturation affects ethnic minority clients would paint a more complete picture of client needs (Kim & Abreu, 2001). Acculturation has been found to be related to several factors for Asian Americans such as psychological well-being and preference in choosing a counselor (Kim, Atkinson, & Yang, 1999). In recent years, acculturation has been studied in relation to vocational psychology and has been found to have an impact on career decision making of Asian Americans. Leong and Gim-Chung (1995), for example, hypothesized that Asian Americans, who were more acculturated, would be more likely than less acculturated individuals to view their careers as self-realization instead of defining their careers as an obligation to their families. Similarly, they suggested that less acculturated Asian Americans are less likely to choose occupations based on their own interests than are more acculturated Asian Americans. Park and Harrison (1995) also echoed this viewpoint. Moreover, a study by Tang, Fouad, and Smith (1999) assessed the extent to which acculturation was a moderator of Asian Americans’ career choice. They found that individuals with higher acculturation levels entered occupations less typically chosen by Asian Americans. Tang et al. (1999) also found that acculturation had a strong relationship with Asian Americans’ career development, which was consistent with previous findings. The authors further claimed that those who were more comfortable with American culture (i.e., higher level of acculturation) would choose occupations that might challenge certain stereotypical beliefs about their original culture (Tang et al., 1999). The current study, which included Asian American and White students, was designed to address the concern that evidence of validity for SII scores for predicting college majors is based primarily on data collected from White samples. To the best of our knowledge, no study has examined the evidence of criterion-related

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validity using the OS scores for Asian American samples. Thus, the results from the current study provide validity generalization for the use of SII scores with collegeaged Asian Americans. The intention was to test the extent to which OS scores concurrently predicted participants’ declared college majors. Furthermore, a White college student sample was collected from the same pool of potential participants. This design provides additional evidence on which conclusions can be based. In addition, previous research on the effect of acculturation on the interest structure of Asian Americans suggests that it may influence interest development and career choices. Therefore, acculturation of Asian American students was examined to explore the extent to which it moderated the predictive accuracy of the SII scores.

METHOD Participants The sample included 186 females (58.6%) and 133 males (42%) from a Midwestern university. Fifty-four percent of the sample self-identified as White Americans and 46% self-identified as Asian Americans. The mean age of the Asian American and White American samples was 19.8 years and 19.5 years, respectively. The mean GPA for Asian Americans and White Americans was 3.24. Twenty percent of the Asian American and White American samples were freshmen. Several ethnicities were represented in the Asian American sample: Hmong (21.6%), Vietnamese (20.3%), Chinese (14.2%), Korean (10.1%), Filipino (8.1%), Indian (5.4%), and others (20.3%; including Japanese, Thai, Indonesians, etc.). The total number of declared majors represented in the current study was approximately 60. Psychology majors made up 13.0% of the total sample; business and related majors were about 19.4%; education majors were 6.6%; and engineering, computer science, and architecture majors were 7.0% of the total sample. The participants were divided into four groups: Asian American women (n = 89), Asian American men (n = 59), White American women (n = 97), and White American men (n = 74).

Measures Strong Interest Inventory (SII). The SII (Hansen & Campbell, 1985; Harmon et al., 1994) has three sets of scales that measure interests: the General Occupational Themes (GOT), the Basic Interest Scales (BIS), and the Occupational Scales (OSs). There is adequate empirical evidence for the validity of the SII scores for White Americans (Hansen & Dik, 2005; Hansen & Sackett, 1993; Hansen & Swanson, 1983). Evidence of test–retest reliability during 30-day and 3-year time intervals also is substantial (Hansen & Campbell, 1985). The OSs represent the interests of people in specific occupations (e.g., lawyers, life insurance agents, electricians), and these scales were the focal point for the current study.

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Suinn-Lew Asian Self-Identity Acculturation Scale (SL-ASIA). The SL-ASIA (Suinn, Rickard-Figueroa, Lew, & Vigil, 1987) is a 26-item instrument constructed to differentiate Asian Americans with high acculturation from those with low acculturation. An alpha coefficient of .91 for college students was reported by Tang et al. (1999). A cross-cultural study also reported evidence of validity for the SL-ASIA as a measure of acculturation (Suinn, Khoo, & Ahuna, 1995). The alpha coefficient for the current study’s Asian American sample was .88.

Procedure Participants, recruited from undergraduate psychology courses, were asked to complete a packet that contained the SII and the SL-ASIA and were given extra credit when they turned in their packets. The McArthur method (1954) was used to analyze the data. This method involves determining a “hit rate” by calculating the percentage of participants’ high scores on OSs that match their college majors. An OS score below 39 is considered a “miss”; a score between 40 and 44 is a “good hit”; a score of 45 and higher is an “excellent hit.” The McArthur method for determining hit rates has been used with most previous concurrent and predictive validity studies for the SII and was used in the current study to allow comparison to earlier research. For most declared majors there was a direct match between the declared major criterion and the OS predictor (e.g., a major in social work and the Social Worker OS); for a few majors the match was less clear. For these majors, OSs with similarities in activities were selected to represent the major (e.g., a major in history and the Social Science Teacher OS). For the test of acculturation as a moderator, the Asian sample was divided into two groups—the 50 participants with the lowest scores on the SL-ASIA (M = 2.35, SD = .34) and the 50 participants with the highest scores on the SL-ASIA (M = 3.48, SD = .21).

