Exposure to Radio

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Exposure to Radio

Exposure to Radio

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Comparison of ~Media Use by Social Variable ~Memory News ~ Newspaper Online Media Political Knowledge Readership Research ~ Research Methods ~Soft News Sports and the Media, History of ~ Survey Visuals, Cognitive Processing of

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References and Suggested Readings Bogart, L. (1989). Press and public: Who reads what, when, where, and why in American newspapers. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Christmann, U. (2004). Lesen [Reading]. In R. Mangold, P. Vorderer, & G. Bente (eds.), Lehrbuch der Medienpsychologie. Göttingen: Hogrefe, pp. 420-436. Demers, D., & Viswanath, K. (eds.) (1999). Mass media, social ,control, and social change: A macrosocial perspective. Ames: Iowa State University Press. Hasebrink, U„ & Herzog, A. (2004). Mediennutzung im internationalen Vergleich [International comparison of media use]. In Hans Bredow Institute (ed.), Internationales Handbuch Medien. Baden-Baden: Nomos, pp. 136-158. Lauf, E. (2001). The vanishing young reader: Socio-demographic determinants of newspaper use as a source of political information in Europe 1980-1998. European Journal of Communication, 16, 233-243. Schönbach, K., Lauf, E., McLeod, J. & Scheufele, D. (1999). Distinction and integration: Sociodemographic determination of newspaper reading in the USA and Germany 1974-1996. European Journal of Communication, 14, 225-239. Waal, E. de, Schönbach, K„ & Lauf, E. (2005). Online newspapers: A substitute or complement for print newspapers and other information channels? Communications, 30, 55-72. Wiegand, J. (ed.) (1996). Erhebungsmodelle in der Printmedienforschung und ihre Bewertung im internationalen Vergleich [The survey model in print media research]. Frankfurt: Auftragsforschung. World Association of Newspapers (2003). World press trends 2003: The definitive guide to the changes taking place in the press industry around the world. Paris: WAN. van der Wurff, R., & Lauf, E. (eds.) (2005). Print and online newspapers in Europe: A comparative analysis in 16 countries. Amsterdam: Het Spinhuis.

Exposure to Radio Holger Schramm University of Zurich

Radio is the medium with the highest relevance for media users in daily life - at least with respect to the amount of exposure time (--7 Radio; Radio: Social History). In western industrialized countries, people listen to radio for about three hours each day, with about 80 percent of daily reach (Table 1). Radio consumption has decreased massively since the beginning of the twenty-first century, especially among people under the age of 40, due to the increasing use of mobile music media like MP3 players (Schramm 2006). About 90 percent of the radio consumption occurs while people pursue other activities at the same time, such as eating, working at home (e.g., cleaning, cooking, ironing), working outside home (e.g., gardening, office work), or car driving. For instance, 85 percent of US Americans listen to the radio during

Table 1

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Exposure to radio in selected countries

Country Po land Germ.any UK France Romania Spain Italy USA Sweden Switzerland (German part)

Daily reach (%)

Listening duration (min)

77.4 81.8 80.2 83.6 46.4 56.0 67.8 76.9 77.5 93.1

325 218 205 191 191 185 182 180 163 131

Source: IP Networks (2002)

morning drive time (6 a.m. to 10 a.m. weekdays), and 80 percent listen during afternoon drive time (3 p.m. to 7 p.m.; MacFarland 1997). Studies have shown that radio music listening can positively affect reaction ti~e during simple routine driving (for example, monotonous driving on a highway) and negatively during difficult, demanding driving (for example, in heavy city traffit). In addition, loud music can lead to driving faster, while slower music can lead to improving reaction time in dangerous situations. ff a driver experiences music as pleasant, the number of driving mistakes is often reduced. . Besides the central function of accompanying other activities in order to ease workload, to abridge time, and to compensate monotony, primarily emotional motives can be identified in radio use (MacFarland 1997; Rubin & Step 2000; Schramm 2006; --7 Affects and Media Exposure). To these belong mood regulation (--7 Mood Management), stimulation of excitation, activation versus damping/catalyzing of excitation, abreaction, relaxation (--7 Excitation and Arousal), wallowing in memories, distraction, day dreaming . (--7 Escapism), social belonging, affiliation (--7 Social Identity Theory), distinction, social comparison (--7 Social Comparison Theory), --7 parasocial interactions and relationships, social alternative, and --7 information seeking and life assistance (--7 Audience; Audience Research). FORMATS AND MUSIC CONFIGURATIONS