RESULTS The concurrent validity hit rates for the White men, reported in Table 1, were in line with expectations and past research. Eighty-one percent of the sample scored 40 or higher (i.e., at least a good hit) on the OS that matched their declared college majors. The hit rates for the Asian American women (57%), Asian American men (54%), and White women (58%) were not significantly different from one another, and the effect sizes for the comparison were small. The hit rates for these samples were significantly different (i.e., lower) than the hit rates for the White men with White women, χ2 = 10.49, p = .00, effect size (ES) = .25); with Asian American women, χ2 = 10.52, p = .001, ES = .25; with Asian American men, χ2 = 11.09, p = .001, ES = .29. To better understand the nuances of the hit rate results for the White women and Asian American women and men we conducted a major-by-major analysis

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Table 1 Concurrent Prediction of SII Scores for Declared College Major for Asian American and White Women and Men Asian American Women (89)

Asian American Men (59)

White American Women (97)

White American Men (74)

Hit Category

n

%

n

%

n

%

n

%

Excellent Moderate Poor

36 15 38

40.4 16.9 42.7

27 5 27

45.8 8.5 45.8

43 13 4

44.3 13.4 42.3

45 15 14

.8 20.3 18.9

Note. SII = Strong Interest Inventory. Numbers in parentheses are sample sizes.

Table 2 Concurrent Prediction of SII Scores for Specific Declared Majors Good and Excellent Hit Rate Percentages

Majors Business Teaching Technical and/or engineering Psychology

Asian American Women

Asian American Men

White American Women

White American Men

100 66 33 20

87 60 73 33

79 91 0 24

91 100 80 50

Note. SII = Strong Interest Inventory.

to determine if some SII OS scores were more predictive of declared college major than were others. We expected, for example, that college majors leading directly to jobs in the workplace (e.g., engineering or business) would be more accurately predicted by scores on the OS than would be a major such as psychology which often does not lead directly to occupations in the field. Given the relatively small sample size for each major, we were able to examine only four general areas: majors in psychology, teaching, business, and technical and/or engineering fields. Even for these majors, the sample sizes were small; however, the relative consistency of the results, reported in Table 2, across the four samples suggested some interesting trends. Within each sample the hit rates for some OSs were especially notable. For example, 91% of those White women declaring education as a major scored 40 or higher on the matching teaching scale (e.g., Elementary Teacher, Music Teacher, English Teacher). Similarly, 79% of those declaring business or finance as a major scored high on

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Table 3 Chi-Square Comparison Using Level of Acculturation and Good and Excellent Hit Percentages Good and Excellent Hits Sample High acculturation (n = 50) Low acculturation (n = 50) N χ2 (Significance) = .891 (p = .345)

Observed N

Expected N

24 31 55

27.5 27.5

a matching scale. On the other hand, no White woman declaring a major in engineering, computer science, or architecture scored high on the matching OS, and only 24% of the psychology majors scored high on the Psychologist scale. The White men, who declared a major in education, were similar in hit rates to the White women, with 100% of them scoring 40 or higher on a matching scale (e.g., Elementary Education Teacher, Social Science Teacher, etc.). Those who declared business or finance as majors also had a high hit rate of 91%. Unlike the White women, 80% of the White men who declared engineering, computer science, or architecture as a major scored high on the matching scale, and 50% of the psychology majors scored high on the Psychologist scale. Most patterns for the Asian American women and men, with the exception of teaching, were similar to those of the White samples. One hundred percent of the Asian American women and 87% of the Asian American men scored high on the OS related to their declared major in business or finance. Only 33% of the Asian American women, yet 73% of the Asian American men, who declared majors in architecture, computer science, or engineering scored high on matching scales. Similar to the White female sample, only 20% of the Asian American women and 33% of the Asian American men who declared majors in psychology actually scored high on the Psychologist scale. The hit rates for the Asian American women and men choosing education as a major were 66% and 60%, respectively, which were lower than the hit rates for the White women (91%) and White men (100%). We also tested the moderating effect of acculturation, as measured by the SL-ASIA, on the predictive accuracy of the OS for the Asian American participants. On average the entire sample scored at about the midpoint (3.0 on a scale of 1 to 5) on the SL-ASIA (M = 2.90, SD = .52). To study the moderating effect of acculturation, we selected the 50 highest (M = 3.48, SD = .34) and 50 lowest (M = 2.35, SD = .21) participants scoring on the SL-ASIA and compared the percentage hit rate for these two samples using chi-square statistic. The difference in hit rate for the two samples was statistically insignificant (see Table 3). In other words, acculturation did not moderate the predictive accuracy of the SII scores for college

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Table 4 GOT Realistic Investigative Artistic Social Enterprising Conventional

Correlations Between SII GOT and SL-ASIA Scores Acculturation

p

.041 –.051 .032 .033 –.008 –.003

.624 .859 .702 .687 .992 .973

Note. SII = Strong Interest Inventory; SL-ASIA = Suinn–Lew Asian Self-Identity Acculturation Scale; GOT = General Occupational Themes.

major selection. To further explore the relationship between acculturation and vocational interests, we computed the product–moment correlations between acculturation scores and scores on the SII GOT that measure Holland’s (1990) six interest types. All correlations, reported in Table 4, were statistically insignificant.

DISCUSSION The hit rate of 81% for the White males is consistent with earlier research that has examined the evidence of concurrent validity of SII scores for predicting college majors. Hansen and Tan (1992), for example, reported a hit rate of 83%, and Hansen and Swanson (1983) reported a hit rate of 84%. However, the hit rate (58%) for White women was lower relative to other studies that have found hit rates more similar to those found for the White men. For example, Hansen and Tan (1992) reported a hit rate of 79% for women, and Hansen and Swanson (1983) reported a hit rate of 80% for women. This lower hit rate for White women, which reflected the lower hit rates for Asian American women (57%) and men (54%), prohibited us from drawing a strong conclusion about the efficacy of the SII scores for Asian Americans without further investigation. Chance hit rates, the percentages of OS scores expected to exceed 40 by chance, also were calculated for each group. In our sample, Asian American women had a chance hit rate of 24.9%, Asian American men had a 20.0% chance hit rate, and White American women and men had a chance hit rate of 25.0%. These chance hit rates correspond with results from previous research that were in the 20% to 26% range (Hansen & Dik, 2005; Hansen & Sackett, 1993). Although the hit rates for all groups except the White men were lower than anticipated, the level of predictive accuracy still exceeded the hit rate that one would expect by chance. This suggests that the SII OS scores do provide useful information for college major choice for all four groups of participants. Examination of the distribution of majors for each sample brought to light the large number of White men with declared majors in business and finance (n = 34)

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compared to the number of White women (n = 14), Asian American women (n = 12), and Asian American men (n = 13) who declared these majors. This disproportional number of participants, combined with the high hit rate for the OSs representing those occupations, accounted for the overall elevated hit rate for White men compared to the hit rates for the other three samples. We were surprised to find that the hit rate for the women, Asian American and White, who had chosen majors in engineering, computer science, and architecture were lower than those for the men in the current study. This result is not explained by the normative samples to which the women were compared because the SII profile reports standardized scores for each of these scales normed on women who had degrees appropriate to the occupation, who had been in the occupation for at least 3 years, and who indicated that they were satisfied with the occupation. These results suggest the importance of ongoing programs designed to help high school students preview and experience occupations prior to making their educational decisions. The current study also examined the extent to which acculturation moderated the predictive accuracy of the SII scores. The chi-square comparison showed no significant differences between level of acculturation and the percentage of good and excellent hits. The results contradict the results of Tang et al. (1999) who reported that acculturation influenced “Asian-Americans self-efficacy, interests, and career choice” (p. 151). However, the designs of the two studies were quite different, and Tang et al.’s (1999) measurement of interests was limited to the use of Holland’s (1990) six vocational types that are represented on the SII by the GOT. To better integrate our results with the extant literature, we correlated the acculturation scores derived from the SL-ASIA with the scores for each of the GOTs. Park and Harrison (1995) used the same approach with interest scores from the Self-Directed Search (Holland, 1990) and acculturation scores from the SL-ASIA. They found significant (p < .05) negative correlations between acculturation and Investigative scores (r = –.15) and Conventional scores (r = –.14). Although the correlations in the Park and Harrison study were significant, the effect sizes were small. For our sample, none of the correlations between acculturation and scores for the six interest types were significant (e.g., the correlation of acculturation with R = .04; with I = -.05; with A = .03; with S = .03; with E = –.01; and with C = .00). Taken in aggregate and compared to the chance hit rate, the results suggest that the OS scores of the SII are useful predictors of chosen college major for Asian American college students. Our results also suggest that acculturation does not moderate the predictive accuracy of the SII scores. The results increase the confidence one can place in using the SII with a broad spectrum of Asian American college students. One caveat, of course, is that this is only one study, and the research was conducted with Asian American college students who had English language skills necessary for responding to the SII. These results should not be generalized to individuals who do not have English reading skills at the ninth-grade reading level that is recommended for the SII (Harmon et al., 1994).

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For example, individuals who are very recent immigrants or international students may have difficultly interpreting many of the items. For these individuals the ideal situation will be one that allows them to explore their interests using an instrument that is presented in their first language. One shortcoming of the current study was the small number of participants in each specific major. Nonetheless, results from the major-by-major analysis suggested that additional research should be done to explore the accuracy of individual OSs for predicting college majors. On one hand, low hit rates may be evidence of shortcomings in an OS for predicting college major choice. On the other hand, low hit rates may have occurred for individuals who ultimately change their majors to a major that better matches their interests. A longitudinal study that tracked individuals throughout their college years and on into the work place would help to tease out the extent to which mismatches in interests and chosen majors predict (a) changes in chosen majors or (b) entry into occupations unrelated to their chosen college major, but related to high scores on the SII.

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