The main motive for turning to radio and the primary content of most radio programs is music (aside from news and talk radio) with a music portion, on average, of about 70 percent. According to MacFarland (1997), the most popular music format is adult contemporary (AC) with a target group aged between 25 and 49 years. Its features are hits from the 1980s and 1990s and current hits, primary melodic pop and rock songs, an extensive playlist, and a moderate/reserved young presentation/moderation. Its variations are "hot AC:' ((soft AC;' and ((oldie base AC." The format contemporary hit radio (CHR)

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Exposure to Radio

Exposure to Radio

targets teenagers and young adults between 14 and 29 years. lt plays current top-40 hits, has a very small playlist, variance in music genres only according to the formation of the charts, and a young, fresh presentation/moderation. Its variations are, among others, "mainstream CHR;, ''dance-oriented CHR;, and "rock-oriented CHR:, The format rock! album oriented rock (AOR) was created as a backlash against the CHR formats. Its target group consists of higher educated people aged 18 and older. lt plays progressive rock music, mainly album songs that have never been in the charts. The presentation/moderation style is unobtrusive and factual. The oldies/gold format is mostly concentrated on songs from one specific decade, e.g., songs from the 1940s and 1950s (rock 'n' roll), the 1960s (beat), or the 1970s (disco). The target group is at least 30 years old, depending on the music genre/decade. Further common formats includ~ "country;, "urban contemporary;, "Hispanic,„ "Classic;, and jazz (~ Audience Segmentation)., In order to create music programs compatible with large groups of people, the degree of complexity of radio music must remain rather low (Barnes 1989; Ahlkvist & Fisher 2000); consequently, music research conducted by radio stations remains rather simple (Schramm et al. 2002). One can assume that most radio stations would rather offer music programs at the lowest common complexity level and risk boring the audience than overtax and possibly lose them (Schramm 2006). Because of the fact that "activation„ diminishes when people listen to a series of titles with a similar complexity level, radio programmers take certain tonal-structural contrasts between the titles into account when putting together radio programs, specifically changes between fast, more activating, and slow, more calming titles (MacFarland 1997). A radio program can be diversified by changes between music genres, as far as the format allows (for example, switching between pop, rock, soul, rhythm and blues, hip hop, etc.), female and male singers, pure instrumental and vocal, fast/activating and slow/calming songs, old and new songs, text languages, well-known and unknown songs, and changes in the song,s mood, for example -changes between happy and sad songs. LISTENING MODES

Music listening is composed of cognitive, affective, and behavioral elements; in other words, it is determined by mental/intellectual elements (music structure, composition idea, and construction), psychological-emotional elements (sound, sensual stimulation), and physical elements (rhythmic components). Roughly, we differentiate between intentional/ concentrated and unintentional/distracted listening, whereas most radio listening can be assigned to the latter. Moreover, music research has identified quite a number of different listening modes (Schramm 2006). "Motor or kinetic listening„ is associated with bodily movements while "compensatory listening„ leads to repression of unpleasant moods. "Physiological listening„ comes along with physical reactions such as goose bumps. Listening is called "diffuse or vague listening„ when the audience member performs other activities parallel to listening to the radio. Other forms include "emotional listening„ (associated with emotional abandonment to music), "sentimental listening„ (associated with memories of past experiences), "associative listening„ (associated with visual concepts or images), and "distanced listening„ (associated with analytical, evaluating attitudes). The mode of radio use can be composed

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of different listening modes at the same time, e.g., analytical listening can positively influence the intensity of emotional listening and vice versa. AUDIENCE TESTS

. Because of individual differences in abilities and capacities in the perception of music, it is very difficult to develop radio programs which will be favorably evaluated and used regularly by a large group of people (~Information Processing). Nevertheless, radio stations try to reach this ambitious goal by relying on standardized music research (Fletcher 1987; Balon 1990; ~ Test Th~ory). This research is primarily assigned to check the acceptance of each song and to avoid audience switching to competitor stations. Within the music research of commercial stations, two kinds of music tests stand out: telephone surveys/ "call-outs„ and audience/auditorium tests. Telephone ~ surveys are faster and more favorable, and are preferred by most radio stations. Every week or at least every two weeks, 30-50 music titles in the form of hooks (salient excerpts from a title with a length of approximately 8-12 seconds and with the highest presumed recognition value, most often from the refrain) are played over the phone to approximately 100-+200 people randomly selected from the target group ( ~ Sampling, Random). The sample judges every title along several evaluative criteria. As a rule, these criteria involve thr~e aspects: familiarity ("Have you heard this title before?„), pleasure ("How do you like this title?„), and saturation ("Would you like to hear this music title on your favorite radio program more often?„). In the case of saturation (or "burnouC), listeners are asked whether they hear these titles too often. In telephone surveys in particular, the test titles are those that receive very frequent airplay, and therefore have a high rotation rate, where saturation tendencies are more likely to occur. Telephone surveys have the advantages of quickly gauging the mood changes of listeners and of continuously observing music title developments over short intervals. Accordingly, radio programmers can include or exclude titles with certain characteristic values of current interest from their playlists. Off and on, radio researchers ask additional questions that go beyond the three above-mentioned criteria. For example, they inquire about 'station affinity ("To which radio station does the title fit?"), emotional expression of the music, or the desired time of the day during which the music should be played. In data analysis the researchers compile the results from the three criteria (familiarity, pleasure, and saturation) in a so-called "power score„ and, through combination with media use data by socio-demographic variables, create target-group-specific title indexes that indicate which title is preferred by which group of listeners. Enriched with additional information about various music parameters, such as music genre, tempo, instrumentation, gender of the performer, lead-in time to the beginning of singing, title length, the way the title ends ("cold„ =abrupt end; "cold fade/quick„ =quick fade-out; "fade„ = slow fade-out), and the desired rotation, the data are fed into the data banks. Based on these data, special computer programs such as "Selector„ compute music programming lists that target a specific group of listeners. Subsequently, a music editor has to revise these lists in ways that guarantee a harmonious music program reflecting the philosophy of the radio station.

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Exposure to Radio

The second method, audience or auditorium tests, costs more and, for this reason, is funded only once or twice a year by radio stations. For audience tests, a group of up to 300 persons is recruited (in most cases reflecting the socio-demographic composition of the target group) and invited to a large auditorium like a movie theater or hotel hall. There they listen to hundreds of music titles in the form of hooks and evaluate them according to the criteria mentioned above. The group listens to the titles either together on a stereo set (here mutual distractions and possible group behavior limit the validity of the data) or they listen to the titles in an individual random sequence through headphones. In the first phase, sequence effects are neutralized by playing the titles in reverse order (the mirror image method) to a second group of the same size. Such audience tests work well in testing large parts of the playlist, as well as tho'se titles that do not appear on the highest rotation. They also have the advantage of generating a great amount of data in a short time and improving the sound quality of the hooks, or, if headphones are used, optimizing that sound quality, as compared to telephone interviews. SEE ALSO: ~ Affects and Media Exposure ~ Audience ~ Audience Research ~Audi­ ence Segmentation ~ Escapism ~ Excitation and Arousal ~ Information Processing ~Information Seeking ~ Mood Management ~ Parasocial Interactions and Relationships ~ Radio ~ Radio: Social History ~ Sampling, Random ~ Social Comparison Theory ~ Social Identity Theory ~ Survey ~ Test Theory References and Suggested Readings Ahlkvist, J. A., & Fisher, G. (2000). And the hits just keep on coming: Music programming standardization in commercial radio. Poetics, 27, 301-325. Balon, R. E. (1990). Radio in the '90s: Audience, promotion and marketing strategies. Washington, DC: National Association of Broadcasters. Barnes, K. (1989). Top 40 radio: A fragment of the imagination. In S. Frith (ed.), Facing the music. New York: Pantheon, pp. 8-50. Fleming, C. (2002). The radio handbook, 2nd edn. London: Routledge. Fletcher, J. E. (1987). Music and program research. Washington, DC: National Association of Broadcasters. IP Networks (2002). Radio 2002: International key facts. Paris: IP. MacFarland, D. T. (1997). Future radio programming strategies: Cultivating listenership in the digital age. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Rubin, A. M., & Step, M. M. (2000). Impact of motivation, attraction, and parasocial interaction on talk-radio listening. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 44, 635-654. Schramm, H. (2006). Consumption and effects of music in the media. Communication Research Trends, 25( 4), 3-29. Schramm, H., Petersen, S., Rütter, K., & Vorderer, P. (2002). Wie kommt die Musik ins Radio? Stand und Stellenwert der Musikforschung bei deutschen Radiosendern [How does music come into radio? Status and significance of music tests in German radio stations]. Medien und Kommunikationswissenschaft, 50, 22 7-246.

Exposure to Television

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Exposure to Television Uwe Hasebrink University of Hamburg

Research on exposure to --7 television builds a large and heterogeneous field with one common denominator. Studies of television viewing try to provide evidence on the question: What do people do with television? Exposure to television has developed as a major research field since we cannot understand television as a medium of public communication without considering those who actually watch it. In particular, the television industry has an existential interest in finding out how many people watch its programs; it is exactly this kind of audience data that it can sell to the --7 advertising industry (--7 Media Economics). But even beyond this economic interest, information on exposure to television is a necessary condition for any statement on the role of television in people's everyday lives and on potential social and individual consequences of television (--7 Exposure to Communication Content; Audience Research). MAJOR DIMENSIONS OF THE TOPIC

The field of research on exposure to television can be structured according to several levels of analysis. The main differentiation refers to the level of aggregation: at one end of the spectrum, the dominant line ·of research on exposure to television aims to describe and explain the vie'wing behavior of "aggregate audiences." If we see television as a mass medium, we can conceptualize exposure as behavior of aggregate audiences (--7 Audience). We cannot regard these audiences as a countable group, as for example the audience as present in a theatre or cinema. Instead, we have to construct television audiences by certain operational definitions and methodological procedures. All over the world, the television and advertising industries have developed similar mechanisms to construct the ·"mass audience" as the dominant model of research on exposure to television (Ang 1991; Webster & Phalen 1997). At the other end of the spectrum, some lines of research, mainly in the academic area, examine exposure to television as individual behavior or individual social action. This kind of research is more interested in the psychological processes linked to the selection, interpretation, and appropriation of televised content, in interindividual differences between different viewers and viewer groups, and in intraindividual differences between different situations and social constellations. Another differentiation of the field reflects the fact that the theoretical and empirical core, i.e., contacts between television and viewers, is examined from different perspectives that complement each other. Besides the plain audience research, which is satisfied with counting the numbers having contact with a specific channel or program, most studies link the contact to other theoretical concepts that might be called: (1) selection, (2) reception, and (3) consequences. The most important perspective here is research on the selection of television as a medium and of specific channels or programs (--7 Selective Exposure). Selection processes mainly refer to the pre-communicative phase of television viewing